Phonetics and phonology are related, dependent fields for studying aspects of

language. Phonetics is the study of sound in speech; phonology is the study (and use)
of sound patterns to create meaning. Phonetics focuses on how speech is physically
created and received, including study of the human vocal and auditory tracts, acoustics,
and neurology. Phonology relies on phonetic information for its practice, but focuses on
how patterns in both speech and non-verbal communication create meaning, and how
such patterns are interpreted. Phonology includes comparative linguistic studies of how
cognates, sounds, and meaning are transmitted among and between human
communities and languages.
Glossary of grammatical terminology to accompany the KS3 Grammar site at
http://www.phon.ucl.ac.uk/home/dick/tta/KS3.htm
Introduction
This glossary includes:
0* the terms and definitions in the glossary of the ramewor! for the "ational
#iteracy $trategy which are relevant to grammar; some terms that are embedded
within definitions in the "#$ glossary are also given separate entries to ma!e
them easier to find, but otherwise the "#$ glossary entries are unchanged.
1* some additional terms from the glossary in the ramewor! for %odern oreign
#anguages at &$'; where "#$ entries have been e(panded in the %# glossary,
these e(pansions are included here,
2* )* e(tra terms needed for the &$' grammar material; these e(tra terms are all
mar!ed +,new-+ in the list in the bottom window.
.ll the individual terms and definitions are lin!ed, where possible, to units in the &$'
material; /ust clic! the head-word if it is underlined, and you will go straight to the
relevant part of the material.
To move round the glossary, clic! on any underlined term in either window. 0ou can
drag the border between the windows up or down with your mouse.
#i!e the rest of this &$' material, primary responsiility lies with 1ichard 2udson but a
number of colleagues from linguistics and the world of education have helped.

areviation
.n abbreviation is a shortened version of a word or group of words. or e(ample:
Co. (Company)
approx. (approximately)
PR (public relations)
PTO (Please turn over)
$ome common abbreviations are of #atin terms:
etc (et cetera = and so on)
eg (exempli gratia = for example)
N (nota bene = note especially)
ie (id est = t!at is)
"ames of organisations are often abbreviated using the initial letters of each word. or
e(ample:
t!e "# ("uropean #nion)
t!e N$% (National $ealt! %ervice)
&' (&nternational usiness 'ac!ines)
$ome such abbreviations (for e(ample, N(TO, )&)( and #N"%CO) are acronyms.
$ome words are abbreviated so that only a part of the original word is used. 3(amples
are:
p!one (telep!one)
fridge (refrigerator)
bus (omnibus)
exam (examination).
astract noun
.bstract nouns refer to ideas and other !inds of abstractions, e.g.
!our* name* end* !ope* success.
4n academic writing abstract nouns are common and are often used instead of verbs -
for e(ample, t!eir arrival is a useful alternative to t!ey arrived.
accent
eatures of pronunciation which vary according to the spea!er+s regional and social
origin. .ll oral language, including standard 3nglish, is spo!en with an accent. The term
accent refers to pronunciation only.
4n %# an accent can also be a diacritic mar! used above some vowels to denote
sound or spelling changes. Technically 5accent6 refers only to the three mar!s !nown as
grave, acute and circumfle(, as with 7, 8 and 9.
$ee also dialect
acronym
.n acronym is an areviation which is made up of the initial letters of a group of
words, and is pronounced as a single word. or e(ample:
las
er
(lig!t amplification by t!e stimulated
emission of radiation)
(id ((c+uired immune deficiency syndrome)
s
N(
TO
(Nort! (tlantic Treaty Organi,ation)
R(
'
(Random (ccess 'emory)
.cronyms are to be contrasted with abbreviations in which the separate letters are
pronounced:
#%( (pronounced as :-$-.)
PO- (P-;-<)
"'& (3-%-4)
active and passive !see also here"
%any verbs can be active or passive. or e(ample, bite:
T!e dog bit en. (active)
en .as bitten by t!e dog. (passive)
4n the active sentence, the sub/ect (t!e dog) performs the action. 4n the passive
sentence, the sub/ect (en) is on the receiving end of the action. The two sentences
give similar information, but there is a difference in focus. The first is about what the dog
did; the second is about what happened to =en.
.ll passive forms are made up of the verb be > past participle:

active %omebody sa. you.
-e must find t!em.
& !ave repaired it.

passive /ou .ere seen.
T!ey must be found.
&t !as been repaired.
4n a passive sentence, the +doer+ (or agent) may be identified using by ...:
en .as bitten by t!e dog.
=ut very often, in passive sentences, the agent is un!nown or insignificant, and
therefore not identified:
T!e computer !as been repaired.
Passive forms are common in impersonal, formal styles. or e(ample:
&t .as agreed t!at ... (compare -e agreed t!at ...).
(pplication forms may be obtained from t!e address belo..
4n other 3uropean languages the passive is used less often than in 3nglish, at least in
spo!en and?or informal language. The indefinite pronouns on and man are used in
rench and @erman respectively much more often than the 3nglish one (much as
3nglish uses 5they6ve moved the sign6 rather than 5the sign has been moved6).
ad#ectival
$ee phrase.
ad#ective
.n ad/ective is a word that describes somebody or something. Old, .!ite, busy, careful
and !orrible are all ad/ectives. .d/ectives either come before a noun, or after verbs such
as be, get, seem, loo0 (lin!ing verbs):
a busy day &1m busy
nice s!oes t!ose s!oes loo0 nice
.d/ectives (and adverbs) can have comparative and superlative forms. The comparative
form is ad/ective > 2er (for one-syllable ad/ectives, and some two-syllable) or more >
ad/ective (for ad/ectives of two or more syllables):
old 2 older
!ot 2 !otter
easy 2 easier
dangerous 2 more dangerous
The corresponding superlative forms are 2est or most ...:
small 2 smallest
big 2 biggest
funny 2 funniest
important 2 most important
4n other languages ad/ectives are commonly inflected to agree with nouns. This may
apply wherever the ad/ective is placed, but in @erman an ad/ective used predicatively
(following verbs such as sein* .erden* ausse!en) is not inflected.
The position of ad/ectives in other languages may differ from the pattern in 3nglish: they
may precede or follow the noun. .s a rule, however, the 3nglish principle e(emplified in
the phrase a little green car (as opposed to a green little car) applies in other languages
too.
adver
.dverbs give e(tra meaning to a verb, an ad/ective, another adverb or a whole
sentence:
& really en3oyed t!e party.
%!e1s really nice.
$e .or0s really slo.ly.
Really* !e s!ould do better.
(adverb > verb)
(adverb > ad/ective)
(adverb > adverb)
(adverb > sentence)
%any adverbs are formed by adding 2ly to an ad/ective, for e(ample +uic0ly,
dangerously, nicely, but there are many adverbs which do not end in 2ly. "ote too that
some 2ly words are ad/ectives, not adverbs (eg lovely, silly, friendly).
4n many cases, adverbs tell us:
how (manner)
where (place)
when (time)
how often (freAuency)
;ther adverbs show
degree of intensity:
very slo.(ly) fairly dangerous(ly) really good4.ell
the attitude of the spea!er to what he or she is saying:
per!aps obviously fortunately
connections in meaning between sentences (see connective):
!o.ever furt!ermore finally
.n adverial phrase is a group of words that functions in the same way as a single
adverb. or e(ample: by car, to sc!ool, last .ee0, t!ree times a day, first of all, of
course5
T!ey left yesterday. (adverb)
T!ey left a fe. days ago. (adverbial phrase)
$imilarly, an adverial clause functions in the same way as an adverb. or e(ample:
&t .as raining yesterday. (adverb)
&t .as raining .!en .e .ent out. (adverbial clause).
;ther languages form adverbs in different ways. 4n rench the suffi( -ment is added to
the feminine ad/ective form (though there are numerous e(ceptions); in @erman the
ad/ective is used in its basic form with no suffi(.

