Protect ecological health of the receiving environment
Disposal is often via fresh and marine ecosystems Remove material which exerts a oxygen demand through biological and chemical process Prevent the receiving environment turning anoxic Prevent Eutrophication o Increase in N and P in ecosystems stimulates the growth of primary producers like algae o N and P are termed growth limiting according to the Redfield Ratio o Dark respiration (form of respiration in plants where carbon dioxide is released without the aid of sunlight) causes oxygen sag at night o Impact on ecology as the conditions favours the primary producers (algae) and the competition will lead to a decrease in diversity o Algae on the surface will restrict light penetration changing the light climate of the water. Impacts benthic aquatic plants that require lights for photosynthesis o Epiphyte and biofilm grow over the aquatic plants create a shade and restrict photosynthesis o Loss of aquatic plants due to the anoxic conditions leads to mineralization release of bound nutrients from sediment causing more algae growth Protect public health of humans that comes into contact with effluent Exposure through ocean fallout/recreational waters Water reclamation (recycle water) Avoid spread of waterborne diseases Chemicals found in wastewater can have detrimental impacts to human health o Originate from industrial chemicals (heavy metal, pesticides), household chemicals (detergent, pesticides), excreted by people (disposing unused drugs), formed during wastewater treatment (disinfection by-products) o Present chronic health risk long term exposure to small doses can have a cumulative effect, e.g. Endocrine disruption compounds (EDCs) May result in disruptive endocrine activities such as modulating the effects of hormones that control sexual development and reproduction Xenoestrogens (synthetic or natural chemicals that imitates estrogen) Found in personal care products (cosmetics), industrial chemicals and insecticides Recycle and Recover the valuable components of wastewater Water (water reclamation) Energy recovery (Methane production for power generation) o Focus convert WWTP into net energy producers Nutrient recovery phosphorous required by all life forms for growth however a limited resource
Wastewater treatment process Preliminary Treatment Targets the removal of gross pollutants o Size distribution 1 100mm Disposed via land fill Screening o Rotating screen belts, screw screens Grit Chambers o Velocity of the incoming sewage is adjust to allow the settlement of gross pollutants o Circular/vortex chambers creates circular flow pattern causing grit to settle while lighter organic material in suspension for treatment down stream o Aerated girt chamber creates air flow in a circular manner Secondary Treatment Targets constituents that exert an oxygen demand and eutrophication (BOD/COD and N/P) Converts nutrient into: o Biomass that can be separated from water by sedimentation, filtration, etc assimilation of N and P into living biomass o Environmentally benign inorganic substances biological oxidation and reduction Achieved using biological reactors o Highly engineered, artificial systems creating favourable environments to concentrate specific organisms and enhance their degradation capabilities o Process utilize the natural degrading capabilities of microorganisms
Primary treatment Physical treatment aimed at removing the solids using sedimentation tank ~ 30% removal of BOD and organic N Results in 2 waste streams o Water (primary effluent) high in nutrient (N and P) o Sludge high in organic carbon Classification of microorganism Carbon source o Heterotrophic respiration of organic carbon (sugars, alcohols, organic acids) o Autotrophic fix inorganic carbon o Mixtrophic Both carbon source Energy source o Chemotrophic energy from chemical reaction Chemoautotroph energy from oxidation of inorganic molecules Chemoheterotroph energy from respiration of organic molecules o Fermentation energy from converting carbohydrates o Phototrophic energy from sunlight Oxygen requirement o Aerobic dissolved oxygen o Anaerobic bonded oxygen in the form of NO 3 or NO 2
o Anaerobic (e.g. fermentation)
Degradation of Organic substance Heterotrophic process Most of the organic substance (BOD, COD or TOC) are biologically degradable Biological degradation (respiration) results in o Growth of microorganisms o Oxygen consumption Aerobic (dissolved oxygen) Anoxic (NO 3 or NO 2 ) End products o Carbon dioxide (when NO 3 and N 2 are reduced) o Water o Synthesis of biomass (new cell growth) Nitrification Two steps process o Oxidation of ammonia to nitrite using ammonia oxidising bacteria such as Nitrosomans (aerobic condition) NH 4 +O 2 NO 2 - + H 2 O o Oxidation of nitrite to nitrate using nitrite oxidising bacteria such as Nitrobacter spp (aerobic condition) NO 2 - + O 2 NO 3 -
Autotrophic process as AOB and NOB fix CO 2 into biomass using energy yielded from their chemical reactions Slow growing Requirements o Aerobic : DO (4.5mh per 1 mg of NH 4 ) o pH > 6 (optimal between 7.3 8) o Temperature > 5 (optimal between 25-30 0 C o Inorganic carbon (CO 2 or CaCO 3 ) o Low BOD concentrations in high BOD concentration, conditions will promote the growth of heterotrophic organisms and dominate the slow growing AOB and NOB Denitrification Returns nitrogen to atmosphere by reducing nitrate to nitrogen gas NO 3 - NO 2 - NO + N 2 O N 2
