CHAPTER 3

IDUCTIO MOTOR

3.1 ITRODUCTIO TO IDUCTIO MOTOR
3.2 COSTRUCTIO
3.2.1 TYPES OF ROTOR
a. SQUIRREL-CAGE ROTOR
b. WOUND ROTOR
3.2.2 STATOR
3.3 PRODUCTIO OF ROTATIG MAGETIC FIELD
3.4 PRICIPLE OF OPERATIO
3.5 SLIP AD SYCHROOUS SPEED
3.6 PER PHASE EQUIVALET CIRCUIT
3.7 POWER FLOW DIAGRAM
3.8 IDUCTIO MOTOR TESTS
3.8.1 NO LOAD TEST/ RUNNING LIGHT TEST
3.8.2 BLOCKED/LOCKED ROTOR TEST
3.8.3 DC RESISTANCE TEST
3.9 EFFICIECY
3.10 TORQUE EQUATIO
3.10.1 MECHANICAL TORQUE
3.10.2 MAXIMUM TORQUE
3.10.3 STARTING TORQUE
3.11 STARTIG METHOD AD SPEED COTROL
3.11.1 USING PRIMARY RESISTORS
3.11.2 USING STAR-DELTA STARTER
3.11.3 USING AUTO TRANSFORMER




3.1 ITRODUCTIO TO IDUCTIO MOTOR

Definition of Induction:
The process by which an electromotive force is produced in a circuit by varying the
magnetic field linked with the circuit.

Induction motors are the most commonly used electric motors.

Although it is possible to use an induction machine as either a motor or a generator, it has
many disadvantages and low efficiency as a generator and so is rarely used in that
manner. The performance characteristics as a generator are not satisfactory for most
applications.
For this reason, induction machines are usually referred to as induction motors.

AC current supplied to the stator winding produces a flux through the air gap that induces
currents in the rotor windings.

Rotor receives electric power by induction in exactly the same way as the
secondary of 2 winding transformer.
Can be treated as a rotating transformer, one in which primary winding is
stationary (stator) but the secondary is free to rotate (rotor).
Most appliances, such as washing machines and refrigerators, use a single-phase
induction machine
For industrial applications, the three-phase induction motor is used to drive
machines

Advantages
Very simple and extremely rugged
Low cost and very reliable
Requires minimum of maintenance

Disadvantages
Speed cannot be varied without sacrificing some of its efficiency.
Speed decreases with increase in load

3.2 COSTRUCTIO

A machine is called induction machines because the rotor voltage (which produces the
rotor current and the rotor magnetic field) is induced in the rotor windings instead of
being physically connected by wires.

The distinguishing feature of an induction machine is that no DC field current is required
to run the machine.

Although it is possible to use an induction machine as either a motor or a generator, it has
many disadvantages as a generator and so is rarely used in that manner. For this reason,
induction machines are usually referred to as induction motor.

Two sets of electromagnets are formed inside any motor. In an AC induction motor, one
set of electromagnets is formed in the stator because of the AC supply connected to the
stator windings. The alternating nature of the supply voltage induces an Electromagnetic
Force (EMF) in the rotor (just like the voltage is induced in the transformer secondary) as
per Lenzs law, thus generating another set of electromagnets; hence the name
induction motor. Interaction between the magnetic field of these electromagnets
generates twisting force, or torque. As a result, the motor rotates in the direction of the
resultant torque.

An induction motor consists of two main parts: stator and rotor. It has the same
physical stator as a synchronous machine but with different rotor construction. There are
two types of induction motor rotors that can be placed inside the stator, i.e. squirrel-cage
rotor and wound rotor.

3.2.1 TYPES OF ROTOR

a) Squirrel-Cage Rotor

Squirrel-cage rotor, as shown below, consists of a series of conducting bars laid
into slots carved in the face of the rotor and shorted at either end by large shorting
rings.


Fig. 3.0: Example of Squirrel-Cage Rotor

The rotor is cylindrical and is made of conducting bars short circuited at both ends
It is also known as brushless induction motor.
It is more rugged and since there are no brushes it is safer in combustible
environment.

b) Wound Rotor

Wound rotor, as shown below has a complete set of three-phase windings similar to
stator windings. Usually, it is Y-connected and the rotor coils are tied to the slip rings.

