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Remote sensing of coastal
geomorphology to understand river
migration in the Thengapatnam area,
southern India
Aparna S. Bhaskar
a
& R. B. Binoj Kumar
b
a
Department of Geology, Anna University, Sardar Patel Road, CEG
Guindy, Chennai, 600025, India
b
Department of Geology, University of Kerala,
Thiruvananthapuram, India
Available online: 9 July 2011
To cite this article: Aparna S. Bhaskar & R. B. Binoj Kumar (2011): Remote sensing of coastal
geomorphology to understand river migration in the Thengapatnam area, southern India,
International Journal of Remote Sensing, DOI:10.1080/01431161.2010.497509
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International Journal of Remote Sensing
iFirst, 2011, 115
Remote sensing of coastal geomorphology to understand river migration
in the Thengapatnam area, southern India
APARNA S. BHASKAR* and R. B. BINOJ KUMAR
Department of Geology, Anna University, Sardar Patel Road, CEG Guindy, Chennai
600025, India
Department of Geology, University of Kerala, Thiruvananthapuram, India
(Received 12 April 2009; in nal form 7 May 2010)
The aim of this work is to study the geomorphic processes that control river
migration in the Thengapatnam coastal tract bordering the Arabian Sea in the
Kanyakumari District, Tamil Nadu, southern India. Satellite image data were used
to identify the geomorphic units. An attempt was made to interpret geological evi-
dence indicative of migration of the Kuzhithura river channel. In addition, study
was made of the geological evidence from the eld indicative of entrenching of the
channel, possibly as a result of relative uplift of the land or lowering of the mean sea
level. Satellite images and information gathered from the eld reveal that the river
has migrated 1.5 km towards the south-east. Satellite images and Digital Elevation
Models (DEMs) provide more information about the landforms that were missed
out during the eld survey.
1. Introduction
The most signicant morphological property of a river is the meandering process,
which is dominated and governed by the hydraulic, hydrological and topographical
characteristics of the river and its drainage area. Rivers migrate for various rea-
sons, amongst which tectonic movement is a principal cause (Ramasamy et al. 1991).
Meandering streams spread out in low-relief coastal plains, such as the one chosen
for this study. A characteristic of water owing in a denite channel is that it tends to
meander, not ow in a straight line. The force of the water cuts into the outer bank
(called the cut bank), causing erosion and extending the meander outward. Over
time, a river may meander in many ways, leaving sedimentary deposits and oxbow
lakes throughout a valley.
Brierley and Fryirs (2005) emphasize that principles from uvial geomorphology
provide an ideal starting point from which to evaluate the interaction of physical pro-
cesses within a catchment, as geomorphological processes determine the structure, or
physical template, of a river system. Accordingly, the present study aims to understand
the geomorphic processes that control river migration in the Thengapatnam coast. For
this study, traverses along the river course were taken, which provided sufcient geo-
morphic data about the stretch of land. Emphasis was also given to studying the lateral
shifting of the dune.
*Corresponding author. Email: aparnavettu@gmail.com
International Journal of Remote Sensing
ISSN 0143-1161 print/ISSN 1366-5901 online 2011 Taylor & Francis
http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
DOI: 10.1080/01431161.2010.497509
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2 A. S. Bhaskar and R. B. Binoj Kumar
The art of remote sensing has opened up many avenues for the study of river
migration, as satellite images, both in their normal and digitally enhanced modes
vividly show the rivers and their migratory signatures. Hence, remote sensing has been
used extensively in this study. Channel migration in the Middle Ganga Basin, lying
around Monghyr, Bihar state, India, has been studied by Philip et al. (1989) using
remote sensing data. Changes in planform of the rivers over approximately 50 years
were evaluated, and the palaeocourses of the Ganga and Burhi Gandak rivers were
reconstructed using the disposition and pattern of oxbow lakes, meander scars and
abandoned channels. The results show that the Ganga and the Burhi Gandak rivers
moved from north to south by 20 and 30 km, respectively. The study demonstrates
the utility of remote sensing data in such channel migration investigations. In another
study, Philip et al. (1991) used aerial photographs, Landsat Multi-Spectral Scanner
(MSS) and Thematic Mapper (TM) image data and ground data for the delineation of
