DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

COMPUTER GRAPHICS- 2 MARK QUESTIONS WITH ANSWERS

SEM/YEAR-07/IV
UNIT - I
2D PRIMITIVES
1. Def!e C"#$%&e' (')$*+,.
Computer graphics remains one of the most existing and rapidly growing computer fields.
Computer graphics may be defined as a pictorial representation or graphical representation of
objects in a computer.
2. N)#e )!- f"%' !$%& .e/+e,.
Four input devices are keyboard, mouse, image scanners, and trackball.
0. W*)& , 'e,"1%&"!2
The maximum number of points that can be displayed without overlap on a CRT is
referred to as the resolution.
3. W'&e &*e &-$e, "f +1$$!(2
oint clipping, line clipping, area clipping, text clipping and curve clipping.
4. Def!e $5e12
ixel is shortened forms of picture element. !ach screen point is referred to as pixel or
pel.
6. W*)& , f')#e 7%ffe'2
icture definition is stored in a memory area called frame buffer or refresh buffer.
7. W*)& , $"!& ! &*e +"#$%&e' (')$*+, ,-,&e#2
The point is a most basic graphical element " is completely defined by a pair of user
coordinates #x, y$.
8. W'&e ,*"'& !"&e, "! 1!e,2
% line is of infinite extent can be defined by an angle of slope & and one point on the line
'#x,y$. This can also be defined as y'mx(C where C is the )intercept.
9. Def!e C'+1e2
Circle is defined by its center xc, yc and its radius in user coordinate units. The e&uation
of the circle is #x*xc$ ( #y*yc$ ' r+.
10. W*)& )'e &*e /)'"%, )&&'7%&e, "f ) 1!e2
The line type, width and color are the attributes of the line. The line type includes solid
line, dashed lines, and dotted lines.
11. W*)& , T')!,f"'#)&"!2
Transformation is the process of introducing changes in the shape si,e and orientation
of the object using scaling rotation reflection shearing " translation etc.
12. W*)& , &')!,1)&"!2
Translation is the process of changing the position of an object in a straight*line path
from one coordinate location to another. !very point #x , y$ in the object must undergo a
displacement to #x-,y-$. the transformation is. x/ ' x ( tx 0 y/ ' y(ty
10. W*)& , '"&)&"!2
% +*1 rotation is done by repositioning the coordinates along a circular path, in the x*y
plane by making an angle with the axes. The transformation is given by.
2/ ' r cos #& ( f$ and )/ ' r sin #& ( f$.
13. W*)& , ,+)1!(2
% +*1 rotation is done by repositioning the coordinates along a circular path, in the x*y
plane by making an angle with the axes. The transformation is given by.
2/ ' r cos #& ( f$ and )-/' r sin #& ( f$.
14. W*)& , ,*e)'!(2
The shearing transformation actually slants the object along the 2 direction or the )
direction as re&uired. ie0 this transformation slants the shape of an object along a re&uired plane.
16. W*)& , 'ef1e+&"!2
The reflection is actually the transformation that produces a mirror image of an object.
For this use some angles and lines of reflection.
17. D,&!(%,* 7e&:ee! :!.": $"'& ; /e: $"'&2
% portion of a picture that is to be displayed by a window is known as window port.
The display area of the part selected or the form in which the selected part is viewed is known as
view port.
18. Def!e +1$$!(2
Clipping is the method of cutting a graphics display to neatly fit a predefined
graphics region or the view port
19. W*)& , &*e !ee. "f *"#"(e!e"%, +""'.!)&e,2
To perform more than one transformation at a time, use homogeneous coordinates
or matrixes. They reduce unwanted calculations intermediate steps saves time and memory and
produce a se&uence of transformations.
20. D,&!(%,* 7e&:ee! %!f"'# ,+)1!( )!. .ffe'e!&)1 ,+)1!(2
3hen the scaling factors sx and sy are assigned to the same value, a uniform
scaling is produced that maintains relative object proportions. 4ne&ual values for sx and sy result
in a differential scaling that is often used in design application
21. W*)& , f5e. $"!& ,+)1!(2
The location of a scaled object can be controlled by a position called the fixed point
that is to remain unchanged after the scaling transformation.
22. W*)& , <""#!(2
5ooming means enlarging a digital image to see it more clearly or make it easier to alter.
6t allows the user to see more detail for a specific area of the image.
20. W*)& , R%77e' =)!.!(2
Rubber 7anding is another form of ,ooming. The user can use a mouse to define
two corners of a rectangle. The selected area can be copied to a clipboard, cut, moved or ,oomed.
