An Introduction of NDE - NDT

INTRODUCTION TO
NON DESTRUCTIVE EXAMINATION

OUTLINE
MATERIAL TESTING
OVERVIEW OF FOUR NDE METHODS
Liquid Penetrant Testing (PT)
Magnetic Particle Testing (MT)
Radiography Testing (RT)
Ultrasonic Testing (UT)
APPLICATION OF NDE
Material Testing
Material testing is the technology of assessing the soundness and
acceptability of an actual component with or without affecting the
functional properties of either test specimen or actual job.
MATERIAL TESTING
Destructive Non-destructive
Tensile testing Radiography testing
Compression testing Ultrasonic testing
Impact testing Magnetic particle testing
Fatigue testing Liquid penetrant testing
Creep testing Eddy current testing
Bend testing Acoustic emission testing
Micro/Macro testing Neutron radiography testing
Chemical testing etc Thermography etc
Material Testing
MATERIAL TESTING
Destructive Non-destructive
Measure accurate or specific
characteristics of materials by
destroying the specimen
Monitoring and maintaining
material quality, components
reliability & systems safety
without destroying actual job.
UTS Surface & Subsurface flaws
Proof stress Coating & plating thickness
% Elongation Sorting
% Reduction area Velocity & thickness monitor
Youngs modulus Structure and assembly
evaluation
Fatigue strength Reliable life assessment etc..
Creep strength
Fatigue properties etc
DEFINITION OF N.D.E.:
NDE is a tool, which uses inspection technology to determine
soundness & measurement of characteristics of the raw
material, components, structure & equipments etc. without
causing harm to them.
Material Testing
Material Testing
TYPE OF INDICATION:
False Indication: Indication, that occurs due to incorrect processing or
incorrect procedure.
Non-relevant Indication: It is an indication, which has no relation to
the discontinuity. i.e. Code has given various sizes of indications which
are not be considered as relevant indication.
Relevant Indication: It is the indication that needs to be evaluated for
serviceability and can either be determined as discontinuity or defect.
i.e. A indication that may or may not be acceptable by reference code
section.
Material Testing
DISCONTINUITY & DEFECT:
Discontinuity: It is any local variation in material continuity which may
not interfere to its intended service life. E.g. Change in geometry,
presence of holes, cavities or inclusions.
Defect: When any discontinuity, single or multiple, is of such size,
shape, type and location, that it can create a substantial failure of
material in its intended service, is known as DEFECT.
Remember: Every discontinuity is not a defect, Every defect is a
discontinuity.
Methods of N.D.E.
Visual Inspection (VT)
Radiographic Testing (RT)
Eddy Current Testing (ET)
Leak Testing (LT)
Acoustic Emission Testing (AET)
Infrared Thermal Testing (IRT)
Remote Field Testing (RFT)
Nuclear Radiographic Testing (NRT)
Common Methods used in N.D.E.
Visual Testing (VT)
Radiographic Testing (RT)
INTRODUCTION TO
LIQUID PENETRANT TESTING
OUTLINE
Introduction & Working principle
Basic operation procedure of PT
Materials used in PT
Classification of PT
Application of PT
Types of defects detected by PT
Advantages & Limitations of PT
Code Acceptance criteria
PT in Boiler
LIQUID PENETRANT TESTING (PT)
INTRODUCTION:
PT is a common method used to detect surface breaking flaws.
Flaws are detected by bleed-out of a colored or fluorescent dye from
it.
The technique is based on ability of a liquid to be drawn into a clean
surface breaking flaw by capillary action.
After a period of time called the dwell, excess surface penetrant is
removed and a developer applied. This acts as a blotter.
Visible color contrast penetrants require day-light or hand bulb.
Fluorescent penetrants need to be used in darkened area with an
ultraviolet "black light".
INTRODUCTION (CONT.):
PT produces a flaw indication that is much larger and easier than flaw
for the eye to detect.
PT produces a flaw indication with a high level of contrast between the
indication and the background also helping to make the indication
more easily seen.
WORKING PRINCIPLE:
FLUORESCENT PT
VISIBLE PT
BASIC OPERATION PROCEDURE OF PT:
Surface preparation (Pre-cleaning): The surface must be free of oil,
grease, dust, rust and other contaminants that may prevent penetrant
from entering flaws. Sometimes, test surface may also require
machining, sand or grit blasting, grinding, buffing etc.
SOLVENT CLEANING
BASIC OPERATION PROCEDURE OF PT (CONT.)
Penetrant application: Penetrant can be applied by spraying,
brushing, wiping, or dipping the part in a penetrant bath.
DYE APPLICATION BY BRUSHING DYE APPLICATION BY SPRAYING
Penetrant dwell time (PDT): The penetrant is left on the surface for a
sufficient time to allow penetrant to be drawn into a defect. PDT are
as recommended by manufacturers or as per written procedure being
followed.
Excess penetrant removal: This step is most delicate. Depending upon
type of penetrant used, step may involve cleaning by emulsifier,
rinsing with water, solvent remover.
EXCESS PENETRANT REMOVAL BY SOLVENT
EXCESS PENETRANT REMOVED
BASIC OPERATION PROCEDURE OF PT(CONT.)
Developer application: A thin & uniform layer of developer is applied
to drag out penetrant trapped in the flaw. Developer may be applied
by Spraying, dusting, or dipping.