adverial
.n adverbial is a clause element that functions li!e an adverb, so it is an adverbial
phrase or an adverbial clause. or e(ample, these underlined elements are all
adverbials:
.t first, 4 really en/oyed it because it was my !ind of music.
adverial clause/phrase
$ee suordinate clause, phrase.
affi$
. morpheme which is not in itself a word, but is attached to a word. .n affi( can be a
prefi$ (intolerant, disli0e) or a suffi$ (0indness, playing).
agreement (or concord)
4n some cases the form of a verb changes according to its sub/ect (so the verb and
sub/ect +agree+). This happens with the verb be5
& am4!e is4t!ey are
& .as4you .ere
and the third person singular (!e4s!e4it) of the present tense:
& li0e4s!e li0es
& don1t4!e doesn1t
"ote that singular collective nouns (eg team* family* government) can ta!e a singular or
plural verb form. or e(ample:
T!e team (= it) is playing .ell.
T!e team (= t!ey) are playing .ell.
There are a few cases where a determiner must agree with a noun according to
whether it is singular or plural. or e(ample:
t!is !ouse t!ese !ouses
muc! traffic many cars
.greement in some other languages is a much more significant feature than in 3nglish,
applying not only to verbs B and with a wider range of endings B but also to ad/ectives
and articles as a function of gender and case.
amiguity
a phrase or statement which has more than one possible interpretation. This sometimes
arises from unclear grammatical relationships. or e(ample, in the phrase: 1police s!ot
man .it! 0nife1* it is not specified whether the man had the !nife or the police used the
!nife to shoot the man. =oth interpretations are possible, although only one is logical. 4n
poetry, ambiguity may e(tend meanings beyond the literal.
The sentence: 1-al0ing dogs can be fun1 has two possible interpretations: 1it is fun to
ta0e dogs for .al0s1 or 1dogs .!ic! go .al0ing are fun1.
.mbiguity is often a source of humour. .mbiguity may be accidental or deliberate.
analogy
Perception of similarity between two things; relating something !nown to something
new; in spelling, using !nown spellings to spell un!nown words: nig!t20nig!t2rig!t2sig!t2
lig!t2frig!t6 in reading, using !nowledge of words to attempt previously unseen words.
3mphasis on analogy encourages learners to generalise e(isting !nowledge to new
situations.
4n their learning of grammar, pupils often apply affi$es incorrectly by analogy: goed*
comed* mouses. .nalogy may also be used in literature to draw a parallel between two
situations, for e(ample using animal behaviour to draw attention to human behaviour.

anaphora% anaphoric
.naphora (@ree!: 5referring bac!6) is the relationship between one word (such as a
pronoun) and another word or phrase, normally before it, to which it refers bac!. 3.g. in
The children went to bed early because they were tired,
the relationship between t!ey and t!e c!ildren is anaphora - t!ey refers anaphorically to
t!e c!ildren.
antonym
. word with a meaning opposite to another: !ot 2 cold* lig!t 2 dar0* lig!t 2 !eavy. . word
may have more than one word as an antonym: cold 2 !ot4.arm6 big 2
small4tiny4little4titc!y.
apostrophe !&"
.n apostrophe is a punctuation mar! used to indicate either omitted letters or
possession.
omitted letters
<e use an apostrophe for the omitted letter(s) when a verb is contracted (C
shortened). or e(ample:
&1m (& am)
t!ey1ve (t!ey !ave)
.e1re (.e are)
.ould1ve (.ould !ave)
4n contracted negative forms, not is contracted to n1t and /oined to the verb: isn1t,
didn1t, couldn1t etc.
4n formal written style, it is more usual to use the full form.
There are a few other cases where an apostrophe is used to indicate letters that
are in some sense +omitted+ in words other than verbs, eg let1s (C let us), o1cloc0
(C of t!e cloc0).
"ote the difference between its (C +belonging to it+) and it1s (C +it is+ or +it has+):
T!e company is to close one of its factories. (no apostrophe)
T!e factory employs 788 people. &t1s (= it is) t!e largest factory in t!e
to.n. (apostrophe necessary)
possession
<e use an apostrophe > s for the possessive form :
my mot!er1s car
9oe and )iona1s !ouse
t!e cat1s tail
9ames1s ambition
a .ee01s !oliday
<ith a plural +possessor+ already ending in s (eg parents), an apostrophe is
added to the end of the word:
my parents1 car
t!e girls1 toilets
=ut irregular plurals (eg men* c!ildren) ta!e an apostrophe > s5
c!ildren1s clot!es
The regular plural form (2s) is often confused with possessive 21s:
& boug!t some apples. (not apple1s)
"ote that the possessive words yours, !is, !ers, ours, t!eirs, and its are not
written with an apostrophe.
.postrophe use in other languages mainly indicates omitted letters though the details of
application may vary.

apposition
4n
my brother Dohn,
the e(pressions my brot!er and 9o!n are +in apposition+ because they are combined to
form a single phrase, and they both refer to the same person but supply different
information about him: that he is my brother and that he is Dohn. $imilarly, in
the fact that it wor!s,
the clause t!at it .or0s is in apposition to the noun phrase t!e fact because both refer to
the same idea.
article
(* an and t!e are articles. ( (an before a vowel sound) is the indefinite article; t!e is the
definite article. .rticles are a type of determiner.
audience
the people addressed by a te(t. The term refers to listeners, readers of boo!s, film?TE
audiences and users of information technology.
au$iliary vers
These are verbs that are used together with other verbs. or e(ample:
.e are going
:ucy !as arrived
can you play
4n these sentences, going, arrived and play are the main verbs. (re, !as and can are
au(iliary verbs, and add e(tra meaning to the main verb.
The most common au(iliary verbs are be, !ave and do (all of which can also be main
verbs).
e is used in continuous forms (be > 2ing) and in passive forms:
-e are going a.ay. -as t!e car damaged;
$ave is used in perfect verb forms:
:ucy !as arrived. & !aven1t finis!ed.
<o is used to ma!e Auestions and negatives in the simple present and past
tenses:
<o you 0no. t!e ans.er; & didn1t see anybody.
%ore than one au(iliary verb can be used together. or e(ample:
& !ave been .aiting for ages. (!ave and been are au(iliary verbs)
The remaining au(iliary verbs are modal vers, eg can* .ill.
ackshift
4f a past-tense verb such as said or t!oug!t is used with a noun clause whose verb
would otherwise be present tense, this tense may be 5bac!shifted6 into the past:
4 thought today was Tuesday,
reporting the thought 5Today is Tuesday6.
ridging
=ridging is an indirect type of anaphora which allows us to use one person or thing as a
5bridge6 to another; for e(ample, having started to tal! about a boo! we can refer to its
author simply as 5the author6, as though the author had already been introduced directly.
case
a That aspect of a noun or pronoun which relates to its function in a sentence. The
standard relationship is:
3* sub/ect C nominative
4* direct ob/ect C accusative
5* indirect ob/ect C dative
6* possessive case C genitive.
4n most 3uropean languages nouns no longer have many different forms to reflect
cases. 4n @erman (which has four cases) the various determiners (articles, etc.) have a
number of endings which indicate case, and endings are in some instances applied to
the noun itself (e.g. the dative plural always ends in -en). 4n 3nglish the genitive persists
in the possessive form mar!ed with the -6s or -s6 (Dohn6s coat; my sisters6 boo!s).
4n many languages, pronouns still have forms that reflect a case aspect: !e4!im4!im6
il4le4lui6 er4i!n4i!m all indicate nominative?accusative?dative respectively.
b 4n relation to single letters or characters in written language: upper case C capital
letters, lower case C non-capital letters.
clause
. clause is a group of words that e(presses an event (s!e dran0 some .ater) or a
situation (s!e .as t!irsty4s!e .anted a drin0). 4t usually contains a su#ect (s!e in the
e(amples) and ver (dran04.as4.anted).
"ote how a clause differs from a phrase:

a big dog (a phrase - this refers to +a big dog+ but doesn+t say
what the dog did or what happened to it)
a big dog c!ased me (a clause - the dog did something)
. sentence is made up of one or more clauses:

