Miocene to Quaternary Sequence

Stratigraphy of the South and

Central Caspian Basins
Vitor Abreu
ExxonMobil Exploration, Houston, Texas, U.S.A.
Dag Nummedal
Colorado Energy Research Institute, Colorado School of Mines, Golden, Colorado, U.S.A.
ABSTRACT
T
he oil industry has been active in Azerbaijan for centuries, and the Ap-
sheron Peninsula, Apsheron sill, onshore, and the shelf margin of Azer-
baijan are considered mature areas for exploration. However, large areas of
the offshore Caspian, including the deep-water South Caspian, Turkmenistan
shelf, and Central Caspian are still exploration frontiers. An understanding of the
stratigraphy of reservoir rocks and seals in these areas could significantly reduce
exploration risk. The interplay of the paleo-Volga, paleo-Amu Darya, and paleo-
Kura deltas, since the late Miocene, provides the first-order controls on prospect
distribution.
A continuous trend of coastal onlap on the western margin exists for the
South Caspian and in the Central Caspian basins from the upper Miocene to
lower Pliocene, with onlap of these units over Miocene and Cretaceous rocks.
These coastal onlap trends are associated with an overall rise in lake level from
the lower to the upper productive series. The three delta systems exhibit sig-
nificant differences in depositional style and timing, reacting in different ways
to the rising lake level. Strong progradation of the paleo-Amu Darya delta
occurred on the Turkmenistan shelf, on the eastern margin of the South Caspian
Basin. This progradation is related to the Pliocene deposition of the Red series in
Turkmenistan (equivalent to the Pereryva to Surakhany suites in Azerbaijan).
Thus, the paleo-Amu Darya delta prograded during rising lake level, controlled
primarily by sediment supply.
During the deposition of the Pereryva suite, the paleo-Volga delta aggraded
in the Apsheron region (northern margin of the South Caspian). A transgressive
Chapter 11
Abreu, V., and D. Nummedal, 2007, Miocene to Quaternary sequence
stratigraphy of the South and Central Caspian basins, in P. O. Yilmaz
and G. H. Isaksen, editors, Oil and gas of the Greater Caspian
area: AAPG Studies in Geology 55, p. 6586.
65
Copyright n2007 by The American Association of Petroleum Geologists.
DOI:10.1306/1205845St553000
trend marks the Central Caspian Basin from the upper Balakhany to the Su-
rakhany suites and may indicate backstepping of the paleo-Volga delta at that
time. In the paleo-Kura system, on the southwest margin of the South Caspian
Basin, a backstepping trend occurred during the deposition of the upper Ba-
lakhany and Sabunchi suites (lower Pliocene). A downlap surface developed at
the base of the paleo-Kura delta in the middle Surakhany suite. This downlap
surface along the western Caspian margin correlates to the upper part of the
progradational phase of the paleo-Amu Darya delta on the eastern margin of the
basin. A paleo-Kura prograding wedge developed concurrent with the deposi-
tion of the upper Surakhany and Akchagylian (upper Pliocene). The impact of
sediment supply from the Alborz Mountains in Iran could not be evaluated be-
cause of lack of data.
Climatic fluctuations did exert a dominant control on the style of sedi-
mentation in the South Caspian Basin through their direct impact both on lake
levels and on sediment supply. The entire Productive Series reflects the Pliocene
golden climate, when the Earth, overall, was much warmer than today. In addi-
tion, on shorter time scales, the stratal pattern is controlled by high-frequency
climatic cycles. Late lowstand deposits are dominated by aggradational braided
streams and braid deltas. Transgressive and highstand deposits consist of ex-
tensive lake shales interbedded with silts and sands. The transgressive shales
can act as pervasive seals and permeability barriers and baffles in the reservoirs.
Very little sand appears to have entered the lake during periods of falling lake
level.
INTRODUCTION
Eight megasequences are recognized in the South
Caspian Basin based on stratigraphic characteristics
and relationship to periods of deformation: Triassic
or Paleozoic, CretaceousJurassic, pre-Miocene Ter-
tiary, PontianMessinian, early and middle Pliocene
(Productive Series), late Pliocene (Akchagylian), early
Pleistocene (Apsheronian), and late Pleistocene
Holocene (Hickmanet al., 1999; Hickmanand Stuart,
2001). A significant increase in subsidence and sedi-
mentationrates at the beginning of deposition of the
Productive Series forms a natural division between
the latest Cenozoic and all older strata (Hickman
et al., 1999; Hickmanand Stuart, 2001). This increase
in subsidence and sedimentation rate also coincides
with the isolation of the Caspian from the Black Sea.
The compressive deformation that started in the
late Akchagylian or earliest Apsheronian further sub-
divides the young succession into four composite se-
quences (Hickman et al., 1999; Hickman and Stuart,
2001).
This paper focuses on the stratigraphic evolution
of the South and Central Caspian basins from the
upper Miocene to the Holocene (Figure 1). The da-
tabase for the study is regional two-dimensional
(2-D) seismic surveys offshore Azerbaijan and Turk-
menistan. Seismic-sequence-stratigraphic interpre-
tations are integrated with well-log and outcrop
data. The chronostratigraphic framework used here
is derived from the integration of paleontological
and radioisotopic dates with graphic correlation
(J. Stein and R. Witmer, 1998, personal communica-
tion) and tuning of events with the oxygen isotope
record.