DEVELOPER APPLICATION BY SPRAYING
Slide 17
Developer dwell time (DDT): The developer is left on the surface for a
sufficient time to allow it to extract the penetrant out from the
discontinuity. It is usually 10 mins as recommended by the
manufacturer or written procedure.
Interpretation/Evaluation: After passing developing dwell time
inspection is performed under required lighting conditions.
Post-cleaning: Last step of the inspection process is to clean the
residual penetrant material from the test surface.
EVALUATION
MATERIALS & EQUIPMENTS USED IN PT:
Cleaner (Solvent remover)
Penetrant (Dye)
Developer
Lint free cotton cloth
Emulsifier (Lipophilic or Hydrophilic)*
Black light (UV light)
Lux meter & UV meter
Thermometer
*Use of Emulsifier depends upon the type of method chosen for PT
CLASSIFICATION OF PT:
A. Based on type of examination technique
a) Visible color contrast method
b) Fluorescent method
B. Based on type of Penetrant removal process
a) Solvent removable technique
b) Water washable technique
c) Post emulsifiable technique (Lipophilic)
d) Post emulsifiable technique (Hydrophilic)
APPLICATION OF PT:
Materials that can be examined with PT:
PT can be applied on all non-porous materials. e.g. Metal, Plastic,
Glass, Ceramics etc.
TYPES OF DEFETCS CAN BE DETECTED WITH PT:
Flaws that can be detected by PT:
Only surface flaws can be detected.
Cracks
Porosity
Laps
Seams
Lamination
Cold shuts
Good PT performance practice!!!
Pre-cleaning: The surface to be examined along with adjacent areas
of 25mm (1 inch.) must be free of oil, grease, lint, dirt, rust, spatter,
welding flux, scale etc. If required, grinding or buffing needs to be
done other than solvent remover.
Temperature: The temperature of surface to be examined &
penetrant material should be within 5 to 52 C inclusive.
Lighting requirement: The visible day light shall be 1000 lux
minimum at the surface to be examined. If there is a insufficient
light condition to perform examination, than use 60W bulb from 9
inch distance or 100W bulb from 12 inch distance as a thumb rule.
In case, where fluorescent PT is applied, The visible ambient light
shall not be more than 20 lux in the darkened area. The UV light
used shall have 1000 W/cm
2
intensity.
ADVANTAGES:
Highly sensitive to small surface discontinuities.
Can be applied to all metallic and nonmetallic, magnetic and
nonmagnetic, and conductive and nonconductive materials can be
inspected.
Large areas and large volumes of parts/materials can be inspected
rapidly and at low cost.
Complex geometric parts are routinely inspected.
Indications are produced directly on the surface of the part and
constitute a visual representation of the flaw.
Aerosol spray cans make penetrant materials very portable.
Penetrant materials and associated equipment are relatively less
costlier.
LIMITATIONS:
Only surface breaking defects can be detected.
Only materials with a relatively nonporous surface can be
inspected.
Pre cleaning is critical since contaminants can mask defects.
Metal smearing from machining, grinding, and grit or vapor blasting
must be removed prior to PT.
The inspector must have direct access to the surface being
inspected.
Surface finish and roughness can affect inspection sensitivity.
Multiple process operations must be performed and controlled.
Post cleaning of acceptable parts or materials is required.
Chemical handling and proper disposal is required.
CODE ACCEPTANCE CRITERIA (ASME SECTION-I, A-270)
Evaluation of indications
Only indications with major dimensions greater than 1.5 mm shall be
considered as relevant.
Any doubtful indication shall be re-examined to confirm whether they
are relevant or not.
Linear indication = l>3w
Rounded indication = l3w
Where,
l = Length of indication and
w = width of indication
CODE ACCEPTANCE CRITERIA (ASME SECTION-I, A-270) (CONT.)
Acceptance criteria
All surfaces to be examined shall be free of:
Any relevant linear indication
Rounded indication more than 5mm dia.
Four or more rounded indications in a line separated by 1.5mm or
less distance (edge to edge)
PT IN BOILER:
HEADER
Gas cutting/Machining of nozzle hole
Fit up lug removal
Circumferential welds
Nozzle edge preparation
Nozzle welding
End plate welding
Attachment welding
Orifice welding
Stub to tube welding
All welding after PWHT
PT IN BOILER:
COIL
Tube bending areas for Squeezing, Swaging (20%) [FOI]
Tube to tube welding (25%)
Attachment welding
PANEL
Tube to tube welding
10% on MPM welding
INTRODUCTION TO
MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING
OUTLINE
Introduction & Working principle
Basic operation procedure
Equipments used in MT
Direction of Magnetic field
Application of MT
Types of defect detected with MT
Pros & Cons of MT
Code Acceptance criteria
MT in Boiler
MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING (MT)
INTRODUCTION:
MT is relatively fast & easy to apply, part surface preparation is
also not essential parameter for this method.
MT helps determining the flaws lying near surface also.
MT uses magnetic fields & finely milled iron particles to detect
flaws only in ferromagnetic test specimen.
If iron particles are sprinkled on a cracked magnet, the iron
particles will be attracted to end of poles as well as at the edges
of the crack and form a cluster to make the flaw visible.
This cluster of particles is much easier to see than the actual
crack and this is the basis for magnetic particle inspection.
WORKING PRINCIPLE:
BASIC OPERATION PROCEDURE OF MT:
Pre-cleaning: It is essential for the particles to have an unimpeded path for migration to
both strong and weak leakage fields alike. The parts surface should be clean and dry
before inspection. Test surface shall be free of external particles like oil, grease, dirt, rust
etc.
