Architecture Variability in the

Pereriva and Balakhany Suites

of the Neogene Productive Series,
Azerbaijan: Implications for
Reservoir Quality
D. J. Hinds
1
Department of Geology and Petroleum
Geology, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen,
Scotland, United Kingdom
M. D. Simmons
2
CASP, Department of Earth Sciences,
University of Cambridge, Cambridge,
England, United Kingdom
M. B. Allen
3
CASP, Department of Earth Sciences,
University of Cambridge, Cambridge,
England, United Kingdom
E. Aliyeva
Geological Institute of Azerbaijan
Academy of Sciences, Baku,
Azerbaijan
ABSTRACT
T
he Pereriva and Balakhany suites of the mainly Pliocene Productive Series
are the major reservoir units in the Azerbaijan sector of the South Caspian
basin. Facies distribution throughout this succession is interpreted as
representing an evolving fluvial system, from one of low sinuosity with highly
amalgamated, relatively coarse-grained facies (Pereriva Suite) to one of increased
sinuosity, with a lower degree of amalgamation, and relatively fine-grained
facies (Balakhany Suite). Four models characterize the architecture and het-
erogeneity of these strata, with variations related to changing accommodation
space/sediment supply (A/S) ratio. The lower 55 m (180 ft) of the Pereriva Suite
represents the least heterogeneous part of the succession. Well-sorted, sheet
sandstones are divided by the laterally continuous erosive horizons of alluvial
degradational phases (low A/S ratio). Few permeability barriers to fluid flow
Chapter 12
Hinds, D. J., M. D. Simmons, M. B. Allen, and E. Aliyeva, 2007, Architecture
variability in the Pereriva and Balakhany suites of the neogene
productive series, Azerbaijan: Implications for reservoir quality, in
P. O. Yilmaz and G. H. Isaksen, editors, Oil and gas of the Greater
Caspian area: AAPG Studies in Geology 55, p. 87107.
87
1
Present address: St. Catherines House, London, United Kingdom.
2
Present address: Neftex Petroleum Consultants Ltd., Corinthian Court, Abingdon, Oxford, United Kingdom.
3
Present address: Department of Earth Sciences, South Road, Durham, England, United Kingdom.
Copyright n2007 by The American Association of Petroleum Geologists.
DOI:10.1306/1205841St553010
exist. Qualitatively, this is the best part of the studied succession for reservoir
properties. The upper 50 m (164 ft) of the Pereriva Suite is similar, but erosive
lags form laterally discontinuous mud intraclast horizons. These horizons, and
localized mudstone and siltstone facies, represent potential baffles and barriers
to fluid flow. Most of the lower 70 m (229 ft) of the Balakhany Suite displays low
heterogeneity, especially above and below a central interval of amalgamated
erosion surfaces. The overlying 80 m (262 ft) of the Balakhany Suite represents
the highest A/S ratio conditions of the studied succession. Reservoir heteroge-
neity is potentially created by contorted sandstones and by the preservation of
the finer grained parts of channel fills. Laterally extensive mudstone and silt-
stone horizons form potential barriers to fluid flow. Speculatively, the changes
in architecture are controlled by climatic fluctuations on several scales, acting
on a basin subject to increasing influence of the rising Greater Caucasus.
INTRODUCTION
The major hydrocarbon reservoir unit of the South
Caspian basin is the largely Pliocene Productive Se-
ries of Azerbaijan and its regional equivalents. Cur-
rently, hydrocarbon exploration is focused offshore
in the Caspian Sea, where core recovery has been ham-
pered because of the unconsolidated nature of the
sedimentary succession. This has prevented a detailed
appreciation of the depositional environments and ar-
chitectureof thereservoir units. Fortunately, sediments
of the Productive Series crop out extensively over the
ApsheronPeninsula of Azerbaijan(Figures 1, 2) andare
thought to be good analogs for their offshore equiv-
alents (Reynolds et al., 1998).
This paper builds upon the sedimentology and
reservoir models of Reynolds et al. (1998). Their study
encompassed most of the succession of the Produc-
tive Series; this paper concentrates on two key inter-
vals, the Pereriva Suite and the lower 150 m(492 ft) of
the Balakhany Suite. Outcrop observations are com-
bined to construct four models of the architectural
variability and the range of heterogeneities present:
these are intended to aid exploration and produc-
tion strategies in the region. Two speculative causal
mechanisms for the facies and architectural varia-
tion are discussed: climatic control of sediment flux
and base level and tectonic rejuvenation of sediment
source areas.
GEOLOGICAL SETTING
Regional Tectonics
The South Caspian basin has a basement with the
characteristics of oceanic crust, overlain by about
20 km (12 mi) of sediments (Mangino and Priestley,
1998). The age and origin of the basement are in
dispute. Most published models postulate original
spreading ages between the Jurassic (Zonenshain and
Le Pichon, 1986) andthe Paleocene (Berberian, 1983).
Aconsensus exists that oceanic spreading occurredin
a back-arc setting to the subduction of Neotethyan
oceanic crust under the southern margin of Eurasia.
Neotethys was finally eliminated by the middle Eo-
cene collisionof ArabiawithEurasia (Hempton, 1987),
and most of the sedimentary succession of the South
Caspian basinwas deposited inthe Cenozoic after this
event. Compressional deformation has intensified in
the ranges surrounding the basin since the late
Miocene (Brod, 1958; Stocklin, 1974) as the Arabian
plate continues to converge withstable Eurasia ( Jack-
son and McKenzie, 1988). Deformation associated
with north-southoriented convergence has created
the fold and thrust belts of the Greater and Lesser
Caucasus and the easterncontinuationof the Greater
Caucasus, the Apsheron Sill, which spans the Cas-
pian Sea from the Apsheron Peninsula in the west to
the Kopet Dagh in Turkmenistan (Figures 1, 2).
Stratigraphy
The isolation of the South Caspian basin in the
latest Miocene and a dramatic drop in base level
(between 600 and 1500 m [372 and 932 ft]) initiated
the deposition of the Productive Series (Reynolds
et al., 1998). Base-level lowering inthe SouthCaspian
basin is tentatively correlated to the 5.5 Ma late
Messinian sea level fall of the Mediterranean ( Jones
and Simmons, 1996). The combination of basin iso-
lation, uplift of the basin margins, and fall of base
level focused the discharge of several major river sys-
tems, most notably the paleo-Volga and paleo-Kura
into the restricted South Caspian basin. Increased
88 / Hinds et al.
sediment supply resulted in the progradation of the
fluvial-deltaic Productive Series that accumulated to a
thickness of 3 km (1.8 mi) (Narimanov, 1993).