Fig. 3.1: Wound Rotor

The rotor is cylindrical and is made up of a three phase windings with terminals
brought out to slip rings
Wound rotor induction motors are also known as a slip-ring motors
This type is the more complicated of the two type but it has a higher starting
torque and is more controllable


3.2.2 STATOR

The stator is made up of several thin laminations of aluminum or cast iron. They are
punched and clamped together to form a hollow cylinder (stator core) with slots as shown
in Fig. 3.2. Coils of insulated wires are inserted into these slots. Each grouping of coils,
together with the core it surrounds, forms an electromagnet (a pair of poles) on the
application of AC supply.

The number of poles of an AC induction motor depends on the internal connection of the
stator windings. The stator windings are connected directly to the power source.
Internally they are connected in such a way, that on applying AC supply, a rotating
magnetic field is created.


Fig. 3.2: A Typical Stator



3.3 PRODUCTIO OF ROTATIG MAGETIC FIELD

When a three phase stator winding is connected to a three phase voltage supply, three
phase currents will flow in the windings which induce three-phase flux in the stator. This
flux will rotate at a speed called as synchronous speed
s
. The flux is called as rotating
magnetization field. The mathematical equation is given as:


p
f 120

s
= where = f the supply frequency
= p no. of poles in the
machine/motor

The currents that flows in the stator are spaced 120 each other. Graphical representation
is shown in Fig. 3.3.



Fig. 3.3: 3-Phase Current

( ) t sin i t i
m R
=
( ) ( ) = 120 t sin i t i
m Y

( ) ( ) + = 120 t sin i t i
m B



3.4 PRICIPLE OF OPERATIO

When a three phase current flow in a three-phase winding, rotating magnetic field (flux)
will be produced. The flux has constant magnitude and is distributed in sinusoidal form.
This flux will induce voltage in the rotor conductor by Flemings Right Hand Rule. By
Faradays Law, if the rotor winding is short-circuited, rotor current will flow in it. The
reaction between rotor current and stator flux causes the rotor to rotate in the same
direction as the stator flux.
An induction motor with 2 poles can be taken to explain this phenomena. Conductor A
will be located under north pole while conductor B will be located under south pole as
illustrated in Fig. 3.4. The flux rotates in the clock-wise direction (towards the right).lf
the flux is taken as the reference, the conductors A and B are likely to move to the left.
Then, from the Right Hand Fleming, voltage or current will be induced as shown in
Fig. 3.5.

Fig. 3.4: Conductor A is located under north pole and conductor B is located under south pole




Fig. 3.5: Right Hand Fleming Fig. 3.6: Ampere Right Hand Rule

The same process happens to conductor B.

As shown in Fig. 3.6, when current flows in the rotor circuit, flux will be induced and the
direction is anti-clock-wise. This is called Ampere Right Hand Rule. The interaction
between flux produced by the rotor current and the rotating flux will induce torque on the
rotor conductor that acts to the right. This torque causes the rotor to rotate clockwise. The
illustration is shown in Fig. 3.7.




Fig. 3.7: Interaction between Rotor Current Flux and Rotating Flux

Conclusion:
Rotating field will cause the rotor to rotate at the same direction as the stator flux. The
torque direction is independent upon the conductor position. Torque direction is always
the same as the flux rotation.

At the time of starting the motor, rotor speed = 0. The rotating magnetic field will cause
the rotor to rotate from 0 speeds to a speed that is lower than the synchronous speed. If
the rotor speed is equal to the synchronous speed, there will be no cutting of flux and
rotor current equals zero. Therefore, it is not possible for the rotor to rotate at
s
.


3.5 SLIP AD SYCHROOUS SPEED

Slip is defined as the difference between synchronous speed (magnetic fields speed) and
rotor speed:
s
r s

s

= .. (3.0)
where: =
s
synchronous speed in rev/min.
=
r
rotor speed in rev/min.


From Eqn. 3.0, the rotor speed can be derived as ( ) s 1
s r
= . Slip can also be
represented in percent. When the rotor move at
r
n rev/sec (rps), the stator flux will
circulate the rotor conductor at a speed of ( )
r s
n n per second. Therefore, the frequency
of the rotor emf,
r
f is written as:
( )p n n f
r s r
=
sf =
where:
= s slip
= f supply frequency.