Checking field adequacy: Pie shaped field indicator, flaw shims or tangential field probe
(Gauss meter) shall be used to check proper set up of the equipment.
Magnetizing the component: First step is to magnetize the component to be inspected.
This can be accomplished by Prods, Yokes, Coil and conductive cables or Stationary MT
machine. MT can be done with various currents like AC, DC or HWDC.
Application of Iron particles:
After magnetizing the component, the iron particles are spread on the surface to be
examined. This can be accomplished either by Dry particle application or in Wet
suspended form.
The particle will attracted and form a cluster at the flux leakage areas to make a
visible indication.
Interpretation/Evaluation:
Evaluation of indication as per applicable code, or standard.
Demagnetization:
Demagnetize the specimen after completing the inspection, if required.
BASIC OPERATION PROCEDURE OF MT:
Pre-cleaning: It is essential for the particles to have an unimpeded path for migration to
both strong and weak leakage fields alike. The parts surface should be clean and dry
before inspection. Test surface shall be free of external particles like oil, grease, dirt, rust
etc.
Checking field adequacy: Pie shaped field indicator, flaw shims or tangential field probe
(Gauss meter) shall be used to check proper set up of the equipment.
Magnetizing the component: First step is to magnetize the component to be inspected.
This can be accomplished by Prods, Yokes, Coil and conductive cables or Stationary MT
machine. MT can be done with various currents like AC, DC or HWDC.
Application of Iron particles:
After magnetizing the component, the iron particles are spread on the surface to be
examined. This can be accomplished either by Dry particle application or in Wet
suspended form.
The particle will attracted and form a cluster at the flux leakage areas to make a
visible indication.
Interpretation/Evaluation:
Evaluation of indication as per applicable code, or standard.
Demagnetization:
Demagnetize the specimen after completing the inspection, if required.
EQUIPMENTS USED IN MT:
Prods
Yoke
Magnetizing coil & conductive cables
Power source
Stationary MT unit
Black light
Lux meter
UV light meter
Dry magnetic particles
Wet magnetic particles
Field indicator (Pie gage)
Flaw shims
Gauss meter (Tangential field probe)
Equipments used in MT:
Portable Equipments
Stationary Equipment
Magnetizing current used in MT:
FOR SKIN EFFECT
& PARTICLE
AGITATION
TO DETECT
DEFECTS LYING
NEAR SURFACE
Magnetic particles:
Magnetic particles are mixture of rounded & slandered particles
with the size of 10 to 200 . It is also available in different colors
to enhance visibility, depending upon metallic background or
the applied contrast.
Classification based on visibility.
Visible (Non-Fluorescent) particles
Fluorescent particles
Classification based on carrier
Dry particle
Wet particle
Magnetic particles:
Wet Magnetic particles
(Visible)
Wet Magnetic particles
(Fluorescent)
Dry Magnetic particles
Air as Carrier
Bath concentration
checking
Liquid as Carrier
Light Meters:
Lux meter (White light)
UV Light meter (Black light)
Intensity of the light to be
checked before start of
examination, to verify
adequacy of light.
Field adequacy in MT:
Pie shaped magnetic field indicator Tangential field probe
Artificial flaw shims
DIRECTION OF MAGNETIC FIELD & ORIENTATION OF DEFECTS:
To properly inspect a part for defects, it is important to become familiar
with the different types of magnetic field.
One of the primary requirements for detecting a defect in a ferromagnetic
material is that the magnetic field induced in the part must intercept the
defect at a 45 to 90 angle. Flaws that are at 90 to the magnetic field will
produce the strongest indications because they disrupt more of the
magnet flux.
Therefore, for proper inspection of a component, it is important to be able
to establish a magnetic field in at least two directions.
DIRECTION OF MAGNETIC FIELD:
Two types of magnetic field
A) Circular Magnetic field
A circular magnetic field has magnetic lines of force that run
circumferentially around the perimeter of a part.
Accomplished by passing the current through the solid
bar/component.
Also can be produced by passing current through central
conductor in hollow pipe.
HEAD SHOT FOR CIRCULAR MAG. FIELD
Two types of magnetic field (Cont.)
B) Longitudinal Magnetic field
Usually established by placing the part near the inside or a coils
annulus.
This produces magnetic lines of force that are parallel to the long axis
of the test part.
LONGITUDINAL MAGNETIC FIELD (COIL SHOT)
Portable
coil
Conductive
cable
Longitudinal Magnetic Particle Testing Equipment (YOKE)
An electromagnetic yoke is a very common piece of equipment that is
used to establish a magnetic field.
It is basically made by wrapping an electrical coil around a piece of soft
ferromagnetic steel.
They can be powered with alternating current (AC) from a wall socket or
by direct current (DC) from a battery pack.
This type of magnet generates a very strong magnetic field in a local area
where the poles of the magnet touch the part being inspected.
Circular Magnetic Particle Testing Equipment (PROD)
The current passing between the prods creates a circular magnetic field
around the prods that can be used in magnetic particle inspection. Prods
are typically made from copper and have an insulated handle.
If proper contact is not maintained between the prods and the component
surface, electrical arcing can occur and cause damage to the component.
APPLICATION OF PT:
Materials that can be examined with MT:
MT can be applied on all ferromagnetic materials. e.g. Ferrite, Steel,
Nickel, Cobalt alloys etc.