&t .as raining.
&t .as raining and .e .ere cold.
&t .as raining .!en .e .ent out.
. main clause is complete on its own and can form a complete sentence (eg &t .as
raining .!en .e .ent out.). . subordinate clause (.!en .e .ent out) is part of the main
clause and cannot e(ist on its own. 4n the following e(amples, the subordinate clauses
are underlined:
/ou1ll !urt yourself if you1re not careful.
(lt!oug! it .as cold* t!e .eat!er .as pleasant enoug!.
-!ere are t!e biscuits (t!at) & boug!t t!is morning;
9o!n* .!o .as very angry* began s!outing.
-!at you said .as not true.
.lthough most clauses reAuire a sub/ect and verb, some subordinate clauses do not. 4n
many such cases, the verb be can be understood. or e(ample:
T!e .eat!er* alt!oug! rat!er cold* .as pleasant enoug!.
(= alt!oug! it .as rat!er cold)
-!en in Rome* do as t!e Romans do.
(= .!en you are in Rome)
=lad to be !ome* =eorge sat do.n in !is favourite armc!air.
(= !e .as glad to be !ome)
Flause use in other languages, notably @erman, may involve issues of word order and
punctuation.
$ee also suordinate clause.
clause element
The parts of a clause are often called its 5elements6. The main clause elements are the
verb chain, the sub/ect, ob/ect and complement, and adverbials.
cognate
Technically means 5from the same root or origin6. 4n %#, the term is commonly used to
denote words which are identical with or very close to their 3nglish eAuivalent in spelling
and meaning: important in 3nglish and rench; !ouse and $aus in 3nglish and
@erman. <ords may be technically cognates but their use or meaning may have
diverged from 3nglish over time (e.g. 3nglish and @erman so).
coherence and cohesion
.n effective te(t needs to be coherent and cohesive.
The term coherence refers to the underlying logic and consistency of a te(t. The ideas
e(pressed should be relevant to one another so that the reader can follow the meaning.
The term cohesion refers to the grammatical features in a te(t which enable the parts
to fit together. ;ne way of creating cohesion is the use of connectives:
& sat do.n and turned on t!e television. 9ust t!en* & !eard a strange noise.
The phrase 13ust t!en1 relates these events in time.
Fohesion is also achieved by the use of words (such as pronouns) that refer bac! to
other parts of the te(t. 4n these e(amples, such words are underlined:
T!ere .as a man .aiting at t!e door. & !ad never seen !im before.
-e !aven1t got a car. -e used to !ave one* but .e sold it.
& .onder .!et!er %ara! .ill pass !er driving test. & !ope s!e does. (C 4 hope
$arah passes her driving test)
collo'uial
=elonging to conversation?language used in familiar, informal conte(ts. Fontrasted with
formal or literary language.
colon !:"
. colon is a punctuation mar! used to introduce a list or a following e(ample (as in this
glossary). 4t may also be used before a second clause that e(pands or illustrates the
first:
$e .as very cold5 t!e temperature .as belo. ,ero.
comma !%"
. comma is a punctuation mar! used to help the reader by separating parts of a
sentence. 4t sometimes corresponds to a pause in speech.
4n particular we use commas:
to separate items in a list (but not usually before and):
'y favourite sports are football* tennis* s.imming and gymnastics.
& got !ome* !ad a bat! and .ent to bed.
to mar! off e(tra information:
9ill* my boss* is >7 years old.
after a subordinate clause which begins a sentence:
(lt!oug! it .as cold* .e didn1t .ear our coats.
with many connecting advers (eg !o.ever, on t!e ot!er !and, any.ay, for
example):
(ny.ay* in t!e end & decided not to go.
4n some languages the comma plays a grammatical role, for e(ample in clause
demarcation in @erman.
comma splice
. comma splice is a combination of two (or more) clauses that are lin!ed solely by a
comma - e.g. T!is sentence is +uite s!ort* it only contains ten .ords. . comma splice
can generally be improved either by adding and (or a subordinating con/unction), or by
changing the comma into a semi-colon or full stop.
complement
4n the sentences :isa is a fast runner or :isa is very fit* 1:isa1 is the su#ect and 1is1 is
the ver. "either sentence has an o#ect. The rest of the sentence (a fast runner4very
fit) is called a complement. . complement usually tells you something about the sub/ect
of the sentence (especially after the verb be but also after other lin!ing verbs such as
seem* loo0* get* become). 4n the e(amples the complement is underlined:

T!ese apples are delicious.
/ou don1t loo0 very .ell.
. complement can also refer to the ob/ect of a sentence. or e(ample:
& found t!e boo0 very interesting. (very interesting refers to t!e boo0, which is the
ob/ect of found)
comple$ sentence
compound sentence
compound word
a word made up of two other words: football* !eadrest* broomstic0.
Fompound words in other languages may be formed with hyphens (as in rench) or
based on some variant of the 3nglish pattern (as in @erman).

concord
$ame as agreement.
conditional
. conditional sentence is one in which one thing depends upon another. Fonditional
sentences often contain the con#unction if:
&1ll !elp you if & can.
&f t!e .eat!er1s bad* .e mig!t not go out.
;ther con/unctions used in conditionals are unless, providing, provided and as long as.
. conditional sentence can refer to an imaginary situation. or e(ample:
& .ould !elp you if & could. (but in fact 4 can+t)
-!at .ould you do if you .ere in my position;
&f t!e .eat!er !ad been better* .e could !ave gone to t!e beac!.
The term +conditional+ is sometimes used to refer to the form .ould > verb: .ould go,
.ould !elp etc.
$ee also au$iliary ver
con#unction
. word used to lin! clauses within a sentence. or e(ample, in the following sentences,
but and if are con/unctions:
&t .as raining but it .asn1t cold.
-e .on1t go out if t!e .eat!er1s bad.
There are two !inds of con/unction:
a. Fo-ordinating con/unctions (and, but, or and so). These /oin (and are placed
between) two clauses of eAual weight.
<o you .ant to go no. or s!all .e .ait a bit longer;
(nd, but and or are also used to /oin words or phrases within a clause.
b. $ubordinating con/unctions (eg .!en, .!ile, before, after, since, until, if, because,
alt!oug!, t!at). These go at the beginning of a subordinate clause:
-e .ere !ungry because .e !adn1t eaten all day.
(lt!oug! .e1d !ad plenty to eat* .e .ere still !ungry.
-e .ere !ungry .!en .e got !ome.
$ee also clause% connective
connective
. connective is a word or phrase that lin!s clauses or sentences. Fonnectives can be
con/unctions (eg but, .!en, because) or connecting adverbs (eg !o.ever, t!en,
t!erefore).
Fonnecting adverbs (and adverbial phrases and clauses) maintain the cohesion of a
te(t in several basic ways, including:

addition
opposition
reinforcing
e(plaining
listing
indicating result
indicating time
(ommas are often used to mar! off connecting adverbs or adverbial phrases or
clauses:
)irst of all* & .ant to say ?
& didn1t t!in0 muc! of t!e film. $elen* on t!e ot!er !and* en3oyed it.
Fonnecting adverbs and con/unctions function differently. Fon/unctions (li!e but and
alt!oug!) /oin clauses within a sentence. Fonnecting adverbs (li!e !o.ever) connect
ideas but the clauses remain separate sentences:
& .as angry but & didn1t say anyt!ing. (but is a con/unction - one sentence)
(lt!oug! & .as angry* & didn1t say anyt!ing. (alt!oug! is a con/unction - one
sentence)
& .as angry. $o.ever* & didn1t say anyt!ing. (!o.ever is an adverb - two
sentences)
Fonnectives help foreign language learners to follow the flow of a te(t they read or hear
and to lin! sentences together when assembling te(t themselves. ;ther words such as
relative pronouns can also act in the same way as other connectives.
contraction
$ee apostrophe
co)ordinating con#unction
See co)ordination% con#unction
co)ordination
Fo-ordination is a grammatical pattern in which two or more elements are combined on
eAual terms - e.g.
'ary and 9o!n;
before five o@cloc0 or after eig!t o@cloc0;
T!e sun .as s!ining and t!e birds .ere singing.