Depositional infilling of the South Caspian Basin
produced stratal geometries controlled by relative
changes in lake level and local changes in sediment
supply. Inthis case, lake-level changes are more likely
controlled by changes in climate instead of eustasy,
although there may be some indirect climatic link-
age. Major tectonic unconformities are related to the
closure of the connections between the Caspian and
the Black Sea (the upper Miocene top of the Pontian
Formation) and the onset of deformation along the
Azeri coast and the Apsheron sill (top of Surakhany),
the Apsheronian orogeny.
CHRONOSTRATIGRAPHY ANDCLIMATE CYCLES
The oxygen isotope curve from Deep Sea Drilling
Program site 846 in the equatorial Pacific (from Shack-
leton et al., 1995) is shown in Figure 1, together with
66 / Abreu and Nummedal
the chronostratigraphy of the Azeri part of the
South Caspian Basin. We infer that the very warm
episode at the beginning of the Pliocene is associ-
ated with the arrival of the sandy Pereryva delta and
associated fluvial facies into the South Caspian Ba-
sin (Figure 1). Overall, the isotope signature remains
light throughout the deposition of the upper pro-
ductive series. This persistent warm climate, and
probable northward shift in the subtropical high-
pressure zone, is consistent with the high sand-to-
mud ratio for the Pereryva formation and con-
trasts that unit with both the lower productive
FIGURE 1. Chronostratigraphy of the late Miocene to Quaternary formations in the South and Central Caspian basins.
The figure also shows the oxygen stable isotope record obtained by Shackleton et al. (1995) for the central Pacific
Ocean.
MioceneQuaternary Sequence Stratigraphy of the South and Central Caspian Basins / 67
series below and the rest of the upper productive
series above.
The base of the Balakhany formation may cor-
respond to the first significant cold snap in the Plio-
cene. This cold episode could be related to Caspian
water-level rise, increasedpaleo-Volga discharge, wide-
spread flooding, and the deposition of the basal Ba-
lakhany shale member. Well logs through the Bala-
khany interval in the Megastructure oil field show
nine high-frequency sequences, each one consisting
of basal fluvial sandstone followed by an overlying
lacustrine mudstone interval. Overall, the Balakhany
interval (Figure 1) probably represents a colder cli-
mate than does the Pereryva.
Climate remained relatively warm during deposi-
tion of Sabunchi and Surakhany. In fact, the time
interval from4.5 to3.5 Ma is commonly referred to as
the golden age of climate, because of its equitable
warmclimate. This time interval is also characterized
by a rather monotonous lithologic succession, domi-
nated by fine sand and siltstones inferred to have
been deposited in a lake. The golden age termi-
nated abruptly at about 3.3 Ma (early Piacenzian),
and this may be associated with the onset of the
Akchagylian flooding. After that, the climate began
a cooling trend, leading into the major glaciations
of the late Pliocene and Quaternary.
WELL LOGS
The Pliocene section of the paleo-Volga delta on-
shore and offshore Azerbaijan appears to have been
controlled by climatic cycles. Cores from the Mega-
structure oil field show stacked, high-frequency se-
quences (1015 m [3349 ft] thick), with sand at
the base (lowstand systems tract), intercalated thin
sand, and shales on top (transgressive systems tract),
culminating with a shale bed with intense fractur-
ing and/or bioturbation (maximum flooding sur-
face), followed by a coarsening-upward succession
of sand interbedded with mudstones (highstand sys-
tems tract) with an erosional contact at the top of
the highstand systems tract (sequence boundary),
followed by fluvial sands, sometimes with mud clasts
at the base (lowstand systems tract). These deposi-
tional sequences are nested into lower frequency se-
quence sets.
The physical character of Pliocene sequences in
the South Caspian Basin is here primarily addressed
through the analysis of well logs and seismic re-
flection profiles. The lowest frequency sequence ob-
served in well-log patterns in this section extends
from the base of Pereryva to the lower part of Bala-
khany (represented in the two columns at the right-
hand side of Figure 2). The two blocky sands observed
in the Pereryva formation (from 2935 to 3050 m
[9629 to 10,006 ft] in the well in Figure 2) corre-
spond to a late lowstand systems tract. The trans-
gressive systems tract corresponds to the thinner
sands showing a fining-upward log motif from 2935
to 2740 m (9629 to 8989 ft). At the depth of 2740 m
(8989 ft), a change intrends fromfining tocoarsening
upward occurred, corresponding to the maximum
flooding surface and marking the base of the high-
stand systems tract, which extends until the depth of
2660 m(8727 ft) in the lower Balakhany. On average,
this sequence is 415 m (1361 ft) thick, and consider-
ing a rough estimate for the sediment accumulation
rate in the Productive Series of 1 m/k.y. (3.3 ft/k.y.),
this cycle could correspond to the 400-k.y. Milanko-
vitch cycle.
This low-frequency sequence can be subdivided
in two higher frequency cycles, with a sequence
boundary at the base of the blocky sand close to the
base of Balakhany at 2860 m (9383 ft) (Figure 2). It is
also possible to subdivide the apparent 400 k.y. in
four higher frequency cycles, with two sequences in
the Pereryva formation in the well in Figure 2 and
two sequences in the lower part of the Balakhany
formation. Thus, in the case of the Pereryva forma-
tion in this well, each of the blocky sands would
roughly correspond to the lowstand systems tract of
a high-frequency sequence. The average thickness of
these four high-frequency sequences is about 100 m
(330 ft), which may correspond to the 100-k.y. Mi-
lankovitch cycles (Figure 2).
Deposition of the Pereryva and Balakhany suites
seems to be basically controlled by orbital tuned
climatic cycles, considering the strongly cyclic pat-
tern and the different orders of cyclicity observed.