uvial palaeofeatures in the Middle Ganga Basin. According to them, digital enhance-
ment techniques, such as linear contrast stretching and ratioing, were found to be
highly powerful in identication and mapping of subtle uvial palaeofeatures.
Seker et al. (2005) showed the capabilities of remote sensing technology for achiev-
ing the most reliable information on river morphology by monitoring the meandering
processes in the Filyos River, located in the western Black Sea region of Turkey.
The ndings of the study indicate that remotely sensed data can be used success-
fully in dening some basic characteristics of the meandering process of rivers. Aslam
and Balasubramanian (2001) identied the palaeochannels of the Cauvery River in
Karnataka state through visual interpretation of Indian Remote Sensing Satellite-1C
(IRS-1C), Linear Imaging Self-scanning Sensor (LISS) III False Colour Composites
(FCC). According to them, visual interpretation of satellite images could help in the
identication of present and past landforms. From the study they inferred that the
disposition of palaeochannels in that area was controlled by the geology and structure
and the prevailing geomorphic process.
Narayana et al. (2001) used remote sensing data (IRS-1B; LISS-II; FCC) for the
identication of a palaeodelta near the mouth of the Periyar River in central Kerala,
southern India. Their study revealed that several morphometric units had a bearing
on the Neogene evolution of this region. They opined that total obliteration of geo-
morphic features and sudden abutment of dune ridges with interdunal depressions
near Parur, as revealed from tonal differences in the satellite imagery, marked the orig-
inal trace of the river that shifted gradually westwards, and that this westward shifting
of the palaeochannel could be related to neotectonism. According to Rajawat et al.
(2003), late quaternary climatic changes and neotectonics have played a signicant
role in modifying the drainage courses in northwestern India. Remote sensing has
been useful in deciphering the courses of the lost Sarasvati and other palaeochannels.
High-quality data and image-enhancement techniques have helped in recognition of
the palaeochannels. The authors suggest the use of thermal data and radar data for
identifying buried channels.
Digital Elevation Models (DEMs) provide very useful auxiliary information for
geomorphological mapping. Brierley and Fryirs (2005) commented that Geographical
Information Systems (GIS) assist with several components of assessments, especially
relating to derivation of various catchment-scales attributes from manipulation of
DEM data and associated mapping and graphic skills. According to them, the lon-
gitudinal proles record downstream changes in elevation and, hence, slope on a river.
Hence, slope has a primary control on river character and behaviour. Change in slope
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River migration 3
along a longitudinal prole often coincides with landscape unit or river styles bound-
aries. In the river-style framework, longitudinal proles are constructed using DEM
data. During the last 35 000 years, the Tisza River and its predecessors left several
abandoned river branches, meanders along the central part of the Great Hungarian
Plain (GHP). Meander generations of different sizes were identied and mapped
using the Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) dataset throughout the GHP
by Timar and Gabris (2005). Valeriano and Rossetti (2008) describe techniques that
can be adapted for processing SRTM data in order to enhance topographic features of
Maraj Island. The observations revealed that Maraj Island consists of numerous
palaeochannels displaced in distinct and overlapping drainage systems, which dif-
fer in width, curvature and direction. They also attempted to digitally estimate the
height of palaeochannels relative to their surroundings, resulting in their enhance-
ment and making visible an ancient drainage network. Sarunjith and Sanjeevi (2007)
used SRTM DEM for inundation mapping following a tsunami on the Kerala coast,
southern India. Detailed geomorphic maps were prepared from satellite images and
from SRTM DEM. It was evident that the beach-ridge complexes seen in the images
and DEM could act as a buffer against tsunami waves of up to 10 m in height. The
result shows that elevation details derived from SRTM DEM can serve as a good
input for geomorphic mapping, delineating areas vulnerable to ooding and for topo-
graphic studies. Following these examples, the present study uses satellite images
and satellite-derived DEMs to analyse the migration of the Kuzhithura River on the
Thengapatnam coast.
2. Study area
The study area lies between latitudes 8