TYPES OF DEFETCS CAN BE DETECTED WITH MT:
Flaws that can be detected by MT:
Surface & near surface flaws can be detected only in ferromagnetic
material.
Surface & near surface cracks
Undercuts
Lap
Seam
Lamination
ADVANTAGES
Can detect both surface and near surface defects.
Can inspect parts with irregular shapes easily.
Pre-cleaning of components is not as critical as it is for some other inspection
methods. Most contaminants within a flaw will not hinder flaw detectability.
Fast method of inspection and indications are visible directly on the specimen
surface.
Considered low cost compared to many other NDT methods.
Is a very portable inspection method especially when used with battery
powered equipment.
LIMITATIONS
Cannot inspect non-ferrous materials such as aluminum, magnesium or most
stainless steels.
Inspection of large parts may require use of equipment with special power
requirements.
Some parts may require removal of coating or plating to achieve desired
inspection sensitivity.
Limited near surface discontinuity detection capabilities. Maximum depth
sensitivity is approximately 0.6 (under ideal conditions).
Post cleaning, and post demagnetization is often necessary.
Alignment between magnetic flux and defect is important.
CODE ACCEPTANCE CRITERIA (ASME SECTION-I, A-260)
Evaluation of indications
Only indications with major dimensions greater than 1.5 mm shall be
considered as relevant.
Any doubtful indication shall be re-examined to confirm whether
they are relevant or not.
Linear indication = l > 3w
Rounded indication = l 3w
Where,
l = Length of indication and
w = width of indication
CODE ACCEPTANCE CRITERIA (ASME SECTION-I, A-260) (CONT.)
Acceptance criteria
All surfaces to be examined shall be free of:
Any relevant linear indication
Rounded indication more than 5mm dia.
Four or more rounded indications in a line separated by 1.5mm or
less distance (edge to edge)
MT IN BOILER:
HEADER
Gas cutting/Machining of nozzle hole
Fit up lug removal
Nozzle edge preparation
Nozzle welding
End plate welding
Attachment welding
Orifice welding
Stub to tube welding
All welding after PWHT
MT IN BOILER:
COIL
Attachment welding
PANEL
10% on MPM welding. (Being implemented)
INTRODUCTION TO
RADIOGRAPHY TESTING
OUTLINE
Working principle
Radiation sources
Nature of X-rays & Gamma rays
Gamma radiography
X-ray radiography
Film radiography
Radiographic sensitivity
Image Quality Indicators (IQI) or Penetrameters
Examples of welding discontinuities in RT
Radiographic acceptance standards
Safety in radiation
Application of RT
Defects can be detected in RT
Advantages & Limitations of RT
RADIOGRAPHY TESTING (RT)
WORKING PRINCIPLE
The part is placed between the radiation source and a piece of film. The
part will absorb some of the radiation. Thicker and more dense area will
absorb more of the radiation.
The film darkness (density) will vary with the amount of radiation reaching
the film through the test object.
RADIATION SOURCES
Two of the most commonly used sources of radiation in industrial
radiography are x-ray generators and gamma ray sources. Industrial
radiography is often subdivided into X-ray Radiography or
Gamma Radiography, depending on the source of radiation used.
NATURE OF X-RAYS & GAMMA RAYS.
They are form of Electromagnetic radiation
They are extremely short in wavelength, about 1/10,000 of
light, or even less.
This feature makes rays able to penetrate in material that
absorb or reflect ordinary light.
The only difference in X-ray & Gamma-ray is that, X-rays
are emitted from X-ray generator and Gamma rays are
emitted from activated radioisotope.
NATURE OF X-RAYS & GAMMA RAYS (CONT.)
GAMMA RADIOGRAPHY
Gamma rays are produced by
a radioisotope.
A radioisotope has an
unstable nuclei that does not
have enough binding energy
to hold the nucleus together.
The spontaneous breakdown
of an atomic nucleus
resulting in the release of
energy and matter is known
as radioactive decay.
GAMMA RADIOGRAPHY (CONT.)
Most of the radioactive
material used in industrial
radiography is artificially
produced.
This is done by subjecting
stable material to a source
of neutrons in a special
nuclear reactor.
This process is called
activation.
Unlike X-rays, which are produced by a machine, gamma rays
cannot be turned off. Radioisotopes used for gamma radiography
are encapsulated to prevent leakage of the material.
The radioactive capsule is attached to a cable to form what is
often called a pigtail.
The pigtail has a special connector at the other end that attaches to
a drive cable.
A device called a camera is used to store, transport and expose
the pigtail containing the radioactive material. The camera contains
shielding material which reduces the radiographers exposure to
radiation during use.
A hose-like device called a guide tube is connected to a threaded
hole called an exit port in the camera.
The radioactive material will leave and return to the camera
through this opening when performing an exposure.
A drive cable is connected to the
other end of the camera. This cable,
controlled by the radiographer, is
used to force the radioactive
material out into the guide tube
where the gamma rays will pass
through the specimen and expose
the recording device.
X-RAY RADIOGRAPHY
Unlike gamma rays, x-rays are produced by an X-ray generator
system. These systems typically include an X-ray tube head, a
high voltage generator, and a control console.
X-RAY RADIOGRAPHY (CONT.)
X-rays are produced by establishing a very high voltage
between two electrodes, called the anode and cathode.
To prevent arcing, the anode and cathode are located inside a
vacuum tube, which is protected by a metal housing.
X-RAY RADIOGRAPHY (CONT.)
The cathode contains a small
filament much the same as in a light
bulb.
