AspecL

Lhe funcuonal domaln of Lhe verb = lnecuon

lnecuon = an umbrella Lerm for 1ense,
AgreemenL, AspecL, Mood, volce

!ohn read a book.
!ohn was readlng a book.

-same Lense, dlerenL aspecL
1ense
delcuc caLegory: orlenLed Lowards Lhe ume of
Lhe speaker, lL relaLes slLuauons Lo Speech
1lme and orders Lhem by Lhe relauons of:
slmulLanelLy, anLerlorlLy, posLerlorlLy
represenLs Lhe chronologlcal order of evenLs
ln ume as percelved by Lhe speaker
AspecL
noL a delcuc caLegory
lnforms abouL Lhe slze of Lhe slLuauon, abouL
lLs lnLernal sLages, abouL Lhe quallLy of Lhe
slLuauon
!ohn saL behlnd a desk all aernoon.
!ohn found a Lreasure.
!ohn aLe a bar of chocolaLe.
!ohn remembered someLhlng.

-> same 1ense, same AspecL?
whaL ls Lhe dlerence?

!ohn walked Lo Lhe park.
!ohn walked ln Lhe park.

!ohn learned lrench for Lwo years.
!ohn learned lrench ln Lwo years.
1he rlnclple of ComposluonallLy: (lrege's rlnclple)
= 1he meanlng of a complex expresslon ls fully
deLermlned by Lhe meanlng of lLs conslLuenLs and by lLs
sLrucLure: LhaL ls Lhe rules we used Lo comblne Lhe
conslLuenLs.

+ Lhe lexlcal concepLual sLrucLure of Lhe verb, LhaL ls Lhe
verb LogeLher wlLh lLs argumenLs
+ Lhe funcuonal caLegorles on Lhe verb
+ ume adverblals
AspecL
perfecuve - lmperfecuve
vlewpolnL aspecL (SmlLh 1991) / grammaucal
aspecL (de SwarL 1998)
slLuauon-Lype aspecL / lexlcal aspecL (SmlLh
1991)
sLaLes
acuvlues
accompllshmenLs
achlevemenLs
semelfacuves
a. !ohn loves chocolaLe.
b. !ohn sLrolled ln Lhe park.
c. !ohn made a chocolaLe cake.
d. !ohn remembered someLhlng.
e. !ohn coughed.
!"#"$%& ()*#"$%& "&+$,
!"#"&!
+ + -
#,"$%$"$&!
- + -
#,,-./+$!0.&1"!
- + +
#,0$&%&.&1"!
- - +
!&.&+2#,"$%&!
- - -
34567849: ;<75=:: grammaucal morphemes -
!"#$% caLegory
be-lng
have-en
<4:>;?89@:A75 ;<75=:: a consLellauon of
lexlcal morphemes - Lhe verb and lLs
argumenLs - &!"#$% caLegory (lacks expllclL
morphologlcal markers)
aspecLual meanlng holds for senLences raLher
Lhan verbs:
a. !ohn never eaLs chocolaLe.
b. !ohn aLe chocolaLe nolslly LhroughouL Lhe
lesson.
c. !ohn aLe a bar of chocolaLe.
d. !ohn walked ln Lhe park.
e. !ohn walked Lo Lhe park.
f. A famous movle sLar dlscovered LhaL llule spa.
g. lamous movle sLars have been dlscoverlng LhaL
llule spa for years.


slmllarlLy: uncounLable Lhlngs (mass nouns,
bare plurals) - aLellc evenLs:

some chocolaLe = chocolaLe
some waLer = a lake

!ohn walked. vs. !ohn walked Lo school.



