The Petroleum Geology

of Western Turkmenistan:
The Gograndag-Okarem Province
Max A. Torres
Repsol YPF, Houston, Texas, U.S.A.
ABSTRACT
T
he onshore Gograndag-Okarem province is located in the eastern flank
of the Caspian Basin in western Turkmenistan. The South Caspian Basin
intracontinental depression registered complex accretion and rifting phases
from the late Paleozoic to the late Neogene, when collisional orogenies occurred
in the surrounding thrust belts of the Alborz and Kopet Dagh Mountains. Com-
bined flexure loading and thermal cooling resulted in high subsidence rates, evi-
denced by thick high-frequency third-order sequences. A large Pliocene westward-
prograding deltaic systemfromthe paleo-Amu Darya river deposited a clastic section
of nearly 6000 m (19,686 ft) in thickness known as the Red Color group. This large,
deltaic wedge was initially depositedpossibly during a global sea level fall (5.5 Ma?)
and progressed from backstepping to progradational arrangements during the
Pliocene and Quaternary. This unit is thought to be roughly equivalent to the
Productive Series in Azerbaijan. Late Pliocene detachment tectonics, as a result of
dextral transcurrent motions in the Kopet Daghthrust belt (Himalayanorogeny),
resulted in a series of parallel, northeastsouthwest fold trends, where hydrocar-
bons were trapped by four-way dip anticlines. Commercial accumulations were
found only in the first and second of the five known anticline trends with modest
discoveries in the third trend. Multistacked overpressured reservoirs in the Lower
and Upper Red Color formations are interpreted as distributary channels, dis-
tributary mouth bars, and flood sandstones deposited in a fluvial-dominated
low-energy deltaic setting. Climatically controlled third-order sequences of 100
150m(330492ft) inthickness were identifiedinwell logs andseismic data. Well-
developed lowstand systems tracts (fluvial-distributary channels) are the main
producing intervals and are capped by a transgressive systems tract or a dark shale
unit (maximumflooding surface) (outer shelf, prodelta). Although present, high-
stand systems tract sandstones (delta front) have less productive potential. Inter-
granular effective porosity ranges from 16 to 27%, permeabilities range from 50
to 1000 md, and overpressures range from 10.5 to 16.5 ppg. Maturity studies
Chapter 13
Torres, M. A., 2007, The petroleum geology of western Turkmenistan:
The Gograndag-Okarem province, in P. O. Yilmaz and G. H. Isaksen,
editors, Oil and gas of the Greater Caspian area: AAPG Studies in
Geology 55, p. 109132.
109
Copyright n2007 by The American Association of Petroleum Geologists.
DOI:10.1306/1205842St553252
indicate immature indigenous source rocks, and the present depth of the oil-
window top is approximately at 4000 m (13,124 ft) in the producing areas. The
postulated source rock is interpreted as the Maikop Series (Oligocenelower
Miocene), according to studies in Azerbaijan. Mud volcanoes, thrust and accom-
modation faulting, and vertical migration are thought to be suitable effective
migration pathways. A multistacked gas and oil column and varying hydrocar-
bon properties reveal a complex multiphase migration history. The Gograndag-
Okarem province petroleum system is designated as Maikop/Red Color group(.).
Wells produce an average of 300 BOPD from a single reservoir, with gas-oil ratios
that range from 600 to 5500 bbl/ft
3
of gas in undersaturated and saturated sys-
tems, respectively. Oil is sweet, with 15348 API, and paraffinic (1320%). Pos-
tulated exploration scenarios include Red Color group deeper pools and Miocene
unconformity traps. Further potential in the third structural trend is thought to
be limited because of westward-diminishing reservoir quality, migration shad-
ows, and late trap charging.
INTRODUCTION
The South Caspian Basin has been associated with
oil for centuries. In the 13th century, Marco Polo re-
ported findingoil inthe ApsheronPeninsula, andBaku
was the territory of the columns of fire important to
the Zoroastrians. By 1829, 82 wells were inproduction,
and in 1884, production reached 10.8 million bbl
(Yergin, 1992). The first oil exploration well of the
world was drilled inthe SouthCaspianBasinin1848
(Reynolds et al., 1998). The South Caspian Basin has
a cumulative production of 12 billion bbl, identified
reserves of 5 billionbbl, and undiscovered oil resources
with a mean of 7.9 billion bbl (U.S. Geological Survey,
1998).
The eastern South Caspian Basin was first put into
production in the early 1900s in northwestern Turk-
menistan near the Cheleken Peninsula. Modern com-
mercial production did not start until the early 1930s,
when production was established in the vicinity of
Nebit Dag (Figures 1, 2). Exploration was suspended
during World War II, and after the war, the first field
to be brought into production was Kum Dag (1949),
followed by Kotur Tepe (1958). More recent discov-
eries include Okarem (1962), Barsa Gelmes (1964),
Burun(1970), Kamyshldha (1975), GogranDag (1978),
and Korpedzhe (1985), among others. Offshore dis-
coveries such as Zhdanov (1972), Lam (1978), and
other fields occurred in the 1970s with the improve-
ment of seismic resolution (Figure 3).
Since 1929, western Turkmenistan has produced
approximately 2 billion bbl, primarily from the giant
fields of the Nebit Dag region. During the Soviet opera-
tion, these fields declined and are currently consid-
ered mature areas close to depletion. In the early
1980s, with further refined seismic exploration tools,
new fields were discovered in the Gograndag-Okarem
region and in the offshore Apsheron trend. These dis-
coveries are one order of magnitude smaller and more
gas prone. The present andfuture activityis likelytobe
focused mainly in revitalizing the old northern fields
through secondary recovery and three-dimensional
seismic-based new pools drilling and in developing
the southern gas-prone accumulations. Exploration
potential is thought to be related to deeper targets
and offshore new plays.
This paper presents an overview of the onshore
Turkmenian South Caspian Basin petroleum geology
and, in particular, of the southernGograndag-Okarem
province. This paper incorporates new concepts and
new data obtained while exploring and developing
oil and gas fields in the region in the early 1990s.
THE EASTERN SOUTH CASPIAN BASIN
The SouthCaspianBasinis annorthwestsoutheast-
trending, elongated intracontinental depression
covering 200,000 km
2
(77,220 mi
2
), which extends
from western Turkmenistan into eastern Azerbaijan
and Iran. Consequently, the basin is divided into
three sectors that belong to Turkmenistan (eastern
flank and eastern half of the northern flank), Azer-
baijan (western flank and western half of the north-
ern flank), and Iran (southern flank) (Figure 1). The
South Caspian Basin is limited to the north by the
Apsheron trend, to the east by the Kopet Dagh fold
and thrust belt, and surrounded to the west and south
by the TaleshQaradagh and Alborz thrust belts, re-
spectively (Figure 2).
110 / Torres
Basin physiography presents a depocenter in the
south central zone, with water depths of more than
1000 m (3300 ft) and steep slopes into the abyssal
areas. The Turkmenian shelf is broad and approxi-
mately 180 km (111 mi) wide, with water depths of
50 m (164 ft) or less, in contrast to the quite narrow
and deeper Iranianand Azerbaijani shelves (Figure 2).