dash !*"
. dash is a punctuation mar! used especially in informal writing (such as letters to
friends, postcards or notes). Gashes may be used to replace other punctuation mar!s
(colons, semi)colons, commas) or brac!ets:
&t .as a great day out everybody en3oyed it.
declarative
%ost sentences or clauses are declarative, in contrast with interrogative, imperative and
e(clamative sentences. Geclarative clauses have a sub/ect followed by a past-tense or
present-tense verb.
derivational morphology
Gerivational morphology turns a simpler word into a more comple( one by adding
prefi(es or suffi(es; e.g. it turns tidy into untidy or untidy into untidiness. (Fontrast
inflectional morphology, which distinguishes different forms of the same word; e.g. dog
and dogs.)
determiner
Geterminers include many of the most freAuent 3nglish words, eg t!e, a, my, t!is.
Geterminers are used with nouns (t!is boo0, my best friend, a ne. car) and they limit (ie
determine) the reference of the noun in some way.
Geterminers include:
articles a?an, t!e
demonstratives t!is?t!at, t!ese?t!ose
possessives my?your?!is?!er?its?our?t
!eir
Auantifiers some, any, no, many,
muc!, fe., little, bot!,
all, eit!er, neit!er, eac!,
every, enoug!
numbers t!ree, fifty, t!ree
t!ousand etc
some Auestion words .!ic! (.!ic! car;),
.!at (.!at si,e;),
.!ose (.!ose coat;)
<hen these words are used as determiners, they are followed by a noun (though not
necessarily immediately):
t!is boo0 is yours
some ne. !ouses
.!ic! colour do you prefer;
%any determiners can also be used as pronouns. These include the demonstratives,
Auestion words, numbers and most of the Auantifiers. <hen used as pronouns, these
words are not followed by a noun - their reference includes the noun:
t!is is yours (C this boo!, this money, etc)
&1ve got some
.!ic! do you prefer;
diacritic
. diacritic mar! is a point, sign or mar! above, below or attached to a letter to show a
change of sound or (sometimes) a change in spelling that has ta!en place over time: H
I 8 J K L M N.
dialect
. dialect is a variety of a language used in a particular area and which is distinguished
by certain features of grammar or vocabulary. 3(amples of such features in some
3nglish dialects are:
non-standard sub/ect > verb patterns, eg & 0no.s* you .as* !e li0e
past tense forms, eg & done* & seen
various individual words and e(pressions, eg o.t4no.t for anyt!ing4not!ing
$ee also doule negative% standard +nglish
direct speech and indirect speech
There are two ways of reporting what somebody says, direct speech and indirect
speech.
4n direct speech, we use the spea!er+s original words (as in a speech bubble). 4n te(t,
speech mar!s (1?1 or A?A B also called inverted commas or Auotes) mar! the beginning
and end of direct speech:
$elen said* 1&1m going !ome1.
1-!at do you .ant;1 & as0ed.
4n indirect (or reported) speech, we report what was said but do not use the e(act words
of the original spea!er. Typically we change pronouns and verb tenses, and speech
mar!s are not used:
$elen said (t!at) s!e .as going !ome.
& as0ed t!em .!at t!ey .anted.
doule negative
4n non-standard 3nglish, a double negative may be used. or e(ample:
-e didn1t see nobody.
& never too0 not!ing.
$uch double negatives are not acceptable in standard +nglish. The eAuivalent
standard forms would be:
-e didn1t see anybody.
& didn1t ta0e anyt!ing.
elision
The omission of a syllable or vowel at the beginning or end of a word, especially when a
word ending with a vowel is followed by one beginning with a vowel. or e(ample: 9@ai6
l@animal (rench); !ab@ ic! (@erman) 3lision may be carried over into formal written
language, as in the rench e(amples above.
ellipsis
3llipsis is the omission of words in order to avoid repetition. or e(ample:
& don1t t!in0 it .ill rain but it mig!t. (C it might rain)
1-!ere .ere you born;1 1radford.1 (C 4 was born in =radford)
.n ellipsis is also the term used for three dots (?) which show that something has been
omitted or is incomplete.
e$clamation
.n e(clamation is an utterance e(pressing emotion (/oy, wonder, anger, surprise, etc)
and is usually followed in writing by an e$clamation mark !,". 3(clamations can be
inter#ections:
O! dearB
=ood griefB
O.B
$ome e(clamations begin with .!at or !o.5
-!at a beautiful dayB
$o. stupid (!e is)B
-!at a +uiet little girl.
3(clamations li!e these are a special type of sentence (+e(clamative+) and may have no
verb.
e$clamation mark !,"
.n e(clamation mar! is used at the end of a sentence (which may be e(clamative,
imperative or declarative) or an inter/ection to indicate strong emotion:
-!at a pityB
=et outB
&t1s a goalB
O! dearB
e$clamative
$ee sentence
finite ver
4f a verb has a tense (past or present), it is finite (+limited+ in terms of time). This allows it
to be used as the only verb in a sentence, unli!e non-finite verbs. or e(ample, .al0s is
finite, e.g.
2e wal!s to school.)
but .al0ing is non-finite, so it cannot be the only verb, e.g.
2e wal!ing to school.
4mperative verbs are also finite, e.g.
<al! to schoolO.