The autocyclic component of the deposition would
be restricted to shifting in delta fronts, bars, and
channels in a same sequence.
In one sequence, it is possible to observe varia-
tion in the sand content in different systems tracts
along strike and dip without a particularly predict-
able behavior. This is probably related to autocyclic
deposition.
The dominant depositional systems for each sys-
tems tract are inferred to be a late lowstand systems
tract dominated by amalgamated fluvial sands
deposited during a very early rise of the lake level.
The transgressive systems tract would correspond to
68 / Abreu and Nummedal
a time when lake level rose faster and appears be
dominated by backstepping delta parasequences
(wave dominated) interbedded with lacustrine sedi-
ments. The highstand systems tract seems to be the
least developed systems tract, at least in the South
Caspian Basin, and is dominated by lacustrine mud-
stones or locally by small coarsening-upward dis-
tributary mouth-bar deposits.
The maximum flooding surface in the middle of
Pereryva is one of the best markers for regional cor-
relation. Actually, the maximum flooding surface of
the four high-frequency sequences is also excellent
for regional correlation.
INTERPRETING COASTAL ONLAP AND
RELATIVE CHANGES IN BASE LEVEL
Looking at large-scale basin fill, it has long been
recognized that stratigraphic packages show cyclic-
ity at several scales (e.g., transgressive-regressive cy-
cles). One cyclic pattern of interest to seismic strati-
graphers is coastal encroachment or coastal onlap.
Coastal onlap is the progressive landward onlap of
coastal (littoral or lacustrine) deposits ina givenstrati-
graphic unit. Coastal aggradation (black arrows in
Figure 3A) and coastal encroachment (gray arrows in
Figure 3A) are the vertical and horizontal components
FIGURE 2. Different orders of cyclicity observed in the Pereryva and lower Balakhany.
MioceneQuaternary Sequence Stratigraphy of the South and Central Caspian Basins / 69
of coastal onlap, respectively. Coastal onlap indicates
a relative rise of sea level (or lake level). A relative rise
of sea level is an apparent sea level rise with respect
to the underlying depositional profile. However, a
basinward shift in coastal onlap indicates a relative
fall in sea level (Figure 3B).
Vail et al. (1977) proposed a methodology to de-
termine the coastal onlap configuration of strata, re-
lating the observed trends to relative changes in sea
level. Detailed seismic-stratigraphic interpretationin-
tegrated with biostratigraphic data allows the con-
struction of chronostratigraphic charts (Figure 4).
Measuring coastal aggradation, coastal encroachment,
and downward shift in coastal onlap allows the con-
struction of coastal onlap charts, which are graphic
representations of relative changes insealevel through
time (Figure 4).
In this study, we used the methodology defined by
Vail et al. (1977) and other classic seismic-stratigraphic
methodologies (Mitchumet al., 1977) todefine changes
in coastal onlap in the South and Central Caspian
strata ranging in age from the uppermost Miocene to
the Holocene and interpret the relative changes in
lake level through time.
Variations in coastal onlap through time were
interpreted from the seismic data available. Vertical
stacking of observed trends in coastal onlap is in-
dicative of relative changes in lake level. Relative
rise in lake level is inferred when coastal onlap of a
younger sequence is located landward of the coastal
onlap of the previous sequence. However, relative
fall in lake level is inferred when coastal onlap of a
younger sequence is located basinward of the
coastal onlap of the previous sequence (downward
shift in coastal onlap). These coastal onlap trends
were correlated to the stacking patterns observed
from wells in each of the three regions studied in
this paper.
FIGURE 3. Schematic diagrams showing coastal onlap (A), which indicates a relative rise in sea level, and a downward
shift in coastal onlap (B), which indicates a relative fall in sea level (from Vail et al., 1977).
70 / Abreu and Nummedal
Coastal onlap curves were built by plotting the
position of the onlap against geologic time for each
seismic horizon. Where the coastal onlap lies landward
of the end of the seismic line, an estimate was made
using stacking patterns observed in well logs, changes
in offlap break, and sometimes, paleontological infor-
mation. The relative lake-level curves were built using
the position of sequence boundaries and maximum
flooding surfaces as inflectionpoints for the falling and
rising limbs of the lake-level curve, respectively.
FIGURE 4. Schematic diagrams from Vail et al. (1977), showing a sequence-stratigraphic interpretation of five sequences
(A). Diagram B shows a chronostratigraphic chart based on the interpretation shown in (A). The chronostratigraphic
chart is an important step toward building a coastal onlap chart (C).
MioceneQuaternary Sequence Stratigraphy of the South and Central Caspian Basins / 71
SEISMIC-STRATIGRAPHIC INTERPRETATION
OF THE CASPIAN BASIN
Western Margin of the South Caspian Basin:
Interplay of the Paleo-Volga and
Paleo-Kura Deltas
Acontinuous landward shift of coastal onlap marks
the upper Miocene and lower Pliocene sections
(Pontian to Sabunchi) along the southwest margin of
the South Caspian off the Kura delta of Azerbaijan
(Figures 57). The paleo-Kura delta is interpreted to
be representedinthe seismic profile showninFigure 5
as eight prograding depositional sequences during
the Akchagylian. In map view, the offlap breaks of
the paleo-Kura sequences are roughly parallel to the
actual shoreline, with a straight outline typical of a
wave-dominated delta. The top of the Akchagylian is
associated with a major transgression along this
basin margin.
Figure 6 shows a Wheeler Diagram based on the
seismic line shown in Figure 5. The lithology dis-
tribution shown in the chart is an extrapolation of
lithology trends observed in well logs in the region.
