AN ANALYSIS OF COLOMBIAN FOLKLORE MUSIC

AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF MUSICAL RESOURCES FOR

CLINICAL IMPROVISATION

Diana J aramillo

Wilfrid Laurier University
Faculty of Music
Music Therapy Department

Supervisor:
Dr. Heidi Ahonen, PhD, MTA

Methodological key words:
First-person qualitative research, musical analysis, theoretical music
research, historical research model, phenomenological approach, Forinash &
Gonzalez adaptation of Ferraras phenomenological analysis

Content key words:
music-centered, client-centered, non-clinical music, therapeutic potential,
resources, exercises, improvisation, music, Group sessions, Individual
sessions, Promote interaction, expression, Promote introspection, reflection,
Latin American music, Colombian folkloric musical genres, bambuco,
currulao, cumbia





1
Biography
Diana Jaramillo, a graduate of the Master of Music Therapy program at
Wilfrid Laurier University. She obtained her Bachelor in Psychology and
music performance at the University San Francisco de Quito (Ecuador). Diana
has clinical experience with children with developmental delays. Her
approach to music therapy is humanistic, and her philosophy is music-
centered: where music is central to clinical practice, theory and research.


ABSTRACT

The diversity of Colombian music reflects its multi-ethnic influences; an hybridization of
African, Aboriginal and European cultures. Their potential as resources for clinical
improvisation have yet to be explored by researchers. This project developed clinical
improvisation resources based on three Colombian musical genres: cumbia, currulao and
bambuco. Each genre was analyzed as a whole, to gain a deeper understanding and draw
connections with the music therapy practice. The musical analysis involved a subjective
aural analysis and an objective structural analysis of the recordings, complemented with
musicological and historical data. The results generated improvisation resources in the
form of exercises, derived from cumbia, currulao and bambuco. Each resource is
supported by a discussion of their musical features, an aesthetic analysis and their clinical
implications. This study integrates theoretical and practical components to encourage
clinical exploration.












2
TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT ..
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS .....
TABLE OF CONTENTS ..
CD INDEX

PART I: PRELIMINARIES
CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION ..

1.1 Purpose and Relevance of the Study .
1.2 Research Questions ...
1.3 Overview of the Research Paper ...

CHAPTER II: METHODOLOGY

2.1 Data Collection .
2.2 Epistemologies and Analysis Procedures .....
2.3 Analysis Synthesis and Improvisational Resources ..
2.4 BIASES AND TRUSTWORTHINESS

CHAPTER III: A HISTORY OVERVIEW OF COLOMBIAN MUSIC .

3.1 Roots of Colombian Music ........
3.1.1 The Indigenous Population ...........
3.1.2 The Europeans ..........
3.1.3 The Africans ........
3.2 The 20th Century ........
3.3 Colombian Musical Genres ...
3.3.1 Roots of the Cumbia .....
3.3.2 Roots of the Currulao ........
3.3.3 Roots of the Bambuco ....

PART II: COLOMBIAN GENRES

CHAPTER IV: Cumbia ....

CHAPTER V: Currulao ........

CHAPTER VI: Bambuco .....

CHAPTER VII: MUSIC THERAPY AND COLOMBIAN MUSICAL GENRES .

7.1 Song Themes ...
7.2 Sound Aesthetics ....
7.3 Groove .....
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7.3.1 Exploration 1 .
7.4 Melody
7.4.1 Exploration 2 .
7.5 Harmony ..
7.6 Form ....
7.5.1 Exploration 3 ...

CHAPTER VIII: DISCUSSION ........

8.1 The Client Population ..
8.2 The Clients Background..
8.3 Quality of Musical Engagement ...
8.4 Reflection on the Research Process .

REFERENCES ........

APPENDICES .....

APPENDIX A: MAPS, RACES AND GENRES .
APPENDIX B: RHYTHM MATRIX ...........

APPENDIX C: ATLANTIC REGION CUMBIA .......
APPENDIX D: LA POLLERA COLORA CUMBIA ........
APPENDIX E: CUMBIA LYRICS ...........
APPENDIX F: CUMBIA SCORES ..........

APPENDIX G: PACIFIC REGION CURRULAO ........
APPENDIX H: MI GALLO COROCOCO CURRULAO ... ...
APPENDIX I: CURRULAO LYRICS ..... ........
APPENDIX J: CURRULAO SCORES ..... ......

APPENDIX K: ANDEAN REGION BAMBUCO .... ....
APPENDIX L: EL REGRESO BAMBUCO ..... ....
APPENDIX M: BAMBUCO LYRICS ..... ........
APPENDIX N: BAMBUCO SCORES ..... .....

APPENDIX O: AURAL ANALYSIS CUMBIA .... ...
APPENDIX P: AURAL ANALYSIS CURRULAO ... ....,,,,.,
APPENDIX Q: AURAL ANALYSIS BAMBUCO ..... ..

APPENDIX R: MUSICAL ANALYSIS ..... .....,
APPENDIX S: BIOGRAPHY ROCIO CARDENAS ..... ..
APPENDIX T: DATA ANALYSIS
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4
CD INDEX

CUMBIA
1. Al Compas De Las Polleras 2:41 Orquesta Edmundo Diaz/Musica Tropical De Colombia (Disk 4)
2. Josefa Matia 2:52 Cumbia Afro/Lo Mejor Salsa Cumbia Merengue Vol. 1
3. soledad 5:27 Toto La Momposina/A Week in the Real World
4. El Pescador 4:07 Toto La Momposina y sus Tambores/A Week or Two in the Real World
5. cumbia del mar 4:54 FUENTE Curupira/Hugo Taylor
6. Cumbia Del Caribe 3:17 Fuentes/Las 100 Mejores Bailables (Disk 2) / Orchestra. de Edmundo Arias
7. La Pollera Colora 2:41 Aniseto Molina/Historia Musical de la cumbia colombiana
8. El Africano 3:51 La Sonora Dinamita/Musica Tropical De Colombia (Disk 4)
9. La Piragua 2:45 FUENTE Gabriel Romero Y Su Orquesta/Musica Tropical De Colombia (Disk 4)
CURRULAO
1. currulao research 4:28
2. A como vende la piangua? 5:04 Grupo Naidy/iArriba Suena Marimba! Currulao Marimba Music from Colombia
3. Lo que suena, que sera? 4:26 Grupo Naidy/iArriba Suena Marimba! Currulao Marimba Music from Colombia
4. La maravilla 4:32 Grupo Naidy/iArriba Suena Marimba! Currulao Marimba Music from Colombia
5. Mi gallo corococo 4:14 Grupo Naidy/iArriba Suena Marimba! Currulao Marimba Music from Colombia
6. Pango 5:12 Grupo Naidy/iArriba Suena Marimba! Currulao Marimba Music from Colombia
7. Una Maanita 3:56 Grupo Naidy/iArriba Suena Marimba! Currulao Marimba Music from Colombia
8. Lo que me trajo el Nio Dios 3:58 Grupo Naidy/iArriba Suena Marimba! Currulao Marimba Music from Colombia
9. Salome 4:03 Grupo Naidy/iArriba Suena Marimba! Currulao Marimba Music from Colombia
BAMBUCO
1. Huri 3:26 Intrprete Garzn y Collazos
2. Ayer me echaron del pueblo 2:25 compositor colombiano Jos A. Morales. Intrprete Garzon y Collazos.
3. A quien engaas abuelo 4:45 Compositor Arnulfo Briceo. Intrprete Garzon y Collazos
4. ansias de amar 3:07 Vive la serenata
5. Antioqueita 3:42 Colombia
6. Pesares 2:31 Los Hermanos Martinez
7. El Regreso 2:30 Colombia
8. Soy Colombiano 3:03 Colombia
9. yo tambien tuve 20 aos 2:31 Vive la serenata













5
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to thank my supervisor Dr. Heidi Ahonen for her guiding support and
mentorship, whose experienced and vision gave me the energy and direction to undergo
this research process. I would also like to thank Dr. Colin Lee and Dr. Carolyn Arnason
who taught me the fundamentals of music therapy, and offered constructive feedback on
the analytical process of my research process.

On personal and academic levels, I would like to thank Debra Martz Melanson for her
invaluable help throughout the program, to my classmates, Angela Sloman, Hannah You,
Amanda Schenstead, Grace Lee and Kelly Pushcar, who gave insightful responses on my
research and participated in the data analysis workshop.

I am grateful to my family and friends for their unconditional love and support
throughout the Master program, where I fulfilled my dream to complement my passion
towards psychology and music. In particular, I would like to thank, my mother Stella, my
dad Pedro, my brother Daniel and my Godmother Marisa. Heartfelt appreciations to
friends, who have helped shape my identity and made many achievements possible with
their constant support.

Lastly, I thank the Colombian musicologist Rocio Cardenas for the immense amount of
information she shared with me, helping me go deeper into the understanding of
Colombian musical folklore. To Colombian musicians, who have indirectly contributed
to this research through their music, Thank you.

6
PART I: PRELIMINARIES
CHAPTER I: Introduction
With its coastal regions straddling the Pacific and the Caribbean as well as diverse
regions in the interior, all creating different forms of music, Colombia is one of the most
dynamic musical environments in Latin America. (Morales, 2003, p. 252)

Colombia is on the left upper corner of South America, neighboring Panama,
Venezuela, Ecuador and Brazil. It is a diverse territory, ranging from vegetated
mountains, to rain forest, plains, islands and coastal regions. The weather and the
inhabitants character varies depending on the location. Although Colombians share a
general common "culture", there is a strong cultural identification within each
generation, social status and the region were they belong to.
The diversity in musical styles found in Colombia is the result of its multi-ethnic
influences: African, Natives and European. These cultures determine specific differences
in dialect, musical rhythms and styles, and are the main factors that make contemporary
Colombians
1
.
Since the 1960s, Colombian music therapists have used indigenous music usually
found in social gatherings. Improvisation, percussion ensembles, movement and
instrument exploration, have been adapted to Colombian folklore, in order to promote
self-awareness in clients. (Lia Rejane, 2001).
I grew up in Cali, the capital of the Valle del Cauca Department, located in the
Pacific Region of Colombia. Every summer, my family headed towards Rio Negro city in

1
Colombians are also influenced by the rhythms of salsa (latin rhythm developed in New York), merengue (Dominican Republic),
tango (Argentina), bolero (Cuba), ranchera (Mexico), and reggaeton (Puerto Rico).

7
the Andean Region for a 3 to 5-week vacation. My first contact with Colombian musical
folklore happened during vacation at my familys farm, where my grandparents and their
siblings listened to pasillos and bambucos. This music stayed in my mind forever
associated to majestic green mountains, smoky-chimney scents, and dirt path hiking
through evergreen pine forests.
During my school years, I was exposed briefly to the basics of our musical
folklore, learning how to play the tambora, the maracas, and through the guitar, play the
basic rhythms of cumbia and bambuco.
I left Colombia when I graduated from high school and my only contact with the
latin musical culture was through dancing music (salsa, merengue and vallenato). I
initiated my music education in Ecuador and was immersed in Jazz idioms. Throughout
my Master of Music Therapy program, I used the cumbia groove in class exercises and
during my first internship. This increased my curiosity to look into my musical roots,
learn about them and include them as tools for my clinical practice.
This paper takes a closer look at three Colombian regions. The Atlantic Coast with its
tri-cultural influence represented by the cumbia musical genre, the Pacific Coast with
its African and indigenous influence represented by the currulao musical genre, and
the Andean Region with its Spanish and indigenous influence represented by the
bambuco musical genre. A phenomenological analysis of these genres is made
through Forinashs & Gonzalezs (1989) adaptation of Ferraras method (1984,
1991), in order to explore musical features and their relationship to Colombians and
myself. This project strives to understand each genres essence and emotional impact,

8
questioning its possible impact on our clients, and discovering its therapeutic
potential.


1.1 Purpose and Relevance of the Study
Taking each element of music thoughtfully and lovingly, (Paul Nordoff) shares with
the students how to live in each tone, phrase, rhythm, melody, and harmony. This
living the music is key, because it is only from within such experiences that a
therapist can recognize the limitless potentials of music, and then utilize them with
purpose and grace (Bruscia, 1998). Paul Nordoff (1977), is one of the founders of
Creative Music Therapy (CMT). He linked the essential components of music to
human experience and developed improvisational musical resources with distinct
features, considered musical archetypes, which have contributed to effective use of
music in clinical improvisation with a variety of client populations. (Robbins, 1998).
Gary Ansdell (1997), as well as Colin Lee (2003), encourage music therapists to
take a closer look into the music created during sessions. In his book The Architecture of
Aesthetic Music Therapy, Lee (2003) states we must be prepared to use analytic theories
of music [] consider the nuts and bolts of musical content in relation to therapeutic
outcome () for it is only through detailed analysis that we will begin to understand how
music works (p. 16). Revisiting concepts from musicology, composition and music
theory, music therapists expand their understanding of the music interaction between
client and therapist, enlightening the therapeutic process.

9
This project responds to Nordoffs, Ansdells and Lees call to look into music,
examining the aesthetics of three musical genres: cumbia, currulao, and bambuco.
Consequently, these genres will be understood in a deeper level and originate
improvisational resources for music therapists. An educated understanding of the use
of these resources in the clinical setting expands the current catalog of
improvisational resources available to music therapists, reflecting a global
multicultural view.
Music therapists benefit from learning multi-cultural music, becoming aware of the
function it plays within each culture. As we expand our cultural horizons, we gain a
better perspective on clients musical responses. This standpoint is particularly
applicable to music therapists working in countries where a variety of cultures co-
exist within one another. (Chase, 2003).
Music from different cultures could be used with a variety of client populations,
as long as the music therapist is cautious and understands when or how to use a musical
style. In the words of Aigen (2005):
Culturally-embedded styles of music [] embody certain feelings, values
and attitudes. Experiencing these essential properties of the music is part of
the value of using these styles in therapy. But the musical realization of
these styles in an authentic way that conveys their essential attitudes is
dependent on subtle, un-notable characteristics, making it clear that the
how and the when of an idiom the way the music is rendered and its timing
in the clinical process are as important as the what of the idiom the
actual intervallic structures and characteristic rhythms. (p. 17)

10
When a musical style from a different culture is played in a session, the music
therapist should consider the emotional content behind the music itself. [] Different
styles of music lend themselves to particular types of expression and experiences, and the
music therapist who can employ different styles in the improvisational setting is better
equipped to create a variety of moods and experiences individually suited for particular
clients and circumstances. (Aigen, 2002, p. 14). Connecting the clients emotional needs
with a musical style that was created in response to similar emotional needs could have a
strong impact on the therapeutic process. Cumbia, currulao, and bambuco could benefit
clients working on identity matters and feelings of isolation, for many of the composers
were experiencing similar situations.
These genres encourage the use of communal drumming, promoting socialization
and the use of voice. In addition, they take us back to the roots of modern popular styles
of music, such as rock and roll, funk, and rap, which are familiar to clients of different
generations. To finalize, this study has helped my own clinical improvisation, as I am
aware of my musical identity and have a better understanding of different types of
musical interventions I could employ. According to Juanita Eslava (2007), awareness of
these features of the diverse Colombian cultural identity is crucial for our work as
(Colombian) music therapists.