23. W*)& , )! "%&$%& $'#&/e2
8raphics programming packages provide function to describe a scene in terms of
these basic geometric structures, referred to as output primitives.
24. >,& "%& &*e (')$*+, )$$1+)&"!,
$)!& $'"(')#, ? %llow you to create rough freehand drawings. The images are
stored as bit maps and can easily be edited.
11%,&')&"!/.e,(! $'"(')#,? 9upports more advanced features than paint programs,
particularly for drawing curved lines. The images are usually
stored in vector*based formats. 6llustration:design programs are often called
draw programs.
$'e,e!&)&"! (')$*+, ,"f&:)'e ? ;ets you create bar charts, pie charts, graphics, and
other types of images for slide shows and reports. The charts can be based
on data imported from spreadsheet applications. animation
,"f&:)'e? !nables you to chain and se&uence a series of images to simulate movement. !ach
image is like a frame in a movie.
C%1 ,"f&:)'e? !nables architects and engineers to draft designs.
.e,@&"$ $%71,*!( ? rovides a full set of word*processing features as well as
fine control over placement of text and graphics, so that you can create
newsletters, advertisements, books, and other types of documents.
UNIT II
0D CONCEPTS
1. Def!e P'"Ae+&"!2
The process of converting the description of objects from world coordinates
to viewing coordinates is known as projection. The process of displaying <1 into a
+1 display unit is known as projection. The projection transforms <1 objects into a
+1 projection plane
+. W*)& )'e &*e ,&e$, !/"1/e. ! 0D &')!,f"'#)&"!2
= >odeling Transformation
= ?iewing Transformation
= rojection Transformation
3orkstation Transformation
0. W*)& ." -"% #e)! 7- /e: $1)!e2
% view plane is nothing but the film plane in camera which is positioned and oriented for
a particular shot of the scene.
3. >,& "%& &*e 0D I,,%e,2
@ >ore Complicated Abjects than +1
@ >ore involved geometric transformations
@ ?iewing transformations much more complicated
@ rojection onto a two dimensional output display #usually$
@ 6dentification of ?isible 9urfaces
4. W*)& -"% #e)! 7- $)')11e1 $'"Ae+&"!2
arallel projection is one in which , coordinates is discarded and parallel lines from each
vertex on the object are extended until they intersect the view plane.
6. W*)& ." -"% #e)! 7- Pe',$e+&/e $'"Ae+&"!2
erspective projection is one in which the lines of projection are not parallel. 6nstead, they
all converge at a single point called the center of projection.
7. W*)& , P'"Ae+&"! 'efe'e!+e $"!&2
6n erspective projection, the lines of projection are not parallel. 6nstead, they all
converge at a single point called rojection reference point.
8. Def!e +"#$%&e' (')$*+, )!#)&"!2
Computer graphics animation is the use of computer graphics e&uipment where the
graphics output presentation dynamically changes in real time. This is often also called real time
animation.
9. W*)& , &:" 1!!(2
6t is the process, which is applicable to animation objects defined by a se&uence of
points, and that change shape from frame to frame.
10. Def!e f')#e2
Ane of the shape photographs that a film or video is made of is known as frame.
11. W*)& , @e- f')#e2
Ane of the shape photographs that a film or video is made of the shape of an
object is known initially and for a small no of other frames called keyframe
12. Def!e R)!."# ,+)!/R),&e' ,+)! .,$1)-,2
Random scan is a method in which the display is made by the electronic beam which is
directed only to the points or part of the screen where the picture is
to be drawn.
The Raster scan system is a scanning techni&ue in which the electrons sweep from top to
bottom and from left to right. The intensity is turned on or off to light and unlight the pixel.
10. W*)& , 7& #)$2
% bit map #often spelled BbitmapB$ defines a display space and the color for
each pixel or BbitB in the display space. % 8raphics 6nterchange Format and a C!8 are examples
of graphic image file types that contain bit maps. % bit map does not need to contain a bit of
color*coded information for each pixel on every row. 6t only needs to contain information
indicating a new color as the display scans along a row. Thus, an image with much solid color will
tend to re&uire a small bit map.
7ecause a bit map uses a fixed or raster graphics method of specifying an image, the
image cannot be immediately rescaled by a user without losing definition. % vector graphics
graphic image, however, is designed to be &uickly rescaled. Typically, an image is created using
vector graphics and then, when the artist is satisfied with the image, it is converted to #or saved
as$ a raster graphic file or bit map.