SLaLes
e.g. belleve ln ghosLs, know Lhe answer, be
Lall, own
unbounded
absLracL aLemporal quallLy
homogeneous
Lrue aL all sublnLervals
SLauvlLy LesLs:
lncompauble wlLh:
lmperauves
Ag-orlenLed Av '())(*+),- /#)(0#$1%#),
'2!$&#' and '3#$451/#6
*WhaL she dld was ..
progresslve
Lemporal and spaual coordlnaLes (*When and where.?)
5*&!5*%10)# , mass properues (*Pe knew Creek Lhree umes)
98B49;C4D;?89< of sLaLe predlcaLes (71%$#/- )!"#- 8*!')#/+#,
eLc.) : uncounLable (97#$# '14 )(:)# )!"# )!4% 1;!*+
%7#;4#)"#4).
SLaLes
baslc level sLaLes
derlved sLauves
! lndlvldual-level predlcaLes
! sLage-level predlcaLes
(Carlson 1977)
8aslc level sLaLes
absLracL and concreLe properues (0# 1)%$5(4<&- 0#
%1))- 0# (*%#))(+#*%- 0# '(/#43$#1/- 0# #=<*&%)
bellef and oLher menLal sLaLes (0#)(#"#- 8*!'-
%7(*8 >+("# !3(*(!*?- 7!3#- 2#1$)
verbs of physlcal percepuon (4##- 7#1$- %14%#-
2##)- #%&@
emouve predlcaLes ()!"#- 71%#- )(8#- /(4)(8#-
$#A!(&#- /#43(4#- '1*%- /#4($#)
LCS: 8L (ln Lhe sLaLe of)
uerlved sLauves: sLages of lndlvlduals
" noL sLauve aL Lhe baslc level of classlcauon
generlcs
hablLuals
Cenerlcs
MammoLhs are woolly.
MammoLhs are exuncL.

semanucally sLauve
hold of classes, klnds, pauerns of evenLs
ascrlbe a properLy Lo Lhe class
do noL have conslsLenL synLacuc properues:
A mammoLh ls woolly.
*A mammoLh ls exuncL.
PablLuals
My caL eaLs a mouse every day.

semanucally sLauve
pauern of slLuauons
verbs of posluon and locauon (slL, crouch, lle,
perch, sprawl)
lnLerval sLauves: Lhelr LruLh condluon requlres an
lnLerval longer Lhan a momenL
1he plcLure hangs on Lhe wall.
1he plcLure ls hanglng on Lhe wall. ->resulLauve,
Lemporary

1he socks are lylng / *lle under Lhe bed.
new Crleans lles / *ls lylng on Lhe Mlsslsslppl.
-> volluonal conLrol, moveable ob[ecL
Muluple classlcauon
percepuon verbs: sLaLes + evenLs
l have LasLed Lhe sh and lL LasLes funny.

SLage-level lnLerpreLauon of sLaLes
dynamlsm, Lemporary quallLy:
l was belng a nulsance. 1he cake ls looklng done.
gradual change:
1hese examples are seemlng less and less
unaccepLable.

baslc-level sLaLes: lncompauble wlLh progresslve:
*Pe ls ownlng a car.

l'm noL seelng anyLhlng.
Are you hearlng me?

cf. l can'L see anyLhlng.
Can you hear me?
Acuvlues/rocesses
Pe swam/ran/slepL/sLrolled ln Lhe park/aLe for
an hour.
1he ball rolled/moved.
lL ralned for hours.
1he [ewels glluered.
durauve
dynamlc
aLellc
no naLural nal polnL: cessauon of acuvlLy -
processes 'sLop', do noL 'nlsh'
lnLerval longer Lhan a momenL
homogeneous
Lhe sublnLerval properLy
perlod adverblals: for x ume, all day, spend
ume dolng
LCS: uC WhaL he dld was play Lhe plano.

muluple evenL processes:

eaL cherrles, wrlLe leuers, cough for ve
mlnuLes, revolve
Pe was coughlng.
Pe found sand ln hls shoes all mornlng.
Compare:
read Lhe book vs. read aL Lhe book
palnL Lhe fence vs. palnL away aL Lhe fence
degree predlcaLes
1hey were wldenlng Lhe road.
1he soup cooled.
super-lexlcal verbs:
Mary conunued Lo eaL peas.
AccompllshmenLs and AchlevemenLs
Lellc
change of sLaLe
bounded lnLerval
Lemporally complex: do noL have Lhe sublnLerval
properLy
false aL all sublnLervals
heLerogeneous
adverblals of compleuon: ln x ume, Lake x ume Lo
AccompllshmenLs
durauve
complex evenLs