17

20

N and 8

13

54

N and longitudes
77

43

E and 77

10

42

E (gure 1). The region lies on the western side of the

Western Ghat mountain range in the Kanyakumari District of the state of Tamil
Nadu, southern India.
2.1 Physiography
A river will ow straight as it passes through a slope and will meander when it ows
through a plain surface. Hence, it is important to understand the topography of the
terrain rst. The major portion of the area under study falls within the mid-land zone,
which is, generally, taken to be the physiographic zone ranging in altitude from 7.5 to
75 m above mean sea level (msl). At Marthandamthurai, the north-western extrem-
ity of the region, the lowland zone is less than 500 m wide. When traced towards
the south-east, it gradually increases in width, reaching nearly 600 m up to Tuttoor.
Beyond this, locally, it merges with the ood plain of the Kuzhithura River, which is
about 1.5 kmwide. The lowland zone beyond the river channel is negligible in width up
to the south-eastern extremity of the area under study. The highest altitude reached by
the hills located on the north-western side of the Kuzhithura River is just over 55 m.
However, the hills located along the north-east of the Kuzhithura River reach alti-
tudes over 60 m above msl. The north-western portion of the region forms a broad,
roughly oval-shaped upland with a, generally, north-westsouth-east trend, the sum-
mit of which attains an altitude of over 55 m above msl. The eastern portion of the
region likewise forms another elongated upland trending north-eastsouth-west. Its
maximum altitude is just over 50 m above msl. The notable topographic feature of the
region is the presence of a hillock (Anakeripara) with an altitude of 58 m, close to the
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4 A. S. Bhaskar and R. B. Binoj Kumar
(a) (b)
778 E
8

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N
8

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8

1
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N
779 E 7710 E
778 E
South India
Karnataka
Kerala
Tamil Nadu
Arabian Sea
Bay of Bengal
0 1
779 E 7710 E
2 km
N
S
E W
Arabian Sea
Figure 1. (a) Location map and (b) Ikonos FCC image of the study area.
Source: IWMI available online at: www.iwmidsp.org/iwmi/SearchData/ReadFolder.asp?
fPath=/Dsp3/RS-GIS-Data/National/India/ (accessed 16 February 2007).
shoreline south of Thengapatnam. The DEM of the study area and its results derived
from an SRTM of 30 m resolution are shown in gure 2.
Figure 2(a) represents the SRTM DEM of the study area. The DEM is a grey-
scale image in which the brighter pixels indicate higher elevation values and the darker
ones the lower elevation values of the terrain. Figure 2(b) is the density-sliced DEM
depicting the topography of overall terrain. The three spatial transects (cc

