i

ii

Contents

1. Introduction
1.1 About the Book
1.2 PV overview and history
1.3 SPV at CEL
1.2 Why Solar?
1.3 Energy Requirements
1.4 Demystify the Myths
1.5 Characteristics of Solar Energy
1.5.1 Solar energy an outline
1.5.2 Cost effectiveness
1.5.3 External costs of conventional electricity generation

2. Solar Energy Solutions and Systems
2.1 Applications of solar energy as a renewable source
2.1.1 Solar thermal energy
2.1.2 Solar photovoltaic energy
2.2 Insolation spread
2.3 Capturing and harnessing Solar Energy
2.1.1 Solar photovoltaic effect
2.1.2 Solar cell
2.1.3 Balance of systems
2.4 Types of PV systems
2.4.1 Stand-alone systems
2.4.2 Grid Connected Systems
2.5 Operation

3 System Components
3.1 Photovoltaic system components
3.2 The Solar panel
3.2.1 Types of Modules
3.2.2 Solar panel parameters
3.3 Battery
3.3.1 Battery Bank
3.3.2 Types of Batteries
3.3.3 Temperature effect
3.4 Power charge regulator
3.5 Converter
3.5.3 DC-DC converter

iii

3.5.4 DC-AC converter
3.5.5 Additional features of inverter
3.6 Equipment or Load
3.7 Power conditioning unit
3.8 Junction Boxes
3.9 Wiring
3.10 Balance of system standards

4 Design
4.1 Introduction and basic principles
4.2 System type selection
4.3 Home Appliances
4.4 Illustration and Flowchart for design of habitat PV system
4.5 Design process
4.5.1 Load estimation
4.5.2 Inverter rating
4.5.3 Daily energy supplied by the inverter
4.5.4 System voltage
4.5.5 Battery capacity
4.5.6 Consider for battery autonomy
4.5.7 Daily energy generated by panels
4.5.8 Solar radiation, capacity and number of panels
4.6 Wire sizing
4.7 Factors affecting performance of a PV system

5. Installation and commissioning
5.1 Safety
5.1.1 Electrical
5.1.2 Chemical
5.1.3 Handling
5.1.4 Points to check before wiring.
5.1.5 Points to check when selecting the installation location
5.2 Assembly
5.2.1 Configuration
5.2.2 Mounting
5.2.3 Connection
5.3 Battery
5.3.1 Site
5.3.2 Connection
5.3.3 Earthing

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5.4 Control Equipment
5.4.1 Inverter connections
5.4.2 Wiring
5.5 System Commissioning
5.5.1 Visual Check
5.5.2 Connections
5.5.3 Testing output of solar panel
5.5.4 Applying Power
5.5.5 Recommissioning
5.6 Parts and Tools
5.6.1 Standard parts
5.6.2 Roof tile parts
5.6.3 Measurement
5.6.4 Tool kit

6. Application
6.1 Habitat application
6.1.1 Solar lanterns
6.1.2 Domestic Habitat lighting and fan
6.1.3 Outdoor and street lighting
6.1.4 Water pumping
6.2 Industrial application
6.2.1 ONGC offshore power
6.2.2 Low power TV transmitter
6.2.3 Obstruction warning light at airport
6.2.4 Railway signalling(supplementary power)
6.2.5 Telecom towers
6.3 Defence Use
6.3.1 Lightweight foldable solar charger for Manpack Radio Equipment
6.3.2 Lightweight foldable solar charger for Manpack Wireless
Communication Equipment SCU-01

7. Maintenance and Troubleshooting
7.1 Light units not glowing and no low battery indication on charge
controller
7.2 No charging indication on the charge controller
7.3 Low duration
7.4 Incident switch off
7.5 Breakage
7.6 Lamp flickering

v

7.7 Lamp semi glow
7.8 Lamp blackening
7.9 No indication
7.10 Water entry or insect entry


vi

List of figure

Fig.1.1 SPV module for unmanned offshore applications
Fig.1.2 SPV module with screen printed liquid cast encapsulation technique
Fig.1.3 SPV modules of different types of solar cells
Fig. 1.4 SPV modules during 90s with increased efficiency
Fig. 1.5 mono crystalline SPV module
Fig.1.6 Solar insolation over India
Fig. 1.7 Indias energy balance India has had a negative energy balance for decades
which has forced the purchase of energy from outside the country.
Fig: 1.8 Energy consumption in power sector (2005)
Fig: 1.9 Per capita Residential Electricity demand (kWh/per person)
Fig 1.10 Indias electricity use breakdown in commercial and residential buildings
Fig 1.11 Actual power production capacity of a solar PV system
Fig 1.12 sustainable energy solution
Fig 1.13 Various layouts for panel grafting on urban households.
Fig 1.14 Evolution of competitive solar technology.
Fig 1.15 Azure Power's 2-megawatt photovoltaic plant in the state of Punjab
Fig 1.16 A 5-megawatt solar photovoltaic power plant has been installed at village
Rawara, Taluka Phalodi, in Rajasthan
Fig. 2.1 An example of a solar water heating system (antifreeze is used so that the
liquid does not freeze if outside temp. drops below freezing)
Fig 2.2 Electricity in a typical solar cell
Fig 2.3 Process of production of electricity in a solar power plant
Fig 2.4: 10-MW solar power plant in Barstow, California.
Fig 2.5 Solar radiation map of India
Fig 2.6: Flow of energy in a solar PV system
Fig 2.7(a) p-n junction silicon semiconductor
Fig 2.7(b) A solar cell connected to an ammeter showing a deflection when exposed
to light.
Fig 2.8: photovoltaic solar cell to photovoltaic solar array
Fig 2.9 A PV system showing the balance of components

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Fig 2.10 A Lead Acid battery
Fig 2.11(a) Discharging process of a lead acid battery
Fig 2.11(b) Charging process of a lead acid battery
Fig 2.12 Nickel Cadmium Battery
Fig 2.13 Charge Controller
Fig 2.14 Solar inverters
Fig 2.15(a): A circuit diagram of solar installation with DC and AC loads
Fig 2.15(b) Flow chart of a stand-alone system
Fig 3.1: A basic solar PV system.
Fig 3.2: A working model of the basic solar PV system at CEL
Fig 3.3: The connection of cells to form a solar panel.
Figure 3.4: Different IV Curves. The current (A) changes with the irradiance, and the
voltage (V) changes with the temperature.
Fig 3.5: The different components of a solar panel.
Fig 3.6: The solar panel parameters and their role in efficiency calculation.
Fig 3.7: Interconnection of panels in parallel. The voltage remains constant while the
current duplicates.
Fig 3.8: A 24V, 150Ah battery interconnection at CEL.
Fig 3.9: The specifications of a Valve Regulated Lead Acid Battery.
Fig 3.10: The specifications of Rechargeable Lead Acid Tubular Positive Plate
Battery.
Fig 3.11: Circuit diagram of a charge controller.
Fig 3.12: A realization of the inverter with a transformer with a movable switch and
a current source.
Fig 3.13: The output achieved from the inverter with the subsequent harmonics.
Fig 3.14: A Single phase transistor bridge inverter
Fig 3.15: 500 kW, 3 phase inverter
Fig 3.16: The components of a power conditioning unit.
Fig 3.17: The cable requirements
Fig 3.18: A three-panel solar array diagram.
Fig 3.19: A directly connected solar power dc pump diagram.
Fig 3.20: Battery-backed solar powerdriven dc pump.

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Fig 3.21: Stand-alone hybrid solar power system with standby generator.
Fig 3.22: Grid-connected hybrid solar power system with standby generator.
Fig 4.1: Indias first two megawatt grid connected project, commissioned in the state
of West Bengal in east India.
Fig 4.2: Some of the appliances which can be run by solar PV system
Fig 4.3 Series and parallel connection of batteries to supply the required energy to the
load considering 2 days autonomy
Fig 4.4: Series and parallel connection of PV modules with their ratings that are
required to supply the energy to the load.
Fig 4.5 Complete design of solar PV system to fulfill the required load as described in
the example
Fig 4.6: Suns path during summer and winter
Fig 4.7: The effect of temperature on the IV characteristics of a solar cell.
Fig 4.8: Solar panels with dirt and dust settled on it
Fig 4.9: Amorphous solar panel
Fig 4.10 Polycrystalline solar cell
Fig 4.11 Mono crystalline solar cell
Fig 5.1: Chemical handling apparatus
Fig 5.2 PV module safety
Fig 5.3 Examples of poor roof condition
Fig 5.4 Azimuthal angle
Fig 5.5: Wind pressure
Fig 5.6 A schematic diagram of the proposed system.
Fig 5.7 Module Mounting
Fig 5.8: picture of EXIDE solar battery
Fig 5.9 Schematics showing electrical connections
Fig 5.10: Picture of a charge controller
Fig 5.11: Inverter for 1MegaWatt power station


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List of flowchart

Flowchart 1.1: Technology & types of PV cell.
Flowchart 2.1: the processes involved in the production of a solar cell
Flowchart 2.2 Flow chart of a grid tied system
Flowchart 2.3 operation with AC & DC load
Flowchart 4.1: design of habitat PV system
Flowchart 5.1 an overview of the entire process of installation of solar panels
Flowchart 5.2: Going ahead with installation of PV system
Flowchart 5.3 Creating a Stand-Alone Mount
Flowchart 5.4 Roof Mounting
Flowchart 5.5 making electrical wiring connections
Flowchart 5.6: Inverter connections
Flowchart 5.7 testing process flow


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List of table

Table 1.1 Conversion efficiencies of various PV module technologies
Table 1.2: Overview of the usage of SPV systems in India
Table 3.1: The BoS items / components with BIS Standards specifications
Table 4.1 Power rating of some home appliances
Table 4.2 illustrative habitat appliance use in a day
Table 4.3: Calculation of load in Watt-hr
Table 4.4: Illustrative power (watt) use per day
Table 4.5: Tilt angle as per geographic latitude



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1. Introduction
1.1 About the Book
The focus of making this Reference handbook and Do it Yourself guide is to create
an enabling environment for solar technology penetration in the country both at a
centralized and decentralized level and on promoting off-grid systems to serve
populations without access to commercial energy and modest capacity addition in
grid-based systems.

This guide will familiarize you with the fundamentals of design and installation of
your Solar Power System. The guide also serves to illustrate the simplicity and
efficiency of solar design when equipment is developed in unison with each other.

If you are familiar with residential construction techniques, AC wiring, and your
local permitting requirements you will have the basic skills to install your Solar
Power System.

This guide was created by summarizing common requirements of solar design. It
serves to prepare system designers with a basic understanding of the solar design
and planning process. Designers are encouraged to research the specific demands of
the permitting jurisdiction and utility governing their region. Your installation
should be performed in full compliance with safety standards and all relevant
jurisdictional requirements, including if applicable, the Indian National Electrical
Code (NEC).

1.2 PV overview & history

PV cells are made of light-sensitive semiconductor materials that use photons to
dislodge electrons to drive an electric current. There are two broad categories of
technology used for PV cells, namely
Crystalline silicon, as shown which accounts for the majority of PV cell
production;
Thin film, which is newer and growing in popularity.

The family tree gives an overview of these technologies available today.

The type of silicon that comprises a specific cell, based on the cell manufacturing
process. Each cell type has pros and cons. Mono-crystalline PV cells are the most
expensive and energy intensive to produce but usually yield the highest efficiencies.
The modules made from Polycrystalline silicon crystals are approximately 14%
efficient and are extremely good value for money. Amorphous solar modules are not
too susceptible to shading and are suited to low light levels.

xii

PV cell types
Cryatalline Silicon
(Wafer Based)
Thin Film Special
Poly Crystalline
Mono Crystalline
Amorphous Si
a-Si
Tandem
A-Si/microcrystalline
CIGS
Copper Indium
Gallium Selenide
CdTe
Cadmium Telluride
Dye Sensitized
TiO2
Compound Semiconductor
Eg: GaAs based
Commercially Available
(see list of Manufacturers
in Annexure)
Under R&D or pilot stage
not commercially available
Flowchart 1.1: Technology & types of PV cell.

Crystalline Silicon Technologies: Crystalline cells are made from ultra-pure silicon
raw material such as those used in semiconductor chips. They use silicon wafers that
are typically 150-200 microns (one Fifth of a millimeter) thick.

Thin Film Technologies: Thin film is made by depositing layers of semiconductor
material barely 0.3 to 2 micrometers thick onto glass or stainless steel substrates. As
the semiconductor layers are so thin, the costs of raw material are much lower than
the capital equipment and processing costs.

Conversion Efficiency: Apart from aesthetic differences, the most obvious
difference amongst PV cell technologies is in its conversion efficiency
Technology Module Efficiency
Mono-crystalline Silicon 12.5-15%
Poly-crystalline Silicon 11-14%
CIGS (Copper Indium Gallium Selenide) 10-13%
CdTe (Cadmium Telluride) 9-12%
Amorphous Silicon (a-Si 5-7%
Table 1.1 Conversion efficiencies of various PV module technologies

Apart from aesthetic differences, the most obvious difference amongst PV cell
technologies is in its conversion efficiency.


xiii

1.3 SPV @ Central Electronics Limited
The SPV activity in India was confined within few national laboratories with R&D
activities till 1975 where the developmental activity was directed towards laboratory
scale solar cell fabrication oriented towards possible future space applications.

The activity at CEL extending over more than four decades and half can be seen as,
1975-80 : R&D phase
1981-85 : Pilot plant Operation
1986-91 : Industrial Scale technology Proving and Semi-Commercial operations
1991-2000 : Commercial Operation
2000onwards : Technology innovation for adoption of green energy and meeting
energy needs of fast developing nation

Evolving solar panels at CEL:
The development of solar cells for terrestrial applications was initiated at CEL
following Governments decision, in 1975, to mount concerted efforts in its high
technology area. CEL has carried out Extensive in-house R&D work spanning a
decade for developing the complete technology for the manufacture of silicon solar
cells and modules and designing, engineering and operating a pilot plant for
production of such cells and modules based on the process technology and
production engineering so developed. The activity also so included the development
of a whole range of SPV systems and undertaking large volume commercial
production, supply, field installation and commissioning of such systems.
Starting with processing of 38mm diameter hyper pure silicon wafers using vacuum
metallization in 1978, CEL went through an evolutionary development process in
terms of both different sizes of cells and the whole range of process technology from
making them. It now manufactures, using technology completely developed in-
house, 100mm diameter n
+
-p junction solar cells starting CZ solar grid silicon wafer
and employing low cost techniques of texturization, screen-printed silver
metallization, antireflection coating and the state of art lamination technology.