1.2 Research Questions
The main focus of this research is to answer the question: What music therapy
improvisational resources can be derived from studying the aesthetics of cumbia,
currulao, and bambuco? I intend to derive improvisational resources for music

11
therapists, exploring the meanings of each genre by reflecting on their original
historical contexts. In addition, four subordinate questions guided me through the
process of this research:
1. What is the music history behind cumbia, currulao, and bambuco?
2. What are the salient musical elements in cumbia, currulao and bambuco?
3. What are the potential emotional impacts of the cumbia, currulao, and bambuco
aesthetics?
4. How could music therapy practice benefit from clinical resources derived from cumbia,
currulao, and bambuco?

1.3 Overview of the Research Paper
This research consists of two parts. Part I, discusses the preliminaries. In Chapter
II: Methodology, the proceedings and design of the study are explained. In Chapter III: A
History Overview of Colombian Music, a brief historical discussion Colombian music,
and contextual information about the origins of cumbia, currulao, and bambuco, which
helps the reader navigate through the research findings.
Part II, discusses the salient aesthetic features of each genre, in Chapter IV:
Cumbia; Chapter V: Currulao; and Chapter VI: Bambuco. Chapter VII: Music Therapy
and Colombian Musical Genres, links the genres to music therapy practice, and reveals
their therapeutic potential; presenting practical exercises for use in clinical improvisation.
The project ends with a discussion of the results, and provides ideas on how to
practice or implement the resources in sessions. The conclusion reviews the research

12
questions and discusses the value of the study. The paper includes a CD containing audio
examples.
















CHAPTER II: Methodology
This project reflects a music-centered rationale by looking into the aesthetics of
non-clinical music to acquire a perspective on its therapeutic potential, and open a
pathway for clinical applications in music therapy. Inquiring about music used outside of
the clinical setting is useful, for it provides insight about its possible use within the
clinical context (Aigen, 2005).

2.1 Data Collection
The primary data for this project consisted of historical literature that offered
descriptions of each genre, and their musicological and anthropological framework. This
sustained my understanding of the music and helped the analysis on the therapeutic
significance of the resources.

13
Secondary data consisted of scores. Although they are scarce, the Colombian
musicologist Rocio Cardenas Duque provided authentic musical notation from her own
studies.
Tertiary data consisted of recordings of each genre. Several musical pieces were
aurally analyzed as a means of gaining a deeper understanding of each musical genre.
The chosen recordings represented a variety of stylized and non-stylized arrangements,
even though my preference was for non-stylized recordings.

2.2 Epistemologies and Analysis Procedures
This project has a first-person qualitative research design based on a musical
analysis. It is music research as described by Bonde (2005): as any method within music
therapy in which researchers gather data concerning the relationship between music
improvised or composed, recorded or performed live and client experiences and
behavior (p. 489). It is a theoretical music research since no clients were involved and it
leaves a door open to the potential experiences of clients.
The musical analysis engages in musical empiricism, reducing complex musical
elements to more fundamental ones in order to find salient musical features of each
genre. In addition, this research reveals a qualitative paradigm, concerned with the
meaning and therapeutic significance of each resources, when it reflects on music as a
semantic phenomenon, examining its referential meaning or as a pragmatic experience
e.g. music as interpersonal interaction or a form of social and cultural practice. (Bonde,
2005, p. 490).

14
Historical Research Model influenced this study () gaining knowledge about the
past by systematically studying the evidence of the past (Solomon, 2005, p. 552). It
was necessary to gain knowledge on cumbia, currulao, and bambuco in order to gain
insight and incorporate them in music therapy. I contacted a Colombian musicologist
, sought out information in textbooks, and studied the theory and history of
Colombian music to understand their salient musical features.
A musical analysis was implemented to understand the possible clinical implications
of the musical genres, through an aural analysis of recordings exploring the relation
between the music and the inner experience of the listener (I, Diana). This type of
inquiry stems from a phenomenological approach to music and analysis developed by
Ferrara (1984, 1991) and adapted for music therapy purposes by Forinash &
Gonzalez (1989). Nine recordings
2
of each genre were analyzed following five stages
of listening:
Step 1: Open Listening-subjective response: On the first stage the listener writes
down the subjective response, including any impressions that stand out (Forinash &
Grocke, 2005, p. 324).
Step 2: Listening for syntactical meaning-describing the sound as it is heard:
In this stage the listener writes down all the musical sounds that are heard, including
instruments, embellishments, dynamic changes, melodic, rhythmic, and harmonic
features (Forinash & Grocke, 2005, p. 324).

2
CD Index

15
Step 3: Listening for semantic meaning: On the third stage the listener describes
what the meaning of the music is thought to be, what mood it suggests, and how the
listener feels (Forinash & Grocke, 2005, p. 324).
Step 4: Listening for ontological meaning-the life world of the composer: In the
fourth stage the listener puts the music into the life world of the composer and tries to
understand what the composer is saying (Forinash & Grocke, 2005, p. 324).
Step 5: Open listening-the meaning dimension of all the hearings of the music:
In the final stage of listening, all the impressions and perceptions from the previous
hearings are synthesized and integrated to create a final description of the work (Forinash
& Grocke, 2005, p. 325).
The salient musical elements and music therapy concepts were linked based on the
analysts clinical experience and knowledge of music therapy practice. Following the five
stages of listening, each musical element was coded and categorized with a corresponding
aesthetic experience of the listener. The recordings were examined and the individual
elements of the music were isolated and categorized. A thorough analysis of the musical
features expanded the musical understanding of the cumbia, currulao, and bambuco.
To develop resources, two steps were followed based on Lees (2000) 9 step Method of Analyzing Improvisation in
Music Therapy. First, the characteristic musical elements were identified and compared; by analyzing the stylistic elements of
the genres based on scores and the data generated by the aural analysis. Second, relevant musical elements were selected from
notated examples to support and illustrate the aesthetic analysis.

2.3 Analysis Synthesis and Improvisational Resources
The results of this research present the clinical implications of the music derived
from the analysis along with the musical exercises created. The improvisation resources
are constructed according to the musical features derived from the aesthetic analysis

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sections. As a result, each resource contains an aesthetic analysis of musical features, a
discussion of their clinical implications, and a practical exercise.

2.4 Biases and Trustworthiness
I am aware that the selection of the musical material under analysis were entirely
my own and should be considered worthy of analytical scrutiny. In addition, it is beyond
my capacity to effectively develop resources for these genres in their traditional
instruments as my knowledge and skills are limited. However, the resources can be
adapted to other instruments.
The reasoning behind this research is abductive due to my previous knowledge and
experience with music therapy and Colombian music (Ruud, 2005, p. 42). I have
worked with several clients and studied briefly Colombian folkloric music. This puts
me at risk of interpreting the data selectively and neglecting interpretations over those
that correspond to my preexisting theoretical framework (Ruud, 2005, p. 42). In order
to increase the studys trustworthiness, the data were gathered from several sources
(recordings and literature).
A data analysis workshop was conducted with my professor and classmates as a
means to validate the data collected in my aural analysis. Six individuals participated in
the aural analysis using Ferraras (1984, 1991) method. The newly collected data were
compared to the original data and considered in the presentation of results. This provided
me with two ways of validating the study, as my interpretations were compared to those
of unbiased peers and to the descriptions found in the historical literature.



17



























CHAPTER III: A History Overview of Colombian Music

Music and art has a significance in Latin America beyond its cultural function it acts as
a powerful symbol for successful integration of cultural influences in a region where
national stability is fragile. (Morales, 2003, p. 22)
To gain a better understanding and appreciation for the relevance of using
Colombian musical genres in the field of music therapy, it is necessary to examine its rich
historical and musicological background. This chapter explores the history of Colombian
music and highlights the development of cumbia, currulao and bambuco. Understanding
the evolution of these genres, will help clarify their origins and possible aesthetic

18
meanings, before proceeding into a discussions of its possible application as a music
therapy improvisational resource.

3.1 Roots of Colombian Music
Colombia has one of the most dynamic musical environments in Latin America,
due to its location between the Pacific and Atlantic oceans, and the diversity of its
regions
3
; these conditions have nourished a tri-cultural hybridism in music. As an
example, the indigenous population contributed with flutes and rattles; the Africans
added choral techniques, polyrhythm and dance structures. Both Africans and natives
attributed ceremonial significance to their instruments, music and dances. The Spaniards,
brought the song structure, renaissance harmonic theories, and western instruments: most
notably the guitar. (Morales, 2003).

3.1.1 The Indigenous Population
Three linguistic families co-existed in the Atlantic coast: the Chibchas, the
Arwaks and the Caribbean, creating an aboriginal racial mix prior to the Spanish
colonization (Garzn et al, n.d, Musica II). The Taironas and Sins were two of the most
important musical-cultures in Colombia. The Archeologists found elaborate ceremonial
centers and instruments like elongated fired clay duct flutes and vessel flutes imitating
animal and human shapes. (Olsen, 2000).
It is common to find among ancient populations, concepts of physical duality
(feminine-masculine) represented in musical instruments that, when played together,
create a whole, which is experienced as power. Life- its creation and continuation,

3
Refer to Map, Races and Musical Genres in Appendix A

19
assured by fertility, joining male and female (Olsen, 2000, p. 35). The flute symbolizes
fertility, and is usually played by men, playing a charmer role. African communities
shared the same concept of physical duality, i.e. cununo mayor (male) and cununo menor
(female) drums. Musical instruments were essential to events and were imbued with
power by fabricating them with human or animal body parts, e.g. the antara panpipes
made from human bones used in wars. (Olsen, 2000).

3.1.2 The Europeans
Sixteenth century Spaniards were themselves a fusion culture due to the Moorish
4
,
occupation from 711 to 1492. The Spanish brought slaves from West Africas Cape
Verde Islands, and from Spains city Seville where Andalusias musical culture had
evolved with the African syncopated drum patterns (Morales, 2003).
In the mid-1500s, the Jesuit missionaries came to convert the local inhabitants of
the New World into their religion. One of their techniques was to employ European
musical instruments, which had the possibility to play harmony, melody and bass, i.e
organ; that were thought to assist heavenliness. The guitar was not promoted due to its
association with secular music. Native tribes adopted the harp, violin, flute and chirimia,
used by Jesuits and Roman Catholic missionaries for outdoor events. It was easy for them
to adopt these instruments, since they have used musical instruments as tools for
supernatural communication. During the 1800s, European dances, like country-dance,
polka and mazurka, where re-arranged by the nationalist creole population, into
Colombian versions (Ministerio de educacion nacional 5, 2009). When the military

4
The Moors were Muslim conquerors. www.spanish-fiestas.com/andalucia/history-moorish-spain.htm

20
wind band ensembles came to America, these musical genres were stylized and used to
musicalize processions, parades and religious festivals. (Olsen, 2000)

3.1.3 The Africans
African slaves landed in Colombia, came mostly from West Africa. Their
complex social organization systems and diverse cultural practices were fragmented by
slavery and had adverse results in their survival. African drummers created mnemonic
devices to remember their lost language by associating rhythm patterns with words. The
slaves, created a reminiscence of the confrontations with the Spaniards, and created a
symbolic resistance by African musical elements into the European musical genres. In the
New World, new dialects, music and dances emerged in different regions. Each town
acquired a musical tradition, marked with instrumental timbres, combination of musical
elements and a regional rhythm. (Olsen, 2000, p. 139)
Drums are central in afro-Colombian music; they survived due to African
resistance communities of escapees (Palenques) developed during the colonization, where
drum ensembles accompanied religious and political traditions, providing structures to
organize themselves. The African population did not spread homogeneously in the
territory of Colombia; the Atlantic coast had a tri-cultural blend of races and the runaway
slaves who inhabited the scrublands and stayed in isolated Palenques; the Pacific coast
had isolated slaves working in gold mines or as laborers in landed properties. (Ministerio
de educacion nacional 5, 2009).
African music is characterized by danceable chants, the use of call and response,
and instruments such as conical drums, marimbula (jews-harp), and the marimba. Music

21
has an utilitarian function, i.e. creating a trance state by repeating a rhythm pattern and
increasing its tempo (Morales, 2003). In central and western Africa, music is called
Ngoma, referring to the context or particular ceremony where drum music is heard. The
ngoma is a symbol of power, where drums promote communication strategies, helping
the community survive attempts of oppression. (Ministerio de educacion nacional 5,
2009).
In western Africa, the body is charged with symbolic value; gestures, postures,
and attitudes in dances are part of a complex language. The moving body describes four
corporal axis. The vertical axis, directs movements upwards representing growth and
power. The frontal axis, is in a stand up position dividing the body in Right signifying
strength and the Left weakness. The horizontal axis symbolizes the space of human life
and interactions with others. Finally, the sagittal axis presents the back-front, inside-
outside relation. Frontal gestures express a desire to progress and back gestures
demonstrates an intention to hide or protect. (Ministerio de educacion nacional 5, 2009).
During the colonial and times, the art of dancing promoted identity, political
group cohesion, and gave shape to communities. The church sponsored some of these
dances, to increase fervor and religious practice, letting African descendants satisfy their
needs of expression. (Ministerio de educacion nacional 5, 2009).

3.2 The 20th Century
During the 1950s, the Atlantic coastal cities modernized. This region had a great
influence on Colombias musical tradition: the ports in constant cultural exchange with
the Caribbean islands; nurtured African, indigenous and folkloric traditions. The

22
industrialization brought a diversity of European immigrants who developed a consumer
economy, bringing musical genres, and developing media of communication i.e. radio.
The cities offered carnivals and opened taverns were people could linger to drink beer,
listen to radios and dance. (Morales, 2003).