13. W*)& , P5e12
The pixel #a word invented from Bpicture elementB$ is the basic unit of programmable
color on a computer display or in a computer image. Think of it as a logical * rather than a
physical * unit. The physical si,e of a pixel depends on how you/ve set the resolution for the
display screen. 6f you/ve set the display to its maximum resolution, the physical si,e of a pixel
will e&ual the physical si,e of the dot pitch #let/s just call it the dot si,e$ of the display. 6f,
however, you/ve set the resolution to something less than the maximum resolution, a pixel will
be larger than the physical si,e of the screen/s dot #that is, a pixel will use more than one
dot$. The specific color that a pixel describes is some blend of three components of the color
spectrum * R87.
14. W*)& , RG=2
R87 #red, green, and blue$ refers to a system for representing the colors to be used on a
computer display. Red, green, and blue can be combined in various
proportions to obtain any color in the visible spectrum. ;evels of R, 8, and 7 can each range
from D to EDD percent of full intensity. !ach level is represented by the range of decimal numbers
from D to +FF #+FG levels for each color$, e&uivalent to the range of binary numbers from
DDDDDDDD to EEEEEEEE, or hexadecimal DD to FF. The total number of available colors is +FG x
+FG x +FG, or EG,HHH,+EG possible colors.
16. W*)& , +)&*".e ')- &%7e BCRTC2
% cathode ray tube #CRT$ is a speciali,ed vacuumtube in which images are produced when an
electron beam strikes aphosphorescent surface. >ost desktop computer displays make useof
CRTs. The CRT in a computer display is similar to theBpicture tubeB in a television receiver.
% cathode ray tube consists of several basiccomponents, as illustrated below. The electron gun
generates anarrow beam of electrons. The anodes accelerate the electrons.1eflecting coils
produce an extremely low fre&uency electromagnetic field that allowsfor constant adjustment of
the direction of the electron beam.There are two sets of deflecting coils. hori,ontal and vertical.
#6n the illustration, only one set of coils is shown forsimplicity.$ The intensity of the beam can be
varied.
17. >,& "%& &*e #e&*"., %,e. f"' ,#""&*1- A"!!( &:" 1!e ,e(#e!&,2
>itter join* by extending the outer boundaries of each of the two lines until they
meet.
Round join * by capping the connection between the two segments with a
circular boundary whose diameter is e&ual to the line width.
7evel join * by displaying the line segments with butt caps and filling in
the triangular gap where the segment meet.
18. Def!e 7%!.1e. )&&'7%&e,2
6ndividual attribute commands provide a simple and direct method for specifying
attributes when a single output device is used. 3hen several kinds of output device are available at
a graphics installation, it is convenient to set up a table for each output device that lists set of
attribute values that are to be used on that device to display each primitive type. %ttribute
specified in this manner is known as bundled attribute.
19. W*)& , ,+)! 1!e )1("'&*#2
Ane way to fill the polygon is to apply the inside test. i.e to check whether the pixel is
inside the polygon or outside the polygon and then highlight the pixel which lie inside the
polygon. This approach is known as scan*line algorithm.
20. W*)& , ) >!e +)$2
;ine caps can be used to adjust the shape of the line ends to give a better appearance.
There are three types of line caps. 7utt cap which has a s&uare end, round cap which has a
semi circle end, projecting s&uare cap which has one half of the line width beyond the
specified end points
UNIT III
GRAPHICS PROGRAMMING
1. S&)&e &*e $'"$e'&e, "f H"1"(')$*+ #)(e,2
Iolographic images are not clear diagrams <*dimensional can also be recorded on
materials other than photographic plates records intensity of light and phase created by coherent
light using a laser beam
2. Def!e F')+&)1,2
Fractals are regular objects with a high degree of irregular shapes. 6t is a lossy
compression techni&ue but it doesn/t change the shape of the image. Fractals are
decompressed images that result from a compression format
0. E5$1)! F')+&)1 C"#$'e,,"!2
Fractal Compression is based on image content i.e., it is based on similarity of
patterns within an image. The steps in Fractal compression are
@ a digiti,ed image is broken into segments
@ the individual segments are checked against a library of fractals
@ the library contains a compact set of numbers called iterated function
@ these system codes will reproduce the corresponding fractal
3. S&)&e &*e )$$1+)&"!, "f D"+%#e!& I#)(!(2
1ocument 6maging is used in organi,ations such as
o 6nsurance agencies
o ;aw offices
o Country and 9tate 8overnments
o Federal 8overnment
o 1epartment of 1efence #1A1$
4. Def!e C"#$'e,,"! Eff+e!+-2
Compression !fficiency is defined as the ratio in bytes of an uncompressed image to
the same image after compression.