Fig.1.1 SPV module for unmanned offshore applications

The ONGC module is a pioneering intrinsically safe
double glass module developed specifically for
operation in explosion prone environments, such as on
the offshore, oil production platforms of ONGC. These
are the 1
st
modules in the world to be certified with Gr.I, Gr.IIA and Gr.IIB by
Central Mining Research Station (CMRS), Dhanbad and accepter by international
insurers, Lloyds of U.K.

xiv

Fig.1.2 SPV module with screen printed liquid cast
encapsulation technique

The screen printing process for the metallization of
silicon solar cells uses the thick film technique giving
scope for more automation in manufacturing thereby
increasing efficiency and reducing the processing cost to about 60% as compared to
the conventional vacuum evaporation technique.

Fig.1.3 SPV modules of different types of solar cells

During 80s CEL has undergone rigorous technological
innovation for increasing efficiency and reducing the
cost of production of solar cells. The size and structure
of solar cells varied, 4 diameter solar cell was
introduced, Lamination technology bringing with it
automation in manufacturing process.

Fig. 1.4 SPV modules during 90s with increased efficiency

CEL demonstrates the importance of entering an area
of advanced technology at early stage in the evolution
of technology and building indigenous capacity to
convert science into technology and further for
industrial and domestic use. CEL, working for more
than four decades has built up an internationally
recognised capability in SPV area of integrating
Science, Technology, and Industry.


Fig. 1.5 mono crystalline SPV module

CEL, with its commitment to harness the solar energy,
has opened up new vistas in the field of solar
photovoltaic. Backed by an integrated production
facility to manufacture Mono-Crystalline Silicon Solar
Cells and Modules with the state-of-the-art screen-printing technology, the company
has supplied more than 1.5 Lakhs SPV Systems in India and abroad, covering both
rural and industrial applications.


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1.4 Why SOLAR?
India is a tropical country, where sunshine is available for longer hours per day and
in great intensity. Solar energy, therefore, has great potential as future energy
source. It also has the advantage of permitting the decentralized distribution of
energy, thereby empowering people at the grassroots level.
India is endowed with vast solar energy potential. About 5,000 trillion kWh per year
energy is incident over Indias land area with most parts receiving 4-7 kWh per sq. m
per day. Theoretically, a small fraction of the total incident solar energy (if captured
effectively) can meet the entire countrys power requirements.

Fig.1.6 Solar insolation over India
Source: http://www.esri.com/mapmuseum
It is also clear that given the large
proportion of poor and energy un-
served population in the country, every
effort needs to be made to exploit the
relatively abundant sources of energy
available to the country and it is in this
situation the solar imperative is both
urgent and feasible to enable the
country to meet long-term energy needs
and also from an energy security
perspective, solar is the most secure of
all sources, since it is abundantly
available.
Hence both technology routes for conversion of solar radiation into heat and
electricity, namely, solar thermal and solar photovoltaic, can effectively be harnessed
providing huge scalability for solar in India. Solar also provides the ability to
generate power on a distributed basis and enables rapid capacity addition with short
lead times.

1.5 Energy Requirements
Almost 400 million Indiansabout a third of the subcontinents populationdont
have access to electricity. This power deficit, which includes about 100,000 un-
electrified villages, places Indias annual per-capita electricity consumption at just
639 kilowatt hoursamong the worlds lowest rates.


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Since the 1980s, and still currently, India has encountered a negative balance in
overall energy consumption and production. This has resulted in the need to
purchase energy from outside the country to supply and fulfill the needs of the
entire country. The Government is more sensitive to renewable energy potential and
has started to put reforms and projects, incentives and legislation in place to
convince investors and companies to make the shift.


Fig. 1.7 Indias energy balance
India has had a negative energy
balance for decades which has forced
the purchase of energy from outside
the country.

(Source: U.S. Energy Information
Administration)



The breakdown of energy sources for power production of India in 2005. India is a
large consumer of coal, which makes up more than 57% of its total consumption.


Fig: 1.8 Energy consumption in
power sector (2005)
(Source:www.presidentofindia
.nic.in)







India relies heavily on coal energy to produce electricity. A strong second is hydro
power, followed by natural gas. The consumption of all renewable energies
represents fully one third of the total consumption.

India now ranks third amongst the coal producing countries in the world. Being the
most abundant fossil fuel in India till date, it continues to be one of the most

79

important sources for meeting the domestic energy needs. It accounts for 55% of the
countrys total energy supplies.

Through sustained increase in investment, production of coal increased from about
70 MT (million tones) (MoC 2005) in early 1970s to 382 MT in 2004/05. Most of the
coal production in India comes from open pit mines contributing to over 81% of the
total production while underground mining accounts for rest of the national output
(MoC 2005). Despite this increase in production, the existing demand exceeds the
supply. India currently faces coal shortage of 23.96 MT.
Stressing the need to find new energy sources, a top PSU official said India is likely
to run out of its 60-70 billion tonnes of coal reserves by 2040-41 if the demand
continues to grow at the present pace.
The demand for coal will reach two billion tonnes mark by 2016-17. We need
to grow at the rate of 17-18 per cent from the present 6-7 per cent to meet this
growing demand, Coal India Ltd (CIL) Chairman Partha S Bhattacharyya said at
the ICC Coal Summit.
With coal reserves expected to run out in the next 45 years in the country,
there is a greater need to switch to renewable sources of energy. Poor quality of
power supply and frequent power cuts and shortages impose a heavy burden on
Indias fast-growing trade and industry.
The access gap is complicated by another problem more than three-quarters
of Indias electricity is produced by burning coal and natural gas. With Indias
rapidly-growing population currently 1.1 billionalong with its strong economic
growth in recent years, its carbon emissions were more than 1.6 billion tons in 2007,
among the worlds highest.
The only light of hope is the fact that with harnessing of solar energy, the
country can generate nearly 50,000 MW of solar power by 2050, the capacity of
which could be further enhanced to over 75,000 MW.

India has been facing electricity shortages in spite of appreciable growth in
electricity generation. The demand for electrical energy has been growing at the
faster rate and shall increase at higher growth rate to match with the projected
growth of Indian economy.
The map shown below shows the individual per capita demand of the individual
states of the country.

80


Fig: 1.9 Per capita Residential Electricity demand (kWh/per person)
(Source: CEA, 2009a)
The demand is maximum in the states like Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Maharashtra,
Gujarat and Rajasthan, the states which account for a major share in the unparalleled
solar potential of India.

Fig 1.10 Indias electricity use breakdown in commercial and residential buildings.
(Source: Bassi, n.d.)

In a typical commercial building in India, it is estimated that about 60% of the total
electricity is used for lighting, 32% for space conditioning as well as 8% for heating
ventilation and airconditioning.


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1.6 Demystifying the Myths
1. Myth: Solar is too expensive for widespread usage and will therefore never
compete with conventional means of power generation.
Facts:
o The cost of solar technologies has declined every year since they were
first introduced onto the market in the 50s
o The reduction in cost has been driven by improved research and
technology, and most of all by steady increases in sales volume
o The average growth rate of PV manufacturing in India is 35 percent in
the past 3 years
o Every ton of conventional, nonrenewable energy used adds to an
overall shortage and therefore makes this kind of energy more
expensive to locate and to use
o Solar on the other hand is a renewable resource and an immense
amount of solar energy strikes the Earth's surface every day

2. Myth: Solar is not feasible for my energy needs.
Facts:
o India receives solar energy equivalent to more than 5,000 Trillion kWh
per year, which is far more than its total annual energy consumption
o The average solar insolation in India is 4-7 kWh/square meter.
o The peak power of a solar panel is estimated for 1000W/m
2
.


Fig 1.11 Actual power production capacity of a solar PV system

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(It produces 2.3 kW power enough to operate 10 household lamps of 23W
(example) for 10 hours.)
o The fixed and one time installation cost for 1kW SPV system is a mere amount
of Rs2, 70,000
*
((INR)(current rate under MNRE for standalone system), where
as it will have a lifetime of 30 years with lowest of maintenance cost and one
time free battery replacement by CEL
**.

o For grid interactive hybrid SPV system the cost of installation is even a
smaller amount of Rs 180
*
per Watt.
(
*
The rate mentioned is not inclusive of subsidy or any relaxation. Subsidy
may vary from state to state as well as in hilly and plain areas)
(
**
Provided CEL is the SPV system installer)

3. Myth: Solar systems is not a sustainable solution.
Facts:
Considering various perspectives individually:
Self reliance
o The per capita average annual domestic electricity consumption in
India in 2009 was 96 kWh in rural areas and 288 kWh in urban
areas for those with access to electricity.
o The production capacity of solar systems can easily meet the above
demands keeping in mind the rich solar potential of India.
o The average life of a solar system is 25years and hence a cost
effective, long run and permanent setup unaffected by the ever
changing conventional source market.
Community upliftment
o At a fixed capital investment it can generate substantial revenues
when setup as a hybrid grid connected system.
o In field regions, off-grid setups can meet the demands of agro-
pumping, water heating systems etc.
National contribution
o It is a clean energy.
o It will cut down on the existing 20% of power losses in transmission
and distribution by the provision of stand alone systems in the rural
and isolated areas.
o It will reduce the pressure on the environment.

All of the above together will build a sustainable solution.

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Fig 1.12 sustainable energy solution

4. Myth: Solar power is not practical in urban areas
Facts:
o Solar energy systems are installed at the point of use eliminating the
need to trench underground and dig up asphalt
o No extra land space is needed making urban installation practical

Fig 1.13 Various layouts for panel grafting on urban households.
o Solar power systems give off no noise or pollution, making them the
ideal renewable energy source in urban areas

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5. Myth: Solar is not competitive with the conventional energy market.
Facts:
I. First generation cells consist of large-area, high quality and single
junction devices.
Fig 1.14 Evolution of competitive solar technology.

II. The most
successful second
generation
materials have
been cadmium
telluride (CdTe),
copper indium
gallium Selenide,
amorphous
silicon and micro
-morphous
silicon. These
materials are applied in a thin film to a supporting substrate such as
glass or ceramics reducing material mass and therefore costs. These
technologies do hold promise of higher conversion efficiencies,
particularly CIGS-CIS, DSC and CdTe offers significantly cheaper
production costs.
III. Third generation technologies aim to enhance poor electrical
performance of second generation (thin-film technologies) while
maintaining very low production costs.

There are a few approaches to achieving these high efficiencies:
o Multi-junction photovoltaic cell (multiple energy threshold devices).
o Modifying incident spectrum (concentration).
o Use of excess thermal generation (caused by UV light) to enhance voltages or
carrier collection.
o Use of infrared spectrum to produce electricity at night.
Plummeting prices of polysilicon, a raw material used in solar modules, could make
power from solar photovoltaic plants as cheap as Rs 5 a unit or less by 2015 against
Rs 12 a unit as estimated today.

6. Myth: Solar energy and solar designs work well only in warm, sunny climates
Facts:
o Solar technologies can work efficiently and cost-effectively anywhere
in India, even in cloudy communities

85

o Energy-storage systems make solar technologies in less sunny regions
practical
o Some photovoltaic systems store electricity in batteries so that energy
can be retrieved later -- even after up to 30 consecutive days without
sunlight

7. Myth: Solar electricity cannot serve any significant fraction of Indian
electricity needs.
Facts:
o With about 300 clear, sunny days in a year, India's theoretical solar
power reception, on only its land area, is about 5 Petawatt-hours per
year (PWh/yr) (i.e. 5 trillion kWh/yr or about 600 TW). The daily
average solar energy incident over India varies from 4 to
7 kWh/m
2
with about 15002000 sunshine hours per year (depending
upon location), which is far more than current total energy
consumption
o Assuming the efficiency of PV modules were as low as 10%, this would
still be a thousand times greater than the domestic electricity demand
projected for 2015

8. Myth: To collect enough solar energy a business needs to install
large arrays of collectors requiring vast land area.
Facts:
o There is sufficient roof space on most businesses to produce the total
electricity needed using existing photovoltaic technology.




86

1.7 Characteristics of Solar Energy

1.7.1 Solar Energy- An Outline
A new era for solar power is approaching. Long derided as uneconomic, it is
gaining ground as technologies improve and the cost of traditional energy sources
rises. Within three to seven years, unsubsidized solar power could cost no more to
end customers in many markets, than electricity generated by fossil fuels or by
renewable alternatives to solar.

i. Indian SPV energy scenario
Presently, India have over 17.5 GW (June 2010) of installed renewable energy
(Wind =11.8 GW, Small Hydro =2.8 GW, PV installed=15 MW, Rest is mostly
Biomass) capacity. Out of this installed PV, the grid tied and off grid tied share are
12.3 MW (less than 0.1% of grid tied renewable energy) and 2.9 MW (0.7% of off grid
renewable capacity of India). Although, sun provides 10,000 times more energy, we
daily consume and India being a tropical country receives adequate solar irradiance
(Daily radiation ~ 4-7 KWh/m
2
, solar energy received= 5,000 trillion KWh/year,
Sunny days/year = 250-300) which is a major driver for the SPV market in the
country.
Presently, SPV based applications usage in India is not in accordance with
that in the global market (Globally, grid-connected PV applications account for 75%
while in India it account only ~ 3% of the overall PV applications) as much of the
country does not have an electrical grid. Table below shows the different mode of
use of SPV systems in India.

Table 1.2: Overview of the usage of SPV systems in India
Sources/Systems Cumulative
Achievement
(2008-09)
Cumulative Achievement
(2009-10)
Distributed Renewable Power
Solar power 8.01 MWp 9.13 MWp
Decentralized Energy Systems
Solar Street Lighting 70,474 nos. 88,297 nos.
Home Lighting System 4,34,692 nos. 5,84,461 nos.
Solar Lantern 6, 97,419 nos. 7, 92,285 nos.
SPV Power Plants 2.12 MWp 2.41 MWp
SPV Pumps 7,148 nos. 7,334 nos.
India is gradually shifting focus towards its solar energy program as the use
and implication of SPV is very low in the country. The Government is striving hard

87

to push the SPV industry by introducing grid based incentives and concessions in
various duties in the recent budget (2010-11) to make the country as a global leader.
Driven by an increasing demand for electricity, wide gap between demand and
supply and pressure to reduce greenhouse gas emission, India has targeted 22 GW
(20 GW grid and 2GW off grid tied) of Solar Power by 2022 in its Jawaharlal Nehru
National Solar Mission (JNNSM). Out of this, around 50 % will be produced through
solar photovoltaic (SPV). Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) is aiming
to achieve 500 MWp grid-connected SPV capacities by 2017. It is estimated that the
Indian solar energy sector will grow at 25% per year in next few years.
ii. Latest steps of Indian Market on the global front are
India inaugurated Azure Power's 2-megawatt photovoltaic plant in the state
of Punjab, the first privately owned, utility-scale power plant on the Asian
subcontinent.






Fig 1.15 Azure Power's
2-megawatt photovoltaic
plant in the state of
Punjab






Built under a 30-year power purchase agreement with the Punjab State
Electricity Board, the plant will help power 4,000 rural homes for 20,000 people.