3.3 Colombian Musical Genres
Colombia is divided into six distinctive regions: Atlantic, Pacific, Andean, Plains,
Amazon and Insular. Each region has unique musical genres based on the cultural fusion
among its Spanish, indigenous, and African inhabitants (Appendix A).
The Atlantic region is the most representative of the tri-cultural blending; the
Cumbia is one of its most famous genres (Appendix C). The Pacific region has preserved
the African culture almost intact, which was slightly influenced by indigenous cultures;
the Currulao is one of its most known genres (Appendix G). The Andean region is
influenced mostly by the Spanish culture, with influences of African rhythm patterns and
indigenous melodic elements; Bambuco is its salient genre (Appendix K). (Morales,
2003).
The Plains or Llanero region, is represented by the flamenco feel, Joropo genre,
with Spanish and indigenous influences. The Amazon region is influenced mostly by the
natives culture; music is used in ceremonies and promotes healing; it is directly linked
with nature representing cosmogony cycles, i.e. harvest. Finally, the Insular Region,
blends Caribbean rhythms with European genres, i.e. calypso, reggae, socca. (Morales,
2003)

3.3.1 Roots of the Cumbia

23
In the 1500s, the Atlantic region was an entrance port of the slave trafficking
heading towards South America. Some of these slaves escaped, building isolated
communities in scrublands called Palenques. Between 1529 and 1799, twenty-six
palenques were formed. San Basilio Palenque was the most famous, formed by the king
of an African tribe. Cumbia owes to this Palenque, its dance structure, inherited from its
ceremonial dances. (Cardenas, 1992).
Cumbia resemblances the Taino-Caribes Areito, a circle of dance practiced in the
Caribbean. Their influence is rooted through kinship relations between Caribbean and
Colombian tribes. An early expression of cumbia; was played in the early 1800s as
Gaitero instrumental music, an ensemble consisting of gaitas
5
, playing with the steady
beat of drums, and the embellished with maracas. (Morales, 2003) Listen to musical
example on CD CUMBIA TRACK 4: El Pescador.
During the 1700s, the nationalist Colombians re-arranged European dance genres
like the English country-dance, creating the first songs and dances with a tri-cultural
feeling. Colombian people envisioned a territorial unity and the possibility to sustain
capitalist relations with the rest of the world. Education became a priority, to find a
cultural identity. During the struggle for Colombians independence, cumbia a dance for
African and indigenous laborers, became the dance of national resistance. (Morales,
2003):
Poor people, whether they were free or enslaved, brown or black (had)
no ballroom where they could display the curtseys. (They) danced outdoors
to the throbbing of African drums, in pairs but separately, in a circle
around the musicians. The women () balancing their bodies gracefully at

5
Gaitas are long flutes: the male gaita plays a drone and the female plays a melody.

24
cadences and carrying two or three lit candles
6
. (General Posada
7
quoted
in Friedmann, 2007. pp. 475-476)
Toto la Momposina
8
, believes that cumbia originates as a courting dance between
energetic African men and reserved indigenous women, oppressed communities who
were prohibited to intermarry; this makes the cumbia a subversive act of mixture. Music
involved socializing; it mediated contexts of social relations, which were highly charged
with tension. (Wade, 2000) Listen to musical example on CD CUMBIA TRACK 3:
Soledad by Toto la Momposina.
In the 20
th
century, many young Colombians were educated in Europe, and
brought back patriotic and revolutionary ideas, represented as new musical ideas that
evolved from the basic rhythm of European dances. (Cardenas, 1992). The Andean
region, was home to the social elites and valued only their creolized-European traditions;
this shaped Colombian early national identity
9
. Inhabitants of the Atlantic coast, were
marginalized and perceived as immoral, because of their African and native cultural
background. (Wade, 2000, p. 138) With the Big Band craze, the Cumbia was stylized
with similar instrument configuration of the swing bands, and gain national popularity.
Cumbia was described then as:
A rolling, infectious 2/4 beat that seems like a fusion between merengue
and reggae, with a similar backbeat that sends it surging forward. The
cumbia dance is based on hip rocking The cumbia tempo stresses the

6
Cumbia was danced at night, and candles lightened the place. They symbolized the sacred fire.
(Sistema Nacional de Informacion Cultural: Danza Cumbia. (n.d).
7
The General Joaquin Posada Gutierrez (1797-1881), governor of Cartagena during the 1940s
8
Toto la Momposina, an ethnomusicologist who traveled through palenques, learning about folklore. (Morales, 2003, p. 262)
9
Cumbia did not surface as a Colombian national genre, due to socioracial discrimination, blackness in music was
(perceived as) lack of measure, lack of control, excessiveness of bodily movement, noise, and emotion. (Wade, 2000,
p. 127) Toto la Momposina, believes that the costeo culture represents the true identity of Colombians, a continued
process of racial mix of whites, indigenous people and Africans. (Friedmann, 2007. pp. 478-479)

25
upbeat, allowing the cumbia to float and giving it a kind of perpetual
optimistic lilt. (Morales, 2003, p. 253)
Listen to musical example on CD CUMBIA TRACK 9: La Piragua (Stylized Cumbia).
The economic growth due to industrialization made the Atlantic coast a modern
and cosmopolitan region. In 1950s, the Andean region went through a civil war while the
coasts remained peaceful, this regions music portrayed a celebratory style, it reveled
the economic growth of the period, turning its back on civil strife, look to bright new
tomorrow, rooted in peace, communitarian morality. (Wade, 2000, p. 138). The Coast
population was joyful and carefree, liberated from any restrictions. (Wade, 2000) Octavio
Quiones (1948) compared the Coast and Andean regions music-wise: Costeo cumbia
takes hold of the blood of its musicians, making it bubble, brightens life with offers of
pleasure. The bambucos of the altiplano take hold of the heart and by possessing it,
embellish the melancholic landscape of our existence. (Wade, 2000, p. 132)
In the 1950s, Cumbia was modernized with recording techniques becoming
faster and stylized. Lucho Bermudez, the orchestra leader of La Sonora Dinamita,
combined cumbia with other forms of Afro Cuban music. Today, cumbia has a
significant influence in Latin American tropical pop music. (Morales, 2003). Listen to
musical example on CD CUMBIA TRACK 8: El Africano by La Sonora Dinamita.

3.3.2 Roots of the Currulao
The Pacific coast was inhabited by indigenous tribes who exchanged goods in
local markets, i.e. emeralds, gold, fish. Spaniards, aware of the potential of exploiting this
region, sent soldiers to subdue those communities. Natives died due to the excessive
work demanded in the mines and were replaced by African slaves. In 1533, a shipwreck

26
gave a group of slaves the opportunity to escape. They arrived to a village of natives and
took control, developing a mix zambo community of Africans and natives, which
prevented the Spaniards of enslaving them again. This was possible because of the
Spanishs interest in building routes to the coast, and to continue the exploitation of
emerald mines. (Cardenas, 1995).
The Currulao is a dance developed in the pacific coast by runaways and African
slaves working on mines, landed property and plantations, i.e. sugarcane and tobacco.
These isolated communities, show authentic reminiscences of Africa; displaying
joyful and explosive attitudes, satire and deep sadness, transferred into the Currulao
genre, a magic sacramental rite that offered them ancestral strength. (Ministerio de
educacion nacional 6, 2009). Listen to musical example on CD CURRULAO
TRACK 6: Pango.
When the Andean bambuco became the Nations genre, the communities in the
pacific named their currulao bambuco viejo. The name can be traced back to West Africa,
where one of the provinces of Mali is called Bambuck. Bambuco is also an African
musical instrument made of bamboo, called carngano, which uses part of its fiber as a
string and the bamboo tube as a resonator. Africans coming from the Caribbean into the
Atlantic coast of Colombia, brought these instruments, and called them: Bambucos.
(Abada, 1973).

3.3.3 Roots of the Bambuco
There is nothing more national, nothing more patriotic than this melody which
counts all Colombians among its authors. It is the soul of our pueblo made into melody.
(Jose Maria Samper quoted in Wade, 2000, p. 48)

27
Bambuco is a patriotic genre, known as the hymn of Colombian folklore since the
battle of revolution leads to the Republic in 1808. The civil wars and dictatorships did not
corrupt the energy of the bambuco, the expression of melancholy and hope. The bambuco
is working class song played in festivities; it is a symbol of democracy because it
resonates with many populations. The bambuco is meant to harmonize with the present
situation, to connect with nature and to reminiscence past memories. The lyrics describe
different types of love, i.e. platonic, new, long-distance, insecure and lost love. (Samper,
1868) Listen to musical example on CD BAMBUCO TRACK 8: Soy Colombiano.
Each region of Colombia has a style: the Galeron in the plains is hyperbolic, bold,
free, open like the region of cowboys; the Tolimense is sweet and sentimental, loving,
gallant, negligent, and nurturing; the Antioqueo is fast like the walk of businessman, and
with rich variations; the Bogotano is civilized, courteous, refined, flirtatious, and
virtuous; the Caucano is spontaneous, onomatopoeic, expresses emancipation, and
produces provocative screams. (Samper, 1868).
During the 1800s, marches, waltzes, and polkas, were re-arranged by creole
composers, developing genres like pasillos and bambuco. The bambuco synthesizes the
3/4 and 6/8, produced by the interaction between the guitar and the tiple
10
. The melodic
line typically rests on an imperfect cadence, and is accompanied by a persistent triplet
rhythm with a mestizo-accent
11
. The first bambucos were played in a baroque style for
Bogots elite class. Women, played string instruments and sang, making the bambuco an
entertainment genre. In the 1850s, it was played by Estudiantinas
12
and became an
important part of the national identity of Colombians. (Abada, 1973). The bambuco

10
The Tiple is a small treble guitar, an adaptation of the Renaissance Spanish vihuela.
11
The mestizo accent is a displacement of accents to the weak beats
12
A folkloric string ensemble for chamber music.

28
continued its development in taverns that sold alcoholic beverages and promoted live
music (Garzn, et al. (n.d). Musica I).
The bambuco flourished along with the literary boom, giving musicians access to
repertoire of poets of the XIX and XX centuries. (Abada, 1973). Listen to musical
example on CD BAMBUCO TRACK 1: Huri. Bambucos themes includes landscapes,
love, traditions, and anecdotes. It is a sentimental and evocative tune, transmitting the
sadness of the cold lands and the melancholic resignation of the hard worker. Perdomo
Escobar and Pieros Corpas, folklorist musicians, believe that the natives gave the
melancholic feel to the bambuco, the African added their painful chants and the frantic
syncopated cadences, and the Spanish brought the joy, the refined luxury and the
musicality of Europe. (Garzn, et al. (n.d). Musica I).



PART II: Colombian Genres

The second part of this paper, focuses on musical analysis of the genres, exploring
possible meanings of their aesthetics. Colombian musical genres are based on the
European rhythmic, melodic and harmonic codes. Gregorian chants, and music from the
Baroque and Renaissance period were re-arranged by the creole population who added
polyrhythm, binary reduction, and accent displacements. (Cardenas, 1995).
According to Cardenas (1980), most folkloric Latin American genres share a
rhythm matrix of eight homogeneous sixteenth notes 2/4 , this pattern offers

29
a sense of unity and a rhythmic support to a variety of pieces of music, and has been played
by the flamenco guitar or by the Caribbean bongos and congas. Other rhythmic cells used
in Latin American genres are the Cuban cinquillo played by the tambora drum
(bass) in the currulao; the Puerto Rican Bomba beat played by the
tambora drum in the cumbia ; the guiro referent ,
used in Cumbias maracas; the mestizo accent, played in Cumbias llamad drum
. (Cardenas, 1992, pp. 112-141)
13






CHAPTER IV: Cumbia
The cumbia rhythm was inherited from the English country-dance, which has a
rhythmic structure based on steady 2/4 tempo, where the llamador drum stresses the
upbeat 2/4 (Cardenas, 1992). This allows the cumbia to float, giving a perpetual
optimistic lilt (Morales, 2003).

13
Refer to Appendix B

30

Friedmann, (2007). Cumbia No me Olvides. pp. 475-477
A gaita or a millo flute plays the melodic line which usually moves in intervals of
2
nd
and 3
rd
, expressing the natives melancholy overlapping the African rhythmic joy.
(Ministerio de educacion nacional -4. (2009). The melodic line relies on reiteration,
sustained tones, inconclusive cadences, and syncopation. (Friedmann, 2007) The cumbia
uses African choral techniques and call and response, over a simple harmonic
progression. (Cardenas, personal communication, 2009). Listen to musical example on
CD CUMBIA TRACK 2: Josefa Matia
The cumbia, evolved from a chanted call and response dance accompanied with
claps, a tambor alegre and a llamador, with the occasional input of a tambora; later on,
the gaitas were included. (Cardenas, personal communication, 2009).
The gaitas
14
are two long tubes with a sounding piece similar to a conch made out
of carbon and wax, with a duck feather across. The gaita macho (male) has two holes and
produces a drone, its player plays a maraca with the left hand. The gaita hembra (female)
has five holes and plays the melody of the song (Garzn, et al. (n.d). Musica II). The four
holes caa-e-millo flute, replaces the gaita occasionally; it has a string, which is held with

14
Similar reed aerophones were found in Spain, West Africa and in the Islamic world. (Morales, 2003)

31
the executers teeth to modulate the sound and produce a vibration effect (Cardenas,
1992).
The Maracas are made out of gourds filled with seeds and an Asa stick for
holding. They play the division of the binary pulse, accentuating the upbeat, and add
brightness to the sound. (Cardenas, 1992).
The Llamador (male), is a small one-sided drum played with the hands. It initiates
the cumbia by calling the alegre-drum, and marking the rhythmic cadence, accentuating
the downbeat. Its function is to maintain a steady beat and hold the ensemble together.
(Friedmann, 2007)
The Alegre, is a one-sided drum played with the hands. It is made from an empty
Banco trunk, patched with animals skin and tied up with hemp strings. (Cardenas, 1984).
The Alegre answers the Llamador drum with complex rhythm figurations, it interweaves
with the tambora, and the melodic instruments, improvising joyfully in between melodic
phrases. (Garzn, et al, (n.d), Musica II).
The Tambora (bass) is a two-sided drum made of deer-skin, and played with
mallets. It is the biggest drum in the ensemble, and gives the traditional sound to the
cumbia, playing the beat, and ornamenting the rhythms from the Alegre. (Cardenas,
1992)
15
.
The cumbia dancers turn counterclockwise around the musicians. The cumbia
dance has a love conquest theme. A man follows a woman with zigzag movements, as
she sways her skirt back and forward. The man represents the African, the woman
represents the native and the dress symbolizes the European imposition. (Cardenas,
1992).

15
Check the Cumbia instruments on Appendix C

32
The Cumbia is a song made out of verses with short repetitive refrains, which
usually rhyme. It is a narrative song derived from the Spanish medieval epics and
complemented with African satire. The cumbia begins with a short instrumental
introduction that leads to the first solo-singing verse lasting 16 bars and contrasted by a
second call and response-singing verse lasting 16 bars. Followed by 16 bars of an
instrumental section where the drums and the vocalist improvises. The two verses are
repeated and the song concludes in an instrumental coda. (Refer to La Pollera Color in
Appendix D for an example of structure and listen to musical example on CD CUMBIA
TRACK 7: La pollera color).