The rotor therefore runs at a speed slightly less than the synchronous speed the difference
being called slip speed.
Slip speed
r s
=


3.6 PER PHASE EQUIVALET CIRCUIT

The per-phase equivalent circuit of a three-phase induction motor is just like a single
phase transformer equivalent circuit. The difference is only that, the secondary winding is
short-circuited unlike in the transformer it is open-circuited as a load is to be connected
later. The per-phase equivalent circuit is illustrated in Fig. 3.8 below.


Fig. 3.8: Per-Phase Equivalent of 3-Phase Induction Motor.

The per-phase equivalent circuit referred to the stator winding is shown in Figure 742.
This equivalent circuit is categorized into two types: [i] actual equivalent circuit and [ii]
approximate equivalent circuit.

Fig. 3.9: Per-Phase Equivalent Circuit Referred to Stator Winding.

From the equivalent circuit;
=
1
I Stator phase current. :
2 o 1
I I I + =
= Stator line current (for stator Y-connection)
=
3
I
L
, where =
L
I stator line current (for stator: - connection)
=
2
I Rotor current referred to stator winding
=
o
I No-load current,
m c o
I I I + =
=
c
I Core current
=
m
I Magnetizing current

For approximate equivalent circuit;
2 o 1
I I I + =
m c o
I I I + =

( )
c
ph s
c
R
E
I = ;
( )
m
ph s
m
jX
E
I = ;
( )
( )
1 2 1
2
ph s
2
X X j R
s
R
E
I
+ + |

\
|
+
= ... (3.1)

This model is normally used for analysis purposes for simplicity.

3.7 POWER FLOW DIAGRAM
Power flow diagram is actually a flow of power right from the input to the output.




Fig. 3.10: Power Flow Diagram

Fig. 3.10 shows the power flow diagram while Fig. 3.11 illustrates the components that
involve in the power losses calculation.

Fig. 3.11: Components Involved in Power Flow Diagram
From the circuit shown in Fig. 3.11, the power equations can be derived as follows:
[i] SCL occurs at
s
R , then ( )
s
2
2
R I 3 SCL = . (3.2)
[ii] RCL occurs at
R 2
' R R = , then ( )
2
2
2
R I 3 RCL = . (3.3)
[iii]
m
P occurs at ( ) s 1
s
R
2
, then ( ) ( ) s 1
s
R
I 3 P
2
2
2 m
= . (3.4)
[iv] RIP occurs on
s
R
2
, then : ( )
s
R
I 3 RIP
2
2
2
= . (3.5)
From Eqn. (3.2...3.5), we can derive the power equations in terms of slip and power,
then:
From Eqn. 3.4 : ( ) ( ) s 1
s
R
I 3 P
2
2
2 m
= =
( )
s
s 1 RCL
= ( ) s 1 RIP (3.6)
From Eqn. 3.5 : ( )
s
R
I 3 RIP
2
2
2
= =
( ) s 1
P
m

=
s
RCL
(3.7)

From these equations, we do not need to recalculate
m
P and RIP , if RCL is known
provided that the value for slip is known.

The input power comes from the stator input, then:
cos I V 3 cos I V 3 P
ph ph L L in
= =
Where
L
V and
L
I are line voltage and line current respectively.

ph
V and
ph
I are phase voltage and phase current respectively.
is the angle between voltage and current.








3.8 IDUCTIO MOTOR TESTS

The equivalent circuit of an induction motor is a very useful tool for determining the
motors response to change in load. There are three tests that are normally being carried
out for a 3-phase induction motor, namely:
i) No load test/ running light test
ii) Blocked/Locked rotor test
iii) DC resistance test [ this is optional: used to determine stator resistance ]

3.8.1 O LOAD TEST/ RUIG LIGHT TEST
The test set-up is shown in figure below. In this test, the motor is running at rated voltage
and no-load is connected to the motor. Readings are taken on the stator part are:
L
V : line to line stator voltage
L
I : stator line current
L
P : 3-phase input power


Fig. 3.12: Test Set-Up for No Load Test

C B A L
I I I I + + =
From this test, we can determine the value of
C
R and
m
X . This is corresponding to the
measurement as shown in figure below.