<hether a verb is finite or non-finite depends on a combination of its inflection and the
surrounding words, so .al0 may be either finite e.g.
4 wal! to school.
or non-finite e.g.
4 will wal! to school.
front)shifting
ront-shifting shifts a phrase out of its normal position so that it stands instead at the
front of the clause that contains it. or e(ample, starting with the basic sentence
4 only !now the other pupils by sight.
front-shifting could move t!e ot!er pupils to give
The other pupils 4 only !now by sight.
ront-shifting has a subtle but important effect on the balance of the sentence.
function
4n %# terms, the nature of a sentence or utterance in relation to its purpose: Auestion,
statement, reAuest, invitation, description, etc. 4n the ramewor!, the term also refers to
the role fulfilled by a noun, etc. in a sentence (e.g. sub/ect, direct ob/ect).
gender
4n the grammatical sense, gender is an aspect of nouns. 4t features to different e(tents
and in different ways in different languages. 4n 3nglish gender normally applies only in
the case of those nouns which refer literally to a masculine or feminine person or
animal. There may be separate words (man4.oman* boy4girl* uncle4aunt) or one of a
number of mainly feminine suffi$es may be used (actor4actress* !ero4!eroine6
.ido.4.ido.er). $ome nouns referring to inanimate ob/ects or concepts are traditionally
feminine, for e(ample ships, nations and countries.
4n the other main 3uropean languages gender is a central feature of nouns. 3very noun,
not only those referring to living things, has a gender which must be !nown if the noun
is to be used accurately. %ost languages have two genders B masculine and feminine;
@erman additionally has neuter.
. noun may be of a certain gender for a number of reasons. 4t may indicate the actual
gender, as in 3nglish, though this is not an absolute. :sually the reason is etymological
and relates to the noun6s origins in #atin, @ree!, .nglo-$a(on or other defunct
language. This lin! gives rise to common patterns of spelling, so that the gender of a
noun can in many cases be identified by its ending. or e(ample, in rench:
7* feminine endings
8* -itC citC vCritC
9* 2eur pudeur rigeur
10* 2tion section rCgulation
11*masculine endings
12* -eau c!apeau
13* 2ment arrondissement
$uch patterns are useful short-cuts to learning genders but as a rule the gender must
simply be learned with the noun, usually by learning an article with it.
%any determiners have different forms for each gender (rench le4la; @erman
der4die4das). The determiner both indicates and reflects the gender of the noun. ;ther
words must also agree with or match the noun gender: depending on the language,
these may include pronouns, ad#ectives, participles, relative pronouns. There may
also be article?preposition contractions: rench du, @erman ,um. The situations in
which agreement is necessary vary from language to language. @ender is a
fundamental aspect of most languages and is one of the earliest concepts which pupils
need to identify and understand if later points of language are to ma!e sense and be
rapidly mastered.
genre
This term refers to different types of writing, each with its own specific characteristics
which relate to origin (legend?fol! tale) or reader interest area - the types of boo!s
individuals particularly choose to read: adventure, romance, science fiction.
Te(ts with these specific features - often related to story elements, patterns of language,
structure, vocabulary - may be described as belonging to a particular genre. These
attributes are useful in discussing te(t and in supporting development of writing s!ills.
Te(ts may operate at different levels, and so represent more than one genre; some will
be combinations, for e(ample historical romance.
gerund
. gerund is a verb which ends in -ing and which is used li!e a noun; e.g.
3ating sweets is not allowed.
@erunds are also called +verbal nouns+.
gist
The main substance of a written or spo!en te(t or argument; the main point of
information in a written or spo!en statement.
glossary
Part of a te(t, often an appendi(, which defines terms the writer?editor considers may be
unfamiliar to the intended audience. 4n %# a glossary is a word list specific to a single
te(t or unit of wor! B technically with definitions given in the target language.
grammar
The conventions which govern the relationships between words in any language.
4ncludes the study of word order and changes in words: use of inflections, etc. $tudy of
grammar is important, as it enhances both reading and writing s!ills; it supports
effective communication.
grammatical oundary
. grammatical boundary is the edge of a grammatical unit (a sentence, clause or
phrase) which, in writing, may be indicated by a punctuation mar! such as a comma,
full stop, colon, semi)colon or dash.
grapheme
<ritten representation of a sound; may consist of one or more letters; for e(ample the
phoneme s can be represented by the graphemes s* se* c* sc and ce as in sun* mouse*
city* science.
head
The head of a phrase is the word around which the whole phrase is built and which
decides the phrase6s general meaning and grammatical characteristics. or e(ample, in
young geography teacher
the head is teac!er because the phrase means a !ind of teacher and is used li!e a
noun.
historic present
. historic present is a present-tense verb used to refer to an event in the past, usually to
ma!e the narrative more vivid. (%o & say to !im* ...)
homograph
<ords which have the same spelling as another, but different meaning5 t!e calf .as
eating4my calf .as ac!ing6 t!e Nort! Pole4totem pole6 !e is a Pole. Pronunciation may
be different5 a lead pencil4t!e dog1s lead6 furniture polis!4Polis! people. . homonym.
homonym
<ords which have the same spelling or pronunciation as another, but different meaning
or origin. %ay be a homograph or homophone.
homophone
<ords which have the same sound as another but different meaning or different
spelling: read4reed6 pair4pear6 rig!t4.rite4rite. . homonym.
hyphen !)"
. hyphen is sometimes used to /oin the two parts of a compound noun, as in golf2ball
and proof2read. =ut it is much more usual for such compounds to be written as single
words (eg football* !eadac!e* bedroom) or as separate words without a hyphen (golf
ball* stomac! ac!e* dining room* city centre).
2owever, hyphens are used in the following cases:
a. in compound ad/ectives and longer phrases used as modifiers before nouns:
a foul2smelling substance
a .ell20no.n painter
a =erman2"nglis! dictionary
a one2in2a2million c!ance
a state2of2t!e2art computer
a ten2year2old girl
b. in many compound nouns where the second part is a short word li!e in* off* up or by:
a brea02in
a .rite2off
a mix2up
a passer2by
c. in many words beginning with the prefi(es co2* non2 and ex25
co2operate
non2existent
ex2!usband
2yphens are also used to divide words at the end of a line of print.
idiom
.n idiom is an e(pression which is not meant literally and whose meaning cannot be
deduced from !nowledge of the individual words. or e(ample:
/ou loo0 a bit under t!e .eat!er t!is morning. (re you all rig!t;
Try and 0eep to t!e point of t!e discussion. /ou1re al.ays introducing red
!errings.
/ou and & !ave t!e same problems 2 .e1re in t!e same boat.
T!at name rings a bell. &1ve !eard it before some.!ere.
imperative
.n imperative sentence or clause has an imperative verb form (i.e. /ust the bare verb,
e.g. come* be) and usually has a hidden sub/ect you: e.g.
Come !ereB
Please be my friendB
indirect speech
$ee direct speech
infinitive
The infinitive is the base form of the verb without any additional endings. or e(ample,
play is an infinitive form (as opposed to playing, played or plays). The infinitive is used
with many au$iliary vers :
& .ill play
!e s!ould play
do you play;
The infinitive is often used with to (to play, to eat etc):
& oug!t to play
& .ant to play
&1m going to play
it .ould be nice to play
The simple present tense (& play* t!ey play etc) has the same form as the infinitive,
e(cept for the third person singular (!e?s!e?it plays).
inflection
4nflection is a change to the ending of a word to indicate tense, number or other
grammatical features. or e(ample:
.al0 - .al0s?.al0ed?.al0ing
s!oe - s!oes
old - older?oldest
The e(tent to which inflection features in different languages varies considerably.
3nglish has relatively few inflected forms compared with other 3uropean languages.
$ee also suffi$.
inter#ection
.n inter/ection is a word li!e Ouc!B, O!B or <amnB e(pressing an emotion such as pain,
surprise, anger, etc. .n inter/ection is followed by an e$clamation mark !,".
$ee also e$clamation
interrogative.
.n interrogative sentence or clause is one that would normally be used to as! a
Auestion - e.g.
$ave you finis!ed;
-!at !appened;
4nterrogative clauses are usually signalled by a sub/ect which follows an au(iliary verb
and?or by an interrogative pronoun.
intonation
4ntonation is the way in which changes in the musical pitch of the voice are used to
structure speech and to contribute to meaning. .mong other functions, intonation may
distinguish Auestions from statements (as in +$ureP+ +$ureO+), or indicate contrastive and
emotive stress (as in +4 said t.o, not three+, or +4 /ust !ate that advertisementO+).
intransitive.
.n intransitive verb is one that has no ob/ect.