CHAPTER V: Currulao
The Pacific region, is the home of Afro-Colombian ethnic groups and the currulao
musical genre. (Cardenas, 1995). The Rhythm matrix of currulao is 6/8 and
is played by the cununo drums and the guasa rattle, intertwined with the syncopated
rhythms of the tambora bass drum and the marimba. Accents are displaced to the upbeat
6/8 , creating the Mestizo Accent. The tambora accentuates the 5
th
and

33
6
th
beats. The Cununo accentuates the 6
th
beat. The singer and the marimba play binary
reduction
16
, and prolong sounds representing laments (Cardenas, 1995).
The Currulaos emphasizes the use of the voice. The male glosador guides the
melody rhythmically and women respondedoras, answer as a chorus. The use of vocal
effects is prominent; i.e. laments heard as glissandos, screams, singing out-of-tune, and
sustaining sounds. In Africa, the common form of antiphonal chants, showcase a soloist
singing short verses, answered by a refrain sung by a group (Ritmica de la Bomba, p.3).
Listen to musical example on CD CURRULAO TRACK 7: Una maanita.
The marimba de chonta
17
is played by two men: the bordonero on the low register
and the requintero on the high register. They play repetitive short melodies alternating
with intervals of thirds. Popular currulaos move away from the African chants, sounding
less distorted or out of tune. (Cardenas, 1995).
The hand-played cununo drums are made from a trunk, patched with deer leather,
and attached with Mangrove strings. The male cununo marks the rhythm with a low
sound, and the female cununo improvises with a high sound. The two-sided tambora bass
drum is played with a mallet. The guas rattle is made out of bamboo, filled with seeds;
closed on one side with sticks. (Wade, 2000; Cardenas, 1995)
18
.
The currulao dance begins with an instrumental drum rhythm, as men stomp the
floor, calling the women. When the musicians play louder, the chant begins, making the
movements more frantic until it takes control of their bodies. The pair dances loosely,
turning around themselves and their partners. They sing repeating a short refrain, creating

16
play two beats in the time of a triplet
17
Marimba, has 23 slices of Chonta wood and 23 bamboo resonator tubes, it is played with mallets
18
Check the instruments on Appendix G

34
harmony and intimacy among each other. When the cununo drum signals, the chant
becomes softer, and the dance is suspended. (Perez, 1959).
The structure of a currulao begins with an instrumental introduction, followed by
short verses sang by a soloist and answered by chorus repeating the same refrain. The
instrumental and vocalized parts alternate and the piece ends with a musical fade out.
(Garzn, et al, (n.d). Musica II). (Refer to Mi gallo corococo in Appendix H for an
example of structure and listen to musical example on CD CURRULAO TRACK 5.










CHAPTER VI: Bambuco
The basic 3/4 rhythm of the Bambuco comes from the European waltz. The
cultural blend of native, African, and Spanish music, has given the bambuco a
binary/ternary crossrhythm accompaniment of 6/8 and 3/4. (Cardenas, personal
communication, 2009)

35
The melody is a key element in this genre; the guitar and the bandola play counterpoint
melodies, and two voices sing in harmony. Cadences use descending intervals and display
expressive appoggiaturas. The harmony comes from the European Renaissance, a
harmonic progression of tonic, subdominant and dominant. It is typical to modulate from
a minor to a major mode. (Abada, 1973; Perdomo, 1963). Listen to musical example on
CD BAMBUCO TRACK 9: Yo tambien tuve 20 aos.
The typical bambuco instrumental ensemble is based on three string instruments:
the tiple (treble guitar), playing the rhythmic and harmonic support; the Mandolin
(bandola), in charge of the melody; the Guitar, playing a countermelody. (Muoz,
2007)
19
; and two singers harmonizing: the primo (leading voice) and the second voice.
Instrumental pieces are more festive, because the voice adds melancholy and sentimental
expression. (Samper, 1868; Garzn, (n.d), Musica I).
The tiple is a bright-sounding 12-string treble guitar with 4-sets of
three strings, tuned on E-B-G-D (Uribe, 1941). The tiple is considered a rudimentary
instrument that does not follow harmonic rules for chord formation; e.g. duplicating the 3
rd

or consecutive octaves (Uribe, 1941). The bandola has 6-sets of strings (with 2 and 3
strings each), tuned on G-D-A-E-B-F#. (Perdomo, 1963).

The structure of a Bambuco begins with a 4-bar guitar introduction followed by
the Verse A, which is sang in a minor mode and repeated with a variation. The harmony
modulates to a major modality and plays Verse B and B (variation), concluding with an
authentic cadence of V-I. (Refer to El Regreso in Appendix L for an example of structure
and listen to musical example on CD BAMBUCO TRACK 7.

19
Check the instruments on Appendix K

36



















CHAPTER VII: Music Therapy and Colombian Musical Genres

For workers liberated from slavery, continued suffering political oppression and
abuse. Music allowed these individuals and communities to express their social

37
concerns by drumming and singing their hardships away; through self-expression and
catharsis, they were relieved from their afflicted life. Music helped them build a sense
of identity; it symbolized reclamation of their own voice in the community. For this
reason, it could be assumed that cumbia, currulao and bambuco, contain rebellion
within them; an emancipatory drive. (Barlow, 1989). These genres seemed to have
served a therapeutic function for Colombian communities. Music was a real escape;
it took black people away from the drudgery of fieldwork, the poverty of their homes,
and prejudice that greeted them practically every time they came in contact with a
white man or woman (Santelli, 2003, p. 27). A parallel can be drawn between the
creators of these musical genres and music therapy clients, who could have been
deprived of their basic needs, or lacked opportunities due to their physical conditions
or life circumstances.

7.1 Song themes
The song themes in cumbia and currulao, are mainly based on anecdotes of their
immediate present and interactions within their community. The lyrics describe the
natural setting of the coast or sing about the music and instruments playing. They are
playful, flirtatious and satiric, sometimes including onomatopoeic sounds. Music, through
repetition and the use of call and response, reinforces oral tradition; it helps the pass of
traditions to the next generation, and helps the development of listening skills and social
awareness. In music therapy, this type of lyrics and themes could be used for group
sessions, to promote interaction and allow free association of words take place.
In bambuco, song themes are presented in a poetic manner, telling stories, and
describing nature, with a melancholic, prideful or romantic sentiment. This musical genre

38
is considered a national symbol of Colombia, therefore it transmit a strong patriotic feel,
rousing political themes as a rebellious protest.
20
In music therapy, the poetic feel of
bambuco could inspire the client to compose songs that require deep reflection of his/her
present situation and activate memories of the past.

7.2 Sound Aesthetics
The laborers were outraged and depressed due to their unfair lifestyle; music
served as an emotional catalyst. This subversive quality is presented as dissonance, out of
tuneness, unrefined and dirty sounds, syncopated rhythms, and cathartic and visceral
vocal cries. Vocal expressivity is achieved through falsetto, yodel, melisma, slurring, and
moaning, characteristics of the genres, specially the currulao. The music moves closer to
African musical standards, intimately linked with movement and spirituality; music
aiming to reach a state of catharsis by singing and dancing to syncopate drum rhythms.
(Barlow, 1989, pp. 4-5). In music therapy, this subversive quality and rawness could be
used as a resource to promote expressivity, offering the client a rich environment of
sounds which could support their present emotional state.
The cumbia and currulao harmony relies on the use of tonic and dominant chords,
which provides tension and immediate release, an instantaneous relief. Another source of
pleasure comes from use of the polyrhythm, which overlaps rhythms, adding a dense,
repetitive, and smooth locomotion to the sound. This leads to the release of tension and
the free expression of feelings. (Barlow, 1989, p. 325). In music therapy, harmonic
ostinatos, relying on simplicity, helps create structure and offers grounding; a safe place
where the client can interact with trust.

20
Refer to Appendix R for the coding of the lyrics; Appendix E: Cumbia; Apendix I: Currulao; Appendix M: Bambuco

39

7.3 The Groove
Groove is an intuitive sense of style as process, a perception of a cycle in
motion, a form or organizing pattern being revealed, a recurrent clustering of elements
through time often attended by pleasurable sensations ranging from arousal to
relaxation (Steven Feld in Aigen, 2002, p.34). The cumbia produces arousal sensations
with its fast paced, energetic and extroverted groove; the currulao is moderate paced and
repetitive, inducing a state of trance; and the bambuco takes us to a state of reflection and
relaxation. In music therapy, we could bring aesthetic elements from these genres to
promote a state of arousal or introspection according to the clients needs.
The groove is necessarily a social activity (requiring) an awareness of and
responsiveness to the present moment in time and to the musical contributions of other
people in that moment (Aigen, 2002, p. 35). This is true for the cumbia and currulao, in
which the experience of the groove is potentialized when it is shared with a group of
people (Appendix O, P). The bambuco is naturally more introverted and insightful, and
its groove can be experienced in solitude or shared as a dyad. (Appendix Q), In music
therapy, the cumbia and currulao aesthetic features have a strong connection with social
activities, this could promote interaction in group sessions. On the other hand, the
bambuco, could serve as a catalyst to encourage the client to articulate and process
internal emotions in individual session.
Experiencing a groove brings us close to a state of liminality, the sense of time
changes and the music itself appears to become stronger than the musicians conscious
will (Ruud, 1995, p. 96). In cumbia and currulao, when dancers and musicians share a

40
collective groove, they reach a sense of being at one with others, a feeling of
communitas, as anthropologist Victor Turner suggests.
In Ruud (1998), the participatory groove, plays an important role in building
interpersonal connections between people, an important aim for group therapeutic
processes led by music therapists. There seems to be support in clinical theory for the
idea that it is exactly these moments of mutuality, confirmation, and meaning or of being
seen, touched or understood that lead to change, self-understanding, or self-acceptance
(p. 159). Grooves create a safe musical space, facilitating connections and
communication, and mutual understanding. This explains why the cumbia and currulao
grooves flourished in regions inhabited by marginalized populations, whom had the need
to connect with others and have their voice listened in their community.
The cumbia creates anticipation, beginning their melodic phrases in anacrusis, and
stressing the upbeat, allowing the groove to float giving a perpetual optimistic lift. These
syncopations are felt in the pelvic area of the body, inducing movement to the beat. The
regularity of the beat evokes a sense of urgency and authenticity, keeping the awareness
in the present moment and provoking a forward movement through shifting emotions.
The groove marks a strong beat and contains syncopated rhythms. In cumbia, the
llamador drum plays the 2/4 rhythm, and the maracas play a constant set of 16
th
notes.
Big Bang, stylized cumbia is associated with entertaining; a fast and highly energetic
groove for dancing and celebrations.
In currulao, the cununo drum marks the 12/8, which gives a rhythmic drive and
swing, as it intertwines with the tambora bass drum, the guasa and the marimba. The
currulaos groove has served as a social organizer providing structure. Through music,

41
the community constructed their identity, practiced communication strategies, was
empowered and satisfied their individual necessities of expression. Music also served as a
mnemonic device to help the community remember their lost language. Simple and
redundant melodic motives created a stable musical structure and atmosphere that can
promote improvisation. Currulao has been used to create trance states, by repeating a
rhythm pattern and increasing its tempo.
The bambuco has a slow paced, introverted groove. It has a hybridized
binary/ternary accompaniment rhythm played by the tiple, a shuffle that gives the
rhythmic drive roundness. A triplet rhythm is interpreted with the mestizo accent,
displacing the accents to the upbeats. This raises the emotional impact of the music and
promotes a cathartic experience in the listener (Mereni, 1996, part I and II, p. 17). The
regular pulse offers safety and grounds the listener, containing chaotic movements and
emotional cries.
Africans produced music that incited body movements with a symbolic
importance to linked to them; i.e. upward movements represented power and growth,
horizontal movements represented the connection with others. (Ministerio de educacion
nacional 5, 2009). The off-beat is the main promoter of movement and is present in
Colombian musical genres.
Rhythm is the most inviting quality of African music. (It) has a peculiar
character consisting of the clash between the beat and the off-beat. The
beat is the stasis element, the off-beat the ek-stasis. As the beat is played
against the off-beat; mind and body are loosened, opened up. In short, the
body and mind pass from a static to an ecstatic state. Excitement and

42
movement have been generated. Communication starts. This takes place in
various dimensions of a persons being. (Mereni, 1997, Part III, p. 23)
The idea of music-motion is linked to the concept of quickening, which means, to
give life or to impart energy (Ansdell, 1995, p.81). Movement in music stimulates our
spiritual and physical being; the quickening of the spirit is experienced as a body in
movement. Victor Zuckerkandl believes that music acts as a dynamic force that resonates
within the human body, allowing it to become full of life. The therapeutic implication of
movement in music is being able to control and move ones physical body, as a
consequence of ones will. Being able to do so has an important influence on developing
a healthy self-image as a person capable of having an impact on the external world
(Aigen, 2005, p. 241).
Syncopated music can lead a person to a higher level of physiological arousal,
which may be experienced as catharsis, thus facilitating a process of transformation and
inner change. A simple percussion ostinato could start a groove, creating a musical space
with a specific mood, which can engage a client in participating actively. The grounding
nature of the groove often helps clients who lack stability in their playing and have a
therapeutic need for a secure framework (Wigram, 2004, p. 165).
Therapists should consider the clients playing tendencies before starting a
groove, to keep the music developing according to the clients needs. The therapist
should be cautious setting a pulse, which could inhibit flexibility and clinical awareness,
as Wigram (2004) states
Pulse plays a very important and influential part in improvised music
making. For a start, it can dominate and obstruct the creative process.

43
Musicians and improvisers who are very pulse-bound () often
emphasizing the pulse in which they are imprisoned. The result is that the
music becomes controlled by the pulse, and by the tempo of the pulse, and
sometimes that tempo never changes, nor does the improviser break out of
the pulsed music. (pp. 55-56)
A groove could function as a seed motivating an improvisation; it could be
explored in the form of ostinato, aiming to provide safety or a sense of moving forward.
Below, an exercise is suggested for therapists to explore the clinical uses of the cumbia.

7.3.1 Exploration 1: CUMBIA OSTINATO


A group plays the maracas, cabasa, and conga drum (notation). The facilitator
plays A minor b5 and Bb major on the piano. Listen to the groove and notice the
syncopations and intertwining rhythms
Vary the dynamics (changing the volume and tempo). Listen for a change in the
mood that each variation evokes.
The facilitator plays the bass line on the piano and improvise with the right hand
Develop theme A play four variations (each lasting 4 bars)

44
Develop theme B - play in a Call and Response manner, i.e., a 2 bar phrase
followed by a constant 2 bar response. Repeat this idea four times, playing
variations of the call and answering with the same response.

7.4 The Melody
One of the most significant aspects of these genres is how they evoke a sense of
conflict and rebelliousness in their melodies. The bambuco uses the aeolian mode, ending
the phrases on a b7
th
, producing an imperfect cadence. The motives are presented in a
descending line; the beginning of the phrase is sustained with vibrato, and the ending has
a ritardando and a fermata; this ornaments reflects the suffering in the lives of this
community. The bambuco uses two modes interchangeably, the major and minor mode,
resulting in ambiguous or paradoxical emotional expression, which offers a therapeutic
potential. The bambuco offers a possibility to express a variety of contrasting emotions in
the interplay between modes; this is ideal for matching clients uncertainty and
confusion. (Robbins & Robbins, 1998, pp. 168-180). The melody can be altered to sound
in a mixolydian, dorian, and pentatonic modes by altering notes from the scale tones (3
rd
,
6
th
, 7
th
). This flexibility makes possible subtle musical transitions, and engages clients
who display resistance to change. (Wigram 2004, p. 143).
The cumbias melody is based on major or minor modes, with ascending
arpeggios and intervals of thirds or seconds. The song is divided in two parts: one
featuring a theme repeated in four variations and another one presenting a shorter theme
with its variations, alternated with a repetitive refrain. (Appendix D). The cumbia offers
flexibility to create a musical landscape based on minor or major modes. The ascending
lines contributes to the energizing effect of this genre and the form with its repetitions,

45
variations and the use of call and response, promotes memorization, interaction and free
expression in a therapeutic setting.
The currulaos melodies are syncopated and are half-sung-half-spoken. The tonic
is continually repeated, giving a sense of safety and instant gratification. The single tone
holds within itself and so many compositions begin with a single tone the promise of
the whole that is to come. The whole experience. (Robbins & Robbins, 1998, p. 42).
Melodies are generally improvised to enhance or communicate a message through
the lyrics. The expressive use of the voice communicates emotions, conveying feelings
such as despair, yearning, melancholy or rage. Some vocal explorations are the
onomatopoeias, yodeling and glissandos. The dissonances in currulao, can be explained
as an attempt by Afro-Colombians to represent the clash of the European diatonic mode
with the African musical elements; a blending that continued as an unresolved dissonant
relationship. (Blumenfeld, 1992, p. 41). In music therapy, these vocal explorations and
the possibility to work with dissonances or out-of-tune sounds, broadens the palette of
sounds, which could help a client articulate their inner emotions. The currulao is
characterized by an unrefined technique. It is likely that through the dirty quality of the
currulao clients will be motivated to respond.
The cyclical nature of a groove, coupled with melodic properties, can lead to an
emotional and physiological arousal or catharsis, which can open a path to personal
growth and change. Lee (personal communication, April 9, 2007), recommends that
therapists take extra care when the client is in a state of emotional catharsis, by bringing
the music to a point of rest, to balance the arousal with a state of focus and control in
order for it to be of therapeutic benefit. (Houde, 2007, p.44).