Fig. 3.13: Equivalent Circuit of Induction Motor


Calculation of
C
R and
m
X

L L
L
L
L L L
L
L
oc
s
I V
P
cos
cos I V
3
P
P
3
V
E
=
= =
=


From phasor diagram shown below,

Fig. 3.14: Phasor Diagram from No-Load Test


L L C
L L m
cos I I
sin I I

=
=

m
L
m
C
L
C
I
V
X
I
V
R

=
=



3.8.2 BLOCKED/LOCKED ROTOR TEST

In this test, the rotor is locked (not moving). The set-up is shown on figure below.


Fig. 3.14: Test Set-Up for Blocked Rotor Test

Power, voltage and current readings are taken.
BR
P : Blocked rotor power
BR
I : Line current
BR
V : Line voltage

From this test, we can determine the value of R
BR
and X
BR
.

r S BR
2
BR
2
BR BR
BR
BR
BR
2
BR
BR
BR
BR
2
BR
BR
BR
' R R R
R Z X
I
V
Z
I
P
R
R I
3
P
P
+ =
=
=
=
= =

The value
r
R' of can be calculated if
s
R is known from the DC test.

3.8.3 DC RESISTACE TEST
This test is performed to determine stators resistance
s
R . There are two possible
connections: Y or connection.

Fig. 3.15: DC Resistance Test (Y-Connection)

dc s
dc s
dc
dc
R R
R R
I
V
2
1
2
=
= =



Fig. 3.15: DC Resistance Test ( -Connection)

dc s
s dc
dc
s
s s
dc
dc
R R
R R
R
R
R R
I
V
2
3
3
2
3
) ( 2
=
=
= =


Exercise 2.5

The results of no-load and blocked rotor tests for a three-phase induction motor are:
o-load test: V
L-L
= 220V
P
in
= 1000W
I
L
= 20A
P

= 400W

Blocked rotor test: V
L-L
= 30V
P
in
= 1500W
I
L
= 50A

Calculate the per-phase parameters of the approximate equivalent circuit by assuming the
stator are connected in Y.



3.9 EFFICIECY
Efficiency for any electrical machine is defined as:

+

= =
in
in
in
out
P
losses Total P
P
P
(3.8)
One thing should be noted that the
out
P is actually the output from the rotor or motor itself
while the input power comes from the stator.

3.10 TORQUE EQUATIO
Torque equation can be derived from the power equation that is expressed in mechanical
formula and electrical formula. These two formula can be equated together to obtain its
relationship in terms of circuit parameters.

Basic power equation is given as;
T P = where
60
2
= (speed in rad/sec)
= Speed in rev/min (rpm)
= T Torque in Nm
Then torque,

2
P 60
T ; Torque

= . (3.9)


Eqn. 3.9 is the general formula for torque equation. This formula can be employed to
calculate the output and mechanical torque by some formula modification.

For mechanical torque :
2
P 60
T @ T
m
m mech

= .. (3.10)


For output torque :
2
P 60
T
out
o

= .. (3.11)

3.10.1 MECHAICAL TORQUE (
m
T )
The mechanical torque is sometimes called the induced torque. The mechanical torque
can be also expressed in terms of circuit parameters.
( ) ( )
m r
m r 2
2
2 m
T
60
T 2
s 1
s
R
I 3 P

= = =

where =
r
speed of the rotor and
=
r
The rotor speed in rad/s
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
s
2
2
2
s
2
2
2
r
2
2
2
m
s
R I 3
s 1 s
s 1 R I 3
s 1
s
R
I 3
T

=

=

But,
( )
( )
1 2 1
2
ph s
2
X X j R
s
R
E
I
+ + |

\
|
+
= ; so ,
( )
( )
2
2
1
2
ph s
2
X R
s
R
E
I
+ |

\
|
+
=

Substitute
( )
( )
2
2
1
2
ph s
2
X R
s
R
E
I
+ |

\
|
+
= , into the mechanical torque,
m
T equation,
Thus,
( )
( )
( )
| |
( )
(
(

+ |

\
|
+
=
(
(
(
(
(

+ |

\
|
+
=
2
2
1
2
s
2
2
ph s
s
2
2
2
2
1
2
ph s
m
X R
s
R
s
R E 3
s
R
X R
s
R
E
3
T

.. (3.12)

By simplifying the above equation, therefore, the formula for the mechanical torque,
m
T is
( )
| |
( ) ( ) | |
2 2
1 2
2
s
2
ph s
m
sX sR R
sR
E 3
T
+ +
==

.. (3.13)
where
2 1
X X X + =

Fig. 3.16: Motor Torque vs Slip(Speed)

Eqn. 3.13, if we draw on the
m
T versus s on the graph will be appeared as in Fig. 3.16.
From the torque-speed characteristics (Fig. 3.16.) it is observed that;

st
T : The torque required by the motor to start. Also called as initial torque.
max
T : The max torque for the motor. Also called as stalling or pull-out torque.
max
S : The slip at
max
T
L
T : No-load torque.
FL
T : Full-load torque.
s
: Synchronous speed.