S
l
acuvlLy

S
f

LCS: (uC (CAuSL ( 8LCCML)))
ouLcome enLalls process:
!ohn bullL a house. => !ohn was bulldlng a
house.
!ohn was bulldlng a house => !ohn bullL a house.
cf. !ohn was walklng. => !ohn walked.
complex evenLs: blparuLe naLure
a. !ohn almosL opened Lhe door.

complex evenLs: blparuLe naLure
a. !ohn almosL opened Lhe door.
almosL (!ohn opened Lhe door)
!ohn uC (8LCCML (door almosL open))

b. !ohn bullL a klLe for Lwo hours.
c. !ohn nlshed bulldlng a klLe.
d. !ohn sLopped bulldlng a klLe.
1he sherl of nomngham [alled 8obln Pood for
four years.

1he sherl of nomngham [alled 8obln Pood for
four years.
1. muluple evenL process
uC Av (8obln Pood go Lo [all)

2. uC (8obln Pood go Lo [all Av)
1he walked Lo school aL noon.

lngresslve
resulLauves:
1he sherl shoL Lhe man dead.
1he wlnd shaped Lhe hllls lnLo cones.
1he mald swepL Lhe oor clean.
1he elevaLor wheezed Lo Lhe sevenLh oor.
*1he frogs croaked Lo Lhe pond.
Lhrow away, aslde, down, up
monomorphemlc: drown, elecLrocuLe, sLrangle,
hang, polson
a. !ane walked down Lhe beach.
b. !ane walked down Lhe beach. She sLopped Lo
plck up a sLarsh.
c. Lvery aernoon !ane walked down Lhe
beach.
AchlevemenLs
change of sLaLe
lnsLanLaneous
process (cause) omlued or backgrounded
LCS: 8LCCML
/(#- $#1&7 %7# %!3- '(* %7# $1&#- 1$$("#- )#1"#-
$#&!+*(B#- *!<&#- C*/ 1 3#**,- ;(44 %7# %1$+#%-
)!4# %7# '1%&7- $#;#;0#$

prellmlnary sLages: concepLually deLached from
Lhe evenL as such
Pe dled. => Pe was dylng.
Pe was wlnnlng Lhe race. => Pe won Lhe race.
exlsLence of prellmlnary sLages accounLs for
ablllLy Lo occur ln progresslve
1he plane was landlng when Lhe sLorm sLarLed.
'lucky achlevemenLs'
!ohn found a penny (*dellberaLely).
vs. : !ohn dellberaLely mlssed Lhe LargeL.
*!ohn was ndlng a penny.
lngresslve lnLerpreLauon wlLh compleuve Av:
We reached Lhe Lop ln 3 mlnuLes.
1he bomb exploded ln a mlnuLe.
*1he bomb nlshed explodlng.
lncompauble wlLh perlod Av:
*1he bomb exploded for ve mlnuLes.
1he recracker exploded for ve mlnuLes.

degree predlcaLes
!ohn melLed Lhe lce for/ln an hour.
1he lce melLed for/ln an hour.
1he balloon rose Lo Lhe celllng.
1he book fell down.
Mary drled Lhe cocoa beans dry.
cool, warm, wlden, harden, rlse, fall, descend,
roll, cool, melL, dry, eLc.

Semelfacuves
aLellc
lnsLanLaneous
8*!&8- &!5+7- 7(% D13- 7(&&53- 4)1;- 01*+- 8(&8
no prellmlnary or resulLanL sLages
wlLh perlod Av, progresslve: lLerauve
!ohn coughed for ve mlnuLes.
!ohn was coughlng.
lngresslve:
Mary slowly knocked.
!ohn coughed qulckly.
Lhe conLrlbuuon of argumenLs and ad[uncLs Lo
aspecLual recaLegorlzauon
She combed her halr for/ln ve mlnuLes.
!ohn ran a mlle.
!ohn ran Lo Lhe park.
!ohn aLe popcorn *ln/for an hour.
!ohn dlscovered eas on hls dog *ln/for 2 days.
1ourlsLs/*!ohn dlscovered LhaL vlllage for years.
vlewpolnL AspecL: perfecuve
unmarked ln Lngllsh
closed slLuauon
endpolnLs lncluded
noL concerned wlLh lengLh - seen as puncLual
Lyplcally puncLual: achlevemenLs and
semelfacuves
!ohn found a penny.
!ohn coughed.
non-lnsLanLaneous: 'puncLual' = closed
She swam.
1he klng relgned for 30 years.
LermlnaLed vs. compleLed slLuauons
Llly swam ln Lhe pond *and ls sull swlmmlng.
Llly swam ln Lhe pond. Llly coughed.
Llly wroLe a leuer.
Llly reached Lhe llghLhouse.
Llly wroLe a leuer *buL she dldn'L nlsh wrlung.