Farooq Abdullah, minister of new and renewable energy, said the plant
showcases India's pledge to generate 20,000 megawatts from solar power by 2022
under the country's national solar mission.

An Rs 67-crore, 5 megawatt solar photovoltaic power plant has been installed
at village Rawara, Taluka Phalodi, in Rajasthan. The project, owned by Indian Oil
Corporation, was commissioned by Rajasthan Electronics & Instruments Ltd under the
Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission, as stated by Ministry of Heavy Industries.



88


Fig 1.16 A 5-megawatt solar
photovoltaic power plant has been
installed at village Rawara, Taluka
Phalodi, in Rajasthan






This power plant is designed to feed power to 33/132 kV grid sub-station at
village Bap, which is situated 18 km from plant site Rawara. It is expected to
generate energy of 67 lakh KWh a year.

1.7.2 Cost Effectiveness
The decrease in manufacturing costs and retail prices of PV modules and systems
(including electronics and safety devices, cabling, mounting structures, and
installation) have come as the industry has gained from economies of scale and
experience. This has been brought about by extensive innovation, research,
development and ongoing political support for the development of the PV market.

Reductions in prices for materials (such as mounting structures), cables, land use
and installation account for much of the decrease in BOS costs. Another contributor
to the decrease of BOS and installation-related costs is the increase in efficiency at
module level. More efficient modules imply lower costs for balance of system
equipment, installation related costs and land use.


Electricity price evolution
Costs for the electricity generated in existing gas and coal-fired power plants are
constantly rising. This is a real driver for the full competitiveness of PV. Energy
prices are increasing in many regions of the world due to the nature of the current
energy mix. The use of finite resources for power generation (such as oil, gas, coal
and uranium), in addition to growing economic and environmental costs will lead to
increased price for energy generated from fossil and nuclear fuels.

1.7.3 External costs of conventional electricity generation

The external costs to society incurred from burning fossil fuels or nuclear power
generation are not currently included in most electricity prices. These costs are both
local and, in the case of climate change, global. As there is uncertainty about the
magnitude of these costs, they are difficult to quantify and include in the electricity
prices.


89

The market price of CO2 certificates remains quite low (around 14/tonne CO2 end
of 2010) but is expected to rise in the coming decades.


BENEFITS OF SOLAR ENERGY OVER DISTRIBUTED GRID ENERGY

As a distributed energy resource available nearby load centers, solar energy
could reduce transmission and distribution (T&D) costs and also line losses.
According to World Resources Institute (WRI), Indias electricity grid has the
highest transmission and distribution losses in the world a whopping 27%.
Numbers published by various Indian government agencies put that number at
30%, 40%, and greater than 40%.

Solar technologies like PV carry very short gestation periods of development and,
in this respect, can reduce the risk valuation of their investment.

They could enhance the reliability of electricity service when T&D congestion
occurs at specific locations and during specific times.

By optimizing the location of generating systems and their operation, distributed
generation resources such as solar can ease constraints on local transmission and
distribution systems.

They can also protect consumers from power outages. For example, voltage
surges of a mere millisecond can cause brownouts, causing potentially large
losses to consumers whose operations require high quality power supply.

Moreover, the peak generation time of PV systems often closely matches peak
loads for a typical day so that investment in power generation, transmission, and
distribution may be delayed or eliminated.





90

2. Solar Energy Solutions and systems
2.1 Applications of solar energy as a renewable source
There are two main applications:

2.1.1 Solar thermal energy
Solar thermal energy (STE) is a technology for harnessing solar energy for thermal
energy. Solar collectors capture the energy of the sun and convert it into heat. The
basic idea of a solar collector is that the solar energy passes through a layer of
glazed glass where it is absorbed by the underlying material resulting in heat. The
glazing of the glass prevents heat from escaping, thereby effectively capturing the
heat.


Fig. 2.1 An example of
a solar water heating
system (antifreeze is
used so that the
liquid does not freeze
if outside temp. drops
below freezing)







Solar thermal collectors are as low, medium, or high-temperature collectors.
Low-temperature collectors are flat plates generally used to heat
swimming pools.

91

Medium-temperature collectors are also usually flat plates but are
used for heating water or air for residential and commercial use. The
applications include solar drying and distillation.
High-temperature collectors concentrate sunlight using mirrors or
lenses and are generally used for electric power production.
STE is different from photovoltaic, which converts solar energy directly into
electricity.


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2.1.2 Solar Photovoltaic energy
Photovoltaic (PV) is a method of generating electrical power by converting solar
radiation into direct current electricity using semiconductors that exhibit the
photovoltaic effect. This is explained in more detail in the following sections.


Fig 2.2 Electricity in a typical solar
cell


Photovoltaic power generation
employs solar panels composed of a
number of solar cells containing a
photovoltaic material.





Due to the growing demand for renewable energy sources, the manufacturing of
solar cells and photovoltaic arrays has advanced considerably in recent years.
Solar photovoltaic is growing rapidly, albeit from a small base, to a total global
capacity of 40 GW (40,000 MW) at the end of 2010.

93


Fig 2.3 Process of production of electricity in a solar power plant
Source: Energy Information Administration: Schott Corporation.
Fig 2.4: 10-MW solar power plant in
Barstow, California.

More than 100 countries use solar PV.
Installations may be ground-mounted
(and sometimes integrated with farming
and grazing) or built into the roof or
walls of a building (building-integrated
photovoltaic).


2.2 Insolation spread
We receive energy from the sun in the form of solar radiation. Solar panels make
use of this radiation to generate electricity. The amount of solar radiation that
strikes a single location over a given period of time (usually one day) is called
insolation.

94



Fig 2.5 Solar radiation
map of India

As can be seen from the
Solar Radiation Map of
India - most parts are
suitable for generating
power from Solar
Energy. The most
suitable areas are
Rajasthan, Gujarat,
Madhya Pradesh,
Maharashtra, Andhra
Pradesh, Karnataka,
Punjab, Haryana, Uttar
Pradesh, Uttarakhand,
Jharkhand, Tamil Nadu,
Orissa, and West
Bengal.
In general major Geography of Country is suitable for Solar Energy Utilization.
2.3 Capturing and harnessing solar energy

Fig 2.6: Flow of energy in a solar
PV system







95







2.3.1 Solar photovoltaic effect
Fig 2.7(a) p-n junction silicon
semiconductor

The photovoltaic effect is the means by
which solar panels or photovoltaic
modules generate electricity from light.
A solar cell is made from a
semiconductor material such as silicon.
Impurities are added to this to create
two layers,
i. n-type material, which has too many electrons.
ii. p-type material, which has too few electrons.
The junction between the two is known as a p-n junction. This process is known
as doping.
Fig 2.7(b) A solar cell connected to an
ammeter showing a deflection when
exposed to light.
Do it yourself: Get p-n junction silicon
semiconductor, connect one end of wire
to the p-type and n-type. Now connect
an ammeter to the other end and
complete the circuit and place it in sunlight
Light consists of packets of energy called photons. When these photons hit the
cell, they are either reflected, absorbed or pass straight through, depending on
their wavelength. The energy from those which are absorbed is given to the

96

electrons in the material which causes some of them to cross the p-n junction. If an
electrical circuit is made between the two sides of the cell a current will flow. This
current is proportional to the number of photons hitting the cell and therefore the
light intensity.

2.3.2 Solar cell
A solar cell is any device that directly converts the energy in light into electrical
energy through the process of photovoltaic.
Fig 2.8: photovoltaic solar cell to
photovoltaic solar array

The performance of a solar or
photovoltaic (PV) cell is measured
in terms of its efficiency at
converting sunlight into electricity.
There are a variety of solar cell
materials available, which vary in
conversion efficiency.


Flowchart 2.1: the processes
involved in the production of
a solar cell

Solar cell plants like the one
in CEL take the wafer
through a high technology
semiconductor processing
sequence to create working
solar cells. In c-Si, wafers
typically undergo a process
sequence of etching,
diffusion, and screen-
printing steps before they are

97

tested and graded for incorporation into modules.

The final part of the overall manufacturing process is the solar system assembly
and installation. First, an array structure is chosen for the mechanical integration
of the solar module. This array structure will depend on the final location of the
system, which could involve retrofitting onto a roof, integrating into building
materials for roofs or vertical walls, or pole-mounting, ground-mounting, or
attaching to an industrial structure.

2.3.3 Balance of systems
Fig 2.9 A PV system showing
the balance of components

In addition to purchasing
photovoltaic panels you will
need to invest in some
additional equipment (called
"balance-of-system") to
condition and safely transmit
the electricity to the load that
will use it



The major balance-of-system equipments for systems are:
1. Batteries
Batteries accumulate excess energy created by your PV system and store it to be
used at night or when there is no other energy input. Batteries can discharge
rapidly and yield more current that the charging source can produce by itself, so
pumps or motors can be run intermittently. There are two types of batteries;
i. Lead Acid Batteries
ii. Nickel Cadmium Batteries

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i. Lead Acid Batteries
Lead Acid Batteries are made of five basic components:
A resilient plastic container.
Positive and negative internal plates made of lead.
Plate separators made of porous synthetic material.
Electrolyte, a dilute solution of sulphuric acid and water, better known as
battery acid.
Lead terminals, the connection point between the battery and whatever it
powers.

Fig 2.10 A
Lead Acid
battery












1. Discharging process

99


Fig 2.11(a) Discharging process of a lead acid battery








2. Charging process


2.11(b) Charging process of a
lead acid battery







ii. Nickel Cadmium
Batteries
Fig 2.12 Nickel Cadmium
Battery

100

Source: Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc.

The Nickel-cadmium battery uses nickel oxide in its positive electrode (cathode), a
cadmium compound in its negative electrode (anode), and potassium hydroxide
solution as its electrolyte. The Nickel Cadmium Battery is rechargeable, so it can
cycle repeatedly.



As the battery is discharged, the following reaction takes place:
Cd + 2H2O + 2NiOOH > 2Ni(OH)2 + Cd(OH)2

2. Charge controller
A solar charge controller is needed
in virtually all solar power systems
that utilize batteries. The job of the
solar charge controller is to regulate
the power going from the solar
panels to the batteries.
Overcharging batteries will at the
least significantly reduce battery
life and at worst damage the
batteries to the point that they are
unusable.

Fig 2.13 Charge Controller

3. Inverter
The function of an inverter is to transform the low voltage DC of a lead acid
battery into higher voltage AC which may be used to power standard mains
appliances. An inverter is necessary where appropriate low voltage appliances are

101

unavailable or expensive or in larger systems where it is necessary to distribute
the power over a wide area.
Fig 2.14 Solar inverters

The amount of
equipment needed
depends on what you
want the use of the
system is. In the
simplest systems, the
current power generated
by is connected directly
to the load. However, if
the energy is required to be store batteries and charge controller are required.
Depending on the needs, balance-of-system equipment could account for half of
the total system costs. The system supplier will be able to tell exactly what
equipment are needed

2.4 Types of PV systems

2.4.1 Stand Alone systems
These systems are generally employed where there is no availability of grid
power. The system operates autonomously and supplies power to the electrical
loads independent of the electric utility. The energy created by the Solar Panel
array is stored in batteries. Whenever electricity is a needed, the energy is drawn
from batteries.

102



Figure 2.15(a): A circuit diagram of solar installation with DC and AC loads


Fig 2.15(b) Flow chart of a stand-alone system

The major balance-of-system equipments for stand-alone systems are:
Batteries
Charge controller
Power conditioning equipment
Safety equipment

103

Meters and instrumentation

2.4.2 Grid Connected systems
A grid-connected system powers the home or small business with renewable
energy during those periods when the sun is shining. Any excess electricity
produced is fed back into the grid. When renewable resources are unavailable,
electricity from the grid supplies your needs, thus eliminating the expense of
electricity storage devices like batteries.


104



105

Flowchart 2.2 a grid tied system

If more electricity is used than the system feeds into the grid during a given
month, the difference between what energy used and produced is to be paid.
The balance of system components required are:
Power conditioning equipment
Safety equipment
Meters and instrumentation.

2.5 Operation

Flowchart 2.3 operation with AC &
DC load

The solar modules convert solar
energy directly into dc power
which can be used directly by dc
loads and also by ac loads with the
use of an inverter. A battery
charges and discharges according
to the requirement of the
household or establishment.





106

3. System Components

A basic photovoltaic system consists of five main components:
i. the solar panel
ii. the batteries
iii. the regulator
iv. the load
v. the converter
The panels are responsible for collecting the energy of the sun and generating
electricity.
The battery stores the electrical energy for later use.
The regulator ensures that panel and battery are working together in an optimal
fashion.
The load refers to any device that requires electrical power, and is the sum of the
consumption of all electrical equipment connected to the system. It is important to
remember that solar panels and batteries use direct current (DC).

If the range of operational voltage of your equipment does not fit the voltage
supplied by your battery, it will also be necessary to include some type of converter.
If the equipment that you want to power uses a different DC voltage than the one
supplied by the battery, you will need to use a DC/DC con-verter. If some of your
equipment requires AC power, you will need to use a DC/AC converter, also known
as an inverter.

Every electrical system should also incorporate various safety devices in the event
that something goes wrong. These devices include proper wiring, cir-cuit breakers,
surge protectors, fuses, ground rods, lighting arrestors, etc.


















107

3.1 Photovoltaic system components

The Solar Panel
The solar panel is composed of solar cells that collect solar
radiation and transform it into electrical energy. This part of the
system is sometimes referred to as a solar module or
photovoltaic generator.

Panel arrays can be made by connecting a set of panels in series
and/or parallel in order to provide the necessary energy for a
given load. Electricity will vary according to climatological
conditions, the hour of the day, and the time of the year.

The most common production technology is crystalline silicon,
and can be either monocrystalline or polycrystalline. Amorphous
silicon can be cheaper but is less efficient at converting energy to
electricity. New solar technologies, such as silicon ribbon and
thin film photovoltaics, promise higher efficiencies but are not
yet widely available.
The Battery
The battery stores the energy produced by the panels that is not
immediately consumed by the load. This stored energy can then be
used during periods of low solar irradiation. The battery
component is also sometimes called the accumulator.






The most common type of batteries used in solar applications are
maintenance-free lead-acid batteries, also called recombinant or
VRLA (valve regulated lead acid) batteries.

Aside from storing energy, sealed lead-acid batteries also serve
two important functions:
They are able to provide an instantaneous power superior to
what the array of panels can generate, needed for motors.
They determine the operating voltage of your installation.

108







The Regulator
The solar power charge regulator assures that the battery
is working in appropriate conditions. It avoids
overcharging or overdischarging the battery, both of
which are very detrimental to the life of the battery.

To ensure proper charging and discharging of the
battery, the regulator maintains knowledge of the state
of charge (SoC) of the battery. The SoC is estimated
based on the actual voltage of the battery.

By measuring the battery voltage and being
programmed with the type of storage technology used
by the battery, the regulator can know the precise points
where the battery would be overcharged or excessively
discharged.