The Productive Series of the Apsheron Peninsula
is conventionally subdivided into nine suites (equiv-
alent to formations) based on their gross lithological
characteristics (Figure 3). The Balakhany Suite is fur-
ther divided into six lithologically defined subunits
numbered X to V from base to top. These suites and
subunits of suites are readily identifiable on wire-
line logs (Figure 4). Although biostratigraphic con-
trol is poor, the suites can be regionally correlated
lithostratigraphically. This led Reynolds et al. (1998)
to speculate that individual suites may be bound
by surfaces of chronostratigraphic importance. The
sand-richPereriva and Balakhany suites are described
as representing deposition in braided fluvial envi-
ronments. Offshore, they attain thicknesses of 110
and more than 300 m (360 and more than 984 ft),
respectively (Reynolds et al., 1998). The Kirmaky Val-
ley exposures include a representative thickness of
the Pereriva Suite (100 m; 330 ft) but only the
lower approximately 150 m(492 ft) of the Balakhany
Suite. This probably includes all of the Balakhany X
subsuite but only part of Balakhany IX.
METHODS
Data were collected fromexposures inthe Kirmaky
Valley, located approximately 12 km (7.5 mi) north
of Baku (Figure 2). Sediments of the Productive Series
crop out on the east limb of Kirmaky anticline with
dips of 408 close to the axis of the anticline, de-
creasing to 208 to the east (Figure 5). The valley floor
represents a Quaternary wave-cut platform, which
FIGURE 1. Neotectonic structures of the South Caspian basin, and, inset, its position in the broad ArabiaEurasia
collision zone.
Architecture Variability in the Pereriva and Balakhany Suites of the Neogene Productive Series / 89
has planed a horizontal surface, truncating the
dipping strata, and providing high-quality, albeit
typically two-dimensional (2-D), exposures. Three-
dimensional (3-D) exposure exists in the southeast
corner of the outcrop belt in several small sandstone
quarries. A 250-m (820-ft)-long composite sedimen-
tary log was constructed joining areas of sporadic
outcrop with measurement at a centimeter scale.
Maps of the large-scale architecture were constructed
by erecting a 5-m(16-ft) grid on the horizontal valley
floor and then drawing the significant bounding
surfaces. The resultant maps are similar in style to
photo mosaics constructed from vertical cliff faces,
although in this case, an element of vertical exagger-
ation is built in because of the local structural dip.
The sedimentary logs, architecture maps, and out-
crop photographs were combined to produce models
of expected subsurface heterogeneity. Studies are in
progress onthe petrography and provenance of these
rocks.
LITHOFACIES DESCRIPTION
AND INTERPRETATION
Horizontally Bedded Conglomeratic Sandstone
The least common lithofacies of the succession is
characterized by sharp-based, horizontal beds 0.1
0.5 m (0.331.6 ft) thick of inversely graded, poorly
sorted pebbly sandstone. Individual beds are trace-
able for only a few meters laterally because of lack of
exposure. The lithofacies shows a wide variety of
grain sizes. Medium sand coarsens up through gran-
ule to pebble-grade conglomerate, containing un-
common cobbles as much as 8 cm (3.1 in.) in di-
ameter (Figure 6a). The conglomerate is composed of
subangular to rounded clasts of mudstone, sand-
stone, igneous rocks, and carbonate, locally display-
ing pressure dissolution pits, set within a poorly
sorted matrix of silty sand to coarse sand. Clasts also
display weak imbrication, indicating a southerly
transport direction.
FIGURE 2. Geology of the eastern Greater Caucasus and the western part of the Apsheron Peninsula, showing the
location of the study area of this paper.
90 / Hinds et al.
Gustavson (1978) attributes inverse grading to
downstream growth of gravel sheets as the coarse-
grainedupper part of the sheet migrates over the finer
grained base. The poorly sorted sandy matrix proba-
bly filled spore spaces between the gravel clasts when
the latter had stopped moving, the result of alternat-
ing high- and low-discharge events (Smith, 1974).
Lateral exposure is not sufficient to establish whether
the gravel sheets represent channelized longitudinal
bars or unchannelized sheet flood deposition.
Cross-Bedded Conglomeratic Sandstone
Three varieties of cross-beddedconglomeratic sand-
stone are defined within this lithofacies: large-scale
trough cross-bedded conglomeratic sandstone, small-
scaletroughcross-beddedconglomeraticsandstone, and
planar cross-bedded conglomeratic sandstone. Large-
scale trough cross-bed sets 1.5 m (4.9 ft) in thickness
and 1020 m (3366 ft) in width comprise amal-
gamated channel fill. Foresets are commonly defined
by alternations of granule- or pebble-size clasts with
coarse and medium sand. Pebbles and sparse cobbles
commonly display pseudoimbrication, with their long
axis aligned parallel to foresets. Reactivation surfaces
may separate cross-bed sets into segments, suggesting
local scour, flow velocity fluctuation, change in flow
FIGURE 3. Stratigraphic nomenclature of the Productive
Series. Ages for the base and top of the succession are
from Jones and Simmons (1996).
FIGURE 4. Gamma-ray log of part of the Productive Series.
The log is from an offshore well situated along deposi-
tional strike from the Kirmaky Valley outcrop. Modified
from Reynolds et al. (1998).
Architecture Variability in the Pereriva and Balakhany Suites of the Neogene Productive Series / 91
direction, or episodic movement and accretion of
curved, crested dunes (Collinson, 1970; Jones, 1977).
Large trough cross-bed sets are commonly associated
with large sets of cross-bedded conglomeratic sand-
stone displaying fine and mediumsandstone drapes a
few centimeters thick (Figure 6b). The drapes show
topset and toeset preservation and cap conglomeratic
sandstone foresets, giving aninterbeddedappearance.
Foresets show paleocurrents toward the southeast,
oblique to the south-directed regional paleocurrent
FIGURE 5. Sketch of the geological map of the Kirmaky anticline, showing the region of high-quality exposure within and
adjacent to Kirmaky Valley.
92 / Hinds et al.
direction of Reynolds et al. (1998). These beds most
probably represent episodic lateral and vertical accre-
tion in a channel fill (Ramos et al., 1986).
Small-scale trough cross-bedded conglomeratic
sandstones are composed of very coarse sand and
granules with uncommon pebbles and display sim-
ilar sedimentary features to large-scale trough cross-
bed sets, such as graded foresets, reactivation sur-
faces, and pseudoimbricatedpebble clasts (Figure 6c).
Bed sets are commonly less than 50 cm (19 in.) in
thickness and a maximum of 5 m (16 ft) in width.
Small-scale cross-beds may be associated with down-
stream confluence scour hollows (Ashmore, 1993) or
represent thalweg scour at the base of channel fills.
The least common of the cross-bedded conglom-
eratic sandstone lithofacies consists of planar cross-
beds displaying reactivation surfaces (Figure 6d). Bed
sets are commonly less than 50 cm (19 in.) in thick-
ness and are laterally discontinuous, being common-
ly truncated by trough cross-bedded sets. Foresets
show grading, pseudoimbricated clasts, and the few
sets observed display south-directed paleocurrents.