sLaLes: exlble open/closed : conLexL
Sam owned several apple orchards.
sequenual readlng:
!ohn ran/wenL Lo bed/fell asleep when Mary goL
home.
!ohn saw Mary eaL an apple.
!ohn saw Mary eaung an apple.
lmperfecuve vlewpolnL
marked aspecLual cholce
dynamlsm
lnformauonally open
presenLs parL of a slLuauon
orlgln: (!espersen)
he was on hunung
n
(ln Lhe course of, engaged
ln, busy wlLh some proLracLed acuon)
on > a > dropped
Lemporal frame: hunung = frame around
smLh. else (anchor)

Whenever l call hlm he ls worklng ln Lhe garden.
When l goL Lhere he was worklng ln Lhe garden.
When you arrlve l'll be worklng ln Lhe garden.

a. !ohn was hldlng Lhe looL when Lhe pollce
came.
b. *!ohn was hldlng Lhe looL aer Lhe phone
rang.
c. !ohn hld Lhe looL when/aer Mary knocked
aL Lhe door.
d. !ohn sang when Mary knocked. = ?
e. !ohn was happy when Mary knocked.
1.?
2.?
a. !ohn was hldlng Lhe looL when Lhe pollce
came.
b. *!ohn was hldlng Lhe looL aer Lhe phone
rang.
c. !ohn hld Lhe looL when/aer Mary knocked
aL Lhe door.
d. !ohn sang when Mary knocked. = successlve
e. !ohn was happy when Mary knocked. =
1. overlapplng
2. successlve
pragmauc facLors: muLual knowledge
!ohn was bulldlng a Lree-house. (=)
!ohn bullL a Lree-house.

Mlldred was shelllng peas.
negauve focus: .when Lhe re broke ouL.
neuLral focus:
:5B78E;EA: Pe wears/ls wearlng a wlg.
1he rlver ows/ls owlng Lhrough Lhe cenLer of
Lhe Lown.
5B8?35: Ceorge ls always promlslng Lo have
Lhe sLone reseL buL lL's never been done.
FE;G>;C =H;9F5: 1hese examples are seemlng
less and less unaccepLable Lo me
4BB4959=5: .aL any momenL he was
expecung Lhe door Lo bursL open .
78C4:595<<: l'm hoplng.

ln lLs aspecLual funcuon, Lhe progresslve ls used Lo
show LhaL a slLuauon ls ln progress, LhaL lL ls lncompleLe,
or LhaL lL has a cerLaln, normally llmlLed durauon.
Powever, lL ls also clalmed LhaL Lhe progresslve has
expresslve, lnLenslve, focallzlng foregroundlng,
sub[ecuve, LexLual, sLyllsuc, eLc. funcuons aL lLs varlous
sLages of developmenL. [...]
Lhe progresslve has lncreaslngly been used as a marker of
sub[ecuvlLy. 1he maln argumenL for Lhls hypoLhesls
seems Lo be LhaL much of Lhe rlse has Laken place ln
llngulsuc conLexLs where Lhe progresslve ls noL
grammaucally requlred, buL where lL ls ln compeuuon
wlLh Lhe slmple form. [.]
1he sub[ecucauon of Lhe progresslve ls, among oLher
Lhlngs, assumed Lo explaln Lhe alleged rlse ln Lhe use of
Lhe progresslve wlLh sLauve verbs." (klllle 2004).