Velocity estimates for time-depth conversion used
stack velocities fromoriginal seismic data. Avery good
visual correlation exists between the transgressive-
regressive trends observed on seismic data and the li-
thologyvariationtrends observedinwell logs (Figure 6).
The landward shift in coastal onlap observed from
Pontian to Sabunchi on seismic data (interpreted as
transgression) is equivalent to a shaly section in the
type well shown in Figure 6. The upper Surakhany
and Akchagylian regressive phase of the paleo-Kura
delta correlates to a sandy section in the type well.
Coastal onlap and relative lake-level curves for the
Azerbaijan margin were built on the trends observed
in the offlap-break curve interpreted from seismic
profiles (Figures 6, 7). Light gray color indicates a
FIGURE 5. Line drawing of an interpreted seismic profile from the western margin of the South Caspian Basin, near
the paleo-Kura delta. Offlap-break curve is shown in red (dashed line indicates the uncertainty in the location of the
offlap break).
72 / Abreu and Nummedal
coastal onlap not observed in the seismic profile
because of lack of the data coverage. In these cases,
the coastal onlap is tentatively interpreted from the
offlap-break curve, stacking patterns observed in well
logs, and paleontology data.
Variation in cyclicity inferred from seismic and
well information in the Central Caspian and Turk-
menistan shelf in the Productive Series (400-k.y. cy-
cles) and Quaternary (100-k.y. cycles) is not clearly
observed along the Azerbaijan margin. There is a
more even distribution of sequences through time
and a less clear relationship between the number
of sequences observed and possible predominant
frequencies influencing the depositional sequences
(Figures 57).
Because the paleo-Volga delta was mostly back-
stepping since the lower Pliocene whereas the paleo-
Kura delta was prograding since the uppermost lower
Pliocene, the sedimentation rate of the paleo-Volga
delta was decreasing, and the sedimentation rate of
the paleo-Kura delta was increasing through time.
Consequently, the higher frequency cycles were sup-
pressed in the seismic data at the distal margin of the
paleo-Volga delta.
Therefore, the strong interplay of the receding
paleo-Volga and the prograding paleo-Kura along the
FIGURE 6. Wheeler Diagram based on seismic profile shown in Figure 5. Vertical scale in the Wheeler Diagram is in
geologic age (see Figure 1 for ages of the formations). The vertical scale for the type well shown in the right-hand
column is in meters, with interpreted tops for the South Caspian formations in red, correlated to the interpreted tops in
seismic data, shown in the Wheeler Diagram. The type well shows a sand-percentage curve interpreted from available
well logs (gray color is mud, and yellow color is sand). Colors in the Wheeler Diagram represent interpreted relative
changes in sand percentage associated with the different seismic units extrapolated from well information (increasing
sand content from green [mud rich], to brown, light-yellow, and yellow [sand rich]).
MioceneQuaternary Sequence Stratigraphy of the South and Central Caspian Basins / 73
Azerbaijan margin in the upper Pliocene and Qua-
ternary probably inhibited the development of cyclic
patterns similar to the ones observed elsewhere inthe
South and Central Caspian basins.
The interplay of the high-frequency lake-level
fluctuations and the formation of the compressional
structures during the upper Pliocene and Quaterna-
ry controlled the sediment distribution along the
FIGURE 7. Coastal-onlap, lake-level, and offlap-break curves for the western margin of the South Caspian Basin
interpreted from the seismic profile shown in Figure 5 and Wheeler Diagram shown in Figure 6. In the coastal onlap
column, dark gray color indicates a coastal onlap directly observed in the seismic profile, and light gray color indicates
coastal onlap trends extrapolated from well information and the offlap-break curve. The lake level column shows
two interpreted lake-level curves (high frequency = solid line; low frequency = dashed line). The high-frequency lake
level curve was built using the coastal onlap curve, with sequence boundaries and maximum flooding surfaces used to
define the inflection points of the falling and rising limbs of the lake-level curve. The low-frequency lake-level curve
(dashed line) was built by connecting the points of high lake level from the high-frequency curve (solid line). The
offlap-break column shows the offlap-break curve shown in Figure 5, converted from depth in two-way traveltime
(seconds) to geologic age in millions of years. The type well shown in the right-hand column is the same as that shown
in Figure 6, with vertical scale in meters.
74 / Abreu and Nummedal
western margin of the South Caspian Basin. The
growth of these compressional structures seems to
have affected the lake floor at least since the upper
Surakhany. Elongated minibasins formed between
these structures, and the different stratigraphies in
the minibasins and the ridge crests indicate periodic
emergence of elongated islands during lowlake level.
All systems tracts, including lowstand systems tract,
are present within the minibasins, but only the maxi-
mum flooding surface is present at the crest of the
structures, indicating that the structures would be
submerged only during periods of high lake level.
During lowstands, the exposed structures would
have formed broad and elongate islands, shedding
sediments to localized lowstand packages in the
minibasins.
Central Caspian Basin: Influence of the
Paleo-Volga and Samur Deltas
Broad seismic coverage in the Central Caspian
(Figure 8) shows a rising lake-level trend for the en-
tire Productive Series. Strata related to the Pontian,
lower productive series, and Pereryva and Balakhany
suites onlap against the Kara-Bogaz high. Coastal
onlap of depositional sequences associated withthese
formations shows younger sequences continuously
onlapping in a landward direction comparing to older
ones, indicating a continuous rise inrelative lake level
during this time. Basal strata associated with the Sa-
bunchi suite onlap against the basinward parts of
the Balakhany suite, indicating a major relative fall
in lake level. Depositional sequences associated with
the Surakhany suite bury the Kara-Bogaz high. This
may indicate for the first time that the lake in the
South and Central Caspian basins would be linked
to or have flooded the North Caspian Basin in this
region.