, dd

and
ee

) across the DEM are shown in gure 2(c)(e), with elevation along the y-axis and
distance along the x-axis. The topography of the terrain can be understood well by
analysing these proles.
2.2 Climate
The study area experiences a semi-arid climate and is inuenced mostly by the south-
west monsoon, which sets in on the west coast of India in June and is active for about
three months. The mean annual rainfall experienced in the area is estimated around
13001400 mm. From October to December, the region experiences rainfall associated
with the north-east monsoon. If there is a greater quantity of water in the channel, the
river tends to migrate. Hence, climate plays a major role in the process of meandering
in this area.
2.3 Drainage
The river Kuzhithura, originating from Agasthyamalai (altitude of 1868 m above msl)
of the Western Ghats, ows along the eastern portion of the study area. There are
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River migration 5
Spatial profile along cc Spatial profile along dd
Kanjampuram
Munchira
Kanjiravilai
Parakkani
Puthurai
Spatial profile along ee
Arabian sea
Elevation (m)
Arabian sea
< 0
010
1020
2030
3067
Figure 2. SRTM DEM of the study area and its analysis: (a) DEM of the study area showing
the location of three proles; (b) density-sliced DEM showing the elevation ranges in the study
area; (c)(e) SRTM DEM-derived proles depicting the topography of the study area.
Source: GLCF available online at: www.landcover.org/data/srtm/ (accessed 3 August 2004).
a number of smaller streams and channels draining the area. As the area has a
general slope towards the south-west, the drainage also follows this direction. The
anthropogenic Puthanar canal, traversing the region, trends parallel to the coast and
terminates at the mouth of the Kuzhithura River. A few natural springs are also
observed in some localities within this region. The interface of the coastal plain and
the lowland zone is occupied mostly by lateritic soils. The main characteristic drainage
in this area is stream meandering and river migration, which is discussed in this
article.
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6 A. S. Bhaskar and R. B. Binoj Kumar
3. Methodology
A reconnaissance survey of the study area was rst carried out by traversing the
river courses and the dunes. Next, interpretation of high resolution satellite imagery
(1 m resolution) and eld work was carried out to prepare a detailed geomorphology
map of the area. This was done by visually interpreting the Ikonos FCC image which
was acquired on 1 December 2005 (gure 1). Interpretation was carried out using var-
ious image elements, such as tone, texture, pattern, shape, size, association and terrain
(see table 1).
Ikonos is a commercial Earth observation satellite offering 4 m resolution multi-
spectral and 1 m resolution panchromatic imagery. For this study, the multi-spectral
image is fused with the panchromatic image to obtain a higher resolution (1 m) multi-
spectral image, so that better interpretation of geomorphic features is possible. A
DEM obtained from SRTM was used to obtain information about the topography,
physiography and geomorphology of the terrain. The characteristics of Ikonos and
SRTM data used in this study are listed in table 2.
The SRTM DEM was subjected to density slicing to demarcate four elevation
classes. Density slicing is a process of converting the continuous grey tones of an
image into a series of density intervals, or slices, each corresponding to a spe-
cic digital range. SRTM is an international project spearheaded by the National
Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (NGA) and the National Aeronautics and Space
Administration (NASA). The SRTM obtained elevation data on a near-global scale
to generate the most complete high-resolution digital topographic database of Earth.
SRTM consisted of a specially modied radar system that ew on board the Space
Shuttle Endeavour. It works on the principles of interferometry (details of this can be
obtained at http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/srtm/). There are some studies related to DEM
resolution, mostly with variogram modelling and kriging (Carlos 2006). According to
Table 1. Image interpretation keys for geomorphological mapping from FCC image.
Geomorphic
units Tone Shape Texture Association
Beach White Linear/crescent Smooth Adjacent to the
coast and on
the landwater
boundary
Lagoon Dark Funnel Smooth Running parallel
to the coast
and separated
from the sea
by a sand bar
Flood plain Dull Linear Rough Near the river
course
meandering
Coastal dune White Linear Smooth Lying parallel to
the coast
Palaeomeanders Blue/red Lunate/crescent Near to the river
coarse and in
the ood plain
Palaeochannels Linear/elongated Agriculture
River/canal Blue/dark blue Elongated/linear
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River migration 7
Table 2. Characteristics of Ikonos and SRTM data.
Characteristics Ikonos SRTM
Sensor Multi-spectral (4 m) and panchromatic
(1 m)
C-band and X-band
Launch date 24 September 1999 11-day mission in
February 2000
Operating
principle
Reectance and absorption of optical
energy
Radar
interferometry
Information
derived
Reectance and absorption capabilities
of objects
Elevation of terrain
Sources: SISEA available online at: www.sisea.co.th/ikonos/satellite.html (accessed 22 June
2007); SRTM available online at: www2.jpl.nasa.gov/srtm/ (accessed 22 June 2007).