46
7.4.1 Exploration 2: The currulao
Play an A natural minor scale accompanied by a drone on the left hand (i.e. a fifth)
Play the notated melody
Use the currulaos rhythm matrix and displace the accents gradually.

Theme A (to be varied) Refrain (to keep constant)

Play variations of Theme A and alternate them with the same Refrain.
Experimenting with the rhythms below. (The melodies should rely on
syncopation, emphasis of the tonic note and descending melodic lines).

7.5 Harmony
Harmony is often built on a simple repetitive bass ostinato using octaves and
unison lines, and basic harmonic progression (Tonic-Dominant) on cumbia and currulao.
We dont play octaves in a random way; we dont play octaves to double a tone. We
play octaves because we are bringing to the children an ego experience in tone.
(Robbins & Robbins, 1998, p. 37). The sound is direct and powerful when played loudly
and serves the urgency of emotional expression. As Nordoff states, how beautifully,
logically, naturally it moves between tonic and dominant, these fundamental, archetypal
musical experiences to which we respond and will always respond. (Robbins &
Robbins, 1998, p. 43).

47
In contrast, the bambuco was adopted by scholars, whom added complexity to its
harmonic progression, using chord substitutions and secondary dominants (i.e. V7/V).
The thick harmonic texture is a result of additional dissonance, which add points of
tension and release as the form progresses. As Nordoff states, Marvelous movement in
there, from inner experience to outer experience through tension, which is a life
experience. Were constantly doing this in our lives: moving from ourselves to something
outside of ourselves. And if it has a real meaning, there is some tension in this movement
from inner to outer. (Robbins & Robbins, 1998, p. 47).

7.6 Form
Form is an essential part of these genres. The bambuco has a traditional form
based on AABB. The currulao and cumbia have a cyclical, open-ended structure, where
rhythms and melodies are played against the regularity of a bass ostinato; this enhances
the personal expression and creates a sense of individuality.
Lee (2003) believes that musical form is a crucial consideration for music
therapists, as it informs the clinical process
Form surrounds all aspects of music and therapy the form of the
complete music therapy process, the individual session, the improvisation
within the session, and every moment within each piece. How we perceive
musical and clinical form, how finitely we are able to hear, understand,
and interpret reflects our understanding of form. This in turn, informs our
response to the client and the musical style we use to translate form into
clinical intent () the level of maturation of the therapeutic process

48
determines the form of an improvisation, as well as its ingenuity,
spontaneous structure, and development. (p. 82)
Alan Turry shares a similar perspective with Lee (2003) regarding the
significance of the musical form during a music therapy session. Turry (2005) states that:
Musical form provides a context for understanding the significance and
implications of musical behavior within an ongoing creative process the
therapists respond spontaneously and relevantly to whatever is presented
by the clients. Activity is supported and directed toward clinical goals
while retaining a kind of creative appeal that stimulates all. (p.67)
Therapists should trust the therapeutic process and be ready to use different
idioms and forms with flexibility to meet the clients needs. The cumbia, currulao and
bambuco could engage clients in a therapeutic process, with their simple and redundant
form. Simple forms are easier to remember and create a safe structure, by offering
predictability. However, clients could lose interest when the music is too predictable and
lacks form or structure, the session can be perceived as chaotic, meaningless or unsafe.
(Houde, 2007, p. 54)
Learning to balance dichotomies present in a session (i.e., structure and freedom),
engage the clients in the music making. Lee (2003) believes that a good improvisation is
a blend of free invention and premeditated thought. For the client in music therapy the
unexpected is balanced alongside form and shape. Freedom can only make sense in
improvisation if it is equated with structure. (p. 27).
Some music therapists initiate a therapeutic process with familiar songs, which
provide a high level of structure. This offers comfort if the client has associations of

49
meaningful emotional experiences and the familiar songs. However, this could not be
beneficial if the client is in need of producing his/her own sounds or if they have a
background of abuse and has negative associations with the familiar.
Folkloric musical forms provide a clear structure due to their simplicity and
familiarity. They allow the expression of emotions, through open-ended and cyclical
nature, and a simple harmonic progression. When clients have difficulties accepting
variations of a familiar song, the therapist can maintain the form to encourage the client
to sing or play spontaneously and improvise creatively.
Ironically, creative freedom can be enhanced by predetermined musical
structures. Roger Dean (1989) believes that the use of formulae-like chord sequences
may often simply be a way of facilitating maximally relaxed improvising, which may
paradoxically be the less restricted as a result. (p. 89) A stable musical foundation
allows the listener to appreciate the interplay of rhythmic figures, and encourages
participation. Lee (2003) adds the tension between freedom and constraint in
improvisation mirrors that found in day-to-day living (p. 26). The process of making
music is inherently human and musical improvisations provide a safe medium, offering
the clients the opportunity to experience different aspects of themselves.
Wigram (2004) claims that some clients need a clear musical frame in order to
become engaged in musicing. This is called frameworking and its function is to stabilize
and contain the client. (p. 118).
Frameworking provided that is doesnt become over-dominant, is a
marvelous technique for encouraging and exploring the musical and
communicative expressivity of the client. Frameworking providing a

50
musical framework can help clients move on (change and develop), or
develop their expressivity in the way they are able either to make music or
join in. (p. 119)
Frameworks should be used with caution, for they can become rigid and run the
risk of blocking the therapeutic potential of the client (Wigram, 2004). Turry (2005)
suggests that the therapist should be flexible when using a framework, by adjusting the
musical responses to the clients mood and expression. Aspects of the authentic aesthetics
of genre (i.e. cumbia) should be loosened in order to fit the clients needs. An overall
musical form can be used in a therapeutic setting and support the clients improvisations
with some salient musical features. In other words, the intervention will not sound like a
cumbia but will have a hint of cumbia.
Some clients benefit from a clear improvisational musical form for it differs from the
chaos of their lives; others prefer a free structure for it may contrast with the routine and
monotony of their daily life. It is the music therapists responsibility to determine which
approach is more beneficial for their clients expressive needs in a particular situation.

7.5.1 Exploration 3
Play the harmonic progression of a bambuco attached on the next page.
Experiment with ornaments as transitions: ritardando, fade out and glissandos.
Improvise on the harmonic progression. Add dissonance, change the style, and
eliminate the sense of pulse.
Ask a partner to improvise on a drum and cymbal. Use musical features of the
bambuco to matching or contrasting his/her playing.

51
Ask a partner to play the xylophone on Amin. Support his/her playing, and leave
musical space.
This exercise is meant to develop flexibility in order to adapt the genre to events in a
session. Therapists should be flexible in order to serve the clinical purpose. Creating a
clear structure and can be useful when a client has difficulty creating form.

52


CHAPTER VIII: Discussion


53
Emotional qualities such as joy can be expressed through musical elements (e.g.
faster tempo with bright timbres); this varies depending on the context, the background of
the listener, and the overall experience of the music.
Researching the aesthetic qualities and musical elements of Colombian musical
genres, was useful for understanding them as a whole. The results and exercises are
useful musical seeds, but must be employed carefully, ready to be adapted to the
clinical context and the clients needs. It is recommended to listen to authentic
recordings of these genres to gain a greater understanding of the groove and develop a
flexible interpretation.
Relevant research areas were omitted to keep the paper focused on a manageable
amount of information, i.e., the musical genres from other regions of Colombia. Other
areas were mentioned briefly in the analysis, i.e., the vocal aspects of the genres. The use
of voice in these genres could be a topic of great interest for further research, since it is a
tool that exemplified individuality in the creators of the genres. Vocal unrefined sounds
can create a sound connection on a primal level with clients regardless of their musical
background.
The lyrics reflect an aspect of simplicity and accessibility by being repetitive and
spontaneous, especially in cumbia and currulao, which uses verses answered by a
recurrent refrain in the form of call and response. This choral technique provides support
and matches the clients musicality and emotional intensity, inviting him/her to
participate spontaneously. In bambuco, the themes call for reflection and reminiscence,
inspiring clients to look inside themselves and produce external expressions.

54
It is encouraged to adapt these genres, for more common instruments such as the
piano or drums accessible in the music therapy room. The therapist should consider the
pitch relation and roles of each instrument, i.e., lower pitch drums play the base rhythmic
structure and a higher pitch drums improvises.
Before implementing new resources in therapy, the therapist should assess the
appropriateness of using each genre, i.e., what musical framework works for the client
and how s/he may benefit from these idioms. The possible criterion for the use of these
genres is found in the following sections:

8.1 The Client Population
These genres could benefit clients suffering from depression, marginalization,
grieving, and abuse, because the aesthetics of the genres reflects the difficult lives of their
creators. The bambuco explores emotions in an introspective manner, reflecting on inner
feelings. In contrast, the currulao and cumbia, express and work on emotions by
activating the body memory and producing physical liberation, while maintaining safety
through symbolic distance, working on our feelings through movement and chants.

8.2 The Client Background
Although theses genres may benefit clients who grew up in Latin America, the
therapist should be careful when using danceable genres such as the cumbia or currulao,
for there might be associations with party and recreation, risking the therapeutic purpose
of the session. On the other hand, the bambuco is ideal for adult and elder Colombian
client populations, who might explore pre-established associations with this genre and
enter a space of reflection and reminiscence. It should be noted that these genres could be
used beyond the borders of Latin American culture. Contemporary society and

55
cosmopolitan countries such as Canada, may be interested in a variety of foreign
rhythms, especially the ones that incite body expression.

8.3 Quality of Musical Engagement
In music-centered practice, the therapist assesses the musical abilities and
tendencies of the clients, in order to determine what sort of musical framework best
supports their expressions.
The Bambuco idiom may be suitable for individual sessions. Its introspective
nature, its musical form, the harmonic progression and the basic accompany rhythm,
creates a safe musical framework. The bi-modal quality permits the client to explore
different perspectives of his/her situation, and allows for reminiscence and reflection.
This idiom is well suited with the use of composition techniques.
The cumbia and currulao idioms might suit a group session. It creates a safe
musical framework through repetition, call and response, clear structure, and simplicity.
This promotes interaction and communication, creating group cohesion, developing
leadership and serving as a catalyst of social dynamics. The syncopated rhythms of these
genres highly motivate and engage the clients musically and physically, energizing the
group dynamics and promoting body movements. The currulao could have an extra
benefit for allowing an access to altered states of consciousness, which facilitate the
exploration of unconscious material. The therapist should be cautious of redundancy and
getting stuck with the groove.
Regardless what type of musical resource is used in therapy, it should be
approached from a creative and dynamic stance, used as seeds and not recipes. The
therapist uses musical features of the genres, which best supports the client. .

56
When practicing the resources, it is ideal to explore the aesthetics of the genres, to
develop musical sensitivity and expand our musical boundaries. It is advisable to
improvise on these genres with a specific clinical case in mind, developing resources that
are relevant with our clinical work.

8.4 Reflection on the Research Process
During the development of this project, I analyzed the cumbia, currulao and bambuco
genres, including musicological information and personal emotional responses in
order to enrich and guide the building of improvisational resources for music therapy
purposes.
My idea was to begin from the music as it appears in recordings and reflect on its
clinical implications, deriving exercises from this analysis. The project was based on
concrete musical recordings, clinical theories and results in the form of
improvisational resources.
This project allowed me to gain a deeper understanding of how these genres served a
therapeutic function to their creators and how they can be adapted to a music therapy
intervention. The insights into their musical features, clarified the way they could be
executed in a clinical setting.
Concluding this process, I have gained knowledge about the historical and musical
background of my home country, and have a better understanding of their potential
affect. From this process I developed exercises for possible improvisational clinical
resources. For the next step I would like to confirm the effectiveness of these
resources in a practical setting.

57
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http://www.colombiaaprende.edu.co/html/sitios/1610/article-83206.html
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http://www.colombiaaprende.edu.co/html/sitios/1610/article-83220.html
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http://www.colombiaaprende.edu.co/html/etnias/1604/propertyvalue-30516.html
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http://www.colombiaaprende.edu.co/html/etnias/1604/propertyvalue-30515.html
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http://www.colombiaaprende.edu.co/html/etnias/1604/propertyvalue-30518.html
Morales, E. (2003). The Latin beat: the rhythms and roots of Latin music from bossanova to salsa and
beyond. Cambridge, MA: Da Capo Press.
Muoz, A. (2007). A small trip through Colombian Music. Retrieved on May 20, 2009, from
http://solar.physics.montana.edu/munoz/AboutMe/ColombianMusic/English_Content.html
Nordoff, P. & Robbins, C. (1977). Creative music therapy (2nd ed.), New York: John Day Co.
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(Ed.), The Garland handbook of Latin American music (pp. 28-42). New York: Garland

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Publishers.
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Nacional, Bogota, pp. 97-100.
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Barcelona Publishers.
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students. Philadelphia: Jessica Kingsley Publishers.