In the basin depocenter, the Mesozoic, Paleogene,
and Neogene sedimentary cover is 1525 km (9
15 mi) thick, with an exceeding thickness for the
Pliocene and the Quaternary of 58 and 1.52 km
(35 and 0.91.2 mi), respectively (Neprochov, 1968;
Fedynsky et al., 1972). This enormous sediment vol-
ume is the consequence of high rates of sedimen-
tation (as much as 1300 m/Ma [4265 ft/Ma]) and
accommodation that climaxed during the Pliocene
Pleistocene. Abnormal high pore-pressure gradients
(0.018 MPa/m [0.78 psi/ft]) and low geothermal gra-
dients (168C/km) (temperatures at 6000 m [19,686 ft]
do not exceed 1108C) characterize the South Cas-
pian Basin (Lyubimova et al., 1974; Bredehoeft et al.,
1988).
In western Turkmenistan, the following tectonic-
stratigraphic provinces have been identified: the
ApsheronKopet Dagh trend, the Kizyl Kum trough,
and the Messerian, Gograndag-Okarem, and Turkmen
steps (Figure 2). The Kopet DaghApsheron trend is
an elongated region that extends fromnorthern west-
ern Turkmenistan into Azerbaijan, characterized by a
thrust and fold belt located over a reactivated Triassic
suture zone. The Kizyl Kum trough is a Cenozoic de-
pocenter, related to a Mesozoic rift systemand located
offshore and south of the Nebit Dag region. The Mes-
serian, Gograndag-Okarem, and Turkmen steps prov-
inces are located west of the Kopet Dagh thrust belt
and limited to the east by the Alborz foredeep. The
informal term step is taken from the Russian lit-
erature referring toareas of increasedstructural depths
that markthe transitionfromthe more rigidprovinces
near the thrust belt and the Turan plate to the high
subsidence basin depocenter. Deep-seated Mesozoic
extensional faulting possibly controls the deforma-
tion patterns of these provinces. The Messerian step
province involves several heavilystructuredMesozoic-
and Cenozoic-age, northeast southwest-trending,
outcropping thrust sheets, whereas the Gograndag-
Okaremand Turkmen steps provinces include faulted
Miocene and folded Pliocene strata covered by unde-
formed Quaternary deposits. The Turkmenstepprov-
ince is less affected by compressional deformation
FIGURE 1. South Caspian Basin location map. Red dashed line indicates basin boundaries.
The Petroleum Geology of Western Turkmenistan: The Gograndag-Okarem Province / 111
and is located inthe shelf area southof the Kizyl Kum
trough (Figure 2).
In western Turkmenistan oil fields are located in
two main structural provinces: (1) the Apsheron
Kopet Dagh trend located in the Nebit Dag and the
northern offshore region and (2) the southern coastal
Gograndag-Okarem province where most of the re-
cent discoveries were made (Figures 2, 3).
The ApsheronKopet Dagh trend includes some
of the largest fields in western Turkmenistan like the
giant Kotur Tepe field (estimated ultimate recov-
ery: 1.785 billion bbl). This region is characterized
by northward-verging thrusting and strike-slip
dominated structures that show northwestsoutheast
axial trends and a high level of compartmentaliza-
tion and structural complexity. Hydrocarbon accu-
mulations are controlled by complex structural clo-
sures and drilling objectives are the Lower and Upper
Red Color, Akchagyl, and Apsheronformations. Most
of the onshore fields in this region are in mature
stages, with a large number of wells drilled and are
good candidates for field revitalization projects. The
offshore fields were discovered in the 1970s and are
in their initial development stage (Figure 3).
Geotectonic Evolution Overview
The geotectonic evolution of the South Caspian
Basin is marked by several phases of accretion and
rifting at the southern edge of the Eurasian plate, in
the overall convergence with Gondwana (Iranian,
African, and Indian continents) and the closure of
the Paleotethys and Neo-Tethys oceans (Figure 4).
The following paragraphs will attempt to overview
the relevant geotectonic phases to give an appro-
priate framework to the basins petroleum geology,
the principal aim of this paper.
The South Caspian Basin has been defined as an
intracontinental depression floored by an unsub-
ducted oceanic-type crust, dominated by an overall
compressional regime of active AlpineHimalayan
thrust belts (Berberian, 1983). The main striking geo-
tectonic feature of the South Caspian Basin is the
FIGURE 2. Basin structural provinces, field locations, and major geotectonic framework in the South Caspian Basin.
Morphostructural province boundaries are dashed and the Gograndag-Okarem province is the stippled area. The heavy
orange dashed line indicates thrust belts or suture zones. Heavy solid triangles show the uplifted blocks or terranes.
Light blue lines in the Caspian Sea are bathymetric curves. Fields are in green and names are in Figure 3.
112 / Torres
FIGURE 3. Field location, names, and discovery date in the Gograndag-Okarem and the Apsheron trend provinces. Fold
trends in the Gograndag-Okarem province are identified with a number. Dashed areas in brown represent outcrops in
the Great Balkhan and the Kopet Dagh Mountains. EUR = estimated ultimate recovery; HC = hydrocarbons.
The Petroleum Geology of Western Turkmenistan: The Gograndag-Okarem Province / 113
FIGURE 4. South Caspian Basin regional geotectonic framework. Solid triangles indicate uplifted terranes, and the
stippled area is the AdjaroTrialetan arc. Red big arrows indicate the overall thrusting direction for the African-Arabian
and Indian plates during the late PliocenePleistocene (modified from Berberian, 1983). AA
0
is the cross section location
for Figure 5.
114 / Torres
apparent lack of a granitic basement and the existence
of anunsubductedoldoceanic crust. A20-km(12-mi)-
thick relatively undeformed sedimentary cover (with
seismic velocities of 3.54 km/s [2.12.4 mi/s]) rests
over a basaltic basement interpreted as an oceanic-
type crust based on a seismic velocity of 6.67 km/s
(4.14.3 mi/s) (Neprochov, 1968; Zonenshain et al.,
1991; Brunet et al., 2001). Berberian (1983) proposed
the existence of a low-density, modifiedoceanic crust
to explain the escape from subduction through sev-
eral phases of accretion.
Most of the late Paleozoic reconstructions show
the Tethyan oceanic lithosphere being consumed to
the north in a subduction zone under the Eurasian
plate (Berberian, 1983). By the Late TriassicEarly
Jurassic, a collisional orogeny (Indosinian orogeny)
between the Eurasian plate and rifted fragments of
Gondwana (Central and East Iranian Lut-Farah mi-
crocontinents) is recognized ina suture line innorth-
east Iran and the southern Kopet Dagh Mountains,
along the Cimmerian margin (Ziegler, 1988; Zonen-
shain, 1991; Golonka, 1999). As a result of this colli-
sion, the subduction zone moved to a new position
southof the accretedIranianplate todevelopa newarc.
A Mesozoic active continental margin with Andean-
type magmatic arc was interpreted to be in existence
in the TranscaucasusTaleshwestern Alborz belt,
known as the Lesser Caucasus arc (Berberian, 1983)
(Figures 2, 4).
In the Middle to Late Jurassic, because of a renovat-
ed rifting phase, a 600-km (372-mi)-wide by 3000-km
(1864-mi)-long Greater CaucasusProto-Caspian mar-
ginal back-arc basin opened behind the Lesser Cau-
casus arc and probably extended to the Amu Darya
Basin (Zonenshain and Le Pichon, 1986; Ziegler, 1988;
Golonka, 1999). From the Bajocian and through the
CallovianOxfordianunder postrift subsidence, a rela-
tive global sea level highstand and tropical conditions,
widespread transgressive and carbonatic deposits were
deposited from the Amu Darya to the Talesh basins
(Berberian, 1983). KimmeridgianTithonianrestricted
circulation seas originated extensive evaporitic sed-
imentation observed in the Amu Darya Basin.