Keeratikasikorn and Trisirisatayawong (2008), NGA used a subsampling method to
produce 3 arc-second data (90 m) from 1 arc-second data. The authors used the same
bicubic interpolation technique to produce a 30 m DEM from a 90 m DEM. Statistics
of the result show that the interpolation results are extremely good when compared to
the original 30 m DEM. The same methodology was also used in this study to gener-
ate a 30 m DEM for the study area. The accuracy of the height was checked by eld
survey.
4. Geology
As far as the geology of the area is concerned (gure 3), the contributions of King
(1882) and Foote (1883) still remain the only available sources. There are a number
of reports on the geology of Travancore state (Chacko and Masilamani 1910, Chacko
1921) wherein a few remarks are made on some geological aspects of the neighbour-
ing region. Later workers have described this location for the prospecting of industrial
minerals and ores and their reports have reference to river migration and on the
geology of the region. Table 3 gives a list of the rocks encountered in the study area.
Khondalites do not occur in the form of mappable units in the study area. They
exhibit various grades of partial melting and intensity of migmatization. Veins of peg-
matite are very common in the gneisses in all the quarries of the region under study.
Laterites occupy a large extent of the region under study, covering the ridge of hills
extending fromthe south-east and over to Painkulam, Kuttalummoodu and Munchira
in the north-east. West of the valley of the Kuzhithura River, laterite blankets the hills
of Allumcode, Kanjiravilai, Kirattur and neighbouring regions up to the valley of
Neyyar. The recent sediments present in the study area are teri sands, coastal dunes,
alluvium and beach sands. The thickness of the teri formation is quite insignicant in
this region, never exceeding a maximum thickness of 6 m. White coastal dunes overlie
the red teri material. In this locality, typical dunes of considerable altitude are found
extending inland for a distance of about 0.5 km. The localities marked as alluvium in
the map are covered not only by true alluvium associated with the stream channels
traversing the locality but also a large share of colluvium, which includes slope debris
and products of overland ow and splash erosion. Thus, the geology, as described
above, indicates the presence of teri sand, sand dunes and alluvium the primary
factors for the occurrence of meanders in the study area.
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8 A. S. Bhaskar and R. B. Binoj Kumar
Figure 3. Geological map of the study area.
Table 3. Lithological units encountered in the study area.
Age Rock unit/lithological units
Recent Alluvium, Pegmatites
Sand dunes
Sub-recent Teri sands
Tertiary Laterite
Precambrian Charnockite, Khondalites
(Garnetsillimanitegraphite gneiss),
Garnetbiotite gneiss, Garnetiferous
quartzofeldspathic gneiss
5. Geomorphology
The geomorphic features of the study area are a result of the interaction between
mountainous upland, coastal plains and coastal processes. The satellite image has
clearly brought out various geomorphic units and their disposition.
The Ikonos FCC clearly reveals the tonal, textural and association-related char-
acteristic of these landforms. Such characters (listed in table 1) have been helpful in
preparing a detailed geomorphic map of the study area (gure 4). Information from
an SRTM DEM of the study area, when combined with the Ikonos FCC, provides
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River migration 9
Kirattur
Allumcode
Pannarampara
Kanjiravilai
Iraviputhanthurai
Tuttoor
Puthurai
Kodeswaram
Painkulam
Parakkani
Anakeripara
Arabian sea
Virivilai
Kanjampuram
Vayakallur
Onappara
Puthukadai
Parthivapuram
Kuzhithurai
River
Figure 4. Geomorphology map of the study area.
greater detail of the geomorphic units at various elevations. Interpretation of the
Ikonos image and DEM, followed by detailed eld investigation, helped in under-
standing the geomorphic units in the study area. The north-eastern portion of the
study area is represented mostly by uplands. Going towards the coast, we come across
the pedimentous upland and coastal plains. The Ikonos image helped identify more
palaeochannels and palaeomeanders. The earlier coarse of the river channel was also
traced from the imagery. All these are indicative of the migration of the river.
5.1 Flood plain
Geomorphologically, the ood plain is a landform composed primarily of unconsol-
idated depositional material derived from sediments transported by the associated
stream (Leopold et al. 1963). The ood plain extends from Virivila in the west to
Parthivapuram in the east. However, the river valley in this locality is asymmetrical
as the development of the ood plain is considerably more along the eastern side of
the river canal than towards its west. This may be due to the lateral migration of the
channel. South of Virivila, almost up to Parakkani, over a distance of about 2 km, the
width of the meander belt signicantly increases and, in this stretch, the width of the
ood plain also increases and extends from just south of Kanjampuram in the west
almost up to Painkulam in the east. During the eld survey, features resembling natu-
ral levees were observed along both sides of the Kuzhitura River, where the ood plain
is well developed.
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10 A. S. Bhaskar and R. B. Binoj Kumar