6. W*)& , I#)(e P'"+e,,!(2
6mage rocessing refers to processing a digital image using a digital computer. %n
image processing system will alter the contents of the image. 6t involves 6mage Recognition,
6mage !nhancement, 6mage 9ynthesis and 6mage Reconstruction.
7. E5$1)! I#)(e C)17')&"!2
The overall image density is calibrated. 6n 6mage calibration the image pixels are
adjusted to a predefined level.
8. W*)& , G')-,+)1e N"'#)1D)&"!2
The overall grayscale of an image or picture is evaluated to determine if it is skewed in
one direction and if it needs correction.
9. W*)& , F')#e A/e')(!(2
The intensity level of the frame is averaged to overcome the effects of very dark or very
light areas by adjusting the middle tones.
10. W*)& , I#)(e A!#)&"!2
6mages are displayed se&uentially at controlled display speeds to provide image
animation. 6mage %nimation is the basic concept of displaying successive images at short
intervals to give the perception of motion. 6mage %nimation is a technology developed by
3alt 1isney and brought to every home in the form of cartoons.
11. H": I#)(e A!!"&)&"! , ."!e2
6mage %nnotation can be performed in two ways
@ as a text file stored along the image.
@ as a small image stored with the original image.
12. S&)&e &*e 'e,"1%&"! "f F)+,#1eE D"+%#e!& I#)(e, )!. P*"&"(')$*+
I#)(e,2
Facsimile * EDD to +DD dpi
1ocument images * <DD dpi #dots:pixels per inch$
hotographic images * GDD dpi
10. W*)& , &*e +"#$'e,,"! &e+*!F%e %,e. ! F)+,#1e )!. D"+%#e!&
I#)(e,2
Facsimile * CC6TT 8roup<
1ocument 6mages * CC6TT 8roupJ
13. W*)& )'e &*e )$$1+)&"!, "f P*"&"(')$*+ I#)(e,2
hotographic images are used in 6maging 9ystems that are used for identification
such as
@ 9ecurity 7adges
@ Fingerprint Cards
@ hoto 6dentification 9ystems
14. W*)& , R),&e' (')$*+,2
Raster graphics are digital images created or captured #for example, by scanning in a
photo$ as a set of samples of a given space. % raster is a grid of x and y coordinates on a display
space. #%nd for three*dimensional images, a , coordinate.$ % raster image file identifies which
of these coordinates to illuminate in monochrome or color values. The raster file is sometimes
referred to as a bitmap because it contains information that is directly mapped to the display grid.
% raster file is usually larger than a vector graphics image file. % raster file is usually difficult to
modify without loss of information, although there are software tools that can convert a raster
file into a vector file for refinement and changes. !xamples of raster image file types are. 7>,
T6FF, 86F, and C!8 files.
16. Def!e +"#$%&e' (')$*+, )!#)&"!2
Computer graphics animation is the use of computer graphics e&uipment where the
graphics output presentation dynamically changes in real time. This is often also called real time
animation.
17. W*)& , @e- f')#e2
Ane of the shape photographs that a film or video is made of the shape of an object
is known initially and for a small no of other frames called keyframe
18. W*)& , $,e%." )!#)&"!2
seudo animation is creating a se&uence of stills, photographing or video graphing
each still as one frame, and then later playing back the frames at a faster speed.
19. W*)& , &*e !"'#)1 ,$ee. "f ) /,%)1 )!#)&"!2
?isual animation re&uires a playback of at least +F frames per second
20. W*)& , )! !&%&/e !&e'f)+e2
The intuitive interface is one, which simulates the way a person would perform a
corresponding operation on real object rather than have menu command.
21. W*)& , S$'&e2
% 9prite is graphics shape in animation and games programs. !ach sprite provided in the
system has its own memory area similar to but smaller than pixel R%>.
22. W*)& , +"#$%&e' (')$*+, 'e)1,#2
The creation of realistic picture in computer graphics is known as realism. 6t is
important in fields such as simulation, design, entertainments, advertising, research,
education, command, and control.
UNIT IV
RENDERING
1. W*)& , #e)!& 7- Re!.e'!(2
6n <1 graphics rendering means the calculation of the final image from the scene
that includes models, textures, lights, special effects and cameras. The final image will be +1
image made of pixels. 4tili,ing materials, lighting techni&ues, and renderer/s settings one can
render multitude of different images from a single <1 scene.