64
APPENDIX A: MAP, RACES AND GENRES

THREE RACES


COLOMBIAN MUSICAL GENRES (Abada, G. Retrieved on May 20,2009. http://www.elabedul.net/Documentos/Temas/Folklor/index.php)
ATLANTIC PACIFIC CENTER PLAINS AMAZONES
1. Bullerengue
2. Chalupa
3. Champeta
4. Chand
5. Cumbia
6. Cumbin
7. Dcima
8. Fandango
9. Gaita
10. Grito eMonte
11. Guacherna
12. Lumbal
13. Mapal
14. Maya
15. Merecumb
16. Millo
17. Pajarito
18. Parrandn
19. Perillero
20. Piln
21. Pompo
22. Porro Palitiao (Gaita)
23. Porro Tapao (Puya)
24. Puya
25. Romanza vallenata
26. Son de Negro
27. Son Sabanero
28. Son Palenquero
29. Tambora
30. Tamborito
1. Abozao
2. Aguabajo
3. Aguachica
4. Aguacorta, Agualarga
5. Villancico Chocoano
6. Alabao
7. Andarele o Amanecer
8. Arrullo
9. Bambara Negra
10. Bambuco Viejo
11. Berj
12. Boga
13. Bunde Chocoano
14. Caderona
15. Calipso Chocoano
16. Canto de Boga
17. Chigualo o Gual
18. Contradanza Chocoana
19. Currulao (Corona y Caramba)
20. Danza Chocoana
21. Jota Chocoana
22. Tonadas indgenas
23. Juga (laboreo, grande, arrullo)
24. La Caramba
25. La Madruga
26. Makerule
27. Mazurka chocoana
28. Pango o Pangora
29. Patacor
30. Polka Chocoana
1. Bambuco
(Fiestero, Sureo)
2. Bunde
3. Carranga
4. Caa
5. Caabrava
6. Carrilera
7. Danza criolla
8. Estudiantina
9. Fandanguillo Criollo
10. Guabina
11. Guanea
12. Guasca
13. Marcha Andina
14. Merengue Bambuquiao
15. Mojiganga
16. Moo
17. Parranda
18. Pasacalle Andino
19. Pasillo
20. Pasillo Sureo
21. Porro Antioqueo
22. Rajalea
23. Rumba Campesina
24. Sanjuanero
25. Sanjuanito
26. Son Sureo
27. Torbellino
28. Trova Antioqueas
29. Vals Criollo
1. Cachicama
2. Cacho Pelao
3. Catira
4. Chipola
5. Contrapunteo
6. Corro
7. Carnaval
8. Diamantes
9. Galern
10. Gavn
11. Gavilan
12. Guacaba
13. Guacharaca
14. Juana Guerrero
15. Joropo
16. Mamonales
17. Merecure
18. Moa o Moo
19. Nuevo Callao
20. Numerao
21. Pajarillo
22. Paloma
23. Pasaje
24. Periquera
25. Perro de Agua
26. Poema Llanero
27. Quirpa
28. Quitapesares
29. Revuelta
30. San Rafael
1. Baioes
2. Batuques
3. Carimb
4. Cira
5. Cumbia andina Chicha
6. Dobrado
7. Forr
8. Lambada
9. Mariquinha
10. Merengue Andino
11. Mixtianas
12. Paseata
13. Porrosambas
14. Samba
15. Tangarana
16. Sirimb
17. Tonadas Indgenas

INSULAR
1. Calipso
2. Foxtrot
3. Mazurka
4. Mento
5. Pasillo Isleo
6. Polka
7. Praise Hymn
8. Quadrille
9. Reggae
10. Schottis

65
31. Vallenato:
(Son, Paseo, Puya, Merengue
32. Zafra
33. Tonadas Indgenas
31. Porro Chocoano
32. Pregn
33. Romance
34. Rumba Chocoana
35. Salve
36. Saporrondn SapoRond
37. Son Chocoano
38. Tamborito Chocoano
39. Tiguarand
30. Tonadas Indgenas 31. Seis
32. Tres Damas
33. Vaquera
34. Zumba-Que-Zumba
35. Tonadas Indgenas
11. Socca
12. Vals Isleo



APPENDIX B: Rhythm Matrix
RITMO GENERADOR (Cardenas, R. (1992) Referentes. pp.112-141)

MARTILLO HABANERA

CINQUILLO REFERENTES COMPLEMENTARIOS - CINQUILLO

BOMBA PUERTORRIQUEA REFERENTE TAMBORA en CUMBIA

REFERENTE GUIRO REFERENTES COMPLEMENTARIO Inversion de Guiro

CLAVE CUBANA REFERENTE LLAMADO EN CUMBIA

REFERENTE TUMBAO DE BAJ O REFERENTES COMPLEMENTARIO
(Son Sextetos maracas)


66
REFERENTES COMPLEMENTARIOS REFERENTE CURRULAO
(Polca costa Pacifica cuatro y guiro) (Bambuco tiple) (Currula cununos, bombo)
(Chotis paisa guitarra y bandola)

REFERENTES COMPLEMENTARIO REFERENTE ASOCIATIVO (Cinquillo)



APPENDIX C: ATLANTIC REGION: CUMBIA





67

Tamboras y baquetas Tambora, llamador-maraca Millo Flute Maracas
alegre y gaitas
Ministerio de Educacion Nacional, Retrieved on May 20, 2009 from http://www.tamborygaita.com/sPgaitero.html and
http://www.colombiaaprende.edu.co/html/etnias/1604/propertyvalue-30518.html
Muoz, A. (2007). A small trip through Colombian Music. Retrieved on May 20, 2009 from
http://solar.physics.montana.edu/munoz/AboutMe/ColombianMusic/English_Content.html






APPENDIX D: La Pollera Colora (Cumbia)

La Pollera Colora
Compositor WILSON CHOPERENA - Interprete: Aniseto Molina

2/4
(Bb F) (V I)

INTRODUCTION

AA
(16 bars)
ay, al son de los tambores
esa negra se amaa
y al sonar de la caa
va brindando sus amores

es la negra Soledad
la que goza mi cumbia,
esa negra sarabulla oye caramba
con su pollera colora

BB
(16 bars)
por eso le digo - mi negrita goza oye caramba (con su pollera color)
Ay como sandungea, esa negrita Soledad (con su pollera color)
De alla pa'ca la negrita, pone a goza (con su pollera colora')
No me niegues, oye morenita, y ven pa'ca' (con su pollera colora')
Instrumental
(16 bars)
with proclamations
Ipa, haha x2
Amaate soledad
Uepa uepa
ay, cuando le canto a Soledad

68
AA
(16 bars)
es que estoy yo contento
porque con su movimiento
la inspiracion ella me da

Tiene sabor de canela
o rico sabor a pmienta
como esta de contenta, oye caramba
con su pollera colora

BB
(16 bars)
Por eso le dijo, mi negrita goza, oye caramba (con su pollera colora')
Ay cuando la veo, veni pa'lla y veni pa'ca (con su pollera colora')
Oye esa negra, que me dejaba goza' (con su pollera colora')
Ay como me gusta, esa negrita Soledad (con su pollera colora')


TRANSCRIPT: DIANA JARAMILLO (APRIL 2009)






APPENDIX E. CUMBIA LYRICS


69
AL COMPAS DE LAS POLLERAS
instrumentos
Aqui les traigo esta cumbia
Que tiene ritmo vaiven
Vamos todos a bailarla
Y a gozarla como es

Porque la cumbia es sabrosa
Y el ritmo de actualidad
Y yo les voy a explicar Como la deben bailar

Hay que mover las caderas
Hay que trocarse tres veces con los pies
Toca troquiarse las velas
Debe tirar al compass de la pollera

Hay que frotarse los labios
Al mismo tiempo que un ojos has de guiar
Y pa ponerle emocion
En esta forma uste debe de gritar
(wEeeA weeeA) instrumento

---------------------------------------
JOSEFA MATIA
Josefa Mata
Con que se peina la luna (Josefa Mata)
Con el peine y la peinilla (Josefa Mata)
hablando con ella un dia (Josefa Mata)
le dijo que le gustaba (Josefa Mata)
que con ella se casaba (Josefa Mata)
porque bien la conocia (Josefa Mata)
con sus ojitos de cielo (Josefa Mata)
su boca de caramelo (Josefa Mata)
color de calma y de brisa (Josefa Mata)
sonar de maraca y brisa (Josefa Mata)
porque, porque no me quiere (Josefa Mata)
porque cariosa no ere (Josefa Mata)
la noche se va de fiesta (Josefa Mata)
con su pauelo morao (Josefa Mata)
por la calle va subiendo (Josefa Mata)
el entierro de mis amore (Josefa Mata)
que lejos se ve la luna (Josefa Mata)
ya no me quiere ninguna (Josefa Mata)
no me gusta a mi el casorio (Josefa Mata)
que eso termina en velorio (Josefa Mata)
a ti te quiero de dia (Josefa Mata)
sin cura, ni policia (Josefa Mata)
con besos y con mas beso (Josefa Mata)
y una paliza por dia (Josefa Mata)
a una la deje por fria (Josefa Mata)
a otra por dormir de noche (Josefa Mata)
con suegra no se podia (Josefa Mata)
porque todo lo porfia (Josefa Mata)
asi las cosas no valen (Josefa Mata)
como quiero que te ponga (Josefa Mata)
el problema se resuelve (Josefa Mata)
con ron blanco noche y dia (Josefa Mata)
las muchachas van sin pena (Josefa Mata)
a bailar el bullerengue (Josefa Mata)


CUMBIA DE LA MAR
De la cumbia ay de la cumbia
(es de la cumbia de la mar) x2
va traer el mar pacifico
(es de la cumbia de la mar) x2
va cantar los pajaritos
(es de la cumbia de la mar) x2
y por eso yo me quejo
(es de la cumbia de la mar) x2
que no me apoyen el talento
(es de la cumbia de la mar) x3
y por eso yo me quejo
(es de la cumbia de la mar)
SOLEDAD
Cumbia oye mi cumbia
Rincon de amor, del Magdalena
Quema del sol, esta es mi tierra

Eres tu, rincon de amor
Bella region, esta es mi historia
Esta eres tu, mi Magdalena x2

Viejo pueblo Aracataca,
pedacito de Colombia
Tierra donde yo naci, epaje
Entre rumores de cumbia
A quererte yo aprende x2
Rejuntados en la arena
los recuerdos de un ayer
Unos murieron de pena,
otros de hambre y de sed
Unos huyeron al monte, pa poderse proteger
Mataron todos los hombres,
los hijos y a su mujer

Ya veran, ya murieron, vive tu vida
Vive cien aos de soledad x2
Soledad x5 (x2) epaje
Instru (epaje)
Viejo pueblo. Ahhhhh wepaje

EL AFRICANO
Cumbia del africano
Mama I I , mama ii - Lala raira lalaida

Mama el negro esta rabioso,
quiere peliar conmigo, decicelo a mi papa.
Mama yo me acuesto tranquila
me arropo pies a cabeza, y el negro me
destapa
ay Mama que sera lo que quiere el negro?
ay Mama que sera lo que busca el negro?
ay Mama dime que es lo que quiere el negro?
Mama que sera lo que quiere el negro?
O no sera que quiere otro, para que no?
Ueeei, rica mi cumbia
Y de Nuevo a gozar con la Sonora Dinamita
Mama lii, mamalii - Lala raira lalaida
CUMBIA DEL CARIBE
Ueeepaje - Oeoe-oeoe x2 (x2)

LA PIRAGUA
Y aqui llego la reina - La piragua x4
Me contaron lo abuelos que hace tiempo,
navegaba en el Cesar una piragua,
que partia del Banco viejo puerto
a las playas de amor en Chimichagua.

Capoteando el vendaval se estremecia
e impasible desafiaba la tormenta,
y un ejercito de estrellas la seguia
tachonandola de luz y de leyenda.
Era la piragua de Guillermo Cubillos,
era la piragua, era la piragua. (Bis)

EL PESCADOR
va subiendo la corriente
con chinchorro y atarraya,
La canoa del bareque
para llegar a la playa, (bis)

El pescador habla con la luna
El pescador habla con la playa
El pescador no tiene fortuna solo su atarraya
(bis3) Instrumental
Regresan los pescadores
con su carga pa vender
Al puerto de sus amores
donde tienen su querer

(El pescador) habla con la luna
El pescador) habla con la playa
El pescador no tiene fortuna solo su atarraya
(bis2) Instrumental
Regresan los pescadores
con su carga pa vender
Al puerto de sus amores
donde tienen su querer (bis)

(El pescador) habla con la luna
El pescador) habla con la playa
El pescador no tiene fortuna solo su atarraya
(bis4)


70





APPENDIX F: CUMBIA SCORES

Contradanza rhythm Cumbia rhythm
Cardenas, R. (1992). Unidad musical en America. P.13) Cardenas,R. (1980) Ernesto Cordero. P.14 Cardenas,R. (2009) Personal
communication


Rhythm patterns played by the Tambora. Cardenas (1980). P.16

Friedmann, (2007). Cumbia No me Olvides. pp. 475-477


TRANSCRIPT: DIANA JARAMILLO (APRIL 2009)

71

Wade (2000) pp.245-246


APPENDIX G: PACIFIC REGION: CURRULAO





72

CANTAORAS CON ALTAR
Ministerio de Educacion Nacional, Retrieved on May 20, 2009 from
http://www.colombiaaprende.edu.co/html/etnias/1604/propertyvalue-30518.html
Muoz, A. (2007). A small trip through Colombian Music. Retrieved on May 20, 2009 from
http://solar.physics.montana.edu/munoz/AboutMe/ColombianMusic/English_Content.html



APPENDIX H: Mi Gallo Corococo (Currulao)

MI GALLO COROCOCO
Group Naidy
Arriba Suena Marimba! Currulao Marimba Music from Colombia


INTRODUCTION
12/8
Cmaj G Cmaj
Mi gallo corococo x3 Refrain (canto a la una y canto a la dos)
VERSES A
AND
Canto por la madrugada x2 (canto a la una y canto a la dos)
Y avisa que viene el dia x2 (canto a la una y canto a la dos)

73
REFRAIN
Mi gallito cantador x3 (canto a la una y canto a la dos)
Donde estan las cantadoras x2 (canto a la una y canto a la dos)
Las que se dan de poetas x2 (canto a la una y canto a la dos)
INSTRUMENTAL
Marimba solo (x14)
Mi gallo corococo x3 Refrain (canto a la una y canto a la dos)
VERSES A
AND
REFRAIN
Canto por la madrugada x2 (canto a la una y canto a la dos)
Y avisa que viene el dia x2 (canto a la una y canto a la dos)
Mi gallito cantador x3 (canto a la una y canto a la dos)
Donde estan las cantadoras x2 (canto a la una y canto a la dos)
Las que se dan de poetas x2 (canto a la una y canto a la dos)
VERSES A
AND
REFRAIN
Vengan a veni me cuentan x2 (canto a la una y canto a la dos)
Que ya llego tu maestra x2 (canto a la una y canto a la dos)
Mi gallito cantador (canto a la una y canto a la dos)
Canto por la madrugada (canto a la una y canto a la dos)
Avisa que viene el dia x2 (canto a la una y canto a la dos)
Mi gallito cantador x2 (canto a la una y canto a la dos)
CODA fadeout
Overlaps
Canto a la una (y canto a la dos) x31
























74
APPENDIX I: CURRULAO LYRICS
A COMO VENDE LA PIANGUA
A como vende la Piangua (hermanita yo no se) x2
hermanita yo no se (hermanita yo no se)
llegando a la galleria (hermanita yo no se) x2
ahi fue que la encontre (hermanita yo no se)

con un canasto de Piangua (hermanita yo no se)
por eso le pregunte (hermanita yo no se)
a como vende la Piangua (hermanita yo no se) x2
hermanita yo no se (hermanita yo no se) x2

oigame comargarita (hermanita yo no se)
a como la vende uste (hermanita yo no se)
a como da la docena (hermanita yo no se)
asi cinco o a dos por tres (hermanita yo no se) x2

hermanita (yo no se) x4
a como la vende (yo no se) x2
deme una docena (yo no se) x2
y cinco de piangua (yo no se) x2
y si tiene Uju (yo no se) x4
a como la vende (yo no se)
Intrumental