In seismic profiles, the Surakhany and Akchagy-
lian packages are mostly aggradational (Figure 8).
Regression marks the base of the Apsheron, reflected
by the prograding wedge of the paleo-Samur deltaic
system originating at the northern Azerbaijan mar-
gin. Thus, whereas the paleo-Volga probably con-
tinuously backstepped during the upper Pliocene
FIGURE 8. Line drawing of a seismic profile across the Central Caspian Basin demonstrating long-term onlap onto the
Kara-Bogaz high. Offlap-break curve is shown in red (dashed line indicates uncertainty in the location of the offlap
break).
MioceneQuaternary Sequence Stratigraphy of the South and Central Caspian Basins / 75
and Quaternary, deltaic systems from the northern
Azerbaijan margin (probably originated because of
the uplift of the Caucasus) were prograding.
The stratal pattern described above is consistent
with a transgressive trend observed in well logs in
the Central Caspian. Figure 9 shows a well drilled in
the Central Caspian showing a fining-upward trend
that correlates with the transgressive trend from the
Pereryva to the top of Balakhany observed in the
seismic data. Regressionduring the Sabunchi interval
and renewed transgression in the Surakhany also
seem to be represented in the well. An increase in
sand toward the top of the Akchagylian seems to
correlate withthe regressionof the paleo-Samur delta
observed in seismic profiles. The Wheeler Diagram
was built from the seismic line in Figure 8, using the
top of the formations extrapolated from wells in the
region.
The Productive Series in the Central Caspian Basin
is composed of eight seismically defined depositional
sequences. Considering the duration of the Produc-
tive Series (about 2.8 Ma), one sequence exists about
every 350 k.y. These sequences might represent the
400-k.y. climate cycles because of orbital eccentric-
ity, as defined in well logs along the Megastructure
oil field. The Apsheron and younger strata are rep-
resented by 12 depositional sequences, corresponding
approximately to one sequence every 130 k.y. This
apparent change in cyclicity could be related to a
change in the predominant frequency that is regu-
lating climatic cycles, from400 k.y. during the upper
Miocene and lower Pliocene (Productive Series) to
100 k.y. during the Quaternary.
Figure 10 shows a comparison between the coast-
al onlap and relative lake-level curve with the offlap
break curve obtained from a seismic line across the
Central Caspian Basin. The influence of two distinct
deltaic systems controlling the stacking patterns in
the Central Caspian is remarkable on seismic lines.
The transgressive trend observed during most of the
Productive Series could indicate the backstepping of
the paleo-Volga delta, and the regressive trend ob-
served in the upper part of the section (Quaternary)
is probably related to the prograding wedge of the
paleo-Samur delta.
Across the area that now constitutes the southern
marginof the Central CaspianBasin(Apsheronsill and
Apsheron Peninsula), the lake was probably shallow
FIGURE 9. Wheeler Diagram for the Central Caspian Basin, obtained from the seismic profile shown in Figure 8.
76 / Abreu and Nummedal
during the deposition of most of the Productive Series.
The lake probably deepened gradually to the south-
east and south, as suggested by pronounced clino-
form reflectors associated to the upper productive
series in the Amu Darya delta in Turkmenistan.
Eastern Margin of the South Caspian Basin:
Influence of the Paleo-Amu Darya Delta
Two major regression phases mark the evolution
of the paleo-Amu Darya delta since the uppermost
Miocene. The first extends fromthe lower productive
series to the mid-Surakhany, the second one fromthe
Apsheron to Holocene (Figure 11). Similar to the
paleo-Kura and paleo-Volga deltas, a major trans-
gression characterized the paleo-Amu Darya delta
during the Akchagylian. A pronounced basinward
shift of the offlap break in the Productive Series is
characterized by fast progradation from the lower
productive series to middle Balakhany, with five
seismically defined depositional sequences in this
interval (Figure 11). From early Balakhany to late
Surakhany, the offlap break shifted in a basinward
FIGURE 10. Coastal-onlap, relative lake-level, and offlap-break curves for the Central Caspian compare with a sand
percentage curve from a well in the region.
MioceneQuaternary Sequence Stratigraphy of the South and Central Caspian Basins / 77
direction at a slower rate than at the base of this pro-
grading wedge (Pereryva to early Balakhany), forming
a progradational to aggradational stacking pattern
(Figure 11).
Pronounced extensional faulting characterizes the
shelf break of the paleo-Amu Darya delta in the Pro-
ductive Series, forming a detached extensional-
compressional system in the southeast part of the
South Caspian. The paleo-Amu Darya shelf break
reached its most basinward position in the Produc-
tive Series towards the end of the deposition of the
Surakhany. Following the Akchagylian transgression,
the paleo-Amu Darya again prograded continuously
from the Pleistocene to the Holocene, forming a
wedge with 18 seismically defined depositional se-
quences (Figures 11, 12) representing about 1.8 m.y.
Logs fromwells located on the Turkmenistan shelf
show cycles similar to the ones inferred from seismic
data (Figure 13). A continuous regressive trend exists
from Sabunchi to the mid-Surakhany, with a contin-
uous increase of sand up to the base of the Akchagy-
lian that seems to be associated with the regressive
trend observed inseismic profiles. The Surakhany and
Akchagylian suites on the Turkmenistan shelf have
the highest sand content in the South Caspian (as
much as 60%). The Akchagylian and Apsheronian are
marked by a single, long-term transgressive-regressive
cycle with high sand content (Figure 13). A sharp de-
crease in sand in the upper Pleistocene and Holocene
is present. In this case, this fining-upward trend re-
lates to muddy coastal sediments being deposited
landward of the paleo-AmuDarya prograding wedge.