2. T-$e, "f Re!.e'!(2
Realistic rendering
Clay Rendering
3ire Rendering
0. P%'$",e "f W'e Re!.e'!(.
The purpose of wire rendering is to reveal the polygon structure of the model. 3ire
rendering displays only edges of the polygons. 3ire render and clay render are often combined.
3. W'&e &*e ,-!&)5 "f ,#""&* ,*).!(.
9yntax.
glshade>odel#8;Ksmooth$0
@ 6t calculates the color at each vertex.
@ 6t produces much better image.
@ 6t computes during scan conversion.
4. >,& "%& &*e .'):7)+@, "f ,*).": #)$$!(.
= %liasing especially when using small shadow maps.
= The scene geometry must be rendered once per light inorder to generate the shadow map for a
spot light.
6. W*)& )'e &*e &:" &-$e, "f &e5&%'e,.
Two types of textures are.
@ 7itmap
@ rocedural
7. W*)& )'e &*e ,&)(e, "f 'e!.e'!(2
@ ;oading the shadow buffer
@ Rendering the scene
8. W'&e &*e f%!+&"! "f 7&#)$ &e5&%'e,.
The function texture #s,t$ accesses in the code.
color< texture#Float s,Float t$
L
return txtrM#int$#sNc$OM#int$#tNR$O
P
where colr< holds an R87 tuple.
9. >,& &*e )./)!&)(e, "f $*"!( ,*).!(.
6n hong shading the direction of normal vector varies smoothly from point to point and
more closely approximates that of an underlying smooth surface. >ore realistic rendering are
produced. The production of specular highlights is much more faithful than with 8ouraud
shading.
10.Def!e Te5&%'e #)$$!(2
Ane of the most important tool in computer graphics is texture mapping.Texture
mapping applies an image to a surface.6t allows a simple polygon to appear to have
a complex surface texture.
11. >,& &*e )./)!&)(e, "f f1)& ,*).!(2
o inexpensive to compute
o %ppropriate for objects with flat surface
o ;ess pleasant for smooth surfaces.
12. W*)& )'e &*e #e&*"., "f ,*).!(2
o Circulism
o 7lended Circulism
o 1ark 7lacks
o ;oose cross Iatching
o Tight cross Iatching
o owder 9hading
10. W*)& , &*e UDC &e+*!F%e
41C stands for 4ser 1efined Character set.6t is graphics animation trick which used in
early microcomputer system.
13. >,& &*e )./)!&)(e, "f ,*).": #)$$!(2
@ Qo knowledge or processing of the scene geometry is re&uired.
@ Anly a single texture is re&uired to hold shadowing information for each light.
@ %voids the high fill re&uirement of shadow volume.
14. W*)& , +"#$%&e' (')$*+, 'e)1,#
The creation of realistic picture in computer graphics is known as realism.6t is
important in fields such as simulation,design,entertainments,advertising,research,education,command
and control.
16.Def!e ,*).": /"1%#e.
The stencil buffer is used to find the interaction between the polygons in the scene and the
shadow volume. This techni&ue treat the shadows cast by objects as polygonal volumes.
17.W*)& )'e &*e ,&e$, ! 'e!.e'!( 0D &e5&%'e.
@ Create the <1 texture
@ Create Texture Coordinates
@ !nable Texturing
18.W*)& , &*e $%'$",e "f ,&e!+1 7%ffe' ! ,*).":!(2
The stencil buffer is used to compute which parts of the objects in the scene are in the
shadow volume.6t uses a non ,ero winding rule techni&ue.For every pixel in the scene, the
stencil value is incremented as it crosses a shadow boundary going into the shadow volume and
decrement as it crosses a boundary going out.
19.W*)& , &e5&%'!(2
% texture image is a rectangular array of pixel data.%pplying textures a graphical object
to achieve a more interesting image or add information to the image without computing
additional geometry.The key idea is to apply additional information to your image is computed
and displayed.
20.W*)& , ,*).": #)$$!(2
9hadow mapping is just one of many different ways of producing shadows in your
graphics applications each with its own advantages and disadvantages
UNIT V
FRACTA>S
1. W*)& , F')+&)1,2
% Fractal is an object whose shape is irregular at all scales.
2. W*)& , ) F')+&)1 D#e!,"!2
Fractal has infinite detail and fractal dimension. % fractal imbedded in n dimensional
space could have any fractional dimension between D and n.