Current is passed through the
filament which heats it. The heat
causes electrons to be stripped off.
The high voltage causes these free
electrons to be pulled toward a
target material (usually made of
tungsten) located in the anode.
The electrons impact against the
target. This impact causes an energy
exchange which causes x-rays to be
created.
High Electrical Potential
Electrons
- +
X-ray Generator
or Radioactive
Source Creates
Radiation
Exposure Recording Device
Radiation
Penetrate
the Sample
RADIATION INTERACTION WITH MATTER:
Radiation absorption or scattering occurs depending upon
energy of beam.
Photoelectric absorption Compton scattering
FILM RADIOGRAPHY
One of the most widely used and
oldest imaging mediums in industrial
radiography is radiographic film.
Film contains microscopic material
called silver bromide.
Once exposed to radiation and
developed in a darkroom, silver
bromide turns to black metallic silver
which forms the image.
FILM RADIOGRAPHY (CONT.)
Film must be protected from visible light. Light, just like x-rays and
gamma rays, can expose film. Film is loaded in a light proof
cassette in a darkroom.
This cassette is then placed on the specimen opposite the source of
radiation. Film is often placed between screens to intensify
radiation.
In order for the image to be viewed, the film must be developed
in a darkroom. The process is very similar to photographic film
development.
Film processing can either be performed manually in open tanks
or in an automatic processor.
Once developed, the film is typically referred to as a
radiograph.
RADIOGRAPH SHOWING POROSITIES IN WELDING
RADIOGRAPHY IMAGING TECHNIQUES:
Single wall single image (SWSI)
Double wall single image (DWSI)
Double wall double image (DWDI)
RADIOGRAPHIC SENSITIVITY
It is the ability of a technique to determine smallest
discontinuity. It is a combination of Radiographic contrast &
Radiographic definition.
Radiographic contrast is the density difference between two
adjacent areas of the radiograph and is the net effect due to
Film contrast &
Subject contrast
Radiographic definition refers to the sharpness of the radiographic
image. The causes of radiographic un-sharpness:
Geometric un-sharpness (Ug)
Movement un-sharpness (Um)
Inherent or film un-sharpness (Ui)
Scatter and screen un-sharpness (Us)
IMAGE QUALITY INDICATORS (IQI) OR PENETRAMETERS
It is used to judge quality of a radiograph and is measured in
terms of radiographic sensitivity.
The penetrameter is available in various designs.
e.g. Step type penetrameter
Hole-step penetrameter
Plate type penetrameter
Wire type penetrameter
Hole type penetrameter
IQIs should be placed on the source side of radiation, if in case,
it is not possible to put it at source side it should be placed film
side of radiation, in such case, letter F should be placed on the
film.
Wire type IQI should be placed across the weld.
Hole type IQI should be placed parallel to the weld & 3mm
apart from the weld edge.
HOLE TYPE PENETRAMETERS
WIRE TYPE PENETRAMETERS
FILM IDENTIFICATION LEAD
LETTERS
LOCATION MARKER:
Location markers are put to ensure total coverage of weld volume and
for future traceability.
Location marker shall always be put on job permanently and shall be
visible on radiograph.
EXAMPLES OF WELDING DISCONTINUITIES IN RT
RADIOGRAPH SHOWING LACK OF PENETRATION IN WELDING
SOME EXAMPLES OF RADIOGRAPHIC FILMS
RADIOGRAPH SHOWING LACK OF FUSION IN WELDING
RADIOGRAPH SHOWING UNDER CUT IN WELDING
RADIOGRAPH SHOWING MIS-MATCH IN WELDING
RADIOGRAPH SHOWING CRACKS IN WELDING
RADIOGRAPH SHOWING TUNGSTEN INCLUSION IN WELDING
RADIOGRAPH SHOWING SLAG INCLUSION IN WELDING
RADIOGRAPH SHOWING CLUSTER POROSITY IN WELDING
RADIOGRAPH SHOWING SUCK BACK IN WELDING
RADIOGRAPH SHOWING BURN THROUGH IN WELDING
RADIOGRAPH SHOWING UNDERFILL IN WELDING
RADIOGRAPH SHOWING EXCESS REINFORCEMENT IN WELDING
RADIOGRAPHY ACCEPTANCE STANDARD (ASME SECTION-I, PW-51)
Crack, Lack of Fusion & Lack of Penetration are not acceptable.
Any other elongated indication on the radiograph
6mm for thickness (t) up to 19mm is acceptable.
1/3 t for thickness (t) 19mm to 57mm is acceptable.
19mm for thickness (t) over 57mm is acceptable.
Total length of aligned indication greater than thk. of weld, in a
length of radiograph, which is 12 times in length of thickness of
weld is not acceptable. If, distance between successive indication
exceeds 6L is acceptable. Where, L is the length of longest
discontinuity in the group.
Rounded indication acceptance standard as per A-250.
RADIOGRAPHY ACCEPTANCE STANDARD (ASME SECTION-I, PW-51)
APPENDIX A-250 / TABLE A 250.3.2
RADIATION SAFETY
Use of radiation sources in industrial radiography is heavily
regulated by state and federal organizations due to
potential public and personal risks.
RADIATION SAFETY
There are many sources of radiation. In general, a person receives
roughly 100 mrem/year from natural sources and roughly 100
mrem/year from manmade sources.
RADIATION SAFETY
X-rays and gamma rays are forms of ionizing radiation, which means
that they have the ability to form ions in the material that is
penetrated. All living organisms are sensitive to the effects of
ionizing radiation (radiation burns, x-ray food pasteurization, etc.)