In the Early Cretaceous, rifting began along the
northern and eastern margin of the Lut block, fol-
lowed by sea-floor spreading and oceanic floor crea-
tion behind the Lesser Caucasus arc in the proto-
South Caspian Basin (Berberian, 1983; Zonenshain
et al., 1991; Golonka, 1999). This Neo-Tethys oceanwas
subducted under the Eurasian border and achieved
its maximumdimensions (3000 km[1864 mi] long by
900 km [559 mi] wide) by the Paleocene (Berberian
and King, 1981; Zonenshain et al., 1991). During the
Late Cretaceous, the central Iranian and Lesser Cau-
casus blocks collided in the SevaAkeraQaradagh
zone, producing substantial deformation and releas-
ing the subduction zone that jumped southward of
the Lesser Caucasus arc to the AdjaroTrialetian arc
(Zagros subduction zone) (Zonenshain et al., 1991).
The beginning of a Late CretaceousPaleogene com-
pressional phase is indicated by the gradual rise of the
Alborz and Talesh Mountains, where no Paleogene
Neogene sedimentation is recorded (Berberian and
King, 1981). During the Paleocene, India and Africa
changed motions and started moving directly to the
north toward Eurasia, and by the end of the Eocene,
the Tethyan Ocean crust was totally consumed un-
der the AdjaroTrialetianarc (Zonenshainet al., 1991).
In the Oligocene, compressional deformations along
the arc margin were registered as a result of the un-
derthrusting of the Arabian continent and the colli-
sion with India (Ziegler, 1988; Zonenshain et al.,
1991) (Figure 5). The existence of a marginal basin
(Paratethys) during the Oligoceneearly Miocene(?)
behind the Zagros Andean-type subduction zone
(evidenced by calc-alkaline volcanics in the Adjaro
Trialetan arc) and north of the TaleshAlborz belt
is supported by the presence of predominant north-
ernalkaline activity related to rifting and deep faults
(Berberian, 1983) (Figure 5). Because of the north-
ward movement of the SouthCaspianmicroplate, the
southern part of this basinwas reopened, whereas the
northernpart was gradually reduced insize (Golonka,
1999) (Figure 5).
A disconnection of the back-arc Paratethys basin
with the main seaway, possibly as a result of a global
sea level lowstand in the Oligocene (Chattian?), fa-
voredthe depositionunder stagnant conditions of the
Maikop Formation black shales, the regional source
rock. During the Miocene, India and Africa moved
again against Eurasia in an overall compressional re-
gime (with northerly subduction in the Zagros). The
progressive indentation of the Arabian plate, the de-
velopment of the right-lateral Zagros shear zone, and
the relative movement difference between Africa
and India caused a general displacement toward the
west, resulting in dextral movements along north-
west-trending strike-slip faults (Sengor and Yilmaz,
1981; Ziegler, 1988) (Figure 4). At this time, the Kopet
Dagh, NorthAnatolia, andGissar strike-slipzones were
formed, and the AdjaroTrialetian arc was sharply
bent. Final oceanclosure betweenthe IndianEurasian
plates must haveoccurredbythelateMiocenePliocene
(Coward, 1983).
The Petroleum Geology of Western Turkmenistan: The Gograndag-Okarem Province / 115
During the Pliocene Himalayan orogeny, defor-
mation was particularly intense in northern India.
Some of the Indian late motion was taken by major
thrusts and accommodated by sideways displacement
in a westward continental escape, reactivating major
preexisting strike-slip faults (Coward, 1983). Contin-
ued rise during the Neogene by northward displace-
ments and lateral movements in the Alborz, Talesh,
and Kopet Dagh fold and thrust belts involved mainly
PliocenePleistocene sediments at the rims of the
South Caspian Basin (Figure 2). A large magnitude of
vertical uplift is observed, particularly in the Alborz
thrust belt where Precambrian schists are in contact
with Quaternary deposits (Delayole et al., 1981). The
uplifting of the PliocenePleistocene sediments in
the Alborz fold and thrust belt is interpreted as a
manifestation of crustal shortening and thickening
and not a basin-and-rangetype deformation (Ber-
berian, 1983) (Figure 5). The collision between the
South Caspian microcontinent and the Turan plate
was never concluded, and the remnants of the Ju-
rassic and Tertiary back-arc systems and attenuated
oceanic crusts were locked between adjacent con-
tinental plates and orogenic belts (Golonka, 1999).
The SouthCaspiandepression, withits modifiedocean
crust, remained open and subsided further chiefly as
a result of tectonic loading (overthrusting of surround-
ing large fold-thrust belts) and secondarily caused by
continued cooling of the oceanic substratum during
the Pliocene (Figure 5). Maximum subsidence oc-
curred during the Pliocene with thickness beyond
10 km (6 mi) (Brunet et al., 2001).
The northwest to southeast and eastwest-trending
folding and reverse faulting in the Kopet Dagh range
(Nebit Dag region) and Apsheron trend in northern
western Turkmenistan are interpreted as the conse-
quence of combined (oblique) northwestward dex-
tral strike slip and northeastward pure compressional
motions resulting fromIranian, Indian, and Eurasian
plate collisions inthe late Pliocene (Lyberis andManby,
1999) (Figures 3, 4).
In southwestern Turkmenistan, in the Messerian
and Gograndag-Okarem provinces, the Maravan
Tappeh fault was also reactivated as a result of the
collision, indentation, and displacement of the Asian
continent. Fault-plane solutions fromearthquake data
in the MaravenTappeh fault show lateral sinistral
displacement to the southwest, whereas the Kopet
Dagh fault zone displays dextral displacement (Ber-
berian, 1983; Lyberis andManby, 1999). Northsouth
and northwest to southeast folding in this region is
interpreted to be the result of the sinistral strike-slip
motion of the MaravenTappeh fault (Figures 3, 4).
In the Gograndag-Okarem region, folding is ob-
served uptothe Ackchagilian(Pleistocene), coveredby
undeformed Quaternary sediments. This relationship
FIGURE 5. Early to late Tertiary geotectonic evolution of the South Caspian Basin diagrams at the Eocenelower Miocene
(5520 Ma) and the PliocenePleistocene (50 Ma). Solid black arrows indicate extension or compressional regimes.
Stippled areas are stable plates or microcontinents. See Figure 4 for location of AA
0
cross section (modified from
Berberian, 1983).
116 / Torres
is interpreted as an indication of the end of the Hi-
malayan orogeny in the Pleistocene (Figure 6).
The FersmanVeber offshore trend in the Turk-
men step province displays a noticeable change in di-
rection to the west-northwesteast-southeast, likely
influenced by the Pliocene northeast-verging thrust-
ing of the Alborz thrust belt (Figure 3).
Western Turkmenistan Stratigraphy and
Neogene Depositional Environments
The post-Paleozoic sedimentary column on the
eastern flank of the South Caspian Basin includes
sediments that range from the TriassicLower Juras-
sic to the Quaternary (Figure 7). TriassicLower Ju-
rassic to Paleogene deposits are best recognized in
the outcropping section of the Kopet Dagh thrust
belt in the Messerian province and near the Nebit
Dag area (Balkhan Mountains). These units are not
an exploration target and are penetrated only by a
few exploratory wells near the Kopet Dagh foothills.