Performed by a diverse range of Heterotrophic bacteria that have nitrate reductase, Nitrite reductase, N 2 O reductase Anoxic conditions bacteria require NO 3 as a substitute electron acceptor Requirements o Anaerobic conditions inhibited by oxygen however require NO 3 and/or NO 2
o Electron donor organic carbon source (BOD/COD)
ANAMMOX (deammonifcation) NH 4 is oxidised to N 2 under anaerobic conditions using NO 2 as the electron acceptor Three steps o Reduction of nitrite to nitric oxide by nitrite reductase o Condensation of ammonium and nitric oxide to form hydrazine (N 2 H 4 ) by a hydrazine synthase o Oxidation of hydrazine into dinitrogen gas by a hydrazine oxidoreductase Autotrophic process Very slow growing Requirements o NH 4 to NO 2 ratio is 1 : 1 o Anoxic and Mesophilic conditions o Alkaline solution o Low BOD
Phosphorous removal All bacteria contain ~1-2% of P in their biomass while others accumulate larger quantities of P (5-7%) Fermentation of BOD/COD produce volatile fatty acid (VFA) Anaerobic conditions required to assimilate VFA into carbon storage Aerobic conditions are then required for the internal/stored carbon source to be oxidized providing energy to grow and form/store polyphosphate BNR reactors Suspended growth Biological floc exists in suspension via aeration and mixing Complex consortia of microorganisms Filamentous bacteria play an important role in floc formation Biomass / water separated by sedimentation
Attached growth Biofilm system Biological slime attached to a surface Group of microbes that adhere together other on a surface Embedded within a self- produced matrix of extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) Glue The Bathing Medium Biofilms depend on bathing medium (sewage) for supply of nutrients Transportation is termed mass transport or mass flux o Diffusion rate determined by the concentration gradient o Attached to a surface means they benefit from convection Bulk movement / flow Shear force Thickness of the biofilm is related to the flow rate of the bathing medium Shear stress caused by viscosity & turbulence on the biofilm causes detachment (sloughing) Biofilms Variations in pH, oxygen and nutrient availability, it creates a wide range of ecological niches The distribution of species within the community are not spatially uniform o This is because the aerobic bacteria takes up the O 2
reducing the O 2 and creates an anaerobic conditions for the anaerobic bacteria, resulting in the stratification of aerobes and anaerobes o This also results in the stratification of slow (aerobes) and fast (anaerobes) growing microbes and gradient of nutrients Results in highly diverse ecosystems which can perform more functions
Attached growth system Trickling filters Components Infiltrating water (primary effluent) percolates over highly permeable support media, high in surface area Height is typically 1.5-5 m tall Media supports a community of microorganisms Passive aeration of infiltration water Media bed (highly permeable) o Rock bed SA of 50-90m 2 , Void of 50-60% Good BOD removal Small void percentage leads to ponding creating anaerobic dead zones, results in poor nitrification Ponding eventually causes odours and files o Plastic media Corrugated high surface area (up to 240 m 2 ) Uniformed 95% void space, prevents clogging Promotes a high aerobic environment good nitrification Underdrains and ventilation ports collect water to take away from m media and also allow air to enter and aerate the system Design criteria Based on loading o Flow per surface area per day o Organic loading o Nitrogen loading BOD removal o High flow rate high BOD load = poor nitrification o Because fast growing heterotroph outcompete slow growing nitrifiers for oxygen and space Nitrification o Low flow rate low BOD load = good nitrification o Plastic media to improve oxygen transfer into the biofilm o Nitrification can occur only once BOD has exhausted
Set up of trickling filter Singular tank mainly for BOD removal o Recycle to return nitrified effluent (high in NO 3 ) to the top of the filter o Utilize BOD in the influent to drive denitrifcation o Occurs within anaerobic micro-environments within the biofilm Operate in series o First tank meant for BOD removal Second tank meant for nitrification (exposed to low con. of BOD) Advantages Easy and robust process to operate Stable operation No aeration system required No sludge return Low energy consumption as the rotating arm is hydraulically driven by the water coming out from the nozzle Disadvantages No simultaneous phosphorus removal Difficult to achieve total N removal Risk of clogging and odour problems with rock media Grazing snails consume and dominate biomass Temperature problems in cold climate cause the bed to ice up Large physical footprint