A como vende la Piangua (hermanita yo no se) x2
hermanita yo no se (hermanita yo no se) x2
llegando a la galleria (hermanita yo no se) x2
ahi fue que la encontre (hermanita yo no se)

con un canasto de Piangua (hermanita yo no se)
por eso le pregunte (hermanita yo no se)
a como vende la Piangua (hermanita yo no se) x2
oigame comargarita (hermanita yo no se)

a como la vende uste (hermanita yo no se)
a como da la docena (hermanita yo no se)
asi cinco o a dos por tres (hermanita yo no se) x2
A como vende la Piangua (hermanita yo no se)
hermanita yo no se (hermanita yo no se) x2

hermanita (yo no se) x5
a como la vende (yo no se) x2
deme una docena (yo no se)
y cinco de piangua (yo no se) x2
y si tiene Uju (yo no se) x4

hermanita (yo no se) x3
a como la vende (yo no se)
deme una docena (yo no se)
y cinco de piangua (yo no se)
y si tiene Uju (yo no se) x4
LO QUE ME TRAJO EL NIO DIOS
Ata que no me adivina que me trajo el nio dios
(a mi me trajo una bomba pero se me revento) x3
atora que tea toreabana tobe que a selegido
(a mi me trajo una bomba pero se me revento) x2
salio corriendo a belen ya veral recien nacido
(a mi me trajo una bomba pero se me revento) x2
pero se me (me revento) x7 - instru
Ata que no me adivina que me trajo el nio dios
(a mi me trajo una bomba pero se me revento) x3
y dice nio chiquito mira que viene laurora
(a mi me trajo una bomba pero se me revento) x2
y buscando en puerta en puerta cual es el nio que llora
(a mi me trajo una bomba pero se me revento) x2
LO QUE SUENA QUE SERA
Intro
Arriba suena marimba, bombo, cununo y guasa x2
(decime nia bonita, lo que suena que sera) x2
suena suena la marimba yel bombo empieza
agolpear x2
(decime nia bonita, lo que suena que sera) x2
repican los cununeros y tambien se oyel guasa x2
(decime nia bonita, lo que suena que sera) x2
lo que suena (que sera) x3
lo rico que suena (que sera) x2
delen duro al bombo (que sera) x2
repica el cununo (que sera) x2
ay lo que suena (que sera) x2
lo rico que suena (que sera)
ay lo que suena (que sera)
vienen cantando (que sera)
vienen repicando (que sera)
hoy lo que suena (que sera) (Instru.)
Arriba suena marimba, bombo, cununo y guasa x2
(decime nia bonita, lo que suena que sera) x2
suena suena la marimba y el bombo empieza agolpear x2
(decime nia bonita, lo que suena que sera) x2
repican los cununeros y tambien se oyel guasa x2
(decime nia bonita, lo que suena que sera) x2
lo que suena (que sera) x3
lo rico que suena (que sera) x2
lo que suena (que sera) x2
delen duro al bombo (que sera) x2
replica el cununo (que sera) x2
dale cantadora (que sera)x2
ay lo que suena (que sera)
hoy lo que suena (que sera) x3
vienen cantando (que sera)
vienen repicando (que sera)
ay lo que suena (que sera) x2
delen duro al bombo (que sera) x2
repica el cununo (que sera) x2
ay lo que suena (que sera) x2
lo rico que suena (que sera) x4
ay lo que suena (que sera) x2

LA MARAVILLA
Maravilla maravilla (ororoi la maravilla) x2
Oirororoi la maravilla (ororoi la maravilla) x3
Ay ya sonrie la maravilla (ororoi la maravilla)
Hoy yo encontre la maravilla (ororoi la maravilla)
Yo la vi ya florecer (ororoi la maravilla)
Hoy yo la vi desflorecer (ororoi la maravilla)
Ay los ojitos de mi nio (ororoi la maravilla) x2
Los ojitos de mi nio (ororoi la maravilla)
Los hice resplandecer (ororoi la maravilla)
Ay los hice resplandecer (ororoi la maravilla)
Ay ororoi la maravilla (ororoi la maravilla) x4 Instru
Ay Maravilla maravilla (ororoi la maravilla) x2
Oirororoi la maravilla (ororoi la maravilla) x3
Ya estaba tumbando un palo (ororoi la maravilla) x2
Ya esta querantan carey (ororoi la maravilla) x2
Ay ya vuelta quedaba el palo (ororoi la maravilla) x2
Florecia la maravilla (ororoi la maravilla) x2
Ay ororoi la maravilla (ororoi la maravilla) x2
PANGO
Instru - Ayo-eeeee ayoeee (ooo) x3 - Instru
e-e-e-e-e (ooo) eee (ooo) eee (ooo)
(pango pango pango iii pango) x15
instru
(pango pango pango iii pango) x23

UNA MAANITA
Una maanita (arare) No quiere verano (arare) x2
Por coger la rosa,(arare) te pico el gusano (arare) x3
EreUuu (arare) ereUuu (arare) x2
No coges la rosa (arare) que tiene un gusano
(arare)x2
Porque si la coges (arare) te pica la mano (arare)x2
EreUuu (arare) ereUuu (arare) x3
Instru
Una maanita (arare) No quiere verano (arare) x2
Por coger la rosa,(arare) te pico el gusano (arare) x2
EreUuu (arare) ereUuu (arare) x2
No pises la rosa (arare) que tiene un cienpies
(arare)x2
Porque si la pisa (arare) te pica en los pies(arare)x2
EreUuu (arare) ereUuu (arare) x4
Que tiene esa rosa (arare) que tiene un cienpies (arare)x2
Pero si la pisa(arare) te pica en los pies(arare)x2
EreUuu (arare) ereUuu (arare) x10

SALOME
Cogelo y no lo largues (ay mira quien es Salome)x4
Madrina del nio soy (ay mira quien es Salome)
Para el otro ao que viene (ay mira quien es Salome)
Como todo lo han de ver (ay mira quien es Salome)
El dia de los santos reyes (ay mira quien es Salome)
Cogelo y no lo largues (ay mira quien es Salome)x4

Este nio tiene sueo (ay mira quien es Salome)
Como que quiere dormir (ay mira quien es Salome)
Con el unojo cerrado (ay mira quien es Salome)
Y el otro lo quiere abrir (ay mira quien es Salome)
Cogelo y no lo largues (ay mira quien es Salome)x3
Ay mira quien (es Salome)x5 - Instru
Cogelo y no lo largues (ay mira quien es Salome)
Madrina del nio soy (ay mira quien es Salome)
Para el otro ao que viene (ay mira quien es Salome)
Como todo lo han de ver (ay mira quien es Salome)
El dia de los santos reyes (ay mira quien es Salome)
Cogelo y no lo largues (ay mira quien es Salome)x3
Este nio tiene sueo (ay mira quien es Salome)
Como que quiere dormir (ay mira quien es Salome)
Con el unojo cerrado (ay mira quien es Salome)
Y el otro lo quiere abrir (ay mira quien es Salome)
Cogelo y no lo largues (ay mira quien es Salome)x3
Ay mira quien (es Salome)x20

75
a mi me trajo una bomba (pero se me revento) x3
pero se me (me revento) x20
Ororoi (maravilla) x6
Maravilla (maravilla) x3 Las rocelas (maravilla) x2
Yo las hice (maravilla) x3 Florecer (maravilla) x2
Maravilla (maravilla) x2 Lo que duela (maravilla) x2
Maravilla (maravilla) x2 La matare (maravilla) x2
Maravilla (maravilla) x2 Las rocelas (maravilla)
Maravilla (maravilla) x11

APPENDIX J: CURRULAO SCORES

Cardenas, R (1995). Referentes Ministerio de Educacion Nacional
Marulanda, A. (1984). El folclor en Colombia: practica
e identidad cultural, Bogota, Artestudio Editores.

76

Cardenas, R. (1995). Referentes. P.40

77


78
Abadia, G. (1973). Folklore Colombia: Tesis Decima. P.159


Cardenas, R. (1995). Referentes. P.47

TRANSCRIPT: DIANA JARAMILLO (APRIL 2009)

79


APPENDIX K: ANDEAN REGION: BAMBUCO




80


A small trip through Colombian Music BY: Andres Muoz Jaramillo, 2007
http://solar.physics.montana.edu/munoz/AboutMe/ColombianMusic/English_Content.html




















APPENDIX L: El Regreso (Bambuco)

El Regreso
Efran Orozco

12/8
4 bars
Introduction

A (4 bars)
Minor mode
Cm Fm
De regreso a mi tierra, volv a mis lares
G7 Cm

81
cabalgando a lomo de mis lejanos recuerdos

A (4 bars)
Minor mode
C7
y al volver, otra vez
Fm
en mi mente qued grabado
Cm
en mi mente qued grabado
G7 C
el paisaje azul de la edad primera

B (8 bars)
Major mode
Dm
Que lindo es volver, al hogar nativo
G7 C
y poder recordar con los viejos amigos la dulce infancia.
E7 Am
La pelota de trapo, el barquito de papel
D7 G7
la encumbrada cometa, pide y pide carretel
B (8 bars)
Major mode
C Dm
He vuelto a escuchar, la voz del riachuelo
G7 C
la mirla que canta, en la copa florida del arrayn
C7 F
y en la torre del pueblo, mil campanitas
C7 G7 C
que cruzaron el cielo, con las notas de mi cantar




















82
APPENDIX M: BAMBUCO LYRICS
HURI
Quisiera ser el aire que llena el ancho espacio
,
quisiera ser el huerto que esparce suave olor,
quisiera ser la nube de nieve y de topacio,
quisiera tener cnticos de dulce trovador.

Y as mi triste vida pasar lisonjera,
cambiando mis dolores por prfida pasin,
sultn siendo querido de Hur tan hechicera,
quitrame la vida por darte el corazn.

Si alientan tus amores efmeros tesoros,
jams, amada ma, tu orgullo he de saciar.
Quisiera darte perlas vertidas en mi lloro,
yo puedo con mi lira tus horas endulzar.

Y as mi triste vida...

Asmate a la reja, hermosa amada ma,
levanta la persiana y escucha mi cancin,
que es hora del arrullo y ya comienza el da.
Y ya los campanarios anuncian la oracin.

Y as mi triste vida...
(hasta 'quitrame la vida por darte el corazn'
AYER ME ECHARON DEL PUEBLO


e r




o -



ar

r

o


e





o




i e





,

A QUIEN ENGAAS ABUELO
A quin engaas abuelo?
yo s que t estas llorando
ende que taita y que mama,
arriba estn descansando;
nunca me dijiste cmo,
tampoco me has dicho cundo,
pero en el cerro hay dos cruces,
que te lo estn recordando.

Baj la cabeza el viejo y acariciando al muchacho,
dice tienes razn hijo, el odio todo ha cambiado,
los piones se jueron lejos
y el surco est abandonao
a m ya me faltan juerzas,
me pesa tanto el arao
y t eres tan slo un nio,
pa'sacar arriba el rancho.

me dice Chucho el arriero,
el que vive en los caales,
Que a unos los matan por godos,
y a otros por liberales,
pero eso qu importa abuelo,
entonces qu es lo que vale,
mis taitas eran tan guenos,
a naide le hicieron males,
slo una cosa comprendo,
que ante Dios somos iguales.

aparecen en elecciones,
unos que llaman caudillos,
que andan prometiendo escuelas
y puentes donde no hay ros,
y al alma del campesino, llega el color partidizo,
y entonces aprende a odiar,
hasta a quien fue su buen vecino,
todo por esos malditos, politiqueros de oficio.

Ahora te comprendo abuelo,
por Dios no sigas llorando.
ANTIOQUEITA
Antioquea, que tienes negros los ojos,
Los cabellos rizados, los labios rojos.
Antioqueita . antioqueita
la palma del desierto, no es mas bonita

Antioquea, que vives cerca a los montes
donde son tan inmensos los horizontes
por ti daria, por ti daria...
los sueos mas hermosos del alma mia.

Antioquea, que miras como una diosa
y tienes las mejillas color de rosa,
por ti se calma... por ti se calma..
la tempestad que ruge dentro del alma.

Quien pudiera a tu oido decir ternezas
y en tus brazos librarme de mis tristezas
antioqueita, antioqueita
del jardin de Colombia, la mas bonita

SOY COLOMBIANO
A mi deme un aguardiente,un aguardiente de caa,
de las caas de mis valles y el ans de mis
montaas.
No me de trago extranjero, que es caro y no sabe a
bueno,
porque yo quiero siempre, lo de mi tierra primero.
Ay! que orgullosos me siento, de haber nacido en
mi pueblo.

A mi canteme un bambuco, de esos que llegan al
alma,
cantos que ya me alegraban, cuando apenas decia
mama.
Lo demas sera bonito, pero el corazn no salta,
como cuando a mi me cantan, una cancin
colombiana.
Ay! que orgullosos me siento, de haber nacido en
mi patria.

Y para mi una muchacha, aperladita, morena,
o una rubia de ojos claros, de suave piel
montadora.
Muchachas, musica y trago, de la sierra o de mi
llano.
Ay! que orgulloso me siento, de ser un buen
colombiano.x2

YO TAMBIEN TUVE 20 AOS
Yo tambin tuve 20 aos
y un corazn vagabundo,
yo tambin tuve alegras y profundos desengaos.
Yo tambin tuve 20 aos,
que en mi vida florecieron
20 aos que a m llegaron,
se fueron y no volvieron.

Por eso desde la cumbre, de mis ardorosos aos,
miro pasar hoy la vida, sin que me haga bien ni
dao,
porque tuve la fortuna, de vivirla sin engaos,
para contar sin nostalgia, que tambin tuve 20
aos.
PESARES
Que me dejo tu amor que no, fueran pesares,
acaso tu me diste tan solo un momento de
felicidad
Que me dejo tu amor? mi vida se pregunta
y el corazon responde: pesares, pesares... x2
La primavera de mi corazon contigo no tuvo
perfumes
y hasta la propia vida se me fue llenando de
desilusion
Que me dejo tu amor? mi vida se pregunta
y el corazon responde: pesares, pesares... x2

83
ANSIAS DE AMAR
No se como expresar
Mi mas grande illusion
Ni se como cantar
La mas grata cancion de esta noche de amor
Tengo un ansia de amar
Con mas alma y mas fe
Que nadie puede dar
Lo que mi alma te de como prueba de amor

Y en el mundo sere (y en el mundo sere)
Una sombra de ti (una sombra de ti)
Donde vayas, yo ire
Y si piensas en mi, donde estes estare
Y despues de morir (Y despues de morir)
Yo sere la illusion (Yo sere la illusion)
Que te Habra de seguir,
y de tu Corazon sere el suave latir



84
APPENDIX N: BAMBUCO SCORES


85
Abadia, G. Folklore musical: Tesis Decima. P.159.







Abadia, G. Folklore musical: Tesis Decima. P.154

TRANSCRIPTS: DIANA JARAMILLO (APRIL 2009)


86


APPENDIX O: Aural analysis CUMBIA

CUMBIA
Music/Sounds

Emotions/Thoughts

Links to Music Therapy
Fast Pace


2/4 Meter
creole accents
syncopation


Polyrhythm(drums)




Form
Introduction (4bars)
AA(16bars)
BB (16 bars)

Harmony
V-I



Melody
Call and response
Verse+Refrain
Soloist and chorus
Gaita or flute







Energy, celebratory, party, trance
Driving, cathartic, bright, fun

Stresses the upbeat
Float, optimistic lift
Hip and shoulder movements. Drive, fun,
dance, motivated, movement, exciting

Expression, freedom
Primitive, rawness




Simple structure, safety, freedom of
expression, improvisation



simplicity, tension and release,
immediacy, support, grounding, more
importance to rhythms and movements,
speech-like stories.