The Danata 1 well, located in the Kopet Dagh thrust
belt outcrops, reported 800 m (2624 ft) of dark-gray
Triassic limestones. LowerMiddle Jurassic ( J1J2) is
represented by 2400 m (7874 ft) of terrestrial facies
(estuarine, deltaic, andcoal-bearing sediments) known
as the Shemshak Formation. In the subsurface, the
Upper Jurassic (J3) is represented by 350 m (1148 ft)
of platform carbonates and barrier reefs deposited in
a marginal back-arc basin (Greater Caucasus Basin)
(Ziegler, 1988; Nikishin and Savelyeva, 1990; Perviz
Ziya, 1992). The depthof these deposits inthe offshore
is 78 km (4.34.9 mi), whereas in the onshore, the
depthwas penetrated at 4.55 km(2.73.1 mi) (Perviz
Ziya, 1992). The SouthCaspianUpper Jurassic carbon-
ates correlate tothe CallovianOxfordianoil- and gas-
bearing barrier reef play, known as the Kugitang For-
mation in the Murgab Depression of the Amu Darya
Basin. Carbonate deposition continued through the
Neocomian, and an estimated total thickness for the
Upper JurassicNeocomian (J3K1n) interval is ap-
proximately 1500 m(4921 ft). Terrigenous sedimenta-
tion is registered during the AptianAlbian through
the Cenomanian (K1), with interbedded sandstones
and shales of approximately 1300 m (4265 ft) in
thickness (Figure 7). During the Senonian to Dani-
an, 1400 m (4593 ft) of siltstones and marly shales
with interbedded limestones were deposited in a low-
energy marine setting. Oligoceneearly Miocene-age
marine shales are unconformably overlying an Oligo-
cene erosional surface (Chattian global relative sea
level fall?) and are as much as 3 km (1.8 mi) thick in
the basin depocenter (Perviz Ziya, 1992). The lower
section of this unit, known as the Maikop Formation,
was deposited under stagnant conditions during a
FIGURE 6. Eastwest dip seismic line with stratigraphic nomenclature and sequences (third order) in the Pliocene,
Pleistocene, and Quaternary intervals. Producing and nonproducing fold trends are indicated.
The Petroleum Geology of Western Turkmenistan: The Gograndag-Okarem Province / 117
regional sea level lowstand that disconnected the
Para-Thetys with the main seaway. Based on studies
in the basins western flank in Azerbaijan, the Maikop
Formation black shales are the main proven source
rock interval (Wavrek et al., 1996). A fewdeep wells in
the Gograndag-Okarem province penetrated shallow-
marine shaly sandstones of middle Miocene (N2) age
overlaid by upper Miocene (N1) continental facies in
a coarsening-upward progradational arrangement.
These later terrestrial deposits are known as the Da-
gadzhik Formation (Figure 7). Only middle and upper
Miocene units are imaged as faulted and intensely
deformed thrust sheets in mobile shales on seismic
data below a conspicuous angular unconformity. The
reported total thickness for these units in the basin
depocenter is 2km(1.2mi), whereas intheGograndag-
Okaremprovince, thickness is less than500 m(1640 ft)
(Perviz Ziya, 1992). In most areas of the Gograndag-
Okarem province, Miocene sediments should be en-
countered at depths below 3800 m (12,467 ft).
The Pliocene lies unconformably over the Mio-
cene deposits on a regional disconformity produced
by a striking sea level drop of 6001500 m (1968
4921 ft) with deep incisions into the underlying sec-
tion (Figure 6). This sea level fall is interpreted as
glacioeustatic at the end of the Pontian age (late up-
per Miocene) andpossibly is relatedtoa global sea level
drop at 5.5 Ma that affected the Mediterranean Sea
(Messinian sea level fall) (Reynolds et al., 1998). This
angular unconformity is likely to be tectonically en-
hanced by the Kopet Dagh thrust belt activity during
the early Pliocene (Figure 6). The basin was isolated,
and sedimentation was restricted to the basin in-
terior, south of the Apsheron trend and basinward of
the present coastal line (Reynolds et al., 1998). Im-
portant erosion and sediment bypass affected all of
the surrounding areas. The sediment source for this
restricted basin was the paleo-Amu Darya, the paleo-
Kura, and the paleo-Volga rivers to the east, west, and
north, respectively. Consequently, a massive volume
of clastic sediments was deposited and most likely
preserved in a rapidly subsiding basin. The paleo-Amu
Darya river that flowed westward through the Kizyl
Kum trough from the Karakum desert, eroding the
rising Pamirs, was the principal sediment source
in western Turkmenistan (Figure 8). Nowadays, the
modernAmuDarya River flows northwardtothe Aral
Sea basin. The contribution of the southern minor
FIGURE 7. Gograndag-Okarem province stratigraphic col-
umn with lithostratigraphic nomenclature, lithology, age,
and producing reservoirs.
118 / Torres
rivers that also flowed westward fromthe Kopet Dagh
belt, like the Atrek and Gorgan rivers in the south-
ern Gograndag-Okaremprovince, is unknownat this
stage.
The Pliocene sedimentary column presents an
overall coarsening-upward profile in response to the
large prograding deltaic wedges that discharged into
the South Caspian Basin in an area of 60,000 km
2
(23,166 mi
2
) (Figure 9). Lower and middle Pliocene
units display a backstepping arrangement of onlap-
ping sequences at the base that change upward to
aggradational in response to increasing accommo-
dation space during a transgressive-regressive (inter-
glacial?) event (Figure 6). The upper Pliocene and
Quaternary units show, from base to top, aggrada-
tional, retrogradational, and progradational arrange-
ments. The lithostratigraphic usage for the Pliocene
is divided into the Red Color group (lower to upper
Pliocene) and Akchagyl (upper Pliocene) formations.
The middle Pliocene is the principal drilling target
for the easternSouth CaspianBasinand is seismically
recognized on sections down to 5 s and partially in
well logs to 4500 m (14,764 ft) (Figures 6, 9).
The Red Color group is subdivided into the Up-
per Red and Lower Red formations, with a total aver-
age thickness in the onshore areas of 3 km (1.8 mi).
The Lower Red Color formation is described as a
1000-m(3300-ft)-thick, interbedded very fine- to fine-
grained sandstones and shales unit. The average
drilled thickness of the Lower Red Color formation
in the Gograndag-Okarem province is more than
800 m (2624 ft) (Figure 9). Sand-to-shale ratio in-
creases upward rapidly as a response to active west-
ward progradation of the system from inner shelf-
prodelta to upper delta-plain facies. Because of an
increased distance to the sediment source (paleo-
Amu Darya river), sandcontent is observedtodecrease
to the south (Figure 8). Local geologists recognize,
withinthe Lower Red Color formation, the Kotur Tepe
and Nebit Dag members, nomenclature that is not
supported here because of the difficulties following
these units boundaries at a regional scale. Throughout
the Lower Red Color formation, the lithological char-
acteristics of the sandstones are similar and described
as light to mediumgray, in part light reddish brown,
quartzose, with minor lithic fragments, very fine to
FIGURE 8. South Caspian Basin middle Pliocene paleogeographic reconstruction. Paleo-Amu Darya delta with
depositional facies and location of the paleo-Kura and paleo-Volga deltas. Dashed lines indicate morphostructural
province boundaries.