The regulator can include other features like ammeters,
voltmeters, measurement of ampere-hour, timers,
alarms, etc. While convenient, none of these features are
required for a working photovoltaic system.

The Converter
The electricity provided by the panel array and battery is
DC at a fixed voltage. The voltage provided might not
match what is required by your load. A
direct/alternating (DC/AC) converter, also known as
inverter, converts the DC current from your batteries
into AC.

If necessary, you can also use converters to obtain DC at
voltage level other than what is supplied by the batteries.

For optimal operation, you should design your solar-
powered system to match the generated DC voltage to
match the load.

109




Putting it all together

The complete photovoltaic system incorporates all of these components.


When all of the components are in balance and are properly maintained, the system
will support itself for years.
The Load
The load is the equipment that consumes the power
generated by your energy system. The load may include
wireless communications equipment, routers, workstations,
lamps, TV sets, VSAT modems, etc.

In the general system it is absolutely necessary to use
efficient and low power equipment to avoid wasting energy.
Solar
Panels
The solar panels generate power when solar energy is
available.
The
Regulator
The regulator ensures the most efficient operation of the
panels and prevents damage to the batteries.
The Battery
Bank
The battery bank stores collected energy for later use.
Converters
and
Inverters
Converters and inverters adapt the stored energy to
match the requirements of your load.
The Load
Finally, the load consumes the stored energy to do work.

110


Fig 3.1: A basic solar PV system.


Fig 3.2 : A working model of the basic solar PV system at CEL.


3.2 The solar panel

An individual solar panel is made of many solar cells. The cells are electrically
connected to provide a particular value of current and voltage. The individual cells
are properly encapsulated to provide isolation and protection from humidity and
corrosion.
Fig 3.3 : The connection of cells to form a solar panel.

There are different types of modules available on
the market, depending on the power demands of
your application. The most common modules are
composed of 32 or 36 solar cells of crystalline
silicon. These cells are all of equal size, wired in
series, and encapsulated between glass and
plastic material, using a polymer resin (EVA) as
a thermal insulator. The surface area of the

111

module is typically between 0.1 and 0.5 m
2
. Solar panels usually have two electrical
contacts, one positive and one negative.

Some panels also include extra contacts to allow the installation of bypass diodes
across individual cells. Bypass diodes protect the panel against a phenomenon
known as hot-spots. A hot-spot occurs when some of the cells are in shadow while
the rest of the panel is in full sun. Rather than producing energy, shaded cells behave
as a load that dissipates energy. In this situa-tion, shaded cells can see a significant
increase in temperature (about 85 to 100C.) Bypass diodes will prevent hot-spots on
shaded cells, but reduce the maximum voltage of the panel. They should only be
used when shading is unavoidable. It is a much better solution to expose the entire
panel to full sun whenever possible.

Figure 3.4 : Different IV Curves.
The current (A) changes with the
irradiance, and the voltage (V) changes
with the temperature.

The electrical performance of a solar
module its represented by the IV
char-acteristic curve, which
represents the current that is
provided based on the voltage
generated for a certain solar radiation.
The curve represents all the possible values of voltage-current. The curves depend
on two main factors: the temperature and the solar radiation received by the cells.
For a given solar cell area, the current generated is directly pro-portional to solar
irradiance (G), while the voltage reduces slightly with an increase of temperature. A
good regulator will try to maximize the amount of energy that a panel provides by
tracking the point that provides maximum power (V x I). The maximum power
corresponds to the knee of the I-V curve.

3.2.1 Types of modules


Fig 3.5 : The different components of
a solar panel.








112


Various module classifications are used commercially. The general term 'module' (or
panel) is defined more precisely by highlighting the module's specific qualities.

Modules can be classified according to:
Cell type:
- mono-crystalline modules;
- polycrystalline modules;
- thin-film modules (amorphous, CdTe and CIS modules).

Encapsulation material:
- teflon modules;
- PVB modules;
- resin modules (the EVA classification module is not generally used).
Encapsulation technology:
- lamination (with EVA, PVB or teflon; see the following section on
'Laminates').

Substrate:
- film modules;
- glass-film modules (or glass-Tedlar modules);
- metal-film modules;
- acrylic plastic modules;
- glass-glass modules.

Frame structure:
- framed modules;
- frameless modules.

Construction-specific additional functions:
- toughened safety glass (TSG) modules;
- laminated safety glass (LSG) modules;
- insulating glass modules;
- insulating glass modules for overhead glazing;
- stepped insulating glass modules;
- laminated glass modules.



113

3.2.2 Solar Panel Parameters


*Note:- The panel
parameters values change
for other conditions of
irradiance and
temperature.
Manufacturers will
sometimes include graphs
or tables with values for
conditions different from
the standard. You should
check the performance
values at the panel
temperatures that are
likely to match your
particular installation.

Fig 3.6 : The solar
panel parameters
and their role in
efficiency
calculation.


Panel
parameters for
system sizing

To calculate the
number of
panels required
to cover a given load, you just need to know the current and voltage at the point of
maximum power: IPmax and VPmax.
You should assume a loss of efficiency of 5% in your calculations to compensate for
the inadequacy of the panel to work at the maximum power point at all the times.

Interconnection of panels

A solar panel array is a collection of solar panels that are electrically inter-connected
and installed on some type of support structure. Using a solar panel array allows
you to generate greater voltage and current than is possible with a single solar panel.
The panels are interconnected in such a way that the voltage generated is close to
(but greater than) the level of voltage of the batteries, and that the current generated
is sufficient to feed the equip-ment and to charge the batteries.

Connecting solar panels in series increases the generated voltage. Connecting

114

panels in parallel increases the current. The number of panels used should be
increased until the amount of power generated slightly exceeds the demands of your
load.

It is very important that all of the panels in your array are as identical as possible. In
an array, you should use panels of the same brand and characteristics because any
difference in their operating conditions will have a big impact on the health and
performance of your system.




Fig3.7: Interconnection of panels in parallel. The voltage remains constant while the
current duplicates.



3.3 The battery
The battery hosts a certain reversible chemical reaction that stores electrical energy
that can later be retrieved when needed. Electrical energy is transformed into
chemical energy when the battery is being charged, and the reverse happens when
the battery is discharged.
A battery is formed by a set of elements or cells arranged in series. For example,
Lead acid batteries consist of two submerged lead electrodes in an electrolytic
solution of water and sulfuric acid. A potential difference of about 2 volts takes place
between the electrodes, depending on the instantaneous value of the charge state of
the battery. The most common batteries in photovoltaic solar applications have a
nominal voltage of 12 or 24 volts. A 12 V battery therefore contains 6 cells in series.

The battery serves two important purposes in a photovoltaic system:
to provide electrical energy to the system when energy is not supplied by the
array of solar panels, and

115

to store excess energy generated by the panels whenever that energy exceeds
the load.
The battery experiences a cyclical process of charging and discharging, depending
on the presence or absence of sunlight. During the hours that there is sun, the array
of panels produces electrical energy.

The energy that is not consumed immediately it is used to charge the battery. During
the hours of absence of sun, any demand of electrical energy is supplied by the
battery, thereby discharging it.

These cycles of charge and discharge occur whenever the energy produced by the
panels does not match the energy required to support the load. When there is
sufficient sun and the load is light, the batteries will charge.

Obviously, the batteries will discharge at night whenever any amount of power is
required. The batteries will also discharge when the irradiance is insufficient to cover
the requirements of the load (due to the natural variation of climatological
conditions, clouds, dust, etc.)

3.3.1 Battery Bank (A CEL Standard) -

Fig 3.8 : A 24V, 150Ah battery interconnection at CEL.


116

I. Valve Regulated Lead Acid (VRLA)

Fig 3.9 : The specifications of a Valve Regulated Lead Acid Battery.

II. Rechargeable Lead Acid Tubular Positive Plate

Fig 3.10 : The specifications of Rchargeable Lead Acid Tubular Positive Plate Baettry.

3.3.2 Types of batteries
Many different battery technologies exist, and are intended for use in a
variety of different applications. The most suitable type for photovoltaic
applications is the stationary battery, designed to have a fixed location and
for scenarios where the power consumption is more or less irregular.
"Stationary" batteries can accommodate deep discharge cycles, but they are
not designed to produce high currents in brief periods of time.
Stationary batteries can use an electrolyte that is alkaline (such as Nickel-
Cadmium) or acidic (such as Lead-Acid). Stationary batteries based on
Nickel-Cadmium are recommended for their high reliability and resistance
whenever possible. Unfortunately, they tend to be much more expensive and
difficult to obtain than sealed Lead-Acid batteries.
Terminal Voltage = 12 V Capacity = 80AH
Conformance to : TEC
Specifications No. TQ510 G92
Battery mounting
arrangement : Not Required.
Maintenance Free.
Valve Regulated
Lead Acid (VRLA)
Terminal Voltage = 6V/12V Capacity = 120 AH
Conformance to :BIS Specifications
Battery Mounting Stucture
:Wooden Rack.
Low Maintenance
Rechargeable Lead
Acid Tubular
Positive Plate

117

In many cases when it is difficult to find local, good and cheap stationary batteries
(importing batteries is not cheap), you will be forced to use batteries targeted to the
automobile market.
Automobile batteries are not well suited for photovoltaic applications as they are
designed to provide a substantial current for just few seconds (when starting then
engine) rather than sustaining a low current for long period of time.
This design characteristic of car batteries (also called traction batteries) results in
an shortened effective life when used in photovoltaic systems. Traction batteries can
be used in small applications where low cost is the most important consideration, or
when other batteries are not available.

How to differentiate?
Both are basically lead acid batteries but are deesigned differently to serve differnt purposes.
So the only way to differentiate between the two is by checking the ratings.
A car battery typically has two ratings:
CCA (Cold Cranking Amps) - The number of amps that the battery can produce
at 32 degrees F (0 degrees C) for 30 seconds
RC (Reserve Capacity) - The number of minutes that the battery can deliver 25
amps while keeping its voltage above 10.5 volts
Typically, a deep cycle battery will have two or three times the RC of a car battery, but will
deliver one-half or three-quarters the CCAs. In addition, a deep cycle battery can withstand
several hundred total discharge/recharge cycles, while a car battery is not designed to be
totally discharged.

3.3.3 Temperature effects
The ambient temperature has several important effects on the characteristics of a
battery:
The nominal capacity of a battery (that the manufacturer usually gives
for25C) increases with temperature at the rate of about 1%/C. But if the
temperature is too high, the chemical reaction that takes place in the battery
accelerates, which can cause the same type of oxidation that takes places
during overcharging. This will obviously reduce the life expectancy of
battery. This problem can be compensated partially in car batteries by using a
low density of dissolution (a specific gravity of 1.25 when the battery is totally
charged).

As the temperature is reduced, the useful life of the battery increases. But if
the temperature is too low, you run the risk of freezing the electrolyte. The
freezing temperature depends on the density of the solution, which is also
related to the state of charge of the battery. The lower the density, the greater
the risk of freezing. In areas of low temperatures, you should avoid deeply
discharging the batteries (that is, DoDmax is effectively reduced.)


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The temperature also changes the relation between voltage and charge. It is
preferable to use a regulator which adjusts the low voltage disconnect and
reconnect parameters according to temperature. The temperature sensor of
the regulator should be fixed to the battery using tape or some other simple
method.

In hot areas it is important to keep the batteries as cool as possible. The
batteries must be stored in a shaded area and never get direct sunlight. It's
also desirable to place the batteries on a small support to allow air to flow
under them, thus increase the cooling.

3.4 The power charge regulator
The power charge regulator is also known as charge controller, voltage regulator,
charge-discharge controller or charge-discharge and load controller.
The regulator sits between the array of panels, the batteries, and your equipment or
loads.
Significance - Remember that the voltage of a battery, although always close to 2 V
per cell, varies according to its state of charge. By monitoring the voltage of the
battery, the regulator prevents overcharging or over discharging.
Regulators used in solar applications should be connected in series: they disconnect
the array of panels from the battery to avoid overcharging, and they disconnect the
battery from the load to avoid over discharging. The connection and disconnection is
done by means of switches which can be of two types: electromechanical (relays) or
solid state (bipolar transistor, MOSFET).

Regulators should never be connected in parallel.
In order to protect the battery from gasification, the switch opens the charging circuit
when the voltage in the battery reaches its high voltage disconnect (HVD) or cut-
off set point. The low voltage disconnect (LVD) prevents the battery from over
discharging by disconnecting or shedding the load. To prevent continuous
connections and disconnections the regulator will not connect back the loads until
the battery reaches a low reconnect voltage (LRV).
The most modern regulators are also able to automatically disconnect the panels
during the night to avoid discharging of the battery. They can also periodically
overcharge the battery to improve their life, and they may use a mechanism known
as pulse width modulation (PWM) to prevent excessive gassing.

As the peak power operating point of the array of panels will vary with temperature
and solar illumination, new regulators are capable of constantly tracking the
maximum point of power of the solar array. This feature is known as maximum
power point tracking (MPPT).



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Circuit implementation

Fig 3.11: Circuit diagram of a charge controller.
Regulator Parameters
When selecting a regulator for your system, you should at least know the
operating voltage and the maximum current that the regulator can handle.
The operating Voltage will be 12, 24, or 48 V. The maximum current must be
20% bigger than the current provided by the array of panels connected to the
regulator.

Other features and data of interest include:
Specific values for LVD, LRV and HVD.
Support for temperature compensation. The voltage that indicates the state of
charge of the battery vary with temperature. For that reason some regulators
are able to measure the battery temperature and correct the different cut-off
and reconnection values.

Instrumentation and gauges
The most common instruments measure the voltage of the panels and batteries, the
state of charge (SoC) or Depth of Discharge (DoD). Some regulators include special
alarms to indicate that the panels or loads have been disconnected; LVD or HVD has
been reached, etc.

3.5 Converters
The regulator provides DC power at a specific voltage. Converters and inverters are
used to adjust the voltage to match the requirements of your load.
3.5.1 DC/DC Converters
DC/DC converters transform a continuous voltage to another continuous
voltage of a different value. There are two conversion methods which can be

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used to adapt the voltage from the batteries: linear conversion and switching
conversion.
Linear conversion lowers the voltage from the batteries by converting excess
energy to heat. This method is very simple but is obviously inefficient.
Switching conversion generally uses a magnetic component to temporarily
store the energy and transform it to another voltage. The resulting voltage can
be greater, less than, or the inverse (negative) of the input voltage.
The efficiency of a linear regulator decreases as the difference between the
input voltage and the output voltage increases. For example, if we want to
convert from 12 V to 6 V, the linear regulator will have an efficiency of only
50%. A standard switching regulator has an efficiency of at least 80%.