The Fractal 1imension 1' ;ogQ : ;og 9
3here Q is the Qo of ieces and 9 is the 9caling Factor.
0. W*)& , #)'71e &e5&%'e2
>arble shows veins of dark and light material that have some regularity but that also
exhibit strongly chaotic irregularities..
3.. W*)& , ,"1. &e5&%'e2
9olid texture is sometimes called as <1 texture.3e view an object as being carved out of the
texture material such as marble or wood.The texture is represented by a
fuction texture#x,y,,$that produces an #r,g,h$ color value at every point in space.
4. W*)& , K"+* +%'/e2
The Roch curve can be drawn by dividing line into J e&ual segments with scaling factor
E:<. and middle + segments are so adjusted that they form adjustment sides of an e&uilateral
triangle.
6. W*)& , &%'&1e (')$*+, $'"(')#2
The turtle program is a Robert that can move in + dimensions and it has a pencil for
drawing. The turtle is defined by the following parameters. g. osition of the turtle #x, y$ h.
Ieading of the turtle D the angle from the x axis.
7. W*)& , (')f&)1,2
8raftals are applicable to represent realistic rendering plants and trees. % tree is
represented by a 9tring of symbols D, E, M, O
8. W*)& , ) P)'&+1e ,-,&e#2
% particle system is a method for modeling natural objects, or other irregularly shaped
objects, that exhibit Bfluid*likeB properties. article systems are suitable for realistic rendering of
fu,,y objects, smoke, sea and grass.
9. G/e ,"#e e5)#$1e, f"' +"#$%&e' (')$*+, ,&)!.)'.,2
@ CAR! * The Core graphics standard
@ 8R9 ** The 8raphics Rernel system
@ I689 * The rogrammers Iierarchical 6nteractive 8raphics 9ystem. 892 *
The 8raphics system extension m.
@ Q%;9 * The Qorth %merican presentation level protocol syntax.
10. W*)& , (e"#e&'+ f')+&)12
8eometric fractal is a fractal that repeats self similar patterns over all scales.
EE. W*)& , ')!."# f')+&)12
The patterns in the random fractals are no longer perfect and the random defects at all scale.
12. W'&e )7"%& .'):!( ,+e!e, %,!( OPENG>.
o Apen8; draws scenes by combining the ambient ,diffuse and specular
components of light that illuminate a vertex of an object.
o 6t uses the phong model to calculate the specular light component.
10. G/e &*e &-$e, "f &e5&%'e,.
There are two principle kinds of textures used.
@ 3ith a image texture a +1 image is pasted onto each surface of the object.
@ 3ith a solid texture the object is considered to be carved out of a block of solid
material that itself has texturing.The ray traces reveals the color of the texture at
each point on the surface of the object.
13. W*)& , &*e $%'$",e "f ,+e!e +1),,2
The scene class can read a file in the 91; language and build a list of objects in a
scene.This class can be used for ray tracing as well as to build scenes using the
following code.
9cene scn0
read#Bmy9cene.datB$0
14. Def!e ) Pe)!" +%'/e.
% curve can in fact fill the plane and therefore have a dimension of + such curves are called
eano curve.
16.Def!e R)!."# F)+&')1,2
The term fractal usually refers to sets which, in some sense, have a self*similar
structure. 6ndeed, some form of self*similarity is common in random sets, in particular those
arising from stochastic processes. Therefore studying fractal aspects is an important feature of
modern stochastic geometry. !arly progress in fractal geometry often referred to sets with
obvious selfsimilarity, like the Kxed pointsofiteratedfunctionsystems.
17. W*)& , M%1&&e5&%'!(2
M%1&&e5&%'!( is the use of more than one texture at a time on a polygon. For
instance, a light map texture may be used to light a surface as an alternative to recalculating that
lighting every time the surface is rendered.
18.W*)& , &%'7%1e!+e.
Turbulence is a noise generating method where several noise components are mixed
and they fluctates slowly as we move slightly through the space.The more rapidly varying
componts are given smaller strengths.
19.Def!e R)- +1),,.
Class Ray
L
public.
oint< start0
vector< dir0
void setstart#point< "p$Lstart.x'p.x0...P
void set1ir#?ector "v$Ldir.x'v.x0...P
P
20. W*)& ." -"% #e)!& 7- ,e1f ,#1)'.
9elf similarity means that two curves appear the same at any scale.Qo matter how much
one enlarges a picture of the curve.