The Petroleum Geology of Western Turkmenistan: The Gograndag-Okarem Province / 119
finegrained, weaklycemented(calcareous), withscarce
argillaceous matrix, subrounded to subangular, well
sorted, friable to moderately hard sandstones, with
common to abundant mica and pyrite (sometimes as
cement). Common sedimentary structures are mas-
sive, planar horizontal lamination, cross-bedding, and
current ripple cross-lamination. The mainsand bodies
present sharp to erosive basal contacts, occurring in
amalgamated beds, ranging from 0.102.50 m (0.3
8.2 ft) in thickness, very commonly delimited by thin
intraformational conglomerates dominated by abun-
dant rounded argillaceous rip-up clasts.
Both claystones and siltstones are varicolored,
predominantly pale to reddish brown, moderate to
slightly calcareous, and micromicaceous. Claystones,
siltstones, and argillaceous siltstones are thinly in-
terbedded, generally flat laminated, with local syn-
sedimentary deformation, occasionally desiccation
cracks, some synsedimentary fracturing, and sparse
horizontal and vertical burrows. Few and very thin
anhydrite layers (1 m [3.3 ft] or less) are intercalated
within the Lower Red Color formation. The deposi-
tional environment for the Lower Red Color forma-
tion is interpreted as a fluvial-dominated, low-energy
deltaic wedge, where inner shelf-prodelta grading
upward to delta-front and upper delta-plain facies are
recognized (Figure 8). Sandstones are interpreted as
distributary mouth bars, tidal inlets, and distributary
channels. The uniform and laterally continuous sedi-
mentation in the deltaic Lower Red Color formation
is interpreted as the result of high rates of accom-
modation space and sediment input, as well as a high
preservation potential (Figures 9, 10).
The boundary with the Upper Red Color forma-
tion is a shale neck interpreted as a transgression
or abandonment event and the upward transition
to more fluvial-dominated facies (Figure 9). Local
geologists divide the Upper Red Color formation into
the Kelkor and Cheleken members. Again, as in the
underlying unit, this nomenclature is not supported
for the same above-mentioned reasons. The average
total thickness for the Upper Red Color formation in
the Gograndag-Okarem province is normally more
than1000 m(3300 ft) (Figure 9). The Upper RedColor
formation is described as gray to light brown, fine- to
medium-grained sandstones interbedded with gray
and light brown to red brown siltstones and clays-
tones. Sandstones are 510 m (1633 ft) thick, light
FIGURE 9. Gograndag-Okarem province type well with
electric logs signature (SP = spontaneous potential and R
t
=
true resistivity), age, and stratigraphy.
120 / Torres
FIGURE 10. Third-order sequences in the middle Pliocene Lower Red Color formation as observed in well logs. Details of
transgressive-regressive facies and a maximum flooding surface as observed in a single sequence is shown in the log at
the left.
The Petroleum Geology of Western Turkmenistan: The Gograndag-Okarem Province / 121
gray, minor grayish green, and light brown, medium-
to very fine-grained quartzose, with weak calcareous
cement, friable to loose, common pyrite and mica as
accessories. Thinly interbedded claystones and silt-
stones are light to reddish brown and light green, soft
to moderately firm, and calcareous. These beds are
commonly banded and grading one against the other
to very thin silty and argillaceous sandstones. These
shaly bodies are 1020 m (3366 ft) thick. Thin an-
hydrite layers, indicating desiccation events, are also
present.
The depositional environment of the Upper Red
Color formation is interpreted as a fluvial-dominated
low-energy deltaic system prograding to the south-
west and west in a broad, low-relief coastal plain un-
der arid to semiarid conditions. Sedimentary facies
include distributary mouth bars, distributary chan-
nels, and mainly coastal-plain braided rivers. Lateral
continuity in the upper delta-plain facies of the Up-
per Red Color formation is regarded as poor. A sea
level fall and a regional-scale sequence boundary are
recognized at the top of the Upper Red Color forma-
tion (Figure 6).
In the Turkmenian petroleum industry nomen-
clature, the Upper and Lower Red Color formations
are known as VK and NK, respectively. These initials
are followed by a number (or a roman number) to
identify the unit and, commonly, the reservoir (i.e.,
NK9 or VK IX). Local geologists have identified in
the Lower Red Color and in the Upper Red Color
formations as much as nine reservoir intervals in
each unit. This reservoir nomenclature is close to a
third-order sequence scale and is of generalized use
by local geoscientists.
At a basinal scale, the correlation between the
Productive Series of Azerbaijan and the Red Color
group has been a problem chiefly because of a lack
of a fossiliferous record and the ambiguity of the de-
positional facies. Kerimov et al. (1991) has correlated
the Productive Series (middle Pliocene) of Azerbaijan
with the Lower Red Color formation of Turkmenistan.
In this paper, the Cheleken member is correlated
with the Surakhany formation, the Kelkor member is
correlated with the Sabunchi formation, the Nebit
Dag member is correlated with the Balakhany forma-
tion, and the Kotur Tepe member is correlated with
the Pereryva Formation. Narimanov (1993) proposed
a regional depositional event at the base of the mid-
dle Pliocene to correlate the Pereyva suite inthe South
Caspian Basin. According to this author, this event is
recognized in horizon VIII of the Red Color forma-
tion, in horizon VII at the Bakinsky archipelago, and
the horizon XX at the Nizhnekurinskaya depression.
An increased sand thickness found in the Red Color
group horizon VIII in the Gograndag-Okarem prov-
ince wells supports the idea of a regional facies down-
ward shift at a regional scale as indicated by Nari-
manov (1993). Perviz Ziya (1992), in a basin-scale
regional interpretation, identified seven third-order
cycles (0.61-Ma range) in the middle Pliocene Pro-
ductive Series.
The sedimentary column of the Gograndag-Okarem
province was subdivided into genetic unconformity-
bounded transgressive-regressive units using a
sequence-stratigraphic approach (sensu Van Wag-
oner et al., 1990), based on the inference that a
strong eustatic signature controlled the Pliocene
and Quaternary depositional patterns (Figures 6, 10).
Based on a regional seismic and electric logs inter-
pretation, at least seven third-order sequences were
identified in both the Lower and Upper Red Color
formations (Figures 6, 10, 11). The eustatic signature
is interpreted to be related to climatically induced
fluctuations fromalternating hot and dry (lowstands)
to cool and wet (highstands) related to precession
(20-k.y.) and eccentricity (100400-k.y.) records as
observed in the paleo-Volga delta system(Nummedal
and Clifton, 2001). Sequences are 100150 m (330
492 ft) thick, with a sharp-based erosional sequence
boundary filled by a lowstand deposit (lowstand sys-
tems tract, LST) represented by a fluviodeltaic sand-
stone with intraformational clay clasts (rip-up clasts)
overlaid by a fining-upward event (transgressive sys-
tems tract, TST) or a maximumflooding surface. Maxi-
mum flooding surfaces are inferred from a clay-rich
interval deposited in a prodelta or outer shelf. The
highstand system tract (HST) is represented by a pro-
grading delta front with coarsening-upward patterns
commonly eroded at the top by the next sequence
boundary. Productive reservoirs were identified in
the LST/TST suite and in the HST prograding sand-
stones, being the latter of lesser petrophysical quality
(Figures 10, 11).
Synsedimentary growth during the Pliocene is
commonly observed in most of the anticlines in
the Gograndag-Okaremprovince. This phenomenon
is more noticeable to the south in structures like
Chykishlar, where wedging of the middle Pliocene
units is considerable and probably related to the
proximity with the synsedimentary tectonic activity
of the Alborz fold belt.