Suspended growth reactor activated sludge Clarifier sludge (biomass) separation using a big sedimentation tank Operational parameters of clarifier Mixed liquor suspended solids (MLSS) crude estimates of biomass concentrations within the reactor o Adjust according to season as the rate of reaction depends on temperature Winter colder reaction falls Sludge retention time / Sludge age o Calculated by dividing the total amount of solids in the system by the rate of loss o Controlled by sludge waste rate (WAS) Waste more young sludge Waste less older sludge o Controls the microbial population in the activated sludge Old sludge age encourage the slow-growing nitrifiers to grow as it need at least 8 days old sludge to have nitrifiers Sludge loading o Food to microorganism ration (F/M) Dissolved oxygen concentration has to be maintained to achieve BOD removal Recycle/return rates Settleability measure how well the biomass settles o Poor settling sludge (bulking sludge) caused by filamentous bacteria o Results in high effluent SS concentration which impacts the environment or downstream treatment process o Washout of biomass reduces sludge age Sludge Volume Index (SVI) =
Denitrifcation process (issues) Nitrate is produced during nitrification and denitrification needs to follow to reduce the NO 3 to N 2 . As denitrification is heterotrophic process, it requires an organic carbon source, however during nitrification, the organic substrate (BOD) required for denitrification is concerted Problem can be solved by : o Dosing of external carbon source Post Denitrification o Special reactor layout Modified Lutzack Ettinger (MLE) Simultaneous Nitrification Denitrification
MLE Pros Small reactor volume Make use of the incoming BOD Cons High process control, high variability = complicated Common for bigger plants (large footprints) Increased pumping Simultaneous Nitrification Denitrification Pros Stable, easy operation, very good effluent quality Common for smaller plants or very low effluent targets Cons More reactor volume, more expensive during construction
Post Denitrification Pros Very good effluent quality, no internal recirculation Cons External carbon source = high operational cost
Other reactors Attached growth system Rotating biological contactors Aeration achieved by rotation of disc Biofilm grows on the disc Pros Low energy consumption Stable and easy process Good for small WWTPs Cons Less specific surface than trickling filter Eventual odour problems when it becomes anaerobic Housing required (cold conditions) Suspended growth system Integrated fixed-film activated sludge (IFAS) Moving/suspended bed of plastic media increase surface area Hybird floc and biofilm system Long biomass retention time and thus supports slow growing nitrifiers Pros Small physical footprint Cons High energy demand as high aeration rate needed to suspend the bed Plastic becomes brittle and breaks away, blocking the screens Suspended growth system Sequencing batch reactor Not continuous flow and can alter sewage concentration to increase carbon content Single reactor o Feed o React o Settle o Decant Nitrification and Denitrification occur in 1 reactor time orientated Pros Small physical footprint Suspended growth system Membrane bioreactor (MBR) Combination of activated sludge with membrane filtration High concentration of MLSS is retained Coarse aeration to limit membrane fouling Pros High removal of pathogens Good quality effluent, suitable for reuse Compact, small footprint Cons Periodic backwashing / chemical cleaning of membrane to remove fouling layers increase maintenance cost Energy intensive Attached growth vs Suspended growth Attached growth Pros No aeration (passive aeration by ventilation) reduce cost Simple design and operation Cons Large physical footprint Poor total N and P removal Suspended growth Pros High nutrient removal Compact design Cons High energy requirement Process control
Waste stabilisation pond Operates like a natural system consisting of co-metabolic activity (anaerobic and aerobic process) Water column Algae photosynthesize producing O 2 and it creates aerobic conditions Aerobic respiration of organic carbon produces CO 2
Algae uptake of NH 4 and PO 4 through assimilation Nitrification of NH 4 to get NO 3
Algae uptake of NO 3
Ammonium volatilisation (pH increase during photosynthesis) Sediment Bound nutrients (algae dies and settle to the bottom) Anaerobic respiration (Denitrification of NO 3 to N 2 ) Mineralisation leads to release of NH 4 and PO 4
Nitrification in sediment water interface Shallow Light penetration has solar radiation which is a power disinfectant Critical barrier in water reuse schemes for pathogen removal Desluge Pros Low capital and operation cost Energy efficient (low greenhouse footprint) Cons Low rate compared to the amount of space used Difficult to separate the algae as it doesnt settle well Expensive to remove the algae Classification Based on organic loading Primary lagoons o Deep, dark, anaerobic pot o Can be covered or uncovered (capture CH 4 ) o Sedimentation and BOD removal Secondary o Facultative (anaerobic and aerobic degradation) o > 1-2 m deep Tertiary (maturation pond) o Shallow (<1.5m) o Polishing of nutrients, solids and pathogen inactivatin o Aerobic
Sludge Treatment Aims Stabilisation o Reduction of the organic load CO 2 and CH 4
o Prevention of odour disturbance o Pathogen reduction o Exhaust organic material to avoid GHG emission during dewater or storage Reduction of sludge volume o Storage space o Reduction of transport and removal costs o Separation of the sludge liquor by Thickening Dewatering Sludge Stabilization Biological processes o Anaerobic Digestion Fermentation / Methanogenesis create CH 4