X-rays and gamma
rays have enough
energy to liberate
electrons from
atoms and damage
the molecular
structure of cells.
This can cause
radiation burns or
cancer.
RADIATION SAFETY
Technicians who work with radiation must wear monitoring devices
that keep track of their total absorption, and alert them when they
are in a high radiation area.
Survey Meter Pocket Dosimeter Radiation Alarm Radiation Badge
RADIATION SAFETY
There are three means of protection to help reduce exposure to
radiation:
Advance Technology in RT:
Real Time Radiography
Real-time radiography (RTR), or real-time radioscopy, is a nondestructive
examination (NDE) method whereby an image is produced electronically
rather than on film so that very little lag time occurs between the item
being exposed to radiation and the resulting image. In most instances,
the electronic image that is viewed, results from the radiation passing
through the object being inspected and interacting with a screen of
material that fluoresces or gives off light when the interaction occurs.
Advance Technology in RT:
Weld images from Real Time Radiography
RTR image showing
Voids in welding
RTR image showing
Crack in welding
APPLICATION OF RT
Can be applied to all materials. E.g. Ferrous & Non-ferrous, metallic &
non-metallic and all composites.
Sensitive for all volumetric type of defects.
DEFECTS CAN BE DETECTED BY RT:
All type of cracks
Lack of fusion (LoF)
Lack of Penetration (LoP)
Mismatch
Inclusions (Tungsten, Slag & Oxides)
Excess reinforcement
Excess penetration (EP)
Underfill
Undercut
Oxide
Suck back
Burn through
ADVANTAGES
Permanent record & track of each and every welding is possible
through film storage and joint identification.
Technique is not limited by material type or density.
Can inspect assembled components.
Minimum surface preparation required.
Sensitive to changes in thickness, corrosion, voids, cracks, and
material density changes.
Detects both surface and subsurface defects.
Provides a permanent record of the inspection.
LIMITATIONS
Many safety precautions for the use of high intensity radiation.
Many hours of technician training prior to use.
Access to both sides of sample required.
Orientation of equipment and flaw can be critical.
Determining flaw depth is impossible without additional angled
exposures.
Expensive initial equipment cost.
RT IN BOILER:
HEADER
Orifice welds
COIL
PANEL
INTRODUCTION TO
ULTRASONIC TESTING
OUTLINE
Working principle
Types of sound waves & their propagation
Type waves & particle motion
Wavelength & frequency
Attenuation of sound wave
Acoustic impedance & its important
Reflection & transmission
Refraction
UT equipments
Data Presentation
Calibration block
DAC Curve
UT of welding
Advance technologies in UT
Advantages & Limitations of UT
Code acceptance criteria
ULTRASONIC TESTING (UT)
WORKING PRINCIPLE:
In Ultrasonic Testing the High frequency sound waves (Ultrasonic -
Energy) are sent into the object. The sound waves travel through
the material and the waves are reflected at interfaces.
The probe picks up the reflected wave and an analysis of this signal
is done.
SOUND WAVE PROPAGATION:
At atomic level when vibration takes place in particle, It generates
sound wave.
Sound wave propagation depends on particle vibration direction.
WAVE TYPES IN
SOLIDS
PARTICLE
VIBRATIONS
Longitudinal
Parallel to wave
direction
Transverse (Shear)
Perpendicular to wave
direction
Surface - Rayleigh
Elliptical orbit -
symmetrical mode
WAVELENGTH AND FREQUENCY:
ACOUSTIC IMPEDANCE
Sound travels through materials under the influence of sound pressure.
Because molecules or atoms of a solid are bound elastically to one
another, the excess pressure results in a wave propagating through the
solid.
The acoustic impedance (Z) of a material is defined as the product of its
density (p) and acoustic velocity (V). It is resistance of material to passage
of the sound beam through material.
Z = pV
Acoustic impedance is important in
the determination of acoustic transmission and reflection at the boundary
of two materials having different acoustic impedances. Reflection is
directly proportional to impedance ratio of two material.
Air to any solid material impedance ratio is highest. So, UT is always
sensitive for planer defects.
assessing absorption of sound in a medium.
REFLECTION AND TRANSMISSION:
REFRACTION
When an ultrasonic wave passes through an interface between
two materials at an oblique angle, and the materials have
different indices of refraction, both reflected and refracted
waves are produced.
ATTENUATION OF SOUND WAVE:
Ultrasonic attenuation is the decay rate of
the wave as it propagates through material.
When sound travels through a medium, its
intensity diminishes with distance due to
Scattering and Absorption.
Scattering is the reflection of the sound in
directions other than its original direction of
propagation.
Absorption is the conversion of the sound energy
to other forms of energy.
The combined effect of scattering and absorption
is called attenuation.
BASIC SET UP OF UT:
Transducer (1)
Cable (2)
Ultrasonic Flaw Detector (3)
Couplant (4)
3
2
1
4
TRANSDUCERS (PROBE)
Principle : Converts Electrical Energy into Mechanical Energy and
vice-versa(Pie)
PIEZOELECTRIC MATERIAL
Case-1 - Mechanical Energy converts into Electrical energy
Case-2 - Electrical Energy converts into Mechanical Energy
PROBE (TRANSDUCER) TYPES:
Contact Transducers
Used for direct contact inspections.