Communication, community, sharing,
empathy, grounding, solidarity, repetition
for memorization, unity (unison)
Cathartic, intense, fun, bright, festive,
driving, movement







Support, base, grounding, safe
Promote movement/dance. empower, energize,
Celebratory, upbeat, joyful, carefree, light,
passionate

Promote movement/dance, hip rocking, Expression of sexuality.
Symbolism of vertical (upward movement) is power, life and growth.
Symbolism of horizontality (sideways) is connection with others,
procreate, life. Transitions, Fit into clients aesthetics

Match, overlap, Transitions, Fit into clients aesthetics, Shouting
musically as catharsis of emotional intensity. Expression of sexuality,
Groove textures and creating tension. Community building, social
organizer group cohesion

Support, Fit into clients aesthetics
Promote safety, with structure, simplicity, repetition, lightness
Spontaneous

Support, Fit into clients aesthetics
Promote safety, with structure, simplicity, repetition, lightness
spontaneous


Support, Match, Fit into clients aesthetics
Shouting musically as catharsis of emotional intensity. Expression of
sexuality. Repetition of words for emphasis.
Verbal expression of emotions, Empowerment
Lyric filler or response to emphasize, promote acceptance
Community building, social organizer group cohesion, traditions,
ceremonies. Communication strategies, interaction, sharing, taking
turns, leadership, support socialization. Increase expression, vocal,
body. Increase Awareness, be present, here and now, spontaneous
Promote identity + expression , empower, share stories, emancipation.
Promote safety, with structure, simplicity, repetition, lightness

87
Instruments
*Base: Maraca, tambora,
llamador, gaita macho
*Improviser: alegre,
soloist, gaita or flute
Redundant, clich, empowering, sexual,
lively, confident, cycling, safe
-Leadership, expression, exploration,
awareness


Support, Match, Fit into clients aesthetics
Promote safety, with structure, simplicity, repetition, lightness
Community building, social organizer group cohesion, traditions,
ceremonies. Communication strategies, interaction, sharing, taking
turns, leadership, support socialization. Drum patterns create
mnemonic devices to learn and remember language. Increase
expression. Shouting musically as catharsis of emotional intensity.
Empowerment

Notes: The Cumbia idiom could be use in group sessions for its tendency to create a safe musical background
(repetition, simple structure and harmonic progression) that promotes interaction and communication (call
and response). It could be use to energize the group dynamics and to encourage body movements. Beware
of redundancy and getting stuck. With Colombian or latin American populations it might have an
association with party, preventing therapeutic process.

CUMBIA 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
LYRIC
themes
FEELINGS
Ferraras
WORKSHOP
Data analysis
movement


Expression


Interaction






APPENDIX P: Aural analysis CURRULAO

CURRULAO
Music/Sounds

Emotions/Thoughts

Links to Music Therapy
Moderate Pace


6/8, 12/8 Meter
creole accents
syncopation

Polyrhythm (drums)



Form
Introduction (6bars)
A (11bars)
(instrumental) (12bars)
AA (21 bars)
Coda (overlaps of verse
and refrain) Fade out

Harmony
V-I


Light energy, trance, ceremony
Driving, cathartic, intense,
stressful, heavy

Sway, walk, march, movement
Whole body involved


Expression, freedom
Primitive, rawness


Simple repetitive structure, safety,
freedom of expression, improvisation
Redundant, heavy


Slowing down, back to reality


simplicity, tension and release,
immediacy, support, grounding, more
importance to rhythms and movements,
Promote movement/dance. relax,


Promote movement/dance, Expression of sexuality. Symbolism of
vertical (upward movement) is power, life and growth. Symbolism of
horizontality (sideways) is connection with others, procreate, life.
Transitions, Fit into clients aesthetics

Match, overlap, Transitions, Fit into clients aesthetics, Shouting
musically as catharsis of emotional intensity. Expression of sexuality,
Groove textures and creating tension. Community building, social
organizer group cohesion

Feeling the groove, toning, grounding
Support, Fit into clients aesthetics
Promote safety, with structure, simplicity, repetition, lightness
Spontaneous
Musical cue and closure


Support, Fit into clients aesthetics
Promote safety, with structure, simplicity, repetition, lightness
spontaneous


88

Melody
Call and response
Verse+Refrain
Soloist and chorus
Marimba










Instruments
*Base: guasa, tambora,
cununo
*Improviser: cununo,
marimba, soloist
speech-like stories.

Communication, community, sharing,
empathy, grounding, solidarity, repetition
for memorization, unity (unison)
Speech-like, less than an octave for the
voice, easy, explore vocal sounds
Marimba plays sequences, arpeggios,
theme and variations, intervals of 2
nd
, 3
rd
,
4
th
.
Cathartic, intense, bright, market,
driving, movement





Support, base, grounding, safe
Redundant, heavy, sexual, full of life,
cycling, safe
-Leadership, expression, exploration,
awareness


Support, Match, Fit into clients aesthetics
Shouting musically as catharsis of emotional intensity. Expression of
sexuality
Repetition of words for emphasis.
Verbal expression of emotions, Empowerment
Lyric filler or response to emphasize, promote acceptance
Community building, social organizer group cohesion, traditions,
ceremonies. Communication strategies, interaction, sharing, taking
turns, leadership, support socialization. Increase expression, vocal,
body.
Increase Awareness, be present, here and now, spontaneous
Promote identity + expression , empower, share stories, emancipation
Promote safety, with structure, simplicity, repetition, lightness

Support, Match, Fit into clients aesthetics
Promote safety, with structure, simplicity, repetition, lightness
Community building, social organizer group cohesion, traditions,
ceremonies. Communication strategies, interaction, sharing, taking
turns, leadership, support socialization. Drum patterns create
mnemonic devices to learn and remember language. Increase
expression. Shouting musically as catharsis of emotional intensity.
Empowerment

Notes: The Currulao idiom could be use in group sessions for its tendency to create a safe musical background
(repetition, simple structure and harmonic progression) that promotes interaction and communication (call
and response). It could be use to energize the group dynamics, to encourage body movements, or induce
altered states of consciousness, to access unconscious material. Beware of redundancy and getting stuck.

CURRULAO 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
LYRIC
themes
FEELINGS
Ferraras
WORKSHOP
Data analysis
movement


Expression


Interaction



APPENDIX Q: Aural analysis BAMBUCO

BAMBUCO
Music/Sounds

Emotions/Thoughts

Links to Music Therapy
Slow, moderate Pace


12/8, 3/4+6/8 Meter
creole accents
syncopation




Form
Introduction (4bars)
AA (16bars) BB (16bars)
(instrumental)
(75pbm) Light energy, introspection
Calm setting and atmosphere

Accent on off beats, bittersweet, provides
musical space for soloist to express himself.
Sway, walk, march, movement
African rhythm patterns in Tiple,
intrinsic rhythmic synthesis,
overlap, polyrhythm expression of
rawness, layers, freedom. Triple
rhythms.

Simple repetitive structure, safety, freedom of
relax, reflect, space, free association


Promote Expression. Transitions, Fit into clients
aesthetics
Groove textures and creating tension.



Feeling the groove, toning, grounding
Support, Fit into clients aesthetics
Promote safety, with structure, simplicity, repetition,
lightness
Spontaneous

89
AABB
A and B (means variation)
B (modulates to major mode)

Harmony
Tiple harmony, rhythm
(A) Imin (V7/ivmin) ivmin-V7-imin-
V7/iv-ivmin-imin-V7-Imaj
(B) iimin-V7-Imaj-V7/vi-vimin-
V7/V-V - Imaj-iimin-V7-Imaj-V7/iv-
ivmin-V7/V-V7-Imaj

Melody
Guitar melody
Mandolin, countermelody
2 male voices (3
rd
, 6
th
)
Melodies rest in 7, imperfect cadence.







Instruments
Base: Tiple
Melody: Guitar
Countermelody: Mandolin
2 voices
expression, improvisation





Harmonic changes, tension and release,
journey through emotions, change minor to
major, feeling of hope. Melancholy, regrets,
memories of the past, idealizing a love affair,
protesting, being passionate, having pride.
2 voices in harmony, Support, grounding.


2 male voices (3
rd
, 6
th
) intimate relationship, a
conversation with a friend, being heard,
supported.
Melodies rest in 7, imperfect cadence,
unsatisfied, non concluded, in tension. Calm
atmosphere, sad, bittersweet, heavy, intense
Communication, poetic, refined, community,
sharing, empathy, grounding, solidarity,
repetition to make a point, unity
Passionate use of the voice: vibrato, sustain,
glissandos

Drive, redundant rhythm, safe, empowering.
Refined lyrics, melody, harmony.
Support, base, grounding, safe
-Leadership, expression, exploration,
awareness
interaction and support
Musical cue and closure

Support, Fit into clients aesthetics
Promote introspection with harmonic changes, reflect
with different perspective. Explore emotions, bi-
modal (melancholy and joy), sweet, sentimental,
loving, gallant, negligent, nurturing, civilized,
courteous, refines, flirtatious, sorrow, dream, wishes,
hope, loss, romance, grief, regret, spontaneous,
contrast, nostalgie, yearning, protest.

Support, Match, Fit into clients aesthetics
Verbal expression of emotions, free association,
articulate situation. Empowerment
Repetition of a verse for emphasis.
2
nd
voice to emphasize, promote acceptance, empathy
Therapeutic relationship building
Increase expression, vocal, body.
Increase Awareness, Promote identity + expression,
share stories, emancipation, reminiscence (evoke past),
poetry, awareness of nature (evoke), traditions
Promote safety, with structure, simplicity

Support, Match, Fit into clients aesthetics
Promote safety
Tiple (container, grounding)
Communication strategies (guitar and mandolin),
interaction, sharing, taking turns, support socialization.
Empowerment, emancipation
Verbal expression of emotions
Lyric filler or response to emphasize, promote
acceptance

Notes: The Bambuco idiom could be use in individual sessions for its tendency to create a safe musical background
(basic accompany rhythm) and the intimacy produced by the harmonic progression. Bambuco has a bi-modal
quality that permits the client explore different perspectives of his/her situation, and the introspective mood
allows for reminiscence and reflection. This idiom is well suited with the use of composition techniques. This
idiom could be particularly effective with adult and elder client population from Colombia, who might have a
strong association with this music and reflecting on their own lives.

BAMBUCO 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
LYRIC
themes
FEELINGS
Ferraras
WORKSHOP
Data analysis
Feelings


Expression


Interaction




APPENDIX R: MUSICAL ANALYSIS

CUMBIA CURRULAO BAMBUCO
LYRICS
Expression: Story tell: nature, love affairs,
poetic, onomatopoeic, sarcasm, witty,
playful 6/8
LYRICS
Expression: Story tell: conversations, Nature. Music,
folkore, food, instruments, listen skills, onomatopoeic
7/8
LYRICS
Expression words: poetic, rhymes, troubadour,
serenades, nature (air, river), romantic, idealize 8/8
Feelings: melancholy (sad life), hopeful, martyr,

90
Movement: dance, party , flirt 4/8
Interaction: Community: Patriotic, Feeling
rejected , poverty, work 3/8
Interaction: Community: family sisterhood, ceremony,
Here and now: present, daily living 7/8
Movement: Unbearable without movement 6/8
drama, spiritual 7/8
Interaction: Politics, patriotic, equality, rebellious,
poverty, peasant, Family pride, honor, religious 5/8
FEELINGS
Movement: dance, party, joy, excitement,
drive, energize 8/8
Interaction: Community: tradition,
Share, toning , repetition 7/8
Expression: Story tell 4/8

DATA ANALYSIS
Movement: dance, party, spontaneous,
unblocked 6/7
Interaction: Community, cohesion,
identity, toning, listening, empathy ,
Support, safety, repetition, groove
simplicity, monotonous 6/7
Expression: story tell 3/7
FEELINGS
Movement: Repetition, continuity, trance, numb, relax,
support 7/8
Interaction: Community: rural, Women, sisterhood,
family, pride, Religious, ceremony, toning Urgent,
survival , Here and now, awareness 7/8
Expression: Story tell: Communication, exchange,
Listen skills, playful, joyful, lightness, Untuned,
Inflection voice, laments, glissandos 6/8
DATA ANALYSIS
Movement, loosen up, express self Repetition, ongoing,
constant, simplicity, trance 7/7
Interaction: Community: turn taking, interact, listen,
leader, awareness, exploration, busy, work, Safety,
supported, collective, structure, Identity, ritual 5/7
Expression: Improvisation, playful, cumulative
ostinato, monotonous, stuck 3/7
FEELINGS
Feelings: Longing, Dragging ,lift Passionate,
nostalgic, woeful, Loss, sorrow, pain, hope, Sweet,
Romantic, bitter , Change mood 6/7
Espression: Story tell, wisdom 3/7
Interaction: Patriotic 3/7
DATA ANALYSIS
Feelings: Loss, sad, sorrow, longing, Smile, relax,
Change mood, contrast, Regret, nostalgie,
Romantic 5/7
Espression Story tell 4/7
Interaction: Support, structure, expression 2/7

LYRIC
themes
FEELINGS
Ferraras
WORKSHOP
Data analysis

CUMBIA 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 CURRULAO 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 BAMBUCO 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
movement movement Feelings


Expression Expression Expression


Interaction Interaction Interaction
























91

APPENDIX S: BIOGRAPHY

ROCIO CARDENAS DUQUE

Rocio is a Latin-American musicologist. Recently she is working at the Universidad del Valle
(Cali-Colombia) and travels around the country increasing the awareness of the richness and
diversity of Colombian music.

STUDIES:
Conservatorio de Cali
Universidad Nacional de Colombia
Collegium Musicum de Buenos Aires Argentina
Corporal Expression with Patricia Stokoe - Argentina
Instituto Superior de Artes, Habana - Cuba (Musicology-1980, specialized in Latin-America)

PUBLICATIONS:
Book: Musica Caribea (ed. Universidad del Valle 1992).
Thesis (1980): Ernesto Cordero y el Lenguaje del Seis Puertorriqueo.
(Rocio wants to recognize the influence of folkloric music in the masterpieces of composers)