FIGURE 11. Seismic profile from the eastern margin of the South Caspian Basin.
78 / Abreu and Nummedal
Based on the sequence-stratigraphic interpreta-
tion of the southeast Caspian seismic line, a Wheeler
Diagramwas constructed and calibrated to the lithol-
ogy estimates from well logs (Figure 12). The coastal
onlap and relative lake-level curves for the Turkmeni-
stan shelf (Figure 13) were built mostly based on the
trends observed in the offlap-break curve interpreted
from the seismic line (Figure 11). The change in
dominant cycle durations observed in the Central
Caspian from the Productive Series (400 k.y.) to the
Quaternary (100 k.y.) is alsopresent onthe Turkmeni-
stan shelf. The Productive Series is composed of nine
depositional sequences, but of highly variable dura-
tions. The four lower sequences in the upper produc-
tive series are 100 k.y. each. Above these are longer
duration cycles; some of those are about 400 k.y. in
duration. Eighteen depositional sequences are ob-
served in the Quaternary, which corresponds to ex-
actly one sequence every 100 k.y. Thus, the 400-
and 100-k.y. Milankovitch cycles seem to be domi-
nant during the lower Pliocene and Quaternary,
respectively, also on the Turkmenistan shelf.
Figure 13 shows a comparison between coastal-
onlap, relative lake-level, and offlap-break curves.
Two major regressive phases of the paleo-Amu Darya
delta occurred during the deposition of the Produc-
tive Series and in the Quaternary. These regressive
phases are represented in seismic lines (Figure 11) as
two prograding wedges and are graphically shown
in Figure 13 as relative falls in lake level and basin-
ward shifts in the offlap-break curve. Although the
predominant frequency of these two cycles is dif-
ferent, it appears that the paleo-Amu Darya delta
had a similar size and is a dominant factor in pro-
gradation of the southern Turkmenistan margin both
in the early Pliocene and the Quaternary.
FIGURE 12. Wheeler Diagram constructed based on the seismic profile shown in Figure 11 from the eastern margin of
the South Caspian Basin (Turkmenistan shelf).
MioceneQuaternary Sequence Stratigraphy of the South and Central Caspian Basins / 79
TRANSGRESSIVE-REGRESSIVE CYCLES
The greater percentage of sand in wells from the
Central Caspian in the Pereryva to the Sabunchi
suites (Figure 14) is caused by the proximity of these
wells to the axis of the paleo-Volga delta. The paleo-
Volga delta was located close to the Apsheron Pen-
insula during much of the lower Pliocene. How-
ever, the Balakhany thick observed in the Central
Caspian suggests that the major paleo-Volga delta
complex had moved north from the Apsheron Pen-
insula at that time. Moreover, the transgressive pat-
tern in the Productive Series observed in well logs
in the Central Caspian Basin and consistent with
the coastal onlap trend observed in seismic profiles
in the Central Caspian (Figures 10, 14) seems to be
related to the backstepping of the paleo-Volga delta.
The paleo-Kura delta was present in the western
margin of the Caspian Basin during the deposition
of the Pereryva and Balakhany suites. Apparently, the
FIGURE 13. Coastal-onlap, relative lake-level, and offlap-break curves for the eastern margin of the South Caspian Basin
compared with a sand percentage curve from a well in the region.
80 / Abreu and Nummedal
paleo-Kura sedimentation rate was in equilibrium
withthe rising lake-level trendobservedinthe coastal
onlap, resulting in an overall aggradational stacking.
Backstep of the paleo-Kura delta occurred during the
depositionof the uppermost Balakhany andSabunchi
suites. Tworegressive trends are associatedtothe paleo-
Kura delta in the Surakhany and Akchagylian, and
Apsheron, separated by a major flooding event at the
top of the Akchagylian. Surakhany and Akchagylian
strataare thicker inthe Kuraregionthaninthe Central
Caspian, related to the progradation of the paleo-Kura
delta.
Well logs from the eastern margin of the South
Caspian Basin show a coarsening-upward trend (in-
ferred to be a regressive pattern) from the base of
the well to mid-Surakhany (Figure 14). From mid-
Surakhany to the top of the Akchagylian, the well logs
show a fining-upward trend (inferred to be a trans-
gressive pattern). This pattern is consistent with the
offlap-break curve for the eastern margin of the South
Caspian (Figure 13). A maximum flooding surface
marks the top of the Akchagylian in the Central and
South Caspian basins (Figures 69, 11, 13, 14).
Surakhany and Akchagylian strata are thicker and
richer in sand on the Turkmenistan shelf and the
western Caspian margin in the Kura region than in
the Central Caspianregionbecause of regressionof the
paleo-Amu Darya and paleo-Kura deltas (Figure 14).
The whole Productive Series is thicker along the east-
ernmargin of the South Caspian Basinthanin the rest
of the region, indicating that the paleo-Amu Darya
had greater sedimentation rate than the other deltaic
FIGURE 14. Well-log correlation across the South and Central Caspian basins. Horizontal arrows at the base of the
figure show the influence of the deltaic systems in the different regions. The Surakhany suite is shown in gray, as
a reference.
MioceneQuaternary Sequence Stratigraphy of the South and Central Caspian Basins / 81
systems. However, it is also apparent that the paleo-
Volga system was richer in sand and with higher sedi-
mentation rate during Pereryva and, perhaps, lower
Balakhany.