3.5.2 DC/AC Converter or Inverter
Basic Principle: An inverter converts the DC electricity from sources such as batteries,
solar panels, or fuel cells to AC electricity. The electricity can be at any required voltage; in
particular it can operate AC equipment designed for mains operation.
THE GENERAL CASE
Inverters are used when your equipment requires AC power. Inverters chop and
invert the DC current to generate a square wave that is later filtered to approximate
a sine wave and eliminate undesired harmonics. Very few inverters actually supply
a pure sine wave as output. Most models available
on the market produce what is known as "modified sine wave", as their voltage
output is not a pure sinusoid. When it comes to efficiency, modified sine wave
inverters perform better than pure sinusoidal inverters.
A transformer allows AC power to be converted to any desired voltage, but at the
same frequency. Inverters, plus rectifiers for DC, can be designed to convert from
any voltage, AC or DC, to any other voltage, also AC or DC, at any desired
frequency. The output power can never exceed the input power, but efficiencies can
be high, with a small proportion of the power dissipated as waste heat.
Circuit description

Fig 3.12: A realization of the inverter with a transformer with
a movable switch and a current source.
Auto-switching device implemented with two
transistors and split winding auto-transformer in place
of the mechanical switch.



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Output-

Fig 3.13 : The output achieved from the inverter
with the subsequent harmonics.
Square waveform with fundamental sine
wave component, 3rd harmonic and 5th
harmonic.

In one simple inverter circuit, DC power is connected to a transformer through the
centre tap of the primary winding.. A switch is rapidly switched back and forth to
allow current to flow back to the DC source following two alternate paths through
one end of the primary winding and then the other. The alternation of the direction
of current in the primary winding of the transformer produces alternating current
(AC) in the secondary circuit.
The electromechanical version of the switching device includes two stationary
contacts and a spring supported moving contact. The spring holds the movable
contact against one of the stationary contacts and an electromagnet pulls the
movable contact to the opposite stationary contact. The current in the electromagnet
is interrupted by the action of the switch so that the switch continually switches
rapidly back and forth.
Circuit Implementation

Fig 3.14: A Single phase transistor bridge inverter




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Fig 3.15 : 500 kW, 3 phase inverter

Mechanism of Inverter- An Engineers Explanation

The principal mechanism of dc-to-ac conversion consists of chopping or segmenting
the dc current into specific portions, referred to as square waves, which are filtered
and shaped into sinusoidal ac waveforms.
Any power waveform, when analyzed from a mathematical point of view,
essentially consists of the superimposition of many sinusoidal waveforms, referred
to as harmonics. The first harmonic represents a pure sinusoidal waveform, which
has a unit base wavelength, amplitude, and frequency of repetition over a unit of
time called a cycle. Additional waveforms with higher cycles, when superimposed
on the base
waveform, add or subtract from the amplitude of the base sinusoidal waveform.
The resulting combined base waveform and higher harmonics produce a distorted
waveshape that resembles a distorted sinusoidal wave. The higher the harmonic
content, the squarer the waveshape becomes.
Chopped dc output, derived from the solar power, is considered to be a numerous
superimposition of odd and even numbers of harmonics. To obtain a relatively clean
sinusoidal output, most inverters employ electronic circuitry to filter a large number
of
harmonics. Filter circuits consist of specially designed inductive and capacitor
circuits that trap or block certain unwanted harmonics, the energy of which is
dissipated as heat. Some types of inverters, mainly of earlier design technology,
make use of inductor coils to produce sinusoidal waveshapes.
In general, dc-to-ac inverters are intricate electronic power conversion equipment
designed to convert direct current to a single- or three-phase current that replicates
the regular electrical services provided by utilities. Special electronics within
inverters, in addition to converting direct current to alternating current, are designed
to regulate the output voltage, frequency, and current under specified load
conditions.
Inverters also incorporate special electronics that allow them to automatically
synchronize with other inverters when connected in parallel.

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Note-Be aware that not all the equipment will accept a modified sine wave as
voltage input. Most commonly, some laser printers will not work with a modified
sine wave inverter. Motors will work, but they may consume more power than if
they are fed with a pure sine wave. In addition, DC power supplies tend to warm up
more, and audio amplifiers can emit a buzzing sound.

3.5.3 Additional Features of the Inverters
Aside from the type of waveform, some important features of inverters include:

Reliability in the presence of surges. Inverters have two power ratings: one
for continuous power, and a higher rating for peak power. They are capable
of providing the peak power for a very short amount of time, as when starting
a motor. The inverter should also be able to safely interrupt itself (with a
circuit breaker or fuse) in the event of a short circuit, or if the requested power
is too high.
Conversion efficiency. Inverters are most efficient when providing 50% to
90% of their continuous power rating. You should select an inverter that most
closely matches your load requirements. The manufacturer usually provides
the performance of the inverter at 70% of its nominal power.
Battery charging. Many inverters also incorporate the inverse function: the
possibility of charging batteries in the presence of an alternative source of
current (grid, generator, etc). This type of inverter is known as a
charger/inverter.
Automatic fall-over. Some inverters can switch automatically between
different sources of power (grid, generator, solar) depending on what is
available.

When using telecommunication equipment, it is best to avoid the use of DC/AC
converters and feed them directly from a DC source. Most communications
equipment can accept a wide range of input voltage.

A special type of inverter, referred to as the grid-connected type, incorporates
synchronization circuitry that allows the production of sinusoidal waveforms in
unison
with the electrical service grid. When the inverter is connected to the electrical
service grid, it can effectively act as an ac power generation source. Grid-type
inverters used in grid-connected solar power systems are strictly regulated by utility
agencies that provide net metering.

Some inverters incorporate an internal ac transfer switch that is capable of accepting
an output from an ac-type standby generator. In such designs, the inverters include
special electronics that transfer power from the generator to the load.



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3.6 Equipment or load
It should be obvious that as power requirements increase, the expense of the
photovoltaic system also increases. It is therefore critical to match the size of the
system as closely as possible to the expected load. When designing the system you
must first make a realistic estimate of the maximum consumption.
Once the installation is in place, the established maximum consumption must be
respected in order to avoid frequent power failures.

Home Appliances
The use of photovoltaic solar energy is not recommended for heat-exchange
applications (electrical heating, refrigerators, toasters, etc.) Whenever possible,
energy should be used sparingly using low power appliances.

Here are some points to keep in mind when choosing appropriate equipment for use
with a solar system:
The photovoltaic solar energy is suitable for illumination. In this case, the use
of halogen light bulbs or fluorescent lamps is mandatory. Although these
lamps are more expensive, they have much better energy efficiency than
incandescent light bulbs. LED lamps are also a good choice as they are very
efficient and are fed with DC.
It is possible to use photovoltaic power for appliances that require low and
constant consumption (as in a typical case, the TV). Smaller televisions use
less power than larger televisions. Also consider that a black-and-white TV
consumes about half the power of a color TV.
Photovoltaic solar energy is not recommended for any application that
transforms energy into heat (thermal energy). Use solar heating or butane as
alternative.
Conventional automatic washing machines will work, but you should avoid
the use of any washing programs that include centrifuged water heating.
If you must use a refrigerators, it should consume as little power as possible.
There are specialized refrigerators that work in DC, although their
consumption can be quite high (around 1000 Wh/day).

3.7 Power Conditioning Unit

Fig 3.16: The components of a power
conditioning unit.

The Single phase Power Conditioning Unit
(PCU) provides single-phase AC power to
the specified loads.
The Power Conditioning unit mainly
comprises of MPPT, PWM Solar Charge

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Controller and a single phase inverters (02 Nos.).
The MPPT Charger is microprocessor based system designed to provide the
necessary DC/DC conversion to maximize the power from the SPV array to
charge the battery bank. The charge controller is equipped with necessary
software that allows precise charging of the battery bank. Many protection
features are also included to ensure that no abnormal or out of range charge
conditions are encountered by the battery bank. The system incorporates a
front to panel display with LEDs and a switch to indicate the "operational
status" and "fault status" of the system, reset system faults and implement
various operating modes.
The high efficiency inverter converts the DC power available from the
Array/Battery back into single phase AC, by incorporating IGBT devices for
power conversion.
During day time when the solar power is available, the charge controller
charges the battery by transferring as much as solar current to battery as
required. During this time the battery voltage is monitored continuously.
When in the night time, the solar energy is not available the system enables
the battery to deliver the current through inverter to meet the demand for
powering the street lights.
The microprocessor controlled inverter incorporates Pulse Width Modulation
(PWM) technology and incorporates all the desired safety features.

Important features/protections in the PCU:
Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT)
Array ground fault detection.
LCD keypad operator interface menu driven.
Automatic fault conditions reset for ali parameters like voltage, frequency
and/or black out.
MOV type surge arrestors on AC & DC terminals for over voltage protection
from lightening induced surges.
PCU operation from -5 to 55 C,
All parameters shall be accessible through an industry standard
communication link.
Over load capacity (for 30 sec.) shall be 150% of continuous rating.
Since the PCU is to be used in solar photovoltaic energy system, it shall have
high operational efficiency > 92%. The idling current at no load shall not
exceed two percent of the full load current.

In PCU, there shall be a direct current isolation provided at the output by means of a
suitable isolating transformer.

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Common Technical Specifications:
Type : Self commuted, current regulated, high frequency
IGBT base
Output Voltage Waveform : 1cp, 240VAC (5%)
Output Frequency : Pure Sine wave: 50 Hz 3 Hz
Continuous Rating : As per table
Nominal DC Input : 48/120 VDC
Total harmonic Distortion : <3%
Operating temp, range' : 5 to 50 C
Housing Cabinet : IP 20
Inverter Efficiency : >92%

3.8 Junction Boxes
The junction boxes shall be dust, vermin, and waterproof and made of FRP / ABS /
Thermo Plastic (iP65) must be of Hansel or any equivalent reputed make. The
terminals shall be connected to copper bus bar arrangement of proper sizes. The
junction boxes shall have suitable cable entry points fitted with cable glands of
appropriate sizes for both incoming and outgoing cables. Suitable markings shall be
provided on the bus bar for easy identification and cable ferrules shall be fitted at the
cable termination points for identification.

The junction boxes shall have suitable arrangement for the following:
Combine groups of modules into independent charging sub-arrays that shall
be wired to the controller.
Provide arrangement for disconnection for each of the groups.
Provide a test point for each sub-group for quick fault location.
To provide group array isolation.
The rating of the JB's shall be suitable with adequate safety factor to inter
connect the Solar PV array.
Metal oxide variestors shall be provided inside the Array Junction Boxes.

3.9 Wiring
An important component of the installation is the wiring, as proper wiring
will ensure efficient energy transfer.

Issues specific to solar power relate to the fact that all installations are of the
outdoor type, and as a result all system components, including the PV panel,
support structures, wiring, raceways, junction boxes, collector boxes, and
inverters must be selected and designed to withstand harsh atmospheric

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conditions and must operate under extreme temperatures, humidity, and
wind turbulence and gust conditions.

Specifically, the electrical wiring must withstand, in addition to the preceding
environmental adversities, degradation under constant exposure to
ultraviolet radiation and heat. Factors to be taken into consideration when
designing solar power wiring include the PV modules short-circuit current
(Isc) value, which represents the maximum module output when output leads
are shorted.

For the electrical installation of a photovoltaic system, a distinction is made
between module or string cables, the DC main cable and the AC connection
cable.

The electrical connecting cables between the individual modules of a solar
generator and to the generator junction box are termed 'module cables' or
'string cables'. These cables are generally used outdoors. In order to ensure
earth fault and short-circuit proof cable laying, the positive and the negative
poles may not be laid together in the same cable. Single-wire cables with
double insulation have proven to be a practicable solution and offer high
reliability.


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Fig 3.17: The cable requirements
AC connection cable
The AC connection cable links the inverter to the electricity grid via the protection
equipment. In the case of three-phase inverters, the connection to the low voltage
grid is made using a five-pole cable. For single-phase inverters, a three-pole cable is
employed.

3.10 The Balance of System Standards
The BoS items / components of the SPV power plant must conform to the latest
edition of IEC/ equivalent BIS Standards as specified in the table.

Table 3.1: The BoS items / components with BIS Standards specifications
BoS item / component Standard Description Standard Number
Power Conditioning
Unit
Efficiency Measurements
Environmental Testing
IEC61683 and must
additionally conform to
the relevant
national/international
Electrical Safety Standards
IEC60068 2 (6, 21, 27, 30, 75, 78)
Switches / Circuit
Breakers / Connectors
General Requirements
Connectors-safety
IS/ IEC 60947 part I, II <& HI
EN 50521
Junction Boxes/
Enclosures
General Requirements IP 65 ( for outdoor) / IP/21
(for indoor)
IEC 62208
Charge
controller/MPPT unit
Design Qualification
environmental testing
IEC 62093
IEC 60068 2 (6, 21,27,30,75,78)
Storage Batteries
General requirements 4
methods of Test
Tubular Lead Acid
IEC 61427
IS 1651/IS 13369
Cobles
General Test and
Measuring methods
PVC insulated cables for
working voltages upto and
including 1100 V
-Do-, UV resistant for
outdoor installation
IEC 60189
IS 694/ IS 1554
IS /IEC 69947
Installation practice
Electrical installations of
building requirements for
SPV pow^r supply
systems
IEC 60364-7-712

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3.11 Solar Power System Configuration and Classifications
There are four types of solar power systems:
Directly connected dc solar power system
Stand-alone dc solar power system with battery backup
Stand-alone hybrid solar power system with generator and battery
backup
Grid-connected solar power cogeneration system

3.11.1 Directly connected dc solar power system
As shown in Fig 3.18, the solar system configuration consists of a required number of
solar photovoltaic cells, commonly referred to as PV modules, connected in series or
in parallel to attain the required voltage output. Fig 3.19 shows four PV modules that
have been connected in parallel.
The positive output of each module is protected by an appropriate over-current
device, such as a fuse. Paralleled output of the solar array is in turn connected to a dc
motor via a two-pole single throw switch. In some instances, each individual PV
module is also protected with a forward-biased diode connected to the positive
output of individual solar panels.

Fig 3.18: A three-panel
solar array diagram.












Fig 3.19: A directly connected solar power dc pump diagram.

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An appropriate surge protector connected between the positive and negative
supply provides protection against lightning surges, which could damage the
solar array system components. In order to provide equipment-grounding
bias, the chassis or enclosures of all PV modules and the dc motor pump are
tied together by means of grounding clamps. The system ground is in turn
connected to an appropriate grounding rod. All PV interconnecting wires are
sized and the proper type selected to prevent power losses caused by a
number of factors, such as exposure to the sun, excessive wire resistance, and
additional requirements that are mandated by the IEC.

The photovoltaic solar system described is typically used as an agricultural
application, where either regular electrical service is unavailable or the cost is
prohibitive. A floating or submersible dc pump connected to a dc PV array
can provide a constant stream of well water that can be accumulated in a
reservoir for farm or agricultural use. In subsequent sections we will discuss
the specifications and use of all system components used in solar power
cogeneration applications.