FIGURE 6. Lithofacies photographs.
(a) Horizontally bedded conglomer-
atic sandstone exhibiting inverse
grading and weak imbrication at
the basal contact of the Pereriva
Suite; hammer is 28 cm (11 in.) long.
(b) Large-scale cross-bedded con-
glomeratic sandstone displaying
well-cemented sandstone drapes in
an amalgamated channel complex
at the basal contact of the Pereriva
Suite; hammer is 28 cm (11 in.)
long. (c) Small-scale cross-bedded
conglomeratic sandstone at the
basal contact of the Pereriva Suite;
hammer is 28 cm (11 in.) long.
(d) Reddened, planar cross-bedded
conglomeratic sandstone in the
upper Pereriva Suite; hammer is
28 cm (11 in.) long. (e) Cross-
bedded sandstone exhibiting toe-
set preservation in the middle
Pereriva Suite; bedset approximately
1.2 m (3.9 ft) in thickness. (f) Large-
scale cross-bedded sandstone con-
taining reactivation surfaces; note
the uncommon calcite cementation
of bedset-bounding surfaces, lower
Pereriva Suite; figure for scale.
(g) Cross-bedded sandstone dis-
playing fining upward of mud in-
traclasts lining foresets in the lower
Balakhany Suite; hammer is 28 cm
(11 in.) long. (h) Horizontally
bedded sandstone in the middle
Pereriva Suite; each bedset approxi-
mately 40 cm (15 in.) in thickness.
(i) Contorted sandstone. (j) Laterally
continuous mudstone and siltstone
containing sand-filled desiccation
cracks in the Balakhany Suite; ham-
mer is 28 cm (11 in.) long.
Architecture Variability in the Pereriva and Balakhany Suites of the Neogene Productive Series / 93
Planar cross-beds result from downstream migration
of straight, crested dunes or composite bars with
avalanche slip faces (Rust, 1978).
Cross-Bedded Sandstone
Cross-beddedsandstone forms the dominant litho-
facies of the succession and comprises trough cross-
beds and planar cross-beds. Trough cross-bedded sand-
stone occurs onbotha small and large scale. Bed sets
range in thickness from0.3 to 3 m(0.98 to 9.8 ft) but
commonly lie between 0.5 and 1.5 m (1.6 and 4.9 ft).
Grain size varies from very coarse to very fine sand.
Beds of all scales locally display reactivation surfaces.
Trough cross-bedding is produced by curved, crested
3-D dune migration; the presence of reactivation
surfaces indicates that migration was episodic.
The preservation of topsets and tangential toe-
sets is common. Trough cross-bed foresets pass up
through topset beds into horizontally bedded sand
and pass down through toeset beds into low-angle
cross-stratified or horizontally stratified sand. Gen-
erally, this lends the cross-beds a swept-out appear-
ance (Figure 6e). Both topset and toeset preservations
point to high sedimentation rates, with tangential
toesets indicating fine sand deposition from sus-
pension downstream of the dune slip face (Bristow,
1993). Horizontally bedded topsets that pass later-
ally into swept-out foresets are thought to represent
humpback dune formation at the dune-to-upper-
plane bed transition flow regime (Saunderson and
Locket, 1983; Bristow, 1993). Low-angle cross-bedding
is relatively common and again points to a high sus-
pended load that dampens turbulence, preventing
the formation of a higher-angle slip face. Low-angle
cross-beds are thought to form at or near the dune
and upper stage plane bed boundary (Bristow, 1993).
Wheninassociation, swept-out troughcross-bedded,
low-angle cross-bedded, and horizontally bedded
sands result in laterally extensive sheetlike deposits
with local, conglomeratic sandstone-filled shallow
scours. These sheet sands probably represent rapid
migrationandaggradationof 3-Ddunes at transitional
to upper flow regime conditions in relatively shallow,
sandy bed-load channels (Cowan, 1991; Godin, 1991).
Exceptionally large sets of cross-strata containing
reactivation surfaces may attain 3 m(9.8 ft) in height
(Figure 6f) and were probably depositedas compound
bars under fluctuating flow regime in a deeper chan-
nel reach. One set of large-scale cross-strata shows
an initial coarsening upward, followed by a fining-
upward profile, contains reactivation surfaces, and
displays paleocurrents oriented almost normal to re-
gional flow direction. This may represent a deltaic
growth into enlarged scour pit at the downstream
confluence of two channel reaches (Bristow et al.,
1993) or more probably represents a compound bar
oriented oblique to the regional trend.
Planar cross-bedded sand seems to constitute a
relatively minor proportion of the lithofacies and
represents the migrationof 2-Dstraight, cresteddunes.
Climbing ripple cross-lamination is sparsely pre-
served. Where present, it forms the top of channel
fills. The basal erosive surface, commonly with con-
glomeratic lag, passes vertically up to trough cross-
bedded or horizontally bedded sand and, finally,
to climbing ripple-laminated sand. Therefore, the
climbing ripple-laminated sand represents the final
stages of channel-fill deposition under conditions of
waning flow.
Little direct evidence of lateral accretion exists be-
cause most of the succession is composed of just the
basal parts of channel fills. However, paleocurrents
progressively display a greater degree of dispersal up
through the succession. Indirect evidence may come
frompartial preservation of fining-upward units that
display cross-bed foresets oriented obliquely to the
southerly oriented regional paleocurrent direction.
Foresets are outlined with mud clasts, whose diame-
ters decrease up froma lag-lined, basal erosive surface
(Figure 6g). Such beds may represent the basal part of
lateral and/or oblique downstream accretion depos-
its. It is not possible to discern whether these beds
represent bank-attached point bars or lateral accre-
tion at the flanks of midchannel bars.
Horizontally Bedded Sandstone
The horizontally bedded sandstone lithofacies con-
sists of bed sets of parallel laminated sand (Figure 6h).
It displays a wide range of grain sizes but is most
common in fine-grained sand. Individual laminae
are commonly outlined by trains of coarser grained
material such as granule-grade extraformational and
intraformational clasts. Where bedding surfaces are
exposed, primary current lineation is locally present.
Generally, beds are less than 1.5 m (4.9 ft) in thick-
ness, but they may be laterally continuous for tens of
meters. The lithofacies may lie directly above erosive
contacts of the basal channel fill and comprise the
entire thickness of the channel fill or pass vertically
up into trough cross-beds or ripple cross-lamination
where preserved. Alternatively, horizontally bedded
sandstones commonly overlie basal trough cross-beds.
In many cases, seemingly horizontal laminae can be
traced laterally, until they are gradually truncated by
94 / Hinds et al.
very low-angle surfaces, thus defining extremely low-
amplitude bedforms.
Horizontally bedded sandstone composed of par-
allel laminae represent deposition at high-flow
regimes by the migration of low-amplitude bedforms
or by the migration of upper stage plane beds. Their
presence in the lower parts of channel fills is the re-
sult of increased flowrates in the deeper parts of chan-
nels. Where they lie above basal trough cross-beds,
they are interpreted as preserved bar top sediments.