The Akchagyl formation (upper Pliocene) was de-
posited unconformably by a transgressive event evi-
denced by onlapping geometries after a significant
122 / Torres
sea level fall interpreted at the Upper Red Color for-
mation top (Figures 6, 7). The Akchagyl formation is
as much as 0.3 km (0.18 mi) in thickness and is
described as dark to pale gray green claystones and
marls, with abundant shell fragments (bivalve debris)
with minor interbedded gray to brown sandstones
(Figure 9). Seismic sections reveal infilling, transgres-
sive, backstepping geometries with bidirectional
onlaps over the underlying folded Upper Red Color
formation (Figure 6). This seismic geometry is in-
terpreted as indicative of the end of the major thrust-
ing activity in the upper Pliocene in the Kopet
Dagh thrust belt, related to the final closure between
India and the Eurasian continent. The top of the
Akchagyl unit coincides with a maximum flooding
surface over which a series of downlap terminations
are observed. The contact
with the underlying Upper
RedColor formationis marked
by a good electric log response
associated to an important
lithological change from dark-
gray marine claystones to
fluvial sandstones and clay-
stones (Figures 6, 9).
The Apsheron Formation
of Pleistocene age is formed
byseveral sequences (as much
as five were recognized) with
sigmoidal progradational
geometries and a total thick-
ness of approximately600m
(1968ft) (Figures 6, 7, 9). Dur-
ing the Pleistocene, a trans-
gressive event (Baku trans-
gression) at 0.7 Ma reached
50 m (164 ft) above the pres-
ent sea level (Svitoch, 1991).
The Apsheron Formation is
describedas a massive section
of pale gray to green clay-
stones, moderately firm to
soft, interbedded with sub-
ordinatedandverythinsand-
stones. Sandstones are com-
monly pyritized, pale gray to light brown, very fine- to
fine-grained quartzoses with calcareous cement and
argillaceous matrix. The contact withthe Quaternary
is marked by the presence of dark-gray calcareous
claystones with abundant shell debris for the first
80 m (262 ft).
Overlying the Apsheron Formation, approximate-
ly 600 m (1968 ft) of undifferentiated Quaternary
sediments were deposited by six shallow-marine pro-
grading sequences. The sigmoidal prograding geome-
try observed in Figure 6 indicates that subsidence
rates (sediment input > accommodation space) dur-
ing the Apsheron and Quaternary were lower than
in the middle Pliocene. During the late Pleistocene,
two major transgression phases known as Khazar
(0.30.1 Ma) and Khvalyn (0.06 Ma) reached more
FIGURE 11. Depositional ar-
chitecture of a third-order se-
quence depicting systemtracts,
sequence boundaries, and de-
positional facies as a response
to sea level oscillations.
The Petroleum Geology of Western Turkmenistan: The Gograndag-Okarem Province / 123
than40 m(131 ft) above the present sea level (Svitoch,
1991). The end of the paleo-Amu Darya river emp-
tying into the South Caspian Basin is placed at the
boundary of the early and late Quaternary by Yunov
et al. (1990) based on seismic data.
The undifferentiated Quaternary sediments are
described as soft, light to dark grayish green to pale
gray, moderately calcareous claystones with abun-
dant shell fragments (Figures 6, 9). At the bottom,
some interbedded, partlyverysandy, fossiliferous lime-
stones are found.
GOGRANDAG-OKAREM PROVINCE
PETROLEUM GEOLOGY
The Gograndag-Okarem province is located south
of the Nebit Dag productive area and lies between
the outcropping sectors of the Kopet Dagh fold and
thrust belt and the shelf area (Figures 3, 4). The
primary drilling objectives are the multistacked flu-
vial anddeltaic reservoirs of the middle Pliocene Lower
Red Color and Upper Red Color formations found at
drilling depths that range from 2000 to 4000 meters
below ground level (mbgl). Wells produce an average
of 300 BOPDwithgas-oil ratios that range from600 to
5500 bbl/ft
3
of gas in undersaturated and saturated
systems, respectively (Torres, 1997). The postulated
source rock is the Oligocene Maikop shales based on
studies inAzerbaijan(Abrams and Narimanov, 1997).
The Gograndag-Okarempetroleumsystemis designat-
ed as Maikop/Red Color group(.) based on the specu-
lative character of the source rock unit in western
Turkmenistan (Magoon, 1992). Average field size in
the Gograndag-Okarem province is 50 million bbl,
and the estimated ultimate recovery for the province
is 320 million bbl of oil. Oils are sweet, with 15348
API, and paraffinic (1320%). Commingling is rare
because Soviet development methodrequiredone well
per reservoir.
Trapping Style
The primary trapping mechanisminwesternTurk-
menistan is structural with a minor stratigraphic
component. The Gograndag-Okaremprovince struc-
tural style is characterized by a series of subparallel
ridges that display a regional north-northeastsouth-
southwest axial trend in the north that changes to
north-northwestsouth-southeast in the south near
the Iranian border (Figure 3). These features are the
result of folding of the Pliocene cover in the Kopet
Dagh thrust by dominant northwestsoutheast dex-
tral transpression along a reactivated Triassic su-
ture and sinistral eastwest to southeastnorthwest
strike-slip subsidiary faulting (MaravenTappeh
fault) during the MiocenePliocene Himalayanorog-
eny (Figures 2, 4). The Pliocene sedimentary cover
was passively folded above deep Miocene detachment
thrust sheets. Miocene folds are the result of a com-
bined mechanism that involves fault-propagation
folding and detachment folding, with a possible de-
collement zone in the lower Miocene shales. As ob-
served on seismic sections, no thrust faults cut the
Pliocene interval, and only minor extensional accom-
modation faulting is observed at the anticline axis
(Figures 6, 8). Mud volcanoes are a common feature
in western Turkmenistan, commonly found at the
anticline cores and considered as a by-product of the
compressional detachment folding process. A few of
them pierce the structure to reach the surface as ob-
served in Akpatlauk, Okarem, Gograndag, Bayadag,
andother locations (Figure 12). Shale diapirismhas also
been postulated as the primary deformation mecha-
nismfor the Pliocene anticlines (Durmishyan, 1984).
The seismic mapping of the top of the Lower Red
Color formation marker in the region resulted in
at least five subparallel, arcuate-shaped, roughly
northeastsouthwest-trending, positive fold trends
(Figure 3). Each fold trend presents several symmet-
rical, elongated, narrow, and with steep limbs four-
way closures. Postfolding sinistral transcurrent east
west faulting is commonly observed in some of the
southern anticlines (i.e., Akpatlauk and Chikishlyar
anticlines). Established hydrocarbon production is
encountered only along the first two westerly trends
of anticlines. Only minor and noncommercial dis-
coveries were reported on the third trend, and no
discoveries were reported east of the third trend, and
no potential is assigned to these last trends (Figure 3).
The first productive structural trend includes,
fromnorth to south, Erdekli, Gogran Dag, Karadashli,
and south Karadashli fields, among others. The sec-
ond productive trend contains, from north to south,
Erizak, Korpedzhe, Kamyshldzha, Okarem, Keimir, Ak-
patlauk, and Chikyshlyar fields. The third trend in-
cludes a few tested closures and productive fields as
well. These features are, fromnorthtosouth, Bugdayli,
Chukurkui, Khanguli, Miaser, Akeser, Porsu, Gasan-
kuli, and Adzhiyab (Figure 3).