3.11.2 Stand-alone dc solar power system with BATTERY BACKUP

The solar power photovoltaic array configuration shown in Fig, a dc system with
battery backup, is essentially the same as the one without the battery except that
there are a few additional components that are required to provide battery charge
stability.

Fig 3.20 : Battery-backed solar powerdriven dc pump.

Stand-alone PV system arrays are connected in series to obtain the desired dc
voltage, such as 12, 24, or 48 V; outputs of that are in turn connected to a dc
collector panel equipped with specially rated over current devices, such as
ceramic-type fuses.


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The positive lead of each PV array conductor is connected to a dedicated fuse,
and the negative lead is connected to a common neutral bus. All fuses as well
are connected to a common positive bus. The output of the dc collector bus,
which represents the collective amperes and voltages of the overall array
group, is connected to a dc charge controller, which regulates the current
output and prevents the voltage level from exceeding the maximum needed
for charging the batteries.

The output of the charge controller is connected to the battery bank by means
of a dual dc cutoff disconnect. As depicted in Fig 3.20, the cutoff switch, when
turned off for safety measures, disconnects the load and the PV arrays
simultaneously.

Under normal operation, during the daytime when there is adequate solar
insolation, the load is supplied with dc power while simultaneously charging
the battery. When sizing the solar power system, take into account that the dc
power output from the PV arrays should be adequate to sustain the connected
load and the battery trickle charge requirements.

Battery storage sizing depends on a number of factors, such as the duration of
an uninterrupted power supply to the load when the solar power system is
inoperative, which occurs at nighttime or during cloudy days. Note that
battery banks inherently, when in operation, produce a 20 to 30 percent
power loss due to heat, which also must be taken into consideration.

When designing a solar power system with a battery backup, the designer
must determine the appropriate location for the battery racks and room
ventilation, to allow for dissipation of the hydrogen gas generated during the
charging process. Sealed-type batteries do not require special ventilation.

All dc wiring calculations discussed take into consideration losses resulting
from solar exposure, battery cable current derating, and equipment current
resistance requirements.

3.11.3 Stand-alone hybrid AC SOLAR POWER SYSTEM with generator and
battery backup

A stand-alone hybrid solar power configuration is essentially identical to the dc solar
power system just discussed, except that it incorporates two additional components,
as shown in Fig 3.11.4. The first component is an inverter. Inverters are electronic
power equipment designed to convert direct current into alternating current. The
second component is a standby emergency dc generator.

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Fig 3.21 : Stand-alone hybrid solar power system with standby generator.

3.11.4 Grid-connected solar power COGENERATION SYSTEM

With reference to Fig 3.11.5, a connected solar power system diagram, the power
cogeneration system configuration is similar to the hybrid system just described. The
essence of a grid-connected system is net metering. Standard service meters are
odometer-type counting wheels that record power consumption at a service point by
means of a rotating disc, which is connected to the counting mechanism. The
rotating discs operate by an electro physical principle called eddy current, which
consists of voltage and current measurement sensing coils that generate a
proportional power measurement.
New electric meters make use of digital electronic technology that registers power
measurement by solid-state current- and voltage-sensing devices that convert analog
measured values into binary values that are displayed on the meter bezels by liquid
crystal display (LCD) readouts.
In general, conventional meters only display power consumption; that is, the meter
counting mechanism is unidirectional.

Net metering The essential difference between a grid-connected system and
a stand-alone system is that inverters, which are connected to the main electrical
service, must have an inherent line frequency synchronization capability to deliver
the excess power to the grid.

Net meters, unlike conventional meters, have a capability to record consumed or
generated power in an exclusive summation format; that is, the recorded power
registration is the net amount of power consumedthe total power used minus the
amount of power that is produced by the solar power cogeneration system. Net
meters are supplied

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Figure 3.22 : Grid-connected hybrid solar power system with standby generator.

and installed by utility companies that provide grid-connection service systems. Net
metered solar power co-generators are subject to specific contractual agreements and
are subsidized by state and municipal governmental agencies.
When designing net metering solar power cogeneration systems, the solar power
designers and their clients must familiarize themselves with the rebate fund
requirements. Essential to any solar power implementation is the preliminary design
and economic feasibility study needed for project cost justification and return on-
investment analysis.

Grid-connection isolation transformer In order to prevent spurious noise transfer
from the grid to the solar power system electronics, a delta-y isolation transformer is
placed between the main service switchgear disconnects and the inverters. The delta
winding of the isolation transformer, which is connected to the service bus,
circulates noise harmonics in the winding and dissipates the energy as heat.
Isolation transformers are also used to convert or match the inverter output voltages
to the grid. Most often, in commercial installations, inverter output voltages range
from 208 to 230 V (three phase), which must be connected to an electric service grid
that supplies 277/480 V power.
Some inverter manufacturers incorporate output isolation transformers as an
integral part of the inverter system, which eliminates the use of external
transformation and ensures noise isolation.




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DESIGN



Design of a solar PV system is the process of estimation of load, sizing of the
batteries and sizing of the solar modules that are used in the PV system.







135




136

4.1 Introduction and basic principles
The function of a PV system is to power electrical loads .The loads maybe AC loads
or DC loads. The solar array produces DC power only during sunshine hours. So if
the loads are to be powered during non-sunshine hours energy storage devices are
required. Lead acid batteries and Nickel cadmium batteries serve this purpose. To
feed the AC loads an inverter is required. Also auxiliary power sources such as
diesel generator, wind generator or by connecting the PV system to the grid.
Accordingly, PV systems maybe:
(a) Stand-alone PV systems
(b) Grid-connected PV systems
(c) Hybrid PV systems

As explained in the second chapter a stand-alone system is the one which is not
connected to the power grid. In contrast, the PV systems connected to the grid are
called grid-connected PV systems. Hybrid PV systems could be stand-alone or grid-
connected type, but have at least one more source other than the PV.


Fig 4.1 Indias first two
megawatt grid connected
project, commissioned in the
state of West Bengal in east
India.
Source: pv-magazine.com



Some of the basic Principles to Follow When Designing a Quality PV System

i. A packaged system should be selected that meets the owner's needs.
Customer criteria for a system may include reduction in monthly electricity
bill, environmental benefits, desire for backup power, initial budget
constraints, etc. The PV array should be sized and oriented to provide the
expected electrical power and energy.
ii. It should be ensured that the roof area or other installation site is capable of
handling the desired system size.
iii. Sunlight and weather resistant materials for all outdoor equipment should be
specified.

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iv. Array should be located to minimize shading from foliage, vent pipes, and
adjacent structures.
v. System should be designed in compliance with all applicable building and
electrical codes.
vi. The system should be designed with a minimum of electrical losses due to
wiring, fuses, switches, and inverters.
vii. The battery system should be properly housed and managed, should batteries
be required.
viii. It should be ensured that the design meets local utility interconnection
requirements.

PV systems are designed and sized to meet a given load requirement. PV system
sizing and design involves:
1. PV system design involves a decision on which configuration is to be adopted
to meet the load requirement as explained above.
2. Once the system configuration is decided the size or capacity of the various
components is determined.

POINTS TO KEPT IN MIND
i. One has to first decide whether to use a particular component at all,
particularly the performance enhancing components like the charge
controllers and MPPT circuits. As these circuits themselves consume energy
and add to the overall system cost, one must determine whether their use
would really result in energy saving. Thus, one has to judiciously optimize
the system performance and cost.
ii. A decision also has to be taken involving the quality of each component from
the consideration of initial cost, its performance, and life of the component. A
low quality component (charge controller, for instance) may be cheaper
initially but probably will be less efficient and may not last longer. On the
other hand, a relatively expensive but higher quality component is more
likely to perform better (saving energy and thus cost) and may be able to
recover its cost in the long run.

A PV system design and sizing process passes through the following two stages
depending on the level of details used in components sizing:
Approximate design
Precise design
In the approximate design, several simplifying assumptions are made with respect
to the component performance (without referring to the actual data sheets), solar

138

radiation data, seasonal variation in the load performance variation of PV panel with
season, etc. In the precise design, however, attention is given to accurate details of all
the above factors.

4.2 System type selection
One has to determine the configuration of PV system and which components (PV
panels, load, battery, controllers, diesel generator, etc.) are to be connected in a
system. The configuration and design of the system will change depending on
1. The type of the load (AC or DC, light or heavy, etc.),
2. The load requirement (critical/non-critical, reliability, cost, etc.)
3. Its geographical location (wind resources, solar resources, proximity with
grid, etc.).
A solar PV system configuration can be very simple, incorporating only two
components (load and the PV panel), or it can be very complex, containing several
power sources, sophisticated controllers and multiple energy storage units to meet
stringent load requirements. In the previous chapter the various configurations of a
PV system are explained. The establishment or household owner has to choose from
these configurations while keeping in mind the following parameters
Load requirements
Resource availability
Performance of the system
Reliability of the system
Cost of the system

4.3 Home Appliances
The use of photovoltaic solar energy is not recommended for heat-exchange
applications (electrical heating, refrigerators, toasters, etc.) whenever possible,
energy should be used sparingly using low power appliances.





Fig 4.2Some of the appliances
which can be run by solar PV
system






139


Here are some points to keep in mind when choosing appropriate equipment for use
with a solar system:

i. The photovoltaic solar energy is suitable for illumination. In this case,
the use of halogen light bulbs or fluorescent lamps is mandatory.
Although these lamps are more expensive, they have much better
energy efficiency than incandescent light bulbs. LED lamps are also a
good choice as they are very efficient and are fed with DC.

ii. It is possible to use photovoltaic power for appliances that require low
and constant consumption (as in a typical case, the TV). Smaller
televisions use less power than larger televisions. Also consider that a
black-and-white TV consumes about half the power of a colour TV.

iii. Photovoltaic solar energy is not recommended for any application that
transforms energy into heat (thermal energy). Use solar heating or
butane as alternative.

iv. Conventional automatic washing machines will work, but one should
avoid the use of any washing programs that include centrifuged water
heating.

v. If one must use a refrigerator, it should consume as little power as
possible. There are specialized refrigerators that work in DC, although
their consumption can be quite high (around 1000 Wh/day).

The estimation of total consumption is a fundamental step in sizing the solar system.
Here is a table that gives a general idea of the power consumption that one can
expect from different appliances.
Table 4.1 Power rating of some home appliances
Appliances
Power Rating
(Watt)
Tube-light 40
CFL 7-28
Ceiling Fan 55-85
Wall Fan 65-100
Laptop 80-100
Television 150-250
Personal Computer 250-300
Printer 300-500
Projector 1000-3000
Water Pump 350-3500
Air Conditioning System 1000-5000


140

4.4 Illustration and Flowchart for design of habitat PV system
Flowchart 4.1
SCHEMA A
Illustration and Flowchart for Design of Habitat PV System
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Part A of the flowchart refers to load estimation, part B refers to sizing of batter and

141

part C refers to sizing of PV modules. These processes are explained in detail in the
following topics.
5.7 Design process
The process is explained with the help of an example.

A solar PV system is to be designed wherein the load consists of a CFL, TV, fan, and
refrigerator and computer. The system should allow the use of loads in the non-
sunshine hours. The operating hours and the power rating of these loads are
Table 4.2 illustrative habitat appliance use in a day





The formulae for calculations are marked in REDand the calculations done for the
solar PV system to be designed is marked in BLUE.
5.7.1 Load estimation
In this step the energy required for the operation of the load is determined. While
estimating the load the following parameters are considered:
Type of load, DC or AC (most of the appliances use AC power);
Number of loads (e.g. Lighting, cooling, TV etc.)
Power voltage and current ratings of each load
Hours of load operation per day
Energy required per day by the load and
Efficiency of the power converter
As done in the table 4.3:
The power rating (W) is to be multiplied with the no. of hours of operation of all the
loads and then it is all added up to find the total daily energy consumption.

Table 4.3: Calculation of
load in Watt-hr

Separate tables can be
made for AC and DC
loads. But when the
calculation is done the both
total energy of both the
Load Watts H/day Number
CFL 9 5 2
Fan 60 8 1
TV(21) 150 2 1
Refrigerator 150 8 1
Computer 250 3 1
Load Watts H/day Number Watt-hr.
CFL 9 5 2 90
Fan 60 8 1 480
TV(21) 150 2 1 300
Refrigerator 150 8 1 1200
Computer 250 3 1 750
Total daily Watt-hr/day 2820

142

loads is to be considered. In this example however we have considered a house with
only AC loads.
It is important to keep in mind that the system should be designed for the worst case
scenario, energy required changes from day to day and season to season basis. The
system should meet the peak energy requirement or the peak load demand i.e. the
highest requirement in a particular day of the year. However a reliable system
design will add to the cost of the system. Thus a balance has to be struck between
reliability and cost.
5.7.2 Inverter rating
As explained in the previous chapter an inverter supplies power to AC loads and
converter supplies power to DC loads. The inverter and converter should be capable
of handling input current from the battery and output current to the load.
In the example since there are only AC loads only inverters are used. Generally,
input voltage varies from 12 - 72V and current from 1 10s of Amperes. The output
is fixed at 220V 60Hz.
In this step the inverter rating is calculated. For this:
The sum of all the loads connected to the inverter is taken





Table 4.4: Iillustrative power (watt)use per day
5.7.3 Daily energy supplied by the inverter
Load energy is supplied to the load from the battery through the inverter. The
inverter is not 100per cent efficient it ranges from 90 97per cent. Thus the energy
supplied by inverter is more than the total load requirement as calculated in the first
step.
Energy supplied by the inverter = Load energy requirement/ Efficiency of inverter
In this case inverter with 93per cent efficiency is taken
Energy supplied by inverter= 2820/0.93 = 3032.25 Wh.

5.7.4 System voltage
System voltage is defined as the input voltage to the inverter. It depends on the
battery voltage, line current, allowable voltage drop, power loss in the cables, etc.
Load Watts Number Total Watts
CFL 9 2 18
Fan 60 1 60
TV(21) 150 1 150
Refrigerator 150 1 150
Computer 250 1 250
628

143

Typically terminal voltage of batteries are 12V, therefore system voltage are
generally multiples of 12, 24, 36, 48Vetc.
High system voltage results in less power loss and voltage drop in cables. But high
system voltage also means more PV panels in series and therefore high cost. So
system voltage should be chosen after careful considerations.
In this case, a system voltage of 24V is chosen

5.7.5 Battery capacity
3032.25 Wh of energy is required to be supplied by the battery and the terminal
voltage of the battery bank should be 24 V. The parameters to be considered in sizing
of batteries are:
Depth of discharge (DoD) of battery;
Voltage and ampere-hour (Ah) capacity of the battery; and
Number of days of autonomy.
For PV applications deep discharge batteries are used with DoD in the range of 60%
to 80% and batteries of capacities 25Ah, 50Ah, 100Ah, 150Ah are available.