le$ical pattern
. le(ical pattern is a regular relationship between words which is found in a large
number of word families - e.g. the relationship between an ad/ective and a noun which
consists of the ad/ective followed by 2ness:
good 2 goodness*
c!ildis! 2 c!ildis!ness*
le$ical relationship
. le(ical relationship is a connection between the meanings of two words in a te(t which
helps the te(t to hold together. 1elevant connections include (rough) synonymy (e.g.
.oman 2 person* .in 2 victory) and connections in a field of meaning (e.g. plane 2 pilot).
logogram
. symbol or character which represents a morpheme or word. . logographic system
contrasts with an alphabetic-phonetic system, such as 3nglish, in which symbols relate
to sounds rather than meaning. There are a number of logograms which would be
instantly recognisable to those using alphabetic systems, for e(ample D* E* F.
main clause
. main clause is one which is a complete sentence (e(cept for any other clauses with
which it may be co-ordinated). or e(ample, the following e(ample contains two main
clauses separated by the co-ordinating con/unction but:
2e said that he had missed the bus, but 4 !new that he was lying.
. main clause may contain any number of subordinate clauses (such as the noun
clauses in the e(amples above).
main ver
.ny verb which is not an au(iliary verb is a main verb.
metalanguage
The language we use when tal!ing about language itself. 4t includes words li!e
sentence* noun* paragrap!* preposition. Those who understand these concepts are
able to tal! about language Auite precisely; thus, acAuisition of metalanguage is seen as
a crucial step in developing awareness of and proficiency in communication, particularly
written language.
modal ver
The modal verbs are:
can4could
.ill4.ould
s!all4s!ould
may4mig!t
must4oug!t
These au$iliary vers are used to e(press such ideas as possibility, willingness,
prediction, speculation, deduction and necessity. They are all followed by the infinitive,
and oug!t is followed by to > infinitive:
& can !elp you.
-e mig!t go out tonig!t.
/ou oug!t to eat somet!ing.
%tep!anie .ill be !ere soon.
& .ouldn1t do t!at if & .ere you.
& must go no..
These verbs can occur with other au(iliary verbs (be and !ave):
&1ll be leaving at GG.H8.
/ou s!ould !ave as0ed me.
T!ey must !ave been .or0ing.
4n this conte(t !ave is unstressed and therefore identical in speech to unstressed of;
this is why the misspelling of for standard !ave or 1ve is not uncommon.
modify% modifier
4n the phrase
big boo!s about grammar,
big modifies boo0s by changing its meaning from +boo!s+ to +big boo!s+; and similarly
about grammar modifies boo0s by changing its meaning to 5boo!s about grammar6.
4nside a phrase, the word which acts as the phrase6s head is modified by the other parts
of the phrase. These other parts are called its modifiers because they modify its
meaning by ma!ing it more precise.
morpheme
The smallest unit of meaning. . word may consist of one morpheme (!ouse)* two
morphemes (!ouse4s6 !ous4ing) or three or more morphemes (!ouse40eep4ing6
un4!appi4ness). -ffi$es are morphemes.
morphology
%orphology is the part of grammar which focuses on the patterns found within words
(e.g. the fact that boo0s contains the suffi( 2s), in contrast with synta$, which focuses
on the patterns that we ma!e by comining words.
non)finite.
.ny verb in 3nglish is classified as either finite or non-finite. 4n 3nglish there are three
!inds of non-finite verb: the infinitive (be, see* .al0), the present participle (being*
seeing* .al0ing) and the past participle (been* seen* .al0ed).
noun
. noun is a word that denotes somebody or something. 4n the sentence 'y younger
sister .on some money in a competition* 1sister1* 1money1 and 1competition1 are nouns.
%any nouns (countable nouns) can be singular (only one) or plural (more than one).
or e(ample sister?sisters, problem?problems, party?parties. ;ther nouns (mass nouns)
do not normally occur in the plural. or e(ample: butter* cotton, electricity* money,
!appiness.
. collective noun is a word that refers to a group. or e(ample, cro.d* floc0* team.
.lthough these are singular in form, we often thin! of them as plural in meaning and use
them with a plural verb. or e(ample, if we say T!e team !ave .on all t!eir games so
far, we thin! of 1t!e team1 as 1t!ey1 (rather than 1it1).
.roper nouns are the names of people, places, organisations, etc. These normally
begin with a capital letter: (manda, irming!am, 'icrosoft, &slam, November.
/oun phrase is a wider term than +noun+. 4t can refer to a single noun (money), a
pronoun (it) or a group of words that functions in the same way as a noun in a sentence,
for e(ample:
a lot of money
my younger sister
a ne. car
t!e best team in t!e .orld
$imilarly, a noun clause functions in the same way as a noun. or e(ample:
T!e story .as not true. (noun)
-!at you said .as not true. (noun clause)
$ee also phrase.
/oun phrase% noun clause
$ee noun, phrase% clause
o#ect
see su#ect and o#ect
onomatopoeia
<ords which echo sounds associated with their meaning: clang* !iss* cras!* cuc0oo.
paragraph
. section of a piece of writing. . new paragraph mar!s a change of focus, a change of
time, a change of place or a change of spea!er in a passage of dialogue.
. new paragraph begins on a new line, usually with a one-line gap separating it from the
previous paragraph. $ome writers also indent the first line of a new paragraph.
Paragraphing helps writers to organise their thoughts, and helps readers to follow the
story line, argument or dialogue.
parenthesis
. parenthesis is a word or phrase inserted into a sentence to e(plain or elaborate. 4t
may be placed in brac!ets or between dashes or commas:
%am and "mma (!is oldest c!ildren) are coming to visit !im next .ee0end.
'argaret is generally !appy I s!e sings in t!e morningsB I but responsibility
.eig!s !er do.n.
%ara! is* & believe* our best student.
The term parentheses can also refer to the brac!ets themselves.
part of speech
.n unsatisfactory traditional name for word classes.
participle
Eerbs have a present participle and a past participle.
present participle
The present participle ends in 2ing (.or0ing, reading, going etc). .lthough it is
called +present+, it is used in all continuous forms: s!e is going, s!e .as going,
s!e .ill be going* s!e .ould !ave been going* etc.
The 2ing ending is also used for a verb functioning as a noun. or e(ample: &
en3oy reading, Reading is important. (+Reading1 is used as a noun in these
e(amples.) This 2ing form is sometimes called a verbal noun or a gerund.
4n most other 3uropean languages the present participle is not used nearly as
much as in 3nglish because there is usually no continuous form of tenses.
past participle
The past participle often ends in 2ed (.or0ed, played) but many common verbs
are irregular and have other endings, eg 2t (0ept), 2n (flo.n), and 2en (stolen).
Past participles are used:
a. after !ave to ma!e perfect forms: &1ve .or0ed, !e !as fallen, .e s!ould !ave
gone
b. after be (is?.as etc) to ma!e passive forms: & .as as0ed, t!ey are 0ept, it !as
been stolen
2ere too, the name is misleading, because passive forms need not refer to the
past: ( toast .ill be drun0.
Participles (present and past) are sometimes used as ad/ectives: t!e falling leaves,
stolen goods. They can also be used to introduce subordinate clauses, for e(ample:
eing a student, Tom doesn1t !ave muc! money.
-ritten in GJ>H, t!e boo0 !as been translated into t.enty2five languages.
Participles in other languages may be used less freAuently than in 3nglish and may be
sub/ect to specific rules: agreement in rench, word order in @erman.
$ee also active and passive , tense.
passive.
$ee active and passive.
past participle.
$ee participle.
person
4n grammar, a distinction is made between first, second and third person.
;ne uses the first person when referring to oneself (&?.e); the second person when
referring to one+s listener or reader (you); and the third person when referring to
somebody or something else (!e4s!e4it4t!ey4my friend4t!e boo0s etc).
4n some cases the form of the verb changes according to person:
&4.e4you4t!ey 0no.
&4.e4you4t!ey !ave
.e4you4t!ey .ere
!e4s!e 0no.s
!e4s!e4it !as
&4!e4s!e4it .as
$ee also agreement.
phoneme
. phoneme is the smallest contrastive unit of sound in a word. There are appro(imately
QQ phonemes in 3nglish (the number varies depending on the accent). . phoneme may
have variant pronunciations in different positions; for e(ample, the first and last sounds
in the word +little+ are variants of the phoneme ?l?. . phoneme may be represented by
one, two, three or four letters. The following words end in the same phoneme (with the
corresponding letters underlined):
too
s!oe
t!roug!
phrase
. phrase is a group of words that act as one unit. $o dog is a word, but t!e dog, a big
dog or t!at dog over t!ere are all phrases. $trictly spea!ing, a phrase can also consist
of /ust one word. or e(ample, in the sentence <ogs are nice, 1dogs1 and 1nice1 are both
one-word phrases.
. phrase can function as a noun, an ad/ective or an adverb:
a noun phrase a big dog
my last !oliday
an ad#ectival phrase (s!e1s not) as old as you
(&1m) really !ungry
an adverial phrase (t!ey left) five minutes ago
(s!e .al0s) very slo.ly
4f a phrase begins with a preposition (li!e in a !urry, along t!e lane), it can be called a
prepositional phrase. . prepositional phrase can be ad/ectival or adverbial in meaning:
ad#ectival (&1m) in a !urry* (t!e man) .it! long !air
adverial (t!ey left) on Tuesday* (s!e lives) along t!e lane
plural
$ee singular and plural.
predicate
The predicate is that part of a sentence which is not the sub/ect but which gives
information about the sub/ect. $o, in the sentence Clare .ent to sc!ool, 1Clare1 is the
sub/ect and 1.ent to sc!ool1 is the predicate.
prefi$
. prefi( is a morpheme which can be added to the beginning of a word to change its
meaning. or e(ample:
inedible
disappear
supermar0et
unintentional
preposition
. preposition is a word li!e at, over, by and .it!. 4t is usually followed by a noun
phrase. 4n the e(amples, the preposition and the following noun phrase are underlined:
-e got !ome at midnig!t.
<id you come !ere by car;
(re you coming .it! me;
T!ey 3umped over a fence.
-!at1s t!e name of t!is street;
& fell asleep during t!e film.
Prepositions often indicate time (at midnig!t4during t!e film4on )riday)* position (at t!e
station4in a field) or direction (to t!e station4over a fence). There are many other
meanings, including possession (of t!is street), means (by car) and accompaniment
(.it! me).
4n Auestions and a few other structures, prepositions often occur at the end of the
clause:
-!o did you go out .it!;
-e !aven1t got enoug! money to live on.
& found t!e boo0 & .as loo0ing for.
4n formal style, the preposition can go before .!om or .!ic! (.it! .!om, about .!ic!
etc):
-it! .!om do you .is! to spea0;
%any prepositions (eg on, over, up) can also be used as advers (without a following
noun or pronoun):
-e got on t!e bus. (preposition - followed by a noun phrase)
T!e bus stopped and .e got on. (adverb - no following noun or pronoun)
4n other languages preposition use may be lin!ed to gender aspects (rench du* de la)
and?or case (@erman mit dem4mit der6 ,um4,ur).
prepositional phrase
. prepositional phrase is a phrase built round a preposition, e.g.
with a short tail,
after midnight.
preposition stranding
4n 3nglish (though not in most other languages) we often 5strand6 a preposition by
shifting its ob/ect to an earlier position. This is common in passives:
.ctive: They wal!ed on this carpet.
Passive: This carpet was wal!ed on.
4t is also common in interrogative and relative clauses:
Geclarative: They mended it with glue.
4nterrogative: <hat did they mend it withP
1elative: The glue which they mended it with was very strong.
pronoun
There are several !inds of pronoun, including:
personal pronouns
&4me, you, !e?!im, s!e?!er, .e?us, t!ey?t!em, it
& li0e !im. T!ey don1t .ant it.
possessive pronouns
mine, yours, !is, !ers, ours, t!eirs, its
&s t!is boo0 yours or mine;
refle(ive pronouns
myself, !erself, t!emselves etc
& !urt myself. "n3oy yourselvesB
indefinite pronouns
someone, anyt!ing, nobody, everyt!ing etc
%omeone .ants to see you about somet!ing.
interrogative pronouns
.!o?.!om, .!ose, .!ic!, .!at
-!o did t!at; -!at !appened;
relative pronouns
.!o?.!om, .!ose, .!ic!, t!at
T!e person .!o did t!at ? T!e t!ing t!at annoyed me .as ?
%any determiners can also be used as pronouns, including t!is?t!at?t!ese?t!ose and
the Auantifiers (some, muc! etc). or e(ample:
T!ese are mine.
-ould you li0e some;
Pronouns often +replace+ a noun or noun phrase and enable us to avoid repetition:
& sa. your fat!er but & didn1t spea0 to !im. (C your father)
1-e1re going a.ay for t!e .ee0end.1 1O!* are you; T!at1s nice.1 (C the fact you+re
going away)
punctuation
Punctuation is a way of mar!ing te(t to help readers+ understanding. The most
commonly used mar!s in 3nglish are: apostrophe, colon, comma, dash, ellipsis,
e$clamation mark, full stop, hyphen, semi)colon and speech marks (inverted
commas).
'uestion mark !0"
. Auestion mar! is used at the end of an interrogative sentence (eg -!o .as t!at;) or
one whose function is a Auestion (eg /ou1re leaving already;)
refer
<e can use the verb to refer in two ways.
R. <e can say that a noun or pronoun refers to the person or thing that it 5pic!s out6;
for e(ample, the noun %!a0espeare refers to the person <illiam $ha!espeare, and my
teac!er refers to the spea!er6s teacher. This is a lin! between a word and something
outside language. Technically this !ind of referring is called +reference+.
). <e can say that a pronoun refers, or refers ack, to an earlier noun, meaning that it
refers (in the first sense) to the same person or thing as that noun - in traditional
terminology, it +stands for+ that noun. or e(ample, we may say that !e refers bac! to
9o!n in 9o!n said !e .as tired. Technically this !ind of referring is called +anaphora+.
reference
. word6s reference is the person or thing to which it refers. or e(ample, the reference
of %!a0espeare is the writer $ha!espeare.
reference chain
. reference chain is a seAuence of words scattered through a te(t which all have the
same reference - i.e. they refer to the same person or thing - e.g.
a little boy ... !e ... !e ... t!e boy ...
relative adver
The words .!en and .!ere can be used, li!e relative pronouns, to introduce a relative
clause, e.g.
t!e time .!en dynosaurs ruled t!e "art!,
t!e to.n .!ere & live
=ut they are also li!e the adverbs t!en and t!ere.
relative clause
. relative clause is one that defines or gives information about somebody or something.
1elative clauses typically begin with relative pronouns (.!o4.!om4.!ose4.!ic!4t!at)5
<o you 0no. t!e people .!o live in t!e !ouse on t!e corner; (defines 1t!e
people1)
T!e biscuits (t!at) Tom boug!t t!is morning !ave all gone. (defines 1t!e biscuits1)
Our !otel* .!ic! .as only t.o minutes from t!e beac!* .as very nice. (gives
more information about the hotel)
4n other languages the form of the relative pronoun may be defined by agreement with
the noun to which it refers, as well as by its function in the relative clause.