Bristow (1993) described thick sets of parallel lami-
nated bar top sediments of the Brahmaputra River,
which displayed discontinuous laminae and low-angle
surfaces of truncation. He attributed their formation
to the suppressionof dune formationinshallowflows
of increased bed shear stress and increased sediment
transport over bar tops, resulting in the formation
of low-relief bedforms comprising planar laminae.
Horizontally bedded sandstone lithofacies are com-
monly associated with the cross-bedded sandstone
lithofacies, where the former pass laterally into pre-
served toesets and topsets of cross-beds (see above).
Contorted Sandstone
This distinctive lithofacies comprises beds of con-
torted fine and very fine sand, containing subrounded
mud clasts (Figure 6i). Beds are as much as 3 m (9.8 ft)
in thickness, appear laterally continuous, but do not
comprise a significant part of the succession lying
within a 20-m (66-ft)-thick interval of the upper part
of the Balakhany Suite. Contorted bedding can result
from the liquefaction of sediments deposited within
a channel or fromslumping of bothunstable channel
margins or barforms. The subrounded nature of the
intraformational mud clasts suggests the deforma-
tion of sediment from within the channel. The scale
of the contorted strata, their lateral continuity, and
their stratigraphic restriction in the succession may
point to seismically induced liquefaction instead of
any intrinsic instability of channel sediments.
Mudstone and Siltstone
The mudstone and siltstone lithofacies is not com-
mon and comprises two varieties. The first consists of
planar, tabular beds of silt, mud, and ripple cross-
laminated very fine sand, interbedded on a scale of
510 cm(24 in.) (Figure 6j). Sets of interbeds reacha
maximum thickness of 1 m (3.3 ft) and are laterally
continuous for 100 m (330 ft) (the outcrop extent).
Locally, they display desiccation cracks filled with
reddened (windblown?) silty sand. The fine grain
size, planar-based beds, and evidence of subaerial
exposure indicate a deposition in a relatively distal
overbank flood-plain setting.
The second variety consists of silt, mud, and
trough cross-bedded very fine sand interbedded on a
scale of 1080 cm (431 in.). Sets of interbeds reach
a maximum thickness of 5 m (16 ft), possess broad,
shallow concave-upward forms, and do not appear
to be laterally continuous. The lithofacies directly
overlies channel sandstones. This lithofacies subtype
represents deposition in an abandoned channel set-
ting. Incursions of trough cross-bedded very fine sand
may indicate periodic channel reactivation.
LITHOFACIES ORGANIZATION
The succession is here divided into one first-order
and two second-order fining-upwardcycles; the lower
second-order fining-upward cycle is further divided
into four third-order cycles (Figure 7). The term
order as used here has no sequence-stratigraphic
(eustatic) or architectural element significance (Vail
et al., 1977; Miall, 1988).
The first-order fining-upward cycle reflects a
general up-profile reduction in the proportion of
conglomeratic sandstone facies with a corresponding
increase in the proportion of sandstone facies and of
mudstone and siltstone facies (Figure 7). As grain size
decreases up-profile, extraformational clasts are grad-
ually substituted by intraformational mud clasts in
erosive lags (from 40 m [131 ft] upward, Figure 7).
The second-order fining-upward cycles are defined
at their base by increased amalgamation, resulting
ina concentration of erosive conglomeratic lags, con-
glomeratic sandstone-filled scours, and selective pre-
servation of coarse, basal parts of channel fills. The
Pereriva Suite collectively forms the lower second-
order fining-upward cycle; the exposed and studied
part of the Balakhany Suite appears to represent most
or all of another second-order cycle. Fining upward
through a cycle is accompanied by an increased oc-
currence of cross-bedded and horizontally bedded
sandstone facies, representing a more complete pre-
servation of channel fills. Siltstone and mudstone
facies are restricted to the upper parts of both of the
second-order fining-upward cycles. Because of the
overall fining-upward nature of the entire succession,
these facies are best developed toward the top of the
upper second-order fining-upward cycle (Figure 7).
Four third-order cycles are recognized (I, II, III, IV,
Figure 7), each display fining-upward to coarsening-
upward profiles representing progressive facies
change. Third-order cycles are defined at their tops
Architecture Variability in the Pereriva and Balakhany Suites of the Neogene Productive Series / 95
by coarser grained intervals associated withincreased
amalgamation. These may contain several signifi-
cant, laterally continuous, erosive surfaces (Figure 7).
Figure 8 shows a map of one such interval, which
marks the base of third-order cycle IV(locatedat 60 m
[196 ft], Figure 7). The interval is composed of amal-
gamated erosive surfaces lined with extra- and intra-
formational conglomerate. Trough and planar cross-
bedded granular to very coarse sands occupy shallow
scours and the basal parts of channel fills. Fine-grained
parts of the cycles comprise more complete chan-
nel fills and preserve swept-out trough cross-bedded,
low-angle cross-bedded, and horizontally bedded
facies.
Thefacies organizationof four parts
of the succession are described in de-
tail below, with reference to interpre-
tive sedimentary logs (Figures 912).
Lower Part of the Pereriva Suite
Horizontally bedded and cross-bedded conglom-
eratic sandstones comprise the basal component of the
lower part of the Pereriva Suite. Locally, the basal
contact displays as muchas 5 m(16 ft) of erosive relief
andis directly overlainby a thinconglomeratic veneer
generally less than 0.5 m (1.6 ft) in thickness. Where
erosive relief is at a maximum, amalgamated trough
cross-bedded conglomeratic sandstones, displaying
evidence of lateral and vertical accretion, comprise a
channel-fill complex approximately 100 m (330 ft) in
width and 5 m (16 ft) in depth. Where the contact is
relatively conformable with underlying strata, hori-
zontally bedded and small-scale planar and trough
FIGURE 8. Architecture of part of the Pereriva Suite (60 m [196 ft] in Figure 7f). This interval represents one of four
phases of degradation in the aggrading alluvial succession, marked by an increase in grain size and the intensity of
scouring. Note the high concentration of laterally continuous erosive bounding surfaces. These do not represent
significant barriers to fluid flow. Note the vertical exaggeration (2) caused by structural dip.
FIGURE 7. Summary of stratigraphic
properties of the Pereriva Suite and
the lower part of the Balakhany Suite.
(ac) are first-, second- and third-order
cycles, respectively, defined by grain
size variation. (d) Grain size variation;
the second-order cycles define the
Pereriva Suite and at least the lower
150 m (492 ft) of the Balakhany Suite
exposed at Kirmaky Valley. (e) Sketch
log summarizing the variation in archi-
tecture. Upsection, there is an increase
in the proportion of preserved over-
bank deposits, complete channel-fill
sequences, and slump features; extra-
formational clasts are replaced by intra-
formational clasts. These features cor-
respond to an increase in A/S ratio.