5.2 Coastal lagoon
The Kuzhithura River does not enter the sea directly at its mouth, located at Puthurai.
The river ows parallel to the coast towards the south, forming a backwater or lagoon.
A wide sandbar of about 5 m width, which separates the lagoon and sea, can be
identied clearly from the image.
5.3 Sand dunes
A long belt of beach sand accumulation was traced just north of Puthurai in the south,
extending over to the south of Kanjiravilai for a length of about 2.5 km. This can be
clearly identied from the FCC. From the eld, serpentine sand dunes, extending for
1 km, were found disposed almost normal to the coast in this locality. At the fur-
ther end, away from the coast, the migrating dune has covered on its leeward side an
ancient temple (presently known as the Kodeswaram Temple) for several centuries. It
was discovered during the early twentieth century and excavation began in 1922 and
the layers of sand that buried the temple were removed. This may be due to uvial
action or due to an early occurred tsunami event.
5.4 Fluvial terraces
Fluvial terraces or topographic platforms or benches in river valleys usually repre-
sent former levels of valley oor or ood plain. Vestiges of stream terraces are clearly
observable on both sides of the Kuzhithura River along its lower reaches, even while
the localities are densely cultivated and reworked periodically for cultivation. There
are many simple explanations to account for the stream terraces. Terraces seemingly
of identical morphology may have completely different origins. It is a well-known
fact that the repeated shifting of climatic belts over the past few million years, cou-
pled with tectonic instability in many places, and the world-wide oscillation of sea
level, has resulted in the production of landforms (including stream terraces) and the
entire landscape of multiple origins. The literature is packed with contradictory state-
ments, which might well be resolved if one were to consider the dynamics of uvial
regimes in terms of climatic control, relief and slope characteristics, relative stability,
etc. (Fairbridge 1968). Since terraces are a relief feature, they could not be mapped
from the images.
5.5 Beach
Anarrowzone of beach sand, never exceeding a width of 500 m, can be traced all along
the coast from Marthandamthurai in the north-west to Puthurai in the south-east, for
a distance of about 6 km.
5.6 Meander scars and palaeochannels
The remnants of the oxbow lakes found near Vayakallur and Kodeswaram indicate the
presence of the former river course. Palaeocourses of the river channel were identied
from parts of the study area by interpretation of the image in gure 5. These are
described in detail in the following section.
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River migration 11
(a) (b)
Palaeomeander/oxbow
Palaeochannel
Figure 5. (a) Palaeochannel and (b) palaeomeanders as seen in the Ikonos FCC.
6. Results and discussion
In this study, an attempt was made to elucidate various geomorphic features of the
region, such as uvial, aeolian and coastal/marine. We tried to interpret geological
evidence indicative of migration of a river channel associated with the Kuzhithura
River as well as evidence indicative of entrenching of the channel, possibly as a result
of relative uplift of the land or lowering of mean sea level. The geomorphic map pre-
pared from the Ikonos image helped identify more geomorphic features that had been
omitted during eld work and to understand the geomorphic processes better.
The most signicant geomorphological features of the region under study are asso-
ciated with the lower reaches of the Kuzhithura River. The main channel of the
Kuzhithura River system enters the region from the north at about 1.25 km west of
the north-eastern corner of the region. After owing for a distance of nearly 2 km
with a SW trend down to Virivilai, it takes a meandering course almost until it reaches
Puthurai, located quite close to the coastline. Within this stretch, even though the river
channel exhibits a tendency for meandering, the general trend changes almost towards
the south.
6.1 Vestiges of an abandoned channel
Eroding and depositing alluvium are the uvial processes occurring in a ood plain. In
the neighbourhood of Vayakallur, the high ground indicated by the 10 m contour line
is encircled partially by a depression with a perfect lunate form, characteristic of an
oxbow lake a portion of the abandoned channel. This depression is now completely
lled with alluvial silt and clay and supports a fertile paddy eld. However, from the
information gathered from local people, almost a century ago it was occupied by a
body of standing water and was known as Vayakallur Kulam. This shows the earlier
course of the river. These palaeomeander scars are easily distinguished from the FCC.
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12 A. S. Bhaskar and R. B. Binoj Kumar
6.2 Channel entrenching
Near Paruthikadavu, the river channel runs almost from the west to the east for a dis-
tance of about 0.5 km. Immediately south of this channel segment there is a patch of
roughly oval-shaped high ground of about 300 m length and 100 m width, the long axis
of which is also trending eastwest. The presence of this geomorphological feature is
indicated by an isolated and completely enclosed 10 m contour line. The presence of
similar high ground is also noted at Vayakallur on the western side of the river chan-