In this case batteries of 12V 100Ah with DoD 70% are chosen
1. Usable capacity = Rated capacity x DoD
Therefore, Usable capacity = 100 x 0.7 = 70Ah

2. Now, Required charge capacity = energy that needs to be supplied by the
battery/ system voltage
The energy that needs to be supplied by the battery = 3032.25 Wh
The system voltage = 24 V

Therefore, the required charge capacity = 3032.5/24= 126.3Ah

3. The total no. of batteries required = Required charge capacity/ Usable
capacity
= 126.3/ 70 = 1.8
This can be rounded off to 2 batteries.

Now because of this round off, some extra charge capacity (140 Ah instead of 126.3
Ah required) is available to the load. These two batteries should be connected in
parallel. But 100 Ah batteries is of 12 V only, so the battery bank needs to supply the
charge at 24 V (system voltage). Therefore in order to get 24 V, two 12 V batteries
should be connected in series to get 24 V terminal voltage.

144

Thus, in total there will be four batteries of 100Ah capacity in the
battery bank, two of them connected in series and two such series
connected batteries are connected in parallel.

5.7.6 Consider for battery autonomy
The PV system is should be designed for some autonomy during the completely
cloudy conditions. The autonomy is defined as the number of days the battery
should be able to supply the energy to load even when for those number of days
there is no sunshine (assuming on completely cloudy days, no energy is generated
by PV panels). , 2 days autonomy means the battery bank should be able to supply
the energy to the load where there is no sunshine for 2 days. Thus, depending on the
number of days of autonomy, the battery bank size should be increased.

If total daily Ah requirement is X and the number of days of autonomy is n days,
then total Ah required including autonomy is given as:

Total Ah = X + n xX
Therefore, total Ah = 126.3 + 2 x126.3 = 378.9 Ah
Thus, in this example, battery bank size should be three times than what was
derived previously.
Now instead of 4 batteries of 12 V, 100 Ah, we would require
4 x 3 = 12 batteries of 12 V and 100 Ah.
As the autonomy day increases, the battery bank size increases adding to the cost.
Normally, high autonomy is required for the PV system requiring high reliability
such as in medical applications, defence applications, etc. Convenient number of
autonomy days should be chosen keeping in mind the cost of the system. Typically,
the battery cost is about 30% of the overall PV system cost.

Fig 4.3Series and
parallel connection of
batteries to supply
the required energy
to the load
considering 2 days
autonomy



5.7.7 Daily energy
generated by panels

145

The parameters of concern for the PV module sizing are:
Voltage, current and wattage of the module;
Solar radiation at a given location and at given time;
Efficiency of the batteries;
Temperature of the module;
Efficiency of the MPPT and charge controller unit; and
Dust level in working environment.

The PV panels are required to supply energy to battery which is consumed daily but
not the total energy stored in the battery bank. The energy taken out from the battery
bank is the energy required by the load on daily basis. The energy supplied by the
panels will be higher because the efficiency of the charge discharge cycle of the
battery is less than 100%. It is 80 90%.

An efficiency of 85% is taken in this case.
The energy supplied at the input of battery terminal = Energy supplied by the
battery/ Battery efficiency
= 3032.25/0.85
= 3567.3Wh
The energy to the input terminal of the battery bank is supplied through controller
electronics (charge controller and MPPT, refer). The efficiency of the controller
circuit is generally quite high.

A controller circuit efficiency of 90% is assumed.
The energy that should be supplied by the PV panels at the input of controller circuit
= Energy supplied at the input of battery terminal/Controller circuit efficiency
= 3567.3/0.9= 3963.7Wh
Thus, about 3963.7Wh energy should be generated by PV panels every day.

5.7.8 Solar radiation, capacity and number of panels
Total Ah generated by PV panels = Energy supplied by PV panels/ System voltage
= 3963.7/24= 165.1 Ah

During a day, from sunrise to sunset, the solar radiation intensities vary
significantly. Normally, the number of daily sunshine hours equivalent to 1000
W/m
2
(equivalent peak sunshine hours) is estimated for the location at which PV
system needs to be installed In India, the peak equivalent sunshine hours vary
between 5 h and 7 h, corresponding to 5000 Wh/m
2
and 7000 Wh/m
2
-day.


146

For this example, there is 6HRS equivalent peak sunshine hours in the location
where solar PV system needs to be installed.
Total amperes to be produced = Total Ah generated by PV panels/no. of peak
sunshine hours
= 165.1/6
= 27.5A
Peak power rating is the maximum power the module will produce under 1000
W/m
2
and at 25 C. A typical peak power rating of modules varies from 5 Wp to 300
Wp.
PV module of peak power rating 75 Wpis taken in this example. The manufacturers
datasheet provides the current and voltage of the module at maximum power point,
the rated Wp of module. The typical value of voltage and current of 75 Wp module at
maximum power point (Vmand Im) would be about 15 V and 5 A, respectively.
No. of modules required = Total amperes to be produced/ Imof module
= 27.5/5
= 5.5
On rounding off 6 modules of 75 Wp are required to provide 27.5 A current.
Two modules should be put in series to get voltage higher than 24 V (system
voltage), required for charging the batteries. Thus, overall 6x2= 12 PV modules of 75
Wpis required, each row containing two modules in series and there would be six
such rows in parallel.
The interconnection of PV modules is shown.


Fig 4.4 Series and parallel connection of PV modules with their ratings that are
required to supply the energy to the load.

This completes the design of the PV systemof a solar PV system wherein the load
consists of a CFL, TV, fan, and refrigerator and computer.


147


Fig 4.5Complete design of solar PV system to fulfil the required load as described in
theexample

4.6 Wire sizing
In solar PV system appropriate dimensions (diameter and length) of the wires or
cables for interconnection of modules, batteries and loads should be used. The size
of the wire should be chosen to avoid excessive voltage drops in a line (wire or cable
connecting two points electrically). Normally, the voltage drop in the line connecting
modules to batteries should not be more than 5% of the line voltage. Also, it should
be ensured that the maximum current passing through the cables should be within
the current handling capacity of the cables.
The voltage drop for a given cable of specified material resistivity (), length (L) and
cross sectional area (A) can be estimated as:
Vd= 2 x V = 2 x I x L
A
The factor of 2 in the above equation is introduced due to the fact that the length
of the cable used is actually double (for taking current to and fro) the physical
distance between PV module and the battery or the battery and the load.

The Vd should be within 5% limit of the line voltage, i.e., if the line
voltage is 12V, the voltage drop should not be more than 0.6V


148

Typically, the diameter of the cables used in DC electric system is higher than the
diameter of cables used in AC electrical systems. In the solar PV systems, the DC
voltage levels are normally in range of 12V to 48V (as against 220V in AC systems).
Due to this, the loads of similar power rating need to be supplied with higher
current in DC systems as compared to AC systems. If the cable of the same diameter
(same length and material as well) is used in both AC and DC systems, the voltage
drop in the DC system would be 18.5 times more than the AC system as per the
above equation. Therefore, to limit the voltage drop in DC system, cables of larger
diameter are used.

5.8 Factors affecting performance of a PV system

a. Shadow free area
Shading of a module can dramatically reduce the output from the whole array.
Shading should therefore always be avoided, especially from any trees or buildings
to the South of the array.

PV modules are very sensitive to shading. Shading obstructions can be defined as
soft or hard sources. If a tree branch, roof vent, chimney or other item is shading
from a distance, the shadow is diffuse or dispersed. These soft sources significantly
reduce the amount of light reaching the cell(s) of a module. Hard sources are defined
as those that stop light from reaching the cell(s), such as a blanket, tree branch, bird
dropping, or the like, sitting directly on top of the glass.

If even one full cell is hard shaded the voltage of that module will drop to half of its
unshaded value in order to protect itself. If enough cells are hard shaded, the
module will not convert any energy and will, in fact, become a tiny drain of energy
on the entire system.

Shadow free area implies the area which is completely available for sunshine
throughout the day. Panels should be fitted in a shadow free area such that sunlight
falls on the panel all day long. Preferably the roof should be a RCC permanent
structure with strength of more than 150 Kg/m
2
.

Approximately 1Kilo watt system requires a shadow free area of nearly 15 m
2
i.e.,
150 Square Feet.
b. Orientation
Orientation of panels/array depends on your latitude and where the house or
establishment is. If it's in the northern hemisphere, it faces south, with a tilt direction
at the sun with respect to the average tilt of the earth.


149

To capture the maximum amount of solar radiation over a year, the solar
array should be tilted at an angle approximately equal to a site's latitude, and facing
within 15 of due south. To optimize winter performance, the solar array can be
tilted 15 more than the latitude angle, and to optimize summer performance, 15
less than the latitude angle. At any given instant, the array will output maximum
available power when pointed directly at the sun.

To get the most from solar panels, it has to be pointed in the direction that captures
the most sun. Solar panels should always face south, since India is located in the
northern hemisphere.
Fig 4.6 Suns path during
summer and winter

When installing photovoltaic
modules, it is important to
keep in mind that they
generate maximum power
when facing the sun directly.
The fixed position which
approximates this ideally
over the course of the year,
thus maximizing annual
energy production at the
angle listed in the table in the next column.
Table 4.5: Tilt angle as per geographic latitude
Latitude Site Tilt Angle
0-15 15
15-25 SAME AS Latitude
25-30 add 5 to local latitude
30-35 add 10 to local latitude
35-40 add 15 to local latitude
40+ add 20 to local latitude

c. Obstacle handling
Panels location should be such that it is away from the shadow zone of the obstacle
(three times the height if obstacle is in east and the one time height of obstacle if
obstacle is in south) from the panel level.


150

d. Temperature
In a solar cell, the parameter most affected by an increase in temperature is the open-
circuit voltage. The impact of increasing temperature is shown in the figure below.

Fig4.7 The effect of temperature on
the IV characteristics of a solar cell.

Thus, Module output power
reduces as module temperature
increases. When operating on a roof,
a solar module will heat up
substantially, reaching inner
temperatures of 50-75
o
C.

For crystalline modules, a typical temperature reduction factor is around 89% or
0.89. So the 100-watt module will typically operate at about 85 Watts (100 Watts x
0.89 = 89 Watts) in the middle of a spring or fall day, under full sunlight conditions.

e. Dirt and dust
Dirt and dust can accumulate on the solar module surface, blocking some of the
sunlight and reducing output. Although typical dirt and dust is cleaned off during
every rainy season, it is more realistic to estimate system output taking into account
the reduction due to dust buildup in the dry season.


Fig 4.8 Solar panels with dirt and dust
settled on it

A typical annual dust reduction
factor to use is 93% or 0.93. So the
100watt module, operating with
some accumulated dust may
operate on average at about 93
Watts (100 Watts x 0.93 = 93
Watts).






151

INSTALLATION AND
COMMISSIONING




Installation is the process of setting up the solar modules on different
mounting structures and connecting them to the battery and PCU for production
of electricity.

System commissioning is the process of checking and testing the
installation and putting it into service.


152



153

Self initiative by using
Reference Handbook
Habitat owner seek help of a qualified
person or by self can design the SPV system
System Design
Solar subsidy
from Govt.
Detailed
estimates
Installation
process
Design Drawings,
Site area plan,
electrical schematics
Place order
at CEL
Procure from market
Installation and
inspection
Detailed list of components
Reach out to
manufacturers
How Habitat owner
can install SPV
system?
How to start SPV system in
Habitat?
Calculate solar insolation
Habitat site measurements
Analyze shadow free area
Estimate load
System requirement
Estimate project cost and
future energy savings
Reference Handbook& do it yourself giude
The habitat owner will have
understanding of technologies
the long run achievements
contribution to nature
economic benefit
sustainable habitat ecosystem
Place order to other
nearest installer
SCHEMA B
Flowchart to start with installation of Habitat
PV System
Go to
Schema A

The above flowchart 5.1 gives an overview of the entire process of installation of
solar panels to be borne in mind by the user for a well implemented installation.

154

5. INSTALLATION
Before the commencement of the installation it is important to get familiarized
with the manufacturers instructions supplied with each of the components. The
site visit will allow identification of mounting positions for each item. It is
helpful to draw a wiring diagram before starting the installation. The installation
has no correct order for of the various system components, except for the
eventual connection and commissioning.


5.1 Safety
At all times during the
installation, the safety of the
installers and public must be
paramount. The public
should be kept away from
the installation site at all
times, by the use of barriers
or fencing where necessary.
Particular attention should
be paid to the safety of
children.

5.1.1 Electrical
Although Solar power systems are generally low
voltage, but the wiring regulations for the country of
installation should always be observed. The following
should be kept in mind:


Inverter output is mains voltage AC and can be lethal. It should be treated as
any other mains supply.
Solar arrays generate electricity when exposed to the sun, whether connected
to control equipment or not. The solar array output cables should be treated
as live and solar array should be covered when connections are being
made.
The open circuit voltage of a solar array is significantly greater than the
system voltage. For example a 48 Volt array can have an open circuit voltage
of nearly 90 Volts, can be lethal to children, the elderly or anyone with a
heart condition.

155

Batteries can produce currents of hundreds or even thousands of amps
giving rise to the risk of fire. Great care should be taken to protect the battery
terminals from shorting by tools and all jewellery should be removed.
If in any doubt about your abilities, or if required by local regulations, then a
qualified electrician must be employed.

5.1.2 Chemical
Lead acid batteries contain dilute sulphuric
acid and liberate hydrogen when charging.
The following precautions should be
observed:
1. Great care should be taken when
filling batteries with electrolyte; suitable
protective clothing should be worn including
eye protection and it should be carried out in
a well ventilated area, preferably outdoors.

2. Great care should be taken to prevent arcing near battery terminals as
explosion may result.

5.1.3 Handling
Batteries and solar arrays present certain hazards in handling as follows:
1. Lead acid batteries are extremely heavy. Appropriate lifting gear should
be used.
2. Most solar panels are made from glass and should be treated as fragile.
3. Installation of solar arrays may involve working at height .All necessary
precautions must be observed and the services of a qualified rigger or
roofer should be employed if necessary.

FOR SAFE INSTALLATION WORK

WARNING
Mounting System should not be cut or modified.
Doing so is dangerous. Safety cannot be
guaranteed.

Work should not be done during stormy
weather. Solar modules can be caught in the
wind, causing accidents.

156

CAUTION
i. One should never step or sit on the glass surface of a solar module. The
glass may break, resulting in shock or bodily injury. The module may also
stop generating power.
ii. The supplied parts should always be used to attach the solar modules and
mounts. Use of weaker parts, such as screws that are too short, is
dangerous and may cause the solar modules or mounts to fall.
iii. The specified tools should only be used. The solar modules or mounts
may fall if the installation is not strong enough, for example when parts
are not tightened sufficiently.
iv. Regardless of whether one is working on a new or existing roof, the
sheathing should never be allowed to become wet. The sheathing should
be protected from rain during the installation. Failure to do so may cause
leaks.
v. Only the specified materials should be used. Use of other materials is
dangerous. Materials other than specified can reduce performance and
can cause leaks, shock, and so on.
vi. Parts should not be cut or modified.
vii. Protective earth grounding of the individual photovoltaic modules should
be achieved by securing the modules to the mounting frames. The
assembly instructions should be closely followed, in order to ensure a
reliable ground connection.