96 / Hinds et al.
cross-bedded conglomeratic sandstones dominate.
The basal facies fine upward into a sheet sand com-
posed predominantly of swept-out trough cross-
bedded, low-anglecross-bedded, andhorizontallybed-
ded medium- to fine-grained sandstone, with scours
filled with material ranging
from coarse-grained sand to
granules. The sheet sand then
coarsens upward as the de-
gree of amalgamationof basal
channel fills and erosive scours
increases. This transition from
basal conglomeratic sandstone
through sheet sandstone and
back to coarser grained fa-
cies defines third-order fining-
upwardcoarsening-upward
cycle I (Figures 7, 9).
The sedimentary log shown
in Figure 9 commences 15 m
(49 ft) stratigraphically above
the Pereriva Suite and post-
Kirmaky Clay Suite contact.
Third-order fining-upward
coarsening-upward cycle II
is shown between 2022 and
4042 m (6672 and 131
138 ft). The cycle commences
with an increase in grain size
associated with two laterally
continuous, conglomeratic
erosive surfaces and an in-
creased amalgamation of
coarser grained, basal chan-
nel fills. The stratigraphically
higher of these two erosive
surfaces marks the first ap-
pearance of subrounded to
rounded intraformational
mud clasts in a dominantly
granule- and pebble-grade, ex-
traformational conglomerat-
ic lag. This surface is the more
laterally continuous of the
two, truncating the lower sur-
face. The degree of amalgam-
ation decreases above this in-
terval, and sandstones begin
to display a more sheetlike
geometry. Additionally, grain
size decreases to fine and very
fine sand, with the exception
of small granule- and very coarse sand-filled erosive
scours. A second interval of amalgamated erosive sur-
faces occurs at 4042 m(131138 ft) (Figure 9). Grain
size increase associated with this interval is gener-
ally restricted to granule grade with sparse pebbles.
FIGURE 9. Summary graphic log for the lower part of the Pereriva Suite. Its position
in the studied succession is shown in Figure 7. P = pebble; G = gravel; VC = very
coarse-grained sand; C = coarse-grained sand; M = medium-grained sand; F = fine-
grained sand; VF = very fine-grained sand; SL = silt; C = clay.
Architecture Variability in the Pereriva and Balakhany Suites of the Neogene Productive Series / 97
Conglomeratic lags are composed predominantly of
intraformational mud clasts. A conglomeratic ero-
sive surface within this uppermost interval is laterally
continuous for more than 100 m (330 ft), has con-
siderable relief, and forms the base of a prominent
channel feature. The channel is itself truncated by a
distinctive, laterally continu-
ous, erosive surface of mini-
mal relief overlain by hori-
zontally laminated fine sand
with no associated lag de-
posit. This laterally contin-
uous surface may represent
an unconfined sheetflood
event deposited at upper flow
regime conditions (Kelly and
Olsen, 1993).
Upper Part of the
Pereriva Suite
Figure 10 shows a sedi-
mentary log of the upper-
most part of the Pereriva
Suite representing the upper
part of third-order fining-
upwardcoarsening-upward
cycle IV. Grain size trends
are not clear because expo-
sure is patchy and there is
little apparent grain size
variation. The upper half of
the Pereriva Suite is predom-
inantly composed of steel
gray and red, fine to very fine
sand displaying troughcross-
beds, low-angle cross-beds,
and horizontal bedding. Al-
though broadly similar to
the sheet sands seen lower
in the succession, strata here
show some important differ-
ences. Trough cross-beds be-
gin to show lower width-to-
thickness ratios, exhibiting
a less swept-out appearance,
and individual bed thick-
nesses are greater. Horizon-
tally bedded and extremely
low-angle cross-bedded fa-
cies appear volumetrically
more important, probably
representinganincreasedpre-
servation of bar tops and complete channel fills. In
contrast with stratigraphically lower parts of the suc-
cession, all lag-lined erosive surfaces (withinthe lower
25 m [82 ft] of Figure 10) are composed of intraforma-
tional mud clasts with the exception of one thin lag of
mixed extra- and intraformational clasts. Rare, poorly
FIGURE 10. Summary graphic log for the upper part of the Pereriva Suite. Its position
in the studied succession is shown in Figure 7. P = pebble; G = gravel; VC = very coarse-
grained sand; C = coarse-grained sand; M = medium-grained sand; F = fine-grained
sand; VF = very fine-grained sand; SL = silt; C = clay.
98 / Hinds et al.
FIGURE 11. Summary graphic log for the lower part of the Balakhany Suite. Its position in the studied succession is
shown in Figure 7. This probably corresponds to part of the Balakhany X subsuite defined in the subsurface. M =
medium-grained sand; F = fine-grained sand; VF = very fine-grained sand; SL = silt; C = clay.
Architecture Variability in the Pereriva and Balakhany Suites of the Neogene Productive Series / 99
FIGURE 12. Summary graphic log for the upper part of the Balakhany Suite exposed in Kirmaky Valley. Its position in the
studied succession is shown in Figure 7. This probably corresponds to part of the Balakhany IX subsuite defined in the
subsurface, but the exact correlation is not known. F = fine-grained sand; VF = very fine-grained sand; SL = silt; C = clay.
100 / Hinds et al.
exposed, silt and mudstone facies are found at the
top of some beds, displaying well-defined fining-
upward profiles (not shown in Figure 10). These fine-
grained horizons may represent partial preservation
of overbank facies.
The predominantly fine-grained nature of the
upper Pereriva Suite is abruptly truncated by an amal-
gamated trough cross-bedded conglomeratic sand-
stone unit, similar to that of the basal Pereriva Suite,
but displaying significantly less erosive relief (lo-
cated at 26 m [85 ft], Figure 10). Accompanying the
coarsening in grain size is a color change from gray
to yellowish brown and orange. This grain size in-
crease is reflected ina minor topographic break inthe
Kirmaky Valley floor, which can be traced laterally
for approximately 1.5 km(0.93 mi). Inoffshore areas,
the Pereriva Suite is as much as 110 m (360 ft) in
thickness (Reynolds et al., 1998), and the basal con-
tact of the Balakhany X subunit is marked by a
coarsening in grain size. The distinct increase in
grain size at 105 m (345 ft) (Figure 7) is therefore in-
terpreted as the outcrop expression of the Balakhany
X subunits basal contact. The underlying interval of
increased grain size and amalgamation forms the
top of third-order fining-upwardcoarsening-upward
cycle IVand the top of the lower second-order fining-
upward cycle (Figures 7, 10).
Lower Balakhany Suite
It is not possible to subdivide the exposed deposits
of the lower 70 m(230 ft) of the Balakhany Suite into
third-order fining-upwardcoarsening-upward cycles.
This may be in part because of the patchy nature of
the exposure, but there does appear to be more grain
size uniformity than in the Pereriva Suite (Figure 7).