Pychrophilic (low rate) T = 10 20 0 C Mesophilic (high rate) T = 30 37 0 C Thermophilic T = ca. 55 0 C More insulation / heating required High rate / smaller footprint Good pathogen ki o Aerobic digestion Aerobic respiration of organic carbon create CO 2
Simultaneous aerobic stabilisation (extended aeration) Composting Thermal process o Incineration Anaerobic digestion Complex microbial community Aim is to break down solid waste through biological degradation Without O 2 prevented from entering the system through physical containment Mesophilic conditions o Most common form of digestion o Retention time 2 4 weeks Production o biogas (CH 4 ) which can be used to generate power Mixing occurs via gas production and mechanical means o Mechanical mixers o Pumping o Gas Heating to maintain mesophilic tempeartures o Heat exchange recover heat from cooling power generators / boiler o Heat incoming sludge Simplified microbial pathways Anaerobic (without oxygen) Hydrolysis using microbial enzymes o Breakdown of log chained polymer (carbohydrates, fats, protein) into monomers (simple sugars, fatty acids, amino acids) Fermentation of products from hydrolysis o Produces alcohols or volatile acid (acetate) + CO 2
Methanogenesis of products from fermentation o Acetate or CO 2 are converted to CH 4
Sludge co-digestion Increase biogas production by o Co-digest wastewater sludge with organic rich industry waste Use existing mesophilic digesters Tanker in organic trade waste from industry o Animal waste o Fish and seafood production o Fruit, vegetable, algae o Oil and fats, carbohydrate and whey o High in BOD/COD Waste that would otherwise be discharged into sewer as trade waste and thus by-pass the sewer network Combination of good quality gas and efficient turbines can double or triple power production Industry waste can provide an energy and income source Benefits o Increase energy production o By-pass sewer network Waste that would otherwise be discharged into sewer as trade waste industry saves on permits Reduce odours, blockages, corrosion of sewer network By-pass primary and secondary treatment as there is a lower oxygen demand for the secondary treatment processes Cheap for industry as it does not need to fund aeration process in secondary treatment Also reduce disposal cost Mechanical Dewatering Aims Reduction of sludge volume Making storage possible Reduction of disposal costs Processes Mechanical processes o Centrifuge Natural processes o Sludge drying beds Conditioning of sludge prior to mechanical dewatering necessary Sludge stabilisation lagoons Essential that bioavailable carbon is exhausted and dried to minimise CH 4 emissions during storage Reduce carbon tax Reduce odours
Water reuse Risk Analysis of waste reuse schemes Assessment of the water recycling system o Identification of source water (stormwater or sewage) o Intended end-use purpose o Identify major hazards pathogen of concern Identify preventative measures o Selection of barriers critical control points o Depends on the end-use (opportunity for exposures) o Exposure Assessment Operation procedures o Identify monitoring parameters o Parameters for the detection of process failres Validation o To ensure health-based targets are met Emphasis on knowing your system o Identify vulnerabilities and risk of the system which need to be managed Index pathogens Impractical to set human health-based targets for all pathogens Campylobacter for bacteria Rotavirus and Adenovirus for viruses Cryptosporidium for protozoa Chosen because o Represent 3 key pathogens groups o All associated with faecal contamination abundant in storage o Good does response data available Information of the relationship between dose of these pathogens and likelihood of illness Data available from investigations of outbreaks or experimental studies o Reasonably infective Health-based targets Performance targets for treatment process in terms of o Required log removal value of pathogens via treatment o On-site controls aimed at reducing exposure Defined by : o Concentrations of pathogens in sewage guidelines provide default values o Does response data Relationship between the dose of pathogen and the likelihood of illness Tolerable does o Exposure Depends on end-use (opportunity for exposure) Frequency & duration of exposure will influence dose More likely to be exposed = higher health based target Validation of health-based targets Measure log removal value (LRV) o Demonstrate LRV of individual process units to assess the contribution of individual process units to pathogen removal o Treatment process train as total entity cannot be validated from influent to effluent Based on removal of microbial indicators (surrogates) o Indicators should mimic pathogen behaviour/fate of pathogen so that Have same removal mechanisms Removed by the treatment process equivalent or lesser extent than the pathogen
(Advances in Biochemical Engineering_Biotechnology 132) Bernhard Sonnleitner (auth.)_ Carl-Fredrik Mandenius_ Nigel J Titchener-Hooker (eds.)-Measurement_ Monitoring_ Modelling and Control of Bioproce.pdf