The stacking patterns on the eastern and western
margins of the South Caspian are remarkably differ-
ent in the upper productive series. On the western
margin, a trend of aggradation to transgression exists
fromthe lower productive series to the Sabunchi suite
(Figures 14, 15), followed by regression in the Sura-
khany and Akchagylian. On the eastern margin, the
paleo-Amu Darya delta is mostly regressive until late
Surakhany, with a major transgression during the
Akchagylian (Figures 14, 15). The Central Caspian
shows a trend similar to the western margin of the
South Caspian Basin, with a continuous transgres-
sion until the end of the Akchagylian (Figure 15).
Thus, there is good evidence for rising lake level from
Pereryva to Akchagylian in the South and Central
Caspian basins.
The regressive trend observed at the eastern mar-
gin of the South Caspian throughout the Productive
FIGURE 15. Summary of the transgressive and regressive trends in the South and Central Caspian basins. Solid gray lines
represent the offlap-break curves for the west and east margins of the South Caspian and Central Caspian from
Figures 7, 10, and 13. Green dashed lines represent transgressive trends, and red dashed lines represent regressive
trends in the different localities.
82 / Abreu and Nummedal
Series (Figure 15) is related to the high sedimenta-
tion rates in the paleo-Amu Darya delta, probably
associated with the uplift of the Pamirs and the
Himalayas. High sedimentation rates of the paleo-
Amu Darya overcame the rate of rising lake level,
causing progradation on the Turkmenistan shelf.
Overall maximum transgression for the Caspian
Sea occurred at the end of the Akchagylian, right at
the start of the Pleistocene (Figures 14, 15). This also
appears to be the time when the Caspian was last
linked to the world oceans (Nummedal et al., 2000).
Regression was the dominant pattern for all these
margins of the Caspian during the Pleistocene and
the Holocene. The regression of the Caspian during
the Quaternary is probably related to the continu-
ous uplift of the Caucasus and the global ice-house
climate (Figures 14, 15). No regression is observed
in the paleo-Volga delta in the Central and South
Caspian since the Akchagylian. The paleo-Volga del-
ta was probably continuously backstepping at least
since the Surakhany, as indicated by the coastal on-
lap trends observed in the Central Caspian Basin
(Figures 9, 10, 15).
PALEOGEOGRAPHY
The incised valley of the paleo-Volga is a con-
spicuous seismic feature in the Central Caspian, lo-
cated north of the Apsheron Peninsula and with
northsouth orientation (Figure 16). To the south
of this incised valley lies the early Pliocene paleo-
Volga delta, forming a broadly arcuate geometry with
a sandy depocenter at the eastern part of the Apshe-
ron Peninsula (Figure 16). The sand percentage de-
creases away from this depocenter in an asymmetric
pattern skewed toward the east. Considering this
broad distribution of fluvial and deltaic sediments in
the Pereryva and the lack of observed prograding
wedges associated with this system, it is inferred that
the paleo-Volga delta was probably deposited on a
ramp setting.
Figure 16 shows maps of onlap terminations of
the base of the Tertiary, base of Pereryva, top of lower
Balakhany, and middle Balakhany (P. Ware, 1998,
personal communication). The base Pereryva is re-
stricted to the southwest part of the Central Caspian
because of its onlap against the Kara-Bogaz high
to the north. The incised valley of the paleo-Volga
river is clearly shown in the map for the top of
Balakhany, with a northsouth orientation in the
western side of the Central Caspian Basin. The trans-
gressive trend is continuous during the Balakhany,
as illustrated by the landward shift of the coastal
onlap from the tops of the lower and middle Ba-
lakhany and the broadening of the paleo-Volga val-
ley. A good correspondence exists between the po-
sition of the paleo-Volga incised valley defined in
seismic profiles in the Central Caspian Basin and the
position of the paleo-Volga delta defined by sand
package correlation in well logs (interpretation by
A. Milton).
The prograding wedge of the paleo-Amu Darya
delta occupied the inner part of the Turkmenistan
shelf duringthe depositionof the Pereryva (Figure 17).
The deepest water depth in the lake appears to have
been directly in front of this system. Reconstruc-
tion of seismic lines across the Turkmenistan mar-
gin indicates that the Caspian Sea was several hun-
dreds of meters deep at this location during the
deposition of the Pereryva (Hickmanet al., 1999; Hick-
man and Stuart, 2001). Thus, the depth profile across
the Turkmenistan margin consisted of a shelf, slope,
and basin, distinctly different from the ramp off
Azerbaijan. No deltaic system was present at the
western margin of the South Caspian Basin during
most of the Productive Series time (Figure 17).
Onlapping Pereryva strata indicate that the Cen-
tral Caspian Basin was bounded on the north in this
region by the Kara-Bogaz high(Figures 16, 17). Onlap
of Pereryva is also observed along the western mar-
gin of the South Caspian Basin. Pereryva sediments
are present onshore Turkmenistan (Figure 17), and
the eastern onlap margin is unknown. This distri-
bution of the Pereryva suite across the Central and
South Caspian, and its total absence in the North
Caspian, indicates that the Caspian Sea was elon-
gated in an eastwest direction (Figure 17) in the
early Pliocene. This pattern appears to have persisted
at least throughout the deposition of the Balakhany
(Figures 16, 17).