Coupling materials of water, grease, oils, or
commercial materials are used to remove the
air gap between the transducer and the
component being inspected.
Immersion Transducers
Do not contact the component.
Specially designed to operate in a liquid
environment.
Transducers are available with a planer,
cylindrically focused or spherically
focused lens.
PROBE (TRANSDUCER) TYPES (CONT.):
0 (Normal) beam Transducers
Single Crystal Probe:
Single crystal element is used both for transmitting and
receiving.
Dual Crystal Probe:
Contain two independently operated elements in a single
housing.
One of the elements transmits and the other receives the
ultrasonic signal.
Applicable for the inspection of course grained material.
Well suited for making measurements in applications where
reflectors are very near the transducer.
Angle beam probe
Used to introduce a refracted shear wave into the test material.
Available in a variety of fixed angles or in adjustable versions
where the user determines the angles of incidence and
refraction.
Probe angles 45, 60 and 70 are being used widely.
Single Point Dual Point Multi Point
WAVE INTERFERENCE
The sound that emanates from an ultrasonic transducer does not originate
from a single point, but instead originates from many points along the
surface of the piezoelectric element
This results in a sound field with many waves interacting or interfering
with each other.
When waves interact, they superimpose on each other, and the amplitude
of the sound pressure or particle displacement at any point of interaction
is the sum of the amplitudes of the two individual waves.
NEAR FIELD AND FAR FIELD:
Near Field: Wave interference leads to extensive fluctuations in the
sound intensity near the source and is known as the near field.
Far Field: The area just beyond the near field is where the sound
wave is well behaved and at its maximum strength. Therefore,
optimal detection results will be obtained when flaws occur in this
area.
DEAD ZONE:
It is the interval following the surface of a test object to the nearest
inspectable depth. Any interval following a reflected signal where no
direct echoes from discontinuities cannot be detected, due to
characteristics of the equipment.
PULSER /RECEIVER OR ULTRASONIC FLAWDETECTOR (UFD):
The pulser section of the instrument generates short, large amplitude
electric pulses of controlled energy, which are converted into short
ultrasonic pulses when applied to an ultrasonic transducer.
In the receiver section the voltage signals produced by the transducer,
which represent the received ultrasonic pulses, are amplified. The
amplified radio frequency (RF) signal is available as an output for
display or capture for signal processing.
Analog
Digital
COAXIAL CABLE
A: outer plastic sheath
B: woven copper shield
C: inner dielectric insulator
D: copper-plated core
COUPLANT:
Couplant is used to nullify air gap between probe and specimen surface.
Couplant medias are
Water
Oil
Grease
Cellulose paste
DATA REPRESENTATION:
A-Scan
B-Scan
C-Scan
A-SCAN
The A-scan presentation displays the amount of received ultrasonic
energy as a function of time. The relative amount of received energy
is plotted along the vertical axis and the elapsed time (which may be
related to the sound energy travel time within the material) is
displayed along the horizontal axis.
A-SCAN UT VISUALIZATION (NORMAL PROBE)
A-SCAN UT VISUALIZATION (ANGLE PROBE)
B-SCAN
The B-scan presentations is a profile (cross-sectional) view of the test
specimen. In the B-scan, the time-of-flight (travel time) of the sound
energy is displayed along the vertical axis and the linear position of
the transducer is displayed along the horizontal axis.
In the B-scan, the depth of the reflector and its approximate linear
dimensions in the scan direction can be determined.
C-SCAN
The C-scan presentation provides a plan-type
view of the location and size of test specimen
features. The plane of the image is parallel to
the scan pattern of the transducer.
C-scan presentations are produced with an
automated data acquisition system, such as a
computer controlled immersion scanning
system.
CALIBRATION
Calibration refers to the act of evaluating and adjusting the precision
and accuracy of measurement equipment.
REFERENCE STANDARDS :
To establish a general level of consistency in measurements and to help
interpret and quantify the information contained in the received signal.
To validate that the equipment and the setup provide similar results from
one day to the next and that similar results are produced by different
systems.
Help the inspector to estimate the size of flaws.
Signal strength depends on both the size of the flaw and the distance
between the flaw and the transducer.
The inspector can use a reference standard with an artificially induced flaw
of known size and at approximately the same distance away for the
transducer to produce a signal
By comparing the signal from the reference standard to that received from
the actual flaw, the inspector can estimate the flaw size.
Calibration Blocks
DISTANCE AMPLITUDE CORRECTION (DAC):
Acoustic signals from the same reflecting surface will have
different amplitudes at different distances from the
transducer.
Acoustic signals from the same reflecting surface will have
different amplitudes at different distances from the
transducer.
UFD
UT OF WELDED JOINTS:
SCANNING PATTERN AND DIRECTION:
Maximum reflection can be achieved when flaw is lying
perpendicular to beam direction.
Probe angle selection should be such that beam shall hit
perpendicular to the side wall of weld groove.
The best practice is to scan from two different direction and
with two different angle beam probes.
Mainly three types of scanning patterns are used to get
reflection from defects lying at any orientation.
Longitudinal scanning
Transverse scanning
Orbital scanning
ADVANCED UT (PHASED ARRAY)
Phased arrays use an array of elements, all individually
wired, pulsed and time-shifted.
These elements can be a linear array, a 2D matrix array,
a circular array or some more complex form.
WORKING PRINCIPLE:
All arrays are operated individually, It will give us various types of wave
configuration.
Ultrasonic phased arrays use a multiple element probe whereby the
output pulse from each element is time delayed in such a way so as
produce constructive interference at a specific angle and a specific depth.