relative pronoun
. pronoun that is used to introduce a relative clause. The most common relative
pronoun is t!at (a pronoun t!at is used ...), but the remainder all derive from Auestion
words: .!o* .!ic! and .!ose.
$ee also relative adverb.
root word
. word to which prefi$es and suffi$es may be added to ma!e other words; for e(ample
in unclear* clearly* cleared* the root word is clear.
semantic% semantics
$emantic facts are facts about meaning, and semantics is the study of meaning.
semi)colon !1"
. semi-colon can be used to separate two main clauses in a sentence:
& li0ed t!e boo06 it .as a pleasure to read.
This could also be written as two separate sentences:
& li0ed t!e boo0. &t .as a pleasure to read.
2owever, where the two clauses are closely related in meaning (as in the above
e(ample), a writer may prefer to use a semi-colon rather than two separate sentences.
$emi-colons can also be used to separate items in a list if these items consist of longer
phrases. or e(ample:
& need large* 3uicy tomatoes6 !alf a pound of unsalted butter6 a 0ilo of fres! pasta*
preferably tagliatelle6 and a 3ar of blac0 olives.
4n a simple list, commas are used.
sentence
. sentence can be simple, compound or comple$.
. simple sentence consists of one clause:
&t .as late.
. compound sentence has two or more clauses /oined by and, or, but or so. The
clauses are of eAual weight (they are both main clauses):
&t .as late but & .asn1t tired.
. comple$ sentence consists of a main clause which itself includes one or more
subordinate clauses:
(lt!oug! it .as late* & .asn1t tired. (subordinate clause beginning with alt!oug!
underlined)
$imple sentences can also be grouped as follows according to their structure:
declarative (for statements, suggestions, etc):
T!e class yelled in triump!.
'aybe .e could eat after.ards.
interrogative (for Auestions, reAuests, etc):
&s your sister !ere;
Could you s!o. me !o.;
imperative (for commands, instructions, etc):
$old t!isB
Ta0e t!e second left.
e$clamative (for e(clamations):
$o. peaceful s!e loo0s.
-!at a pityB
4n writing, we mar! sentences by using a capital letter at the beginning, and a full stop
(or Auestion mar! or e(clamation mar!) at the end.
se'uence of tense rule.
$ee bac!shift.
singular and plural
$ingular forms are used to refer to one thing, person etc. or e(ample: tree, student,
party.
%any nouns (countale nouns) can be singular (only one) or plural (more than one).
The plural is usually mar!ed by the ending 2s5 trees, students, parties.
$ome plural forms are irregular. or e(ample: c!ildren, teet!, mice.
;ther nouns (mass nouns) do not normally occur in the plural. or e(ample: butter,
cotton, electricity, money, !appiness.
2ers, pronouns, and determiners sometimes have different singular and plural
forms:
$e .as late. T!ey .ere late.
-!ere is t!e 0ey; $ave you seen
it;
-!ere are t!e 0eys; $ave you seen t!emP
<o you li0e t!is !at; <o you li0e t!ese s!oes;
"ote that t!ey4t!em4t!eir (plural words) are sometimes used to refer bac! to singular
words that don+t designate a specific person, such as anyone or somebody. 4n such
cases, t!ey usually means +he or she+:
&f anyone .ants to as0 a +uestion* t!ey can as0 me later. (C he or she can as!
me)
<id everybody do t!eir !ome.or0;
-or0 .it! a partner. (s0 t!em t!eir name.
$ee also agreement, pronoun