nel, located almost midway between Kanjampuram and Paruthikadavu one more
similar relief feature in the otherwise at and featureless ood plain. This geomor-
phological feature is indicated prominently in the Survey of Indias topographic map
of 1: 25 000 scale of the region. That the convex face of this geomorphic element is
directed towards the coast is indicated by an incomplete contour line of 10 m about
0.5 km from the strand line between Tuttoor and Puthurai. These three geomorphic
elements are very signicant features that indicate negative changes in regional base
level (that is sea level) or emergence of the coast resulting in entrenching of the river
channel somewhere during the recent past.
6.3 Lateral migration of the river channel
South of Vayakallur, there are several geomorphological features indicative of migra-
tion of the river channel for a distance of not less than a kilometre from its former
position towards the south-east. The gneissic exposures at Parakkani Hill and those
occurring further south probably offered effective resistance for further migration of
the river channel and arrested further south-easterly migration. The lunate occurrence
of an isolated and 10 m contour just north of Tuttoor at a distance of 1 km cannot be
ignored as a geomorphological feature lacking any signicance. There is eld evidence
indicative of large-scale geomorphological changes of a complex nature that took
place in this locality and, without resorting to more detailed eld study, we cannot
denitely say that these are portions of abandoned channels of a meandering stream
or other uvial features. It can be safely assumed that the migration of the river chan-
nel denitely took place just south of Kanjampuram and extended up to its present
location for a distance of not less than 1.5 km towards the south-east.
The abrupt termination of the wide belt covered by dune sands, north of which
Puthurai runs almost parallel to the coast right from south of Kanjiravilai, calls for an
explanation. This is probably associated with the channel migration of the Kuzhithura
River. In between Paruthikadavu and Puthurai there are geomorphological features
suggestive of vestiges of palaeochannels in the form of irregular water bodies and
marshy tracts in the ood plain, offering unmistakable evidence for the migration of
the river channel.
6.4 Stages of river migration
Figure 6 shows the different stages of river migration that have been identied from
the image. Stage 1 indicates the early path of the river course; vertical channel cutting
is typical of the early stages of stream system evolution and, hence, the meandering
channel pattern is negligible. The next two stages show the formation of oxbows and
lateral migration of the river. However, during the later stages, as the base level is
achieved and channel equilibrium is approached, lateral migration of the stream chan-
nel is more prevalent. Meanders grow both laterally and in the downstream direction.
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River migration 13
Kajampuram
Meander scar
Meander scar
Meander scar
Kodeswaram
Onappara
Painkulam
Figure 6. Schematic representation of the various stages of the Kuzhithura River.
River cut-off results in a portion of the river isolated from the new channel: an oxbow
lake. Oxbow lakes are typically crescent-shaped like the shape of an oxbow. The
remnant of the oxbow is identied as a meander scar. Wetland and marshes are often
found in the scar. The present path of the river is shown in the fourth stage and con-
tains more meanders. The river cannot migrate further, as its eastern part is a hard
rock terrain.
7. Conclusions
This study, which is based on satellite images, satellite-derived DEM and extensive
eld survey, has demonstrated the geomorphic processes operating in the coastal tract
of the Thengapatnam area. Such an understanding has, in turn, thrown light on the
migratory trend of the Kuzhithura River, which has migrated 1.5 km towards the
south-east, as conrmed by the signatures on the satellite image. The palaeochan-
nels and palaeomeanders that were hitherto not realized during the eld survey were
identied in the satellite image, thus adding evidence to the processes of river migra-
tion in the area. The synoptic view offered by the satellite image has aided in relating
the morphology of the coastal dunes and the palaeodrainage system. The abrupt ter-
mination of the dune indicates the former existence of the Kuzhithura River there.
The role of the topography of the region in river migration was also brought out well
by interpreting the SRTM DEM. The uplands and coastal plains were clearly demar-
cated by density slicing of the SRTMDEM. The transects fromthe coast to the upland
also helped in understanding the relationship between the topography and the uvial
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14 A. S. Bhaskar and R. B. Binoj Kumar
system in the area. The process of channel entrenching was also identied based on
the combined study of Ikonos FCC and SRTM DEM. Thus, the role of remote sens-
ing in understanding geomorphology and river migration in a coastal area was amply
demonstrated in the study.
Acknowledgements
The authors thank the Global Land Cover Facility (GLCF, www.landcover.org)
and the International Water Management Institute (IWMI, www.iwmidsp.org) for
permitting the download of the images and their use for this research.
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