This part of the succession is dominated by orange
and yellowtrough cross-bedded fine sand with abun-
dant intraformational mudclast horizons (Figure 11).
Mud clast horizons are thicker, more laterally con-
tinuous, and containa greater concentrationof clasts
than in the Pereriva Suite. Paleocurrents display a
southeasterlyorientationandbegintodisplaya greater
degree of dispersal than in underlying strata. Cross-
bedding with fining-upward foresets are commonly
oriented obliquely to and, sometimes, almost nor-
mally to regional flow direction. Increased lateral ac-
cretion may explainpaleocurrent divergence. One bed
(155 m; 509 ft) of red trough cross-bedded fine sand
uniquely contains a basal erosive lag entirely com-
posed of reworked caliche nodules and foresets lined
by these nodules.
However, in the central part of Figure 11 (154
160 m; 505525 ft), bed thicknesses decrease as ero-
sive surfaces amalgamate to formthick, concentrated
horizons of intraformational mud clasts. No associ-
ated increase exists in grain size with amalgamation,
but incommonwithcoarse-grainedintervals of amal-
gamation lower in the succession, bed thicknesses
increase both above and below this interval.
Upper Balakhany Suite
The uppermost exposed 80 m (262 ft) of the
Balakhany Suite consists predominantly of yellow
and orange, trough cross-bedded, fine and very fine
sand (Figure 12). Again, it does not appear practical
to subdivide the deposits into third-order fining-
upwardcoarsening-upward cycles. Bed thicknesses
are at a maximum in comparison with the lower
parts of the succession; consequently, mudclast-lined
surfaces are relatively widely spaced. Several bedsets
display complete preservation of entire channel-fill
fining-upward profiles, frombasal troughcross-bedded
fine sand to climbing ripple cross-laminated very
fine sand. Horizontally bedded and low-angle cross-
bedded facies comprise a relatively minor proportion
of the upper part of the studied Balakhany Suite. This
part of the succession is characterized by an increased
preservationof siltstone andmudstone facies andalso
of contorted sandstone facies. Paleocurrent orienta-
tions continue to show a greater degree of dispersal
than Pereriva Suite strata because of an increased
abundance of lateral-oblique downstream accretion
deposits.
CONTROLS ON
STRATIGRAPHIC ARCHITECTURE
Previous studies interpret deposits of the Pereriva
Suite as representing deposition in a braid-plain set-
ting (e.g., Reynolds et al., 1998). Outcrop observa-
tions of this study also suggest deposition in a low-
sinuosity braided fluvial environment, although lack
of regional control precludes assignment to a braid-
plain setting. The interpretation of a braided fluvial
setting is based on (1) the lack of significant mud-
stone horizons; (2) unidirectional paleocurrent ori-
entations with relatively low dispersal; (3) lack of
bioturbation; (4) poor preservation of current ripple
cross-lamination; (5) coarse grain size of parts of the
succession; (6) little evidence of large-scale lateral
accretion surfaces; and (7) amalgamated sharp-based
Architecture Variability in the Pereriva and Balakhany Suites of the Neogene Productive Series / 101
fining-upward units. These criteria are not diagnostic
in isolation, but collectively, they argue against a
meandering fluvial system. Deposits of the Balak-
hany Suite are also interpreted as braided fluvial de-
posits but display features consistent with increased
sinuosity relative to the Pereriva Suite. This inter-
pretation is based on (1) appearance of significant
mudstone horizons; (2) paleocurrent orientations dis-
playing relatively higher dispersal; (3) increased pre-
servation of current ripple cross-lamination; (4) pre-
dominantly fine grain size; (5) evidence of lateral
accretion; (6) reduced amalgamation of sharp-based
fining-upward units; and (7) extensive intraforma-
tional mud clast horizons.
Facies distribution throughout the succession is
interpretedas representing anevolving fluvial system,
from one of low sinuosity with highly amalgamated,
relatively coarse-grained facies, to one of increased
sinuosity, displaying a lesser degree of amalgamation,
and relatively fine-grained facies. Progressive change
fromlaterally andvertically amalgamatedfluvial sand-
stones to more isolated sand bodies with increased
proportions of mudis thought toreflect increasedrates
of accommodation space creation (Shanley and
McCabe, 1994). In their investigation of continental
strata of the lower Tertiary Middle Magdalena basin,
Columbia, RamonandCross (1997) argue that changes
infacies diversity and fluvial architecture canbe attrib-
uted to fluctuations in base level. Stratigraphic base
level is an undulating surface influenced by tectonic
subsidence, eustasy (lake level), sediment supply, and
discharge (Shanley and McCabe, 1994). A base-level
cycle is defined as a time of unidirectional increase
and then decrease of the accommodation/sediment
supply (A/S) ratio (Ramon and Cross, 1997). Lowest
A/S conditions are reflected in the rock record as in-
tervals of highly amalgamated channel sandstones
with little or no overbank facies preservation. Higher
A/S conditions may show lateral accretion surfaces,
preservation of the upper parts of channel fills, and
thicker overbank facies representing increased pre-
servation of original geomorphic elements (Ramon
and Cross, 1997). Similarly, the first-, second-, and
third-order cycles of the Pereriva and Balakhany suites
and the changes in facies diversity that accompany
themare interpretedtoreflect responses tofluctuation
inthe A/S ratio. The factors that couldcontrol A/S ratio
fluctuation and stratigraphic organization are dis-
cussed separately below. In reality, they are inter-
linked; these include, allocyclic controls, such as
climate and tectonics, and autocyclic controls, such
as avulsion processes intrinsic to the fluvial system.
Climate
Global cooling in climate and Antarctic glacial
expansion occurred inthe latest Miocene and earliest
Pliocene between 6.2 and 4.8 Ma (Frakes et al., 1992).
This period is coincident with the Messinian salinity
crisis, which is marked by several severe cyclic glacial
events in Antarctica and repeated desiccation of the
Mediterranean (Frakes et al., 1992). The final isolation
of the Caspian Sea and the initiation of Productive
Series deposition occurred at 5.5 Ma ( Jones and Sim-
mons, 1997). Jones and Simmons (1997) placed the
top of the Productive Series at 3.4 Ma, coincident with
the onset of Caspian Sea level transgression.
Productive Series stratigraphy seems broadly to
mirror the climatic variability outlined above. The
climatic instability of the latest Miocene to earliest
Pliocene is reflected in repeated distal to proximal
facies translations. Specifically, concerning the suites
in this study, conglomeratic sandstones of the basal
Pereriva Suite are juxtaposed against silt-grade sedi-
ments of the underlying post-Kirmaky Clay Suite.