speech% speech marks
$ee direct speech and indirect speech.
spelling log
. personal, ongoing record of words which are being learnt. Pupils would decide, with
the teacher+s guidance, words to be learnt. These words would be !ept in a folder so the
pupil can wor! on them during the wee! with a partner or teacher, or at home. ;nce
learnt, the words can be added to the pupil+s record.
standard +nglish
$tandard 3nglish is the variety of 3nglish used in public communication, particularly in
writing. 4t is the form taught in schools and used by educated spea!ers. 4t is not limited
to a particular region and can be spo!en with any accent.
There are differences in vocabulary and grammar between standard 3nglish and other
varieties. or e(ample, .e .ere robbed and loo0 at t!ose trees are standard 3nglish;
.e .as robbed and loo0 at t!em trees are non-standard.
To communicate effectively in a range of situations - written and oral - it is necessary to
be able to use standard 3nglish, and to recognise when it is appropriate to use it in
preference to any other variety.
"ote that standard =ritish 3nglish is not the only standard variety; other 3nglish-
spea!ing countries, such as the :nited $tates and .ustralia, have their own standard
forms.
$ee also agreement, dialect, doule negative
su#ect and o#ect
4n the sentence 9o!n 0ic0ed t!e ball* the sub/ect is 19o!n1, and the ob/ect is 1t!e ball1.
The sub/ect is the person or thing about which something is said. 4n sentences with a
sub/ect and an ob/ect, the sub/ect typically carries out an action, while the ob/ect is the
person or thing affected by the action. 4n declarative sentences (statements), the
sub/ect normally goes before the verb; the ob/ect goes after the verb.
$ome verbs (eg give, s!o., buy) can have two ob/ects, indirect and direct. or
e(ample:
%!e gave t!e man some money.
2ere, 1some money1 is the direct ob/ect (C what she gave). 1T!e man1 is the indirect
ob/ect (C the person who receives the direct ob/ect).
<hen a verb has an ob/ect, it is transitive, eg find a 3ob, li0e c!ocolate, lay t!e table. 4f
it has no ob/ect, it is intransitive (eg go, tal0, lie).
4n different languages, ob/ects may be indicated by word order, the use of a preposition,
or a case indicator.
$ee also active and passive % complement
suordination
$ubordination is the relation between a subordinate clause and the main clause
containing it.

suordinate clause
. subordinate clause is one that is part of a larger clause - e.g. the underlined below,
which illustrate the three main !inds of subordinate clause:

adverbial clause 4 stayed inside because it was raining.

noun clause 4 saw that it was raining.

relative clause .t the time that it was raining 4 was indoors.


suordinating con#unction 4n the subordinate clause
if it rains,
the word if is a subordinating con/unction. This means that it is a special word whose
only function is to signal the start of the subordinate clause and the way in which it
relates to the rest of the sentence.
suffi$
. suffi( is a morpheme which is added to the end of a word. There are two main
categories:
1. .n inflectional suffi( changes the tense or grammatical status of a word, eg
from present to past (.or0ed) or from singular to plural (accidents).
2. . derivational suffi( changes the word class, eg from verb to noun (.or0er) or
from noun to ad/ective (accidental).
syllale
3ach beat in a word is a syllable. <ords with only one beat (cat* frig!t* 3ail) are called
monosyllaic; words with more than one beat (super* co.ard* superficiality) are
polysyllaic.
synonym
<ords which have the same meaning as another word, or very similar: .et4damp.
.voids overuse of any word; adds variety.
synta$
$ynta( is the study of sentence structure, ie how words are used together in a
sentence.
tag 'uestion
. tag Auestion is a very small Auestion such as isn1t it; or did !e; which is attached to
the end of a sentence. 4t consists of nothing but an au(iliary verb followed by its sub/ect
which is copied from the main sentence, and it as!s for confirmation - e.g. didn@t t!ey;
in
The teachers won the match, didn6t theyP
tense
. tense is a verb form that most often indicates time. 3nglish verbs have two basic
tenses, present and past, and each of these can be simple or continuous. or
e(ample:
present past
& play (simple) & played (simple)
& am playing (continuous) & .as playing (continuous)
.dditionally, all these forms can be perfect (with !ave):
present perfect past perfect
& !ave played (perfect) & !ad played (perfect)
& !ave been playing (perfect
continuous)
& !ad been playing (perfect
continuous)
3nglish has no specific future tense. uture time can be e(pressed in a number of ways
using .ill or present tenses. or e(ample:
9o!n .ill arrive tomorro..
9o!n .ill be arriving tomorro..
9o!n is going to arrive tomorro..
9o!n is arriving tomorro..
9o!n arrives tomorro..
4n other languages the future and other tenses may be indicated by au(iliary verbs
(@erman) or by inflection (rench).
te$t
#anguage organised to communicate. 4ncludes written, spo!en and electronic forms.
transitive
. transitive verb is one that has an ob/ect.
ver
. verb is a word that e(presses an action, a happening, a process or a state. 4t can be
thought of as a +doing+ or +being+ word. 4n the sentence 'ar0 is tired and .ants to go to
bed, 1is1, 1.ants1 and 1go1 are verbs. $ometimes two or more words ma!e up a verb
chain, such as are going* didn1t .ant, !as been .aiting.
%ost verbs (e(cept modal verbs, such as can or .ill) have four or five different forms.
or e(ample:
ase
form or
infinitiv
e
3 -s
3 -ing
!present
participle"
simple
past
past participle

drive drive driving drove driven
s
.ait .aits .aiting waited
ma0e ma0
es
ma0ing
made

. verb can be present or past:
& .ait?s!e .aits (present)
& .aited?s!e .aited (past)
%ost verbs can occur in simple or continuous forms (be > 2ing):
& ma0e (simple present)?&1m ma0ing (present continuous)
s!e drove (simple past)?s!e .as driving (past continuous)
. verb can also be perfect (with !ave):
& !ave made?& !ave been ma0ing (present perfect)
!e !ad driven?!e !ad been driving (past perfect)
4f a verb is regular, the simple past and the past participle are the same, and end in 2ed.
or e(ample:
.anted
played
ans.ered
Eerbs that do not follow this pattern are irregular. or e(ample:
ma0e?made
catc!?caug!t
see?sa.?seen
come?came?come
$ee also active and passive , au$iliary vers , infinitive% modal vers% participle%
person, tense
veral noun
$ame as gerund.
ver chain
. verb chain consists of one or more au$iliary verb closely followed by a main ver:
!as gone
is reading
.ill !ave come
. verb chain may be up to five verbs long, e.g.
must !ave been being intervie.ed
and modifies the meaning of the full verb by supplying information about tense and
voice and the !ind of meaning that is e(pressed by modal verbs.
voice
Eoice is the contrast between active and passive.
word class
The main word classes are ver, noun, ad#ective, adver, pronoun, determiner,
preposition and con#unction. These are all dealt with separately in this glossary.
"ote that a word can belong to more than one class. or e(ample:
play verb (& play)
or noun (a play)
fit noun (a fit),
verb (t!ey fit)
or ad/ective (&1m fit)
until preposition (until 'onday)
or con/unction (until & come bac0)
li0e verb (& li0e)
or preposition (do it li0e t!is)
!ard ad/ective (it1s !ard .or0)
or adverb (& .or0 !ard)
t!at determiner (t!at boo0)
pronoun (.!o did t!at;)
or con/unction (!e said t!at !e ?)

4urther reading
The #inguistics .ssociation maintains a page of suggestions for further reading.