Reservoir Characteristics
The traditional productive interval in the Gogran-
dag-Okaremprovince is a middle to late Pliocene, retro-
gradational to aggradational, 2000-m (6600-ft)-thick,
124 / Torres
interbedded, very fine to fine sandstones and shales
section in the Lower and Upper Red Color formations
(Figure 6). This interval is interpreted as deposited ina
major deltaic systemthat progradedunder low-energy
conditions over a broad shelf setting fed by a large
braided system (Figure 8). Fluvial processes domi-
nate the delta front and delta plain, although allo-
cyclic (eustasy, climate) processes are interpreted to
control depositional architecture (Figures 10, 11).
The characteristic high subsidence and depositional
rates of the South Caspian Basin produced a high
preservation potential that minimized autocyclic
processes, giving the typical continuity and aggrada-
tional architecture to events as can be observed on
seismic and well-log correlations (Figure 6). Reser-
voirs are shallow-marine (distributary mouth bars),
lower delta-plain(distributarychannels, crevasse splay)
and braided-channel sandstones. According to core
data taken from the Lower Red Color formation, po-
rosity and permeability values and reservoir quality
FIGURE 12. Mud volcanoes (shown in red) in the Gograndag-Okarem province piercing the reservoir section. Mud
volcanoes are thought to be the primary migration pathways to the Red Color group.
The Petroleum Geology of Western Turkmenistan: The Gograndag-Okarem Province / 125
vary with depositional environments. Figure 13 is an
example of a distributary-channel reservoir and facies
map in the Lower Red Color formation. Electric log in
Figure 13 is spontaneous potential (SP).
Based on cores taken in several reservoirs units,
the sandstones corresponding to main distributary-
channel fill and distributary mouth-bar bodies (5
10 m [1633 ft] thick) showed the best petrophysical
values. Average porosities in these facies are in the
2527% range, whereas the permeability ranges be-
tween 290 and 1000 md. These sandstone units are
sharp based (some with erosional surfaces and rip-up
clay clasts) and fining upward from fine to very fine
grained. The top of neither unit has been cored, but
according to electric logs, the sandstones have a silty
argillaceous character at the
top. These sandstones are
predominantly planar lam-
inated or structureless mas-
sive with weakly developed
ripple cross-lamination, in-
dicating unidirectional cur-
rents. Nocross-beddingor evi-
dence exists for wave ripple
lamination or tidal-flow re-
versals. The internal features
of sandstones and the litho-
facies association seen in the
cores suggest that the depo-
sitional environment for
these sediments correspond
todistributarychannels from
a fine- to very fine-grained,
fluvial-dominated, high-
discharge delta. Figure 14
shows porosity and perme-
ability data and their electric
logsignature(SPandRILD[Re-
sistivity Induction Log Deep]
logs) from a core taken in a
typical Lower Red Color for-
mation reservoir.
Those corresponding to
minor distributary-channel-
fill bodies or delta-plain flood-
generated sandstones (1
2 m [3.36.6 ft] thick) (or possibly major crevasse
splays) present fair to good porosity (1820%), but
permeability values decrease strikingly (540 md).
The petrophysical parameters appear to characterize
both the minor distributary-channel-fill and flood
sandstones bodies with intergranular pore networks
locally open and connected because of weak com-
paction. However, primary voids are commonly small
and locally occluded or isolated by detrital clays and
locally significant cementation. Figure 15 is a corre-
lation between porosity and permeability data from
cores taken in the Lower Red Color formation.
Lithologically, the sandstones correspond to litha-
renites, sublitharenites, and subarkoses and are tex-
turally mature but mineralogically immature. Main
FIGURE 13. Lower Red Color
formation distributary-channel
and associated reservoir facies
as interpreted from well logs.
Electronic log in figure is SP.
126 / Torres
detrital components are quartz and minor feldspar
grains. Lithic fragments (mostly limestone, claystone,
siltstone, and igneous) are subordinated. Both glau-
conite and fine to very fine bioclasts described inthin
sections are consideredas anindicationof the marine
influence over the distributary channels. The main
accessories are mica and some chlorite. Most of the
cement corresponds to nonferroan calcite, whereas
the argillaceous content is very low (mean: 2.2%).
The cores finer grained sections are interpreted
as flood-plain, levee, and overbank deposits, includ-
ing minor sheet floods and possibly, in the case of
thicker sandstones, crevasse splays. These lithofacies
comprise heterolithic siltstones and claystones with
thin, fining-upward, ripple cross-laminated sandstone
units, typically 20 cm (7.8 in.) to 1 m (3.3 ft) thick.
Bioturbation is very uncommon (limited to possible
Chondrites and Planolites burrows and several other
equivocal indeterminate traces), whereas the soft sedi-
ment deformation is a small scale but widespread
feature (load and flame structures, convolute lami-
nation, sedimentary dykes, and low-angle recum-
bent slump folds), indicating rapid deposition, poor
grain packing, and large initial pore water content.
Reddening is a very common process observed in the
flood-plaindeposits, being the strongest inclaystones,
whereas siltstones and sandstones are paler. Redden-
ing in fluviodeltaic sediments is commonly associ-
ated with evidence for subaerial weathering. Thin
sandstones interbedded with heterolithic overbank
deposits are mostly nonreservoir apart from some
thicker sandstones (20 cm [7.8 in.] to 1 m [3.3 ft]
thick). Most of these sandstones have porosities less
than 17% and permeabilities less than 4 md.
Petrophysical properties of the reservoirs are most-
ly controlled by calcareous cement content (4.4
34.3%) instead of argillaceous content, which is very
low (0.74.3%). No significant variation of reser-
voir properties with depth is apparent from core
analysis data. The highest porosity and permeabil-
ity values are in the fine-grained lower part of the
units and decrease upward into the very fine-grained
ripple cross-laminated sandstones. This petrophysi-
cal pattern also controls resistivity signature in each
FIGURE 14. Lower Red Color formation distributary-channel reservoir and flood-plain facies with log signature (SP
and R
t
) and porosity and permeability from core data. SP = spontaneous potential; HMRS = medium resistivity log; DFL =
digitally focused laterolog; HDRS = deep resistivity log.
The Petroleum Geology of Western Turkmenistan: The Gograndag-Okarem Province / 127
individual reservoir, where the highest R
t
values are in
coincidence with the best petrophysical parameters
(Figure 14).
Reservoir continuity, as observedinwell logs, ranges
from tens of kilometers to a few hundred meters,
depending on the nature of the depositional environ-
ment. Depositional architecture and sand content is
interpreted to be influenced by sea level fluctuations
over a gently dipping broad shelf (Figures 6, 10).
Although relative sea level fall was not significant
during lowstand stages (no evidence of important
incisions), a basinward shift of the sedimentary facies
is commonly observed, depositing
extensive coarser grained sand bod-
ies over a large area (Figure 11). Res-
ervoirs deposited during lowstand
stages are the most productive when
compared to reservoirs of other sys-
tem tracts or of a noncyclic nature.
These sand bodies are interpreted as
beingdepositedindistributarymouth
bars with some degree of marine re-
distributionduring lowstandandsub-
sequent transgressive stages. These
continuous reservoir bodies are typ-
ical of the lower and middle parts
of the Lower Red Color formation
(Figure 9).