During the deposition of the Surakhany, the Cas-
pian Sea flooded over the Kara-Bogaz high and de-
veloped the northsouth orientation that it has
today (Figure 17). It is also possible that a passage-
way existed between the South Caspian and the
Black Sea through Azerbaijan during the deposition
of the Pereryva and Balakhany suites, as indicated
by the presence of a thick sedimentary package in
the Kura basin, onshore Azerbaijan (Figure 16). From
Pereryva to Balakhany, the paleo-Volga delta de-
creased in size, and the paleo-Amu Darya delta
expanded. The Caspian Sea continuously expanded
during the lower Pliocene, as indicated by the coastal
MioceneQuaternary Sequence Stratigraphy of the South and Central Caspian Basins / 83
onlap in the Azerbaijan margin and in the Kara-
Bogaz high.
During the Surakhany deposition, lake level rose
above the Kara-Bogaz high, connecting the southern
andnorthernCaspianbasins inthis region(Figure 17).
This flooding event caused the backstepping of
the paleo-Volga, pushing the delta to the northern
Caspian. In the South Caspian Basin during the
late Pliocene, the paleo-Amu Darya delta was most-
ly aggrading the Turkmenistan shelf, and the paleo-
Kura delta was probably being formed onshore
Azerbaijan.
The paleo-Kura and paleo-Amu Darya deltas were
mostly regressive after the uppermost Surakhany
(Figure 17). A major backstep of these systems oc-
curred close to the top of the Akchagylian. During
the Akchagylian transgression, the Caspian Sea was
probably linked to the Black Sea via a North Caspian
connection.
There was a strong basinward shift of coastal on-
lap during the Apsheronian in the South and Cen-
tral Caspian. A series of deltaic systems were formed
in the western margin of the Caspian (Figure 17),
which maybe related to an uplift in the Caucasus
FIGURE 16. Position of the paleo-Volga incised valley and delta from Pereryva to middle Balakhany in the Central and
South Caspian basins. The figure also shows the onlap of Pereryva and Balakhany strata in the Central Caspian Basin
(A. Milton and P. Ware, 1998, personal communication, respectively).
84 / Abreu and Nummedal
Mountains. Along the eastern margin, the paleo-
Amu Darya was prograding at a fast rate, reaching a
similar size and position as it achieved during the
deposition of Balakhany.
CONCLUSIONS
Sequence-stratigraphic interpretation of well logs
at the Megastructure (ACG) oil field indicates that
the depositional systems in the South Caspian Basin
were basically controlled by orbitally driven climatic
cycles. Sequences resolved in the seismic data ana-
lyzedinthis paper represent cycles of 100 and400 k.y.
duration.
Coastal onlap and relative lake-level curves for
the Caspian Basin were built to address the relative
importance of sediment sources for the different
deltaic systems in the Central and South Caspian
basins. A continuous trend exists toward higher lake
level from the lower productive series to the Ak-
chagylian. This relative rise in lake level caused the
backstepping of the paleo-Volga delta. However, the
high sedimentation rate of the paleo-Amu Darya
delta overwhelmed the rising lake level, forming a
prograding wedge across the Turkmenistan shelf
during the upper productive series. The paleo-Kura
delta aggraded on the southern margin of the west-
ern South Caspian Basin during the deposition of the
Pereryva and Balakhany suites and prograded during
the deposition of the upper Surakhany and the Ak-
chagylian. The major deltaic systems in the Caspian
Basin backstep toward the top of the Akchagylian
Suite. The paleo-Kura and paleo-Amu Darya deltas
were mostly regressive in the Quaternary, whereas
the paleo-Volga experienced a major transgression.
Patterns of lithologic change and onlap termina-
tions across the Central and South Caspian basins
FIGURE 17. Schematic paleogeographic reconstruction of the Caspian Sea for the Pliocene and Quaternary, showing
the change in the position of the three main deltaic systems in the South and Central Caspian, as well as the location of
the possible connections between the Caspian Sea and the Black Sea.
MioceneQuaternary Sequence Stratigraphy of the South and Central Caspian Basins / 85
show that during the deposition of the Pereryva
suite, the paleo-Volga delta was the most important
sediment source for the Caspian Sea. Detailed seis-
mic and well-log interpretation indicates that the
paleo-Volga incised valley was active during the Pe-
reryva and Balakhany, sourcing a broad delta front
localized at the Apsheron Peninsula region. During
the Balakhany, the paleo-Volga was backstepping,
and the paleo-Amu Darya delta was prograding, to
eventually become the most important sediment
source for the South Caspian during Surakhany time.
The Kara-Bogaz high in the Central Caspian was an
effective barrier for lake expansion until the deposi-
tion of the Surakhany. Thus, the lake was mostly re-
stricted to the South Caspian during the deposition
of the Pereryva and Balakhany, expanding to the east
in onshore Turkmenistan and to the west in onshore
Azerbaijan. Therefore, the lake was elongated in an
eastwest directionduring the depositionof the lower
productive series and turned to its current north
south orientation during the Surakhany deposition.
In summary, large-scale transgressive and regres-
sive trends in the different margins in the Central
and South Caspian basins were strongly controlled
by local sediment supply, which was controlled by
tectonic uplift of source areas, local subsidence, and
climate.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We are thankful to the Unocal Corporation for
the permission to publish this work. We express our
gratitude to Andrew Crossley, Marek Kacewicz, Dan
Self, Art Trevena, Roger Witmer, and Eileen Wil-
liams for suggestions and discussions. This work al-
so greatly benefited from discussions with Kirmaku
Valley Project team, mainly Ed Clifton (formerly
of Conoco), Greg Riley, and Jeff Stein (formerly of
Amoco). The authors are also very thankful to Jack
Neal (ExxonMobil) for reviewing a later version of
the manuscript.
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