Reynolds et al. (1998) interpret the post-Kirmaky Clay
Suite as representing deposition in a distal delta-front
environment based, in part, on micropaleontological
and palynological evidence. Following the discovery
of desiccationcracks (Hinds et al., 2004), it seems likely
that at least a part of the post-Kirmaky Clay Suite may
represent deposition in a more proximal environ-
ment such as the delta plain. Contrary to Reynolds
et al. (1998, p. 31), who document a dramatic basal
erosive surface, the basal contact of the Pereriva Suite
was found, for the most part, to be relatively con-
formable with underlying strata, displaying only 5 m
(16 ft) of erosive relief and, therefore, not signifi-
cantly greater than that produced by intrinsic chan-
nel scour processes. Incision is favored if a large dif-
ference exists between the slope of the shelf and
that of the fluvial system(Leeder and Stewart, 1996).
Reynolds et al. (1998) show a ramp-type shelf paleo-
geography of the South Caspian after the major fall
in base level that may have initiated Productive Se-
ries deposition (their figure 3B). In such a ramp-type
setting, only minor incision may result from a fall
base level (Miall, 1991). Adrop in base level has been
suggested as a possible cause of facies juxtaposition
(Reynolds et al., 1998). However, the lack of signifi-
cant incision at outcrop, the unknown loss of under-
lying stratigraphical section, and the possibility that
underlying deposits may represent environments
more proximal than distal delta front require con-
sideration of other methods of creating a basinward
shift in facies. It is possible that during an arid, glacial
102 / Hinds et al.
climatic period, base-level fall was accompanied by
increased sediment supply (Leeder et al., 1998; Jones
et al., 1999). Lithofacies associations in the Pereriva
Suite display characteristics consistent with a fluvial
system choked with sediment.
Deposits of the lower part of the Balakhany Suite
display lithofacies associations more characteristic of
increased sinuosity in comparison to those of the
underlying Pereriva Suite, with increased mudstone
and siltstone facies preservation, decreased amalgam-
ation of channel sands, and increased paleocurrent di-
vergencepossiblyassociatedwithlateral accretion. This
pattern may also be climatically controlled. During a
cool, humid interglacial period, forest-type vegeta-
tion is reestablished, protecting the substrate from
erosion caused by increased rainfall and reducing sedi-
ment supply from catchments (Jones et al., 1999). In
response to a higher lake level caused by an increase in
runoff and reduced sediment supply (increasing A/S),
axial rivers might be expected to adjust their planform
(Leeder et al., 1998). This is what has happened in
response to deglaciation in Holocene high latitudes,
where Quaternary rivers have changed from braided
to meandering systems in response to large decreases
insediment supply caused by decreasing effective run-
off and increasing vegetation over the last 15,000 yr
(Leeder et al., 1998).
The transition from coarse-grained, amalgamated
Pereriva Suite deposits to relatively fine-grained depos-
its of the Balakhany Suite (first-order fining-upward
cycle, Figure 7) may therefore represent an increase in
the A/S ratio in part because of long-term, climatically
mediated decrease in sediment supply and increase in
discharge rate and base level. The two second-order
fining-upward cycles may also represent fluctuation in
the A/S ratio, but because of shorter term, climatically
mediated changes in sediment supply rate, discharge
rate, and base level. This is supported by the regional-
scale recognition of the Pereriva Suite and Balakhany
Suite subunit X on wire-line logs. Third-order fining-
upwardcoarsening-upwardcycles aremoredifficult to
interpret. They represent the creation and destruction
of accommodation space over a much shorter period
of time and are most likely the result of intrinsic
channel avulsion events, although high-frequency
fluctuation of base level cannot be discounted.
Tectonics
On regional offshore seismic lines, the Productive
Series shows no variation in thickness across anti-
cline fold axes, indicating that deformation did not
begin until the late Pliocene. Onshore, variations in
stratal thickness across folds suggest that deformation
of the Greater Caucasus locally affectedthe Productive
Series during deposition, although there is no evi-
dence for this as far east as the Apsheron Peninsula. It
appears that the deformation front of the Greater
Caucasus has migrated east toward the Caspian Sea
during the late Cenozoic, as well as north and south
toward its adjacent foreland basins.
The evolving Greater Caucasus would have influ-
enced the deposition of the Productive Series to the
east of any areas directly affected by synsedimentary
deformation, both as a source of sediment via tribu-
taries of the paleo-Volga and as an increasing topo-
graphic influence on the position of the main paleo-
Volga drainage channels. Provenance studies are in
progress to determine whether a Greater Caucasus
sediment input can be distinguished from sediment
derived from the East European craton. Initial results
suggest that there is no significant input from a new
sediment source area part way through Productive
Series depositioninthe Kirmaky Valley section(Hyden
and Allen, 1999; Morton and Allen, 1999). Therefore,
pulses of tectonic activity are discounted as direct
causes of the stratigraphic variation within and be-
tween the Pereriva and Balakhany suites. The overall
fining-upward nature of the entire Productive Series
also argues against significant uplift of the Greater
Caucasus or lateral propagation of its deformation
front over the interval 5.53.4 Ma.
RESERVOIR IMPLICATIONS
Changes in fluvial architecture and facies diversity
in the Pereriva and Balakhany suites are related to
base-level fluctuations and variation in A/S ratio. The
same base-level fluctuations result in the differenti-
ation of the strata into volumes of increased and
decreased reservoir heterogeneity. A high degree of
reservoir heterogeneity is possible at both the lowest
and highest A/S ratios. Within highly amalgamated
intervals (low A/S ratio), the concentration of mud
intraclasts or poorly sorted pebbly sandstones is at a
maximum. High reservoir heterogeneity may also be
expected where there is a higher facies diversity, for
example, where overbank, abandoned channel fill
and complete fining-upward channel-fill facies are
preserved (high A/S ratio). In contrast, decreased res-
ervoir heterogeneity may be expected in strata de-
posited at times of increasing A/S conditions where
bedset thickness and connectiveness tends to a maxi-
mum. Four models, extrapolated from fieldwork ob-
servations, are shown in Figure 13 to depict likely
Architecture Variability in the Pereriva and Balakhany Suites of the Neogene Productive Series / 103
FIGURE 13. Models for the vertical and lateral heterogeneity of the stratigraphic intervals shown in Figure 7e. Basal
sheet sandstones with poor facies diversity and reduced heterogeneity are compartmentalized by laterally continuous
intervals of increased amalgamation (low A/S). Individual sand bodies of the upperpart of the succession are larger but
display increased facies diversity and, hence, increased heterogeneity (higher A/S) and are compartmentalized by
laterally continuous mudstone and siltstone facies.
104 / Hinds et al.
reservoir heterogeneity. The models concentrate on
potential sedimentological causes of reservoir het-
erogeneity; postdepositional cementation and struc-
tural deformation are not represented. The incidence
of calcite cementation generally decreases upward
through the succession, from a maximum at the
basal contact of the Pereriva Suite. Calcite cemen-
tation may cause significant local barriers to fluid
flow, especially where laterally continuous bedform-
bounding surfaces are affected. Structural heteroge-
neity comprises granulation seamfractures. Although
displaying minor displacement, granulation seams
may be cemented and locally exist in zones of suffi-
cient density to cause potential baffles or even bar-
riers to fluid flow. The models are drawn as they ap-
pear at outcrop, with paleocurrent direction fromleft
to right and slightly into the page. Each is described
in turn below.