These time delays can be incremented over a range of angles to sweep the
beam over the desired angular range.
Focused Normal beam
Focused Shear wave
DATA PRESENTATION:
TIME OF FLIGHT DEFRACTION:
The TOFD technique is based on diffraction of ultrasonic waves on tips of
discontinuities, instead of geometrical reflection on the interface of the
discontinuities
When ultrasound is incident at linear discontinuity such as crack, diffraction takes
place at its extremities. Usually TOFD technique uses a pair of probes.
One Acts as an emitter of ultrasound, the other as a receiver. The longitudinal
sound beam can encounter obstacles on its path, which cause reflected and
diffracted signals. When the probes are moved parallel along the weld, the
resultant waveforms are digitized, stored on hard disk and displayed on the screen.
Using this advanced technique gas and binding defects, slag inclusions and cracks
can be detected independent of defect orientation with very accurate sizing of the
defects (0.5-1.0 mm).
Transmitter Receiver
Lateral wave
Upper tip
Lower tip
Back-wall reflection
TOFD SIGNALS:
The crack blocks the Lateral Wave
And the lower tip appears on the A-scan
2
1
1
2
DATA PRESENTATION:
APPLICATION OF UT:
Can be applied to all materials. E.g. Ferrous & Non-ferrous, metallic
& non-metallic and all composites. Practically there is no any
thickness limitation to perform UT.
DEFECTS CAN BE DETECTED BY UT:
All type of cracks
Lack of fusion (LoF)
Lack of Penetration (LoP)
Inclusions (Tungsten, Slag & Oxides)
Excess penetration (EP)
Undercut
ADVANTAGES OF UT:
It is sensitive to both surface and subsurface discontinuities.
The depth of penetration for flaw detection or measurement is
superior to other NDT methods.
Only single-sided access is needed when the pulse-echo
technique is used.
It is highly accurate in determining reflector position and
estimating size and shape.
Minimal part preparation is required.
Electronic equipment provides instantaneous results.
Detailed images can be produced with automated systems.
It has other uses, such as thickness measurement, in addition to
flaw detection.
LIMITATIONS OF UT:
Surface must be accessible to transmit ultrasound.
Skill and training is more extensive than with some other methods.
It normally requires a coupling medium to promote the transfer of
sound energy into the test specimen.
Materials that are rough, irregular in shape, very small,
exceptionally thin or not homogeneous are difficult to inspect.
Cast iron and other coarse grained materials are difficult to inspect
due to low sound transmission and high signal noise.
Linear defects oriented parallel to the sound beam may go
undetected.
Reference standards are required for both equipment calibration
and the characterization of flaws.
ACCEPTANCE CRITERIA AS PER ASME SECTION-1 PW-52:
Technique and standards for ultrasonic examination are given in ASME
Section V, Article 4 & 5.
Imperfections that cause an indication greater than 20% of the reference
level shall be investigated to the extent that the ultrasonic examination
personnel can determine their shape, identity, and location, and evaluate
them in terms of PW-52.3.1 and PW-52.3.2.
Cracks, lack of fusion, or incomplete penetration are not acceptable
regardless of length.
Other imperfections are unacceptable if the indication exceeds the
reference level and their length exceeds the following:
6 mm for t up to 19 mm
13t for t from 19 mm to 57 mm
19 mm for t over 57 mm
Notes :- where t is the thickness of the weld being examined. If the weld
joins two members having different thicknesses at the weld, t is the thinner
of these two thickness.
UT IN BOILER:
Header
T-piece branch connection
Manifold support bolts
Depth confirmation (If repair found in Cir. Seams)
Above 48mm thk
MATERIAL
FLAW TYPE
Surface
flaw
Sub-surface
flaw
Internal
flaw
Lack of
fusion
Inclusions
e.g. slag, T.I.
Material
quality
Lamination &
thickness
measurement
Ferrous forgings M.T.
M.T.
U.T.
R.T.
U.T.
---
R.T.
U.T.
--- U.T.
Ferrous raw
material
M.T. M.T.
U.T.
U.T. ---
M.T.
U.T.
--- U.T.
Ferrous tube &
pipe
M.T.
E.T.
M.T.
U.T.
U.T. U.T.
M.T.
U.T.
--- U.T.
Ferrous welds
M.T.
U.T.
U.T.
R.T.
U.T.
R.T.
U.T.
R.T.
U.T.
--- U.T.
Steel castings M.T.
M.T.
U.T.
R.T.
U.T.
---
R.T.
U.T.
--- U.T.
Iron castings M.T.
U.T.
E.T.
U.T. ---
R.T.
U.T.
U.T. U.T.
Non-Fe materials
P.T.
E.T.
---
R.T.
U.T.
U.T.
P.T.
U.T.
--- U.T.
Fe finished
materials
M.T.
U.T.
E.T.
R.T.
U.T.
U.T.
M.T.
U.T.
--- U.T.
Non-Fe finished
materials
P.T.
E.T.
U.T.
E.T.
R.T.
U.T.
---
U.T.
E.T.
--- U.T.
APPLICATION OF N.D.E.
APPLICATION OF N.D.E.
N.D.E. IN BOILER INDUSTRY:
Boiler testing for welding defects both during manufacturing and in
service.
Boiler piping thickness measurement and turbine component testing.
THANK YOU

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INTRODUCTION TO

NON DESTRUCTIVE EXAMINATION

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