Based on Schlumberger Forma-
tion Tester (SFT) readings, the Red
Color group reservoirs are overpres-
sured. The formation pressure at
2800 mbgl is about 10.111.7 ppg
equivalent mud weight (Eq Mw),
with the exception of some produc-
ing reservoirs where some depletion
is expected. A formation pressure
breakoccurs belowthis depth, where
readings increased to 12.214.0 ppg
Eq Mw. At 3200 mbgl, readings
reached 16.5 ppg. Sand-to-shale ra-
tio increases considerably belowthis
depth, and overpressure is expected
to increase accordingly (Figure 16).
While developing the fields, the
use of Russian logging tools demonstrated itself to
be a cost-effective alternative when compared with
western style tools in trying to identify pay zones
and as correlation logs. Depth of invasion interpre-
tation (R
xo
and R
t
) from the Russian lateral log suite
improved the detection of pay and oil vs. gas zones.
Timing and Geochemical Modeling
Maturity studies performed on several wells from
the Gograndag-Okarem province produced trends
that indicated an extrapolated present depth of the
oil-windowtop (0.7 vitrinite reflectance) at 4000 m
FIGURE 15. Lower and Upper Red Color
formations reservoir porosity and per-
meability crossplot from cores. Circled
area shows the primary producing res-
ervoirs facies (distributary-channel fill
and mouth bars).
128 / Torres
(13,124 ft) or below (Figure 17). Rock-Eval studies
show that the middle Pliocene interval is presently
immature to slightly mature, with low total organic
carboncontents (<1%) discarding this unit as poten-
tial source rock (Figure 17).
Narimanov (1993) reported similar findings for
the middle Pliocene hydrocarbon generation poten-
tial of Azerbaijan based on Rock-Eval studies. This
paper regarded middle Pliocene potential as poor
when compared with the Paleogene interval (0.3
0.6 kg/t vs. 2.4 kg/t), although the basal section val-
ues increased to 0.181.1 kg/t.
Wavrek et al. (1998), us-
ing analyses of a large num-
ber of crude oil and source
rock samples from the west-
ern flank of the basin, con-
cluded that the primary
source rock is the Maikop/
Diatom unit (Oligocene
Miocene). This conclusion is
based on the isotopic ratios,
molecular characteristics of
oils and rocks, oil-oil corre-
lation, and maturation mod-
eling studies (Abrams and
Narimanov, 1997; Wavrek
et al., 1998). Isotopic ratio
data from Azerbaijan indi-
cate that the onshore oils
are derived from Oligocene
lower Miocene (Maikop For-
mation) sources, whereas off-
shore oils are derived from
middle Miocene to possibly
younger sourcerocks (Abrams
and Narimanov, 1997). Cor-
relation and isotopic stud-
ies have not been performed
on Turkmenian oils, and the
same source for the western
flank is postulated based on
the similarities between the
depositional histories of both
basin flanks.
The Maikop source inter-
val is described as type I/II organic matter (algal or
bacterial), with peak oil generation (early expulsion
0.70.8 vitrinite reflectance equivalence) that started
during the middle Pliocene and is presently locat-
ed between 70008000 mbgl (Wavrek et al., 1996,
1998).
Narimanov (1993) assessed the timing of trap for-
mation using trap structural and volumetric evolu-
tion by showing that half of the volume must have
charged the traps no earlier than the late Pliocene
Quaternary. This author concludes that the mainbasin
time of deformationwas the late PlioceneQuaternary,
FIGURE 16. Red Color group
pressure plot from SFT data.
Two major pressure breaks are
observedat 2750and3100mbgl
and interpreted as regional
seals.
The Petroleum Geology of Western Turkmenistan: The Gograndag-Okarem Province / 129
with migration time into the middle Pliocene reser-
voirs by late Pliocene toHolocene (Narimanov, 1993).
This late trap charging may help understand why
exploration results in the third and fourth struc-
tural trends in the Gograndag-Okarem province are
poor.
Fluid distribution is not uniform throughout the
pay interval, and several oil-gas zones are interbed-
ded with water-bearing beds, reflecting a complex
migration history with several phases of expulsion
and mixing. On a preliminary basis, fluid distribution
seems random and not in equilibrium, considering
the coexistence of undersaturated and saturated sys-
tems in each field. Interbedded shales are an effective
seal to vertical migration, and each reservoir shows
a different oil/gas-water con-
tact with traps not full to
spillpoint.
Primary migration path-
ways have a vertical compo-
nent represented by deep-
seated faults (extensional or
inverted) and mud volcanoes
cutting through the Pliocene
section (Figure 12). Minor ac-
commodation faulting in
the anticline core could be
a secondary migration path-
way responsible for the ulti-
mate fluid distribution and
mixing within the structure.
Exploration Scenarios
Middle andupper Pliocene
commercial accumulations
were discovered only in the
first twoof the three onshore
trends with modest discov-
eries inthe third trend, prob-
ably related to trap timing
and late charging (Figure 3).
Further potential for the Pli-
ocene could be related to the
onshore deeper horizons and
basal backstepping marine-
influenced sequences. The principal difficulty to
investigate these deeper pools is the overpressured
reservoirs (>16.5 ppg) below reservoir unit 9 (NK 9)
(Figure 16).
Large areas remain underexplored, particularly the
offshore, where several prospects have been seismi-
cally delineated. A commercial gas test was reported
from a Quaternary (Khazar stage) clastic reservoir in
the SeveroOgurchinsnky offshore structure. This dis-
covery should lead to the investigation of deeper hori-
zons in this area, where the Red Color group should be
expected at depths of 67 km (3.74.3 mi) (Nikishin
and Savelyeva, 1990). Amplitude anomalies and areas
associated with seismic signal absorption have been
identified in a large area (20 km [12 mi] in diameter)
FIGURE 17. Geochemical ma-
turity plot from vitrinite re-
flectance in the Lower Red
Color formation indicating an
immature to early mature in-
terval. The top of oil window
is inferred at 4000 mbgl.
130 / Torres
close to the northern flank of the Fersman high (Niki-
shin and Savelyeva, 1990) (Figure 3). Stratigraphic
potential of deep-water clastics in slope and basin-
floor fans in Pliocene and Quaternary lowstand sys-
tems tracts needs to be evaluated using sequence-
stratigraphic techniques, and an important potential
could be related to Pliocene source-reservoir systems
(Torres, 1997) (Figure 8).
Upper Miocene sediments tested oil and gas with
moderate flows in several fields (Korpedzhe and Bug-
dayli) in the Gograndag-Okarem province at depths
that range from 3800 to 4100 mbgl. Further poten-
tial of the Kopet Dagh thrust and fold belt in the
coastal areas is thought to be related to a Miocene
unconformity play (Figure 6). The Miocene is the
second play in importance and is currently consid-
ered underexplored.
Other possible plays are the Upper Jurassic
Neocomian carbonates with fracture-type porosity,
the upper Aptianupper Cenomanian clastics with
good reservoir properties (porosities as much as 20%),
with gas shows in the Zapadny Aladag structure. Hy-
drocarbon shows were also recorded at the Senonian
Cenomanian in the Seitkarderi structure and the Al-
bian in Izatkuli structure in the Messerian province
(Figure 2).
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I thank Bridas Energy for authorization to pub-
lish the material used in this paper. I also thank
D. Mancini for providing the appropriate working
environment and encouragement to study the South
Caspian Basin petroleum systems. I thank J. Babayev
who guided me through my first steps on Turkme-
nian geology. I thank my wife Claudia her for sup-
port and help with text editing.
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