Lower Pereriva (Model 1)
Figure 13-1 (model 1) corresponds most closely
to the fluvial facies association reservoir model of
Reynolds et al. (1998). This represents the lowest
heterogeneity reservoir facies of the succession, with
very few low-permeability units to act as baffles
or barriers to fluid flow. Two intervals of increased
amalgamation (low A/S) are shown containing lat-
erally extensive erosive surfaces and trough cross-
bedded poorly sorted granular sandstone-filled ero-
sive hollows (Figure 13-1). The lower amalgamated
interval presents permeability contrasts associated
with increases in mean grain size and poor sorting of
pebbly and granular sandstone. Mud intraclasts are
present in lowquantities and are extremely dispersed
(located at 18 m[59 ft], Figure 13-1). The upper amal-
gamated horizon also contains laterally extensive ero-
sive surfaces, but with high concentrations of mud
intraclasts, which may in places be of sufficient
concentration to form very local fluid-flow baffles
(located at 40 m [131 ft], Figure 13-1). The interven-
ing section is composed of low-angle cross-bedded,
trough cross-bedded, and horizontally bedded well-
sorted coarse to fine sand. Bounding surfaces may be
carbonate cemented for part or all of their lengths. In
this association, the low reservoir heterogeneity is
combined with high-quality reservoir sandstones,
and the overall reservoir qualities are excellent.
Upper Pereriva (Model 2)
Sediments of the uppermost 25 m (82 ft) Pereriva
Suite were deposited during third-order fining-
upwardcoarsening-upward cycle IV. They represent
deposition during conditions of increasing A/S ratio;
reservoir heterogeneity is therefore relatively low
(Figure 13-2; model 2). Bed thicknesses of predomi-
nantly trough cross-bedded, well-sorted, fine to very
fine sand are at a maximum. Amalgamation is at a
minimum. Basal erosive lags form laterally discon-
tinuous mud intraclast horizons but may in places
be of sufficient concentration to form local baffles to
fluid flow. Preservation of mudstone and siltstone fa-
cies of limited lateral extent presents the only barriers
to fluid flow. The basal contact of the Balakhany X
subunit marks a return to low A/S conditions and a
corresponding increase in reservoir heterogeneity.
The degree of amalgamation and the number of lat-
erally continuous erosive surfaces increase; however,
grainsize contrasts formonly local baffles toflowand
permeability contrasts. As is the case for the lower
part of the Pereriva Suite, the sandstones of this part
of the succession are well sorted and have very good
poroperm qualities. This, combined with the low
heterogeneity, makes for a very good reservoir unit.
Lower Balakhany (Model 3)
Generally, this part of the succession displays
relatively lowheterogeneity with the exception of an
increase in the abundance of mud intraclast-lined
erosive surfaces in the midsection of Figure 13-3
(model 3). Here mud intraclasts are inconcentrations
likely to form local barriers to fluid flow. Above and
below the central interval bed, thickness increases to
a maximum; mud intraclast horizons become more
widely spaced and less concentrated. It is predicted
that the best reservoir facies would therefore lie
above and below the central amalgamated interval,
in well-sorted, predominantly trough cross-bedded,
fine to very fine sand. Carbonate cementationlocally
forms thin but laterally continuous barriers to fluid
flow following the bases of broad trough cross-beds.
Upper Balakhany (Model 4)
The highest A/S conditions of the entire succession
are represented by the uppermost 30 m (98 ft) ex-
posed of the Balakhany Suite (Figure 13-4; model 4).
Bed thickness is at a maximum, with thick channel
sands composed predominantly of trough cross-
bedded, well-sorted, fine to very fine sand. However,
increased preservation of the upper, finer grained,
ripple cross-laminated parts of channel sands creates
reservoir heterogeneity. The thick bedsets of con-
torted sandstone also increase heterogeneity. Mud-
stone and siltstone facies form laterally extensive
barriers to flow. Reynolds et al. (1998) suggest that
Architecture Variability in the Pereriva and Balakhany Suites of the Neogene Productive Series / 105
similar fine-grained facies in stratigraphically higher
deposits of the Balakhany Suite may form fieldwide
reservoir seals. Abandoned channel-fill facies would
create local barriers to fluid flow.
CONCLUSIONS
A first-order fining-upward cycle covers the entire
Pereriva Suite and at least the lower 150 m (492 ft) of
the Balakhany Suite. The change from an amalgam-
ated sand-rich, to relatively isolated, finer grained flu-
vial system most likely results from rising base level
(lake level). Two second-order fining-upward cycles
are present within this succession, separated by an
abrupt increase in grain size identified as the base of
the Balakhany Suite. The first- and second-order cy-
cles maybe controlledbyclimaticallyinducedfluctua-
tions in base level and sediment supply. In particular,
colder periods in the Pliocene were associated with
more arid conditions and lower lake levels ( Jones and
Simmons, 1996). The four third-order fining-upward
coarsening-upward cycles present within the Pereriva
Suite are more likely to result fromallocyclic avulsion
events. The influence of the rising Greater Caucasus is
difficult to assess, but there does not appear to be a
distinct signal in the sedimentology of the strata ex-
posed in Kirmaky Valley.
Variations in stratal architecture may be related to
changing A/S ratio, in turn related to the base-level
fluctuations noted above. Four models characterize
the greater part of the studied succession. Sheet sand-
stones of the lower 55 m (180 ft) of the Pereriva Suite
are divided fromone another by laterally continuous
erosive horizons of alluvial degradational phases.
These horizons represent conditions of low A/S ratio
in this interval, but they do not represent significant
baffles or barriers to fluid flow. This part of the Pere-
riva Suite has an excellent reservoir architecture. The
upper half of the Pereriva Suite has very good reser-
voir architectureandlowheterogeneity, althoughthere
are occasional finer grained horizons and zones of
mud intraclasts, which may represent baffles to fluid
flow. These rocks were deposited under conditions of
increasing A/S ratio. The studied 150-m (492-ft) sec-
tion of the lower Balakhany Suite is generally finer
grained (Figure 7), and baffles and barriers to fluid flow
are potentially present in the form of mud intraclast
horizons and laterally extensive mudstone and silt-
stone beds. The upper 80 m (262 ft) of the exposed
successionrepresents the highest A/S ratio conditions.
This study demonstrates the value of fieldwork in
providing data and ideas for exploration and pro-
duction studies of the subsurface Productive Series
reservoirs. Work is in progress to integrate sedimen-
tological data with provenance and diagenetic and
paleontological analyses and to cover the full range
of suites in the same detail.
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Architecture Variability in the Pereriva and Balakhany Suites of the Neogene Productive Series / 107