3.10.2 MAXIMUM TORQUE (
max
T )

To obtain
max
T , differentiate the
m
T to obtain
max
s ,
From the same curve, the max point can be obtained by differentiating Eqn. 3.13.

0
ds
dT
m
= :
To obtain max torque, then, yield:
( )
2
2
1
2
max
X R
R
s
+
=
Substitute
max
s into Eqn. 3.13, we get:

( )
| |
( ) ( ) ( ) | |
2 2
1 1
s
2
ph s
max
X R R
1
2
E 3
T
+ +
==

(3.14)


3.10.3 STARTIG TORQUE (
st
T )
Starting torque can be derived from Eqn. 3.13 with slip, 0 . 1 s =
At starting, 0
r
= , therefore, 1 =

=
s
r s
s
As a result, the equation of the starting torque,
st
T is

( )
| |
( ) | |
2
2
1 2
2
s
2
ph s
st
X R R
R
E 3
T
+ +
==

(3.15)


Fig. 3.17 represents the relationship between torque and slip/speed with varying R .


Fig. 3.17: Motor Torque vs SIip(Speed)

The relationship between
st
T and
max
T can be obtained by assuming stator resistance =0.
From Fig. 3.17, we found that at starting, torque is proportional to the resistance.


3.11 STARTIG OF A IDUCTIO MOTOR

An induction motor is similar to a polyphase transformer with a short-circuited rotating
secondary. If normal voltage is applied to the motor, large initial current is taken for a
short while.

While an induction motor is short-circuited, it takes about 5 to 7 times the full-load
current and develops only 1.5 to 2.5 full-load torque. The initial excessive current will
effect the operation of other electrical equipment connected to the same line. Therefore, it
is not advisable to start on line motors above 25kW to 40kW.

The starting torque of an induction motor can be improved by increasing the resistance of
the rotor circuit. The initial current can be controlled by applying a reduced starting
voltage. Some of the starting methods of an induction motor are discussed below.



3.11.1 USIG PRIMARY RESISTORS

The purpose is to apply a reduced voltage across the motor terminals so that the initial
current is reduced. However, it should be noted that E I and
2
E T .

By using the primary resistors, the applied voltage per phase can be reduced by factor of
x.

sc st
xI T = and
sc st
I x T 2 =
f f
f
sc
f
st
f
f
sc
f
f
st
f
st
s a x s
I
I
x
T
T
s
I
xI
s
I
I
T
T
2 2
2
2
2 2
=
|
|

\
|
=
|
|

\
|
=
|
|

\
|
=


This method is useful for smooth starting small machine. The circuit used for this type of
method is shown below.

Fig. 3.18: Starting of Induction motor using primary resistors

3.11.2 USIG STAR-DELTA STARTER

This method is used for delta-connected motors. It consists of 2-way switch, which
connects the motor in star for starting and delta for normal running, as shown in figure
below.
At starting, when star-connected, the voltage is reduced by
3
1
. Hence, the torque
developed is reduced by
3
1
. This method is cheap and effective provide the starting
torque required does not exceed 1.5 full-load torque. This method is used for machine
tools, pumps and motor-generators.

Fig. 3.19: Starting of Induction motor using star-delta starter


3.11.3 USIG AUTO TRASFORMER

This method can be both for star and delta connected motors. At starting, a reduced
voltage is applied across the motor terminals. When the speed is about 80%, the
autotransformer is cut-off and full supply voltage is applied. The circuit used for this type
of method is shown in figure below.

Fig. 3.19: Starting of Induction motor using autotransformer

Let the tapping of the transformation ratio = k
f f
fL
st
f
fL
st
fL
st
s a k s
I
I
k s
I
I
T
T
2 2
2
2
2
=
|
|

\
|
=
|
|

\
|
=