Artificially concentrated sunlight shall not be directed on the module.
Wiring methods should be in accordance with the NEC.
Wires and cables should be installed with appropriate hardware in
accordance with applicable electrical codes.
The framing system shall be grounded in accordance with NEC.
All of the Rails in an installation shall be provided with protective earth
bonding wires when installed.
Systems should not be located near coastal locations or other saltwater
locations. Minimum distance is 0.3 miles from the body of water.
Systems should also not be located in a corrosion prone area.
Holes should not be drilled in the frame.
Work should be done under dry conditions with dry tools.
Installation should not be near flammable gases.
Solar module should be completely covered with opaque materials when
wiring to halt production of electricity.
The backside of solar module surfaces should be kept free of foreign objects.

157

Chemicals should not be used on solar modules when cleaning.
Cable electrical contacts should not be touched.
Solar modules should not be exposed to sunlight that is concentrated with
mirrors, lenses, or similar means.
Local codes should be consulted and other applicable laws and statutes
concerning required permits and regulations concerning installation and
inspection requirements. Solar modules should be installed according to
applicable codes.
Shadowing of cells should be avoided in order to prevent solar module hot
spots and/or reduction in power.


PV MODULES


Points to check before wiring.
1. The solar modules generate electricity when exposed to light, thus
insulating gloves should be worn..
2. A multi-meter for volts, amps, resistance, and continuity capable of
measuring DC and AC up to 600V and 40A is needed.
3. All tools being used should be insulated.
Wiring work should be performed according to
the provisions of the National Electrical Code. The
grounding work and wiring connections to the
inverter should be performed by a qualified
electrician.
WARNING
Adhere to all NEC. The solar array generates
electricity whenever it is exposed to sunlight. One
should be careful when handling it as there is a
danger of shock.
WARNING

158


Wiring the solar modules.
i. During the installation of the modules on the mount, an output cable
should never be allowed to become caught between the mount and a
module frame.
ii. The solar modules generate electricity when exposed to sunlight; care
should be taken to not short circuit the output cables. The cables can
become overheated and their cable sheaths can melt.
iii. It should be ensured the module connectors are fully inserted. There is a
risk of malfunction if they are not pushed in all the way.
iv. The output cables should be supported so that there is no slack. High
winds can blow slack cable against the mount, damaging the cables.

Wiring from solar arrays to the inverter (connector box).
i. The provisions of the National Electrical Code should be adhered to.
ii. For wiring through walls, the cables should be protected with metal
conduits, flexible metal conduits, or other protection. Failure to do so can
result in shock and short circuits. Conduit should always be used to protect
sections of array output cables that are exposed to sunlight. For outdoor
wiring, Cables should be protected with PVC conduits, metal conduits or
flexible conduits.
iii. Water should be prevented from entering or building up in conduit by using
waterproof or duct seal.
iv. To prevent shock, the cut ends of array output extension cables should be
taped and labeled (the side opposite to the connector side) before connecting
to solar module output cables. Further, they should be taped again after
measurement of the voltage of each array.
v. To prevent shock when the array output cables are being connected to the
inverter, tape should be removed from one cable at a time as the cables are
being connected.

Measuring array output voltage
i. It should be ensured that all solar modules are exposed to direct sunlight.
(Lightproof sheets should be removed, if present.)
ii. The volt meter measurement range should be set to a DC voltage, greater
than the expected measurement (for example 600 VDC).
iii. The plus (+) solar array output cables should be kept away from the ends of
the minus (-) cables. Dangerous arcs can occur. (The array output voltage
under normal conditions <clear skies> can be very high.)

159


Grounding the mount
To prevent shock, a ground wire should always be connected from the mounting
hardware to earth.

POINTS TO CHECK WHEN SELECTING THE INSTALLATION LOCATION
The following should be checked before starting installation work.
a) Condition of the house where solar power system is to be installed

Inspection of roof structure
It is important to inspect the structural integrity of the roof and the durability of
the roof materials. The mounting structure and solar modules require a strong
base for durable and reliable operation in local environments. A safety harness
should always be worn when working on the roof. Inspection of the roof surface
in the area of the installation should be carried out for cracks, water leakage, and
roofing material quality and uniformity. This is especially important if the roof is
older than10 years. The roof should also be inspected for sags and other
abnormalities. A sag or deep depression in the roof may indicate a structural
weakness in the support system that may require correction.

Fig5.1 Examples of poor roof condition
Inspection of the roof support system
All rafters, trusses and other materials
should be in good condition. Inspection
should be carried out for indication of
previous water leaks. The spacing of the
rafters or trusses should be measured to
confirm the dimensions and the system
layout should be prepared. The location of
the electrical roof penetration and wire
run should be determined, if wiring is
planned for this area.

160

Start
Consumer can check with the agencies under MNRE in their
sub-division and district directly stating the need for solar
photovoltaic system.
Consumer can also directly contact CEL stating the need for
installing PV system and know if PV can be installed on
consumers location
Planning Approval
required?
Formal development application
must be submitted to the nodal
agency via CEL or other agency.
Allow 4 weeks time for evaluation
and approval
Consumer can appoint the PV system contractor to take full
responsibility of setting up the system
Or
Consumer can use the Reference Handbook and install the
PV system with help of an qualified person.

Does Area available for panels
comply with load
requirement?
Select shade free area during peak
sunshine hours
Decide on the type of module
mounting
Connectivity
with grid?
Standalone PV
system
Grid interactive PV
system
How much load to be
replaced by solar PV
system?
Use the STEP by STEP
installation procedure given in
the handbook to set up the
SPV system
Using Handbook get the
required items and seek help of
qualified person if required or
enquire at CEL
Consumer appoint
agency or CEL to do the
full installation
END
FULL LOAD
PART OF
TOTAL LOAD
NO
YES
END
YES
Analyze roof
structure and check
structural strength.
NO
NO
YES
List out specific load and
hours of operation
Flowchart :5.2
going ahead with installation of SPV system

161

SOLAR POWER SYSTEM INSTALLATION LOCATION
1. Solar modules should be
installed facing south, if possible.
Installations facing east and west are
also possible, although the amount of
power generated will be lower. The
roof should be checked from a
southern orientation, and checked for
obstacles that will cast a shadow.
Since these factors lower the amount
of power generated.

2. Installation should be done in a location that has good sun exposure
throughout the year. Less power is generated in shaded locations.

3. Installation is not
possible in regions where the
wind pressure exceeds 45 PSF. It
should be checked with the local
building department to
determine if this mounting
system is in compliance.
Installation is not possible when
the roof angle is less than 10
degrees or greater than 45
degrees.

4. The output of a series string of solar modules is connected to the input of
the inverter. Solar modules should always be installed so that all elements
of the array receive the same amount of sunlight. The amount of power
generated declines dramatically if the solar modules are connected
receiving different amounts of light in a string array, for example, solar
modules facing east and solar modules facing south should not be
connected in the same string.

5. It may not be possible to install solar modules in the following areas and
under the said conditions. Regions with heavy snowfall - Installation is not
possible in regions where snow accumulate

162


6. Ion exceeds the maximum allowable load. The building department should
be contacted for more information about maximum snow accumulation.

Configuration
A typical Solar Photo Voltaic Power Plant comprises PV Array, Solar deep cycle
battery and Power Conditioning Unit (PCU). PCU comprises a charge controller, an
inverter for conversion from DC into AC and a complete set of installation hardware.

Fig 5.2 A schematic diagram of the proposed system.

The modules have been fixed on corrosion resistant MS Structure. The SPV module
has crystalline silicon solar cells connected in series and hermetically sealed with
high transmission toughened glass on top and suitable lamination material on back
using state-of-the-art technology. The laminates are framed using anodised
aluminium Channels. A terminal block is fixed on the frames for taking the electrical
output. The SPV Array is grouted on Galvanized MS Support Structure. Each
Structure carries a certain number of modules. Each module contains a bypass diode
of suitable rating to prevent the partial shadow effect. The Modules on each
structure are electrically connected in n Series and m parallel combinations. The
outputs from individual n Series are brought to Panel Junction Box (PJB) mounted
on structure. Outputs from the structures are connected in PJB for paralleling by
using fuses and blocking diode of suitable rating.

163

The outputs of m nos of PJBs are divided into sub arrays. The outputs from
individual PJB of a sub array are paralleled in respective Field Junction Box (FJB).

5.2.4 Mounting
Permanent solar panel installations require installing mounts for the solar
panels. These can be stand-alone mounts that allow you to mount the panel in
open space or roof mounts that allow the panels to be held stable on the roof of
your house. Each has specific advantages and disadvantages. If mounting on a
stand-alone frame, you will have easier access to the panels, allowing easier
maintenance and manual adjustment of the panels. Mounting the panels on the
roof keeps the system elevated and integrates the solar panels into the existing
installation, making them unobtrusive. In both cases, the consumer can buy
mounts from a green energy company, hire a contractor to install a system or
build the system on her own.
Instructions:
Table 5.1 Materials required:
1.Tape measure
2.Cement
3.Threaded rod and nut
4.Suitable solar system mounts for a particular roof system
5.Chalk line
6.Drill

Flowchart 5.3 Creating a Stand-Alone Mount
Measure the size of the solar array. Based on them,
determine where you will pour concrete piers.
Dig holes at chosen locations and pour in
concrete to create a concrete pier. Place bracket in
the concrete piers to connect the panels to the
mount. Allow them to dry.
Attach the solar panels to the front concrete piers
and the rear rods using bolts. This system allows
the solar panel's angle to be adjusted by turning
the pipe.
Space the front piers to meet the bottom of the
solar array and rear piers at the same width and
at a front-to-back distance facilitating mounting
the panel at approx 30 degrees.
Location for the stand-alone mount. Area should
be free of obstructions that block the sun. Should
facilitate mounting the panels facing south.



164

Flowchart 5.4 Roof Mounting
Using a stud finder, locate rafters under the roof
surface. Set a solar rack mount above the stud and
drill a guide hole through the middle.
Attach metal channels to the mounts. Channels
are long square sections of metal, similar to metal
pipes, that will serve as the base for the solar
array.
Ensure a straight line across the roof by laying out
a chalk line. Repeat, place mounts for the panels
above the rafters in a straight line across the roof.
Measure and mark the space that will be used to
mount the array. If possible, place the array on a
south-facing roof away from light obstructions.
Bolt the solar rack mount into the roof. If the
mount comes with a post, screw the post into the
mount.
Attach the solar panels to this base.

Fig 5.3 Module Mounting


165


Once it is ascertained that the solar array is correctly assembled it is time to lift it
into place and secure it. Usually there are a number of rails to be mounted to the
roof or foundations first. It should be ensured that these are orientated correctly
so that the solar array will point towards the equator once mounted; that is
towards the south in the northern hemisphere and towards the north in the
southern hemisphere.

Often the best method is to place two ladders parallel to each other and walk up
them with the solar array in between.
The solar array should be carefully lifted into position on the mounting rails and
assembled using the correct nuts and bolts. If the mounting structure is
adjustable for tilt, now is the time to set it. The solar array should be supported
whilst making any adjustments and set the tilt based on the latitude of the
location as follows:

Optimized for winter, e.g. lighting systems in temperate zones: Angle of
latitude +15 from the horizontal.
Optimized for summer, e.g. holiday homes: Angle of latitude -15 from the
horizontal.
All year round performance, e.g. medical systems in the tropics: Angle from
the horizontal equal to angle of latitude.

The tilt should not be set less than 10 from the horizontal whatever the latitude,
as a tilt of less than this will allow dirt to build up on the solar array which will
reduce its performance.

5.2.1 Assembly
Before fixing to the roof or ground the solar panels must be mounted to the
support rails to create a single unit. In larger systems the solar array may be split
into sub-arrays. Each of these is treated as a separate solar array.
If a proprietary support structure is used then the correct nuts and bolts will be
supplied. Otherwise use high-tensile nuts and bolts the correct size for the
mounting holes in the solar panels, and ensure that either locking washers or
self-locking nuts are used to prevent loosening as a result of vibration due to the
wind.
The solar panels should be laid face down in the correct alignment. It should be
ensured that the ground is flat; a grassed area is ideal. A blanket should be
placed or similar on the ground to avoid any damage to the glass. The mounting
rails should be bolted to the solar panels, taking care to ensure that no strain is

166

placed upon the solar panels. Weight should not be put on the solar
panels themselves.
5.2.2 Connection
It is usually easiest to connect the individual solar panels together and connect
the long output cable to them before putting them into position, especially if
they are to be roof mounted. Connect all the solar panels together first; either in
one, two, or four groups depending on the system voltage and then connect the
output cable. Check that all connections are sound before replacing the terminal
box covers as this is hopefully the last time you will see them.
A solar module structure is of two types:
a) Stand-alone
b) Grid tied

The structure has 8 parts, two horizontal, two vertical and four legs.
There are two kinds of nuts used for the structure build up.
The nuts are of M6 and M16 type.
M6 is used for module mounting
M16 is used for mounting structures and is Stainless Steel hardware.

The vertical legs are classified as small and long. A difference is maintained in their
heights to get desired inclination of the mounting structure.






167

M16 type of Nut used for
mounting structure
Entire structure used for
mounting. These individual parts
are assembled with the help of
nuts.



Pliers and spanners are used for
fixing and tightening the nuts.
Spanners used for this purpose
are of 10-11 and 18-19
dimensions.




Fixing of nuts (M16) for fixing
the structure.
Tightening of nuts using spanner
(18-19 dimension).

M6 type of nut used for
mounting the module on the
structure.




Vertical legs of the mounting
structure.




168

The second vertical leg is fixed.
Placement of vertical and
horizontal sections for modules
to rest on.






The above structure is inverted.
All the bolts of the entire
assembly structure should be
properly tightened.











The vertical legs should now be
fixed and bolts should be
tightened.





This is how the structure should
look, with the long legs placed
on one side and the short ones on
the other side to provide an
inclination for the placement of
solar modules at a particular
angle for maximized output.


169



Grouting of the Galvanized MS
Structures.



The solar modules are now
mounted on the structure one by
one.



Pedestals are Reinforced Cement
Concrete structures and should
be built on the ground/roof
where the structure has to be
mounted. This is an important
step for providing a firm base to
the modules.



The module is placed on the
structure and fixed using M6
bolts.



Spanner (10-11) is used for
tightening the bolts.


170


Open the junction box of the
module and connect the module
cable with correct polarity.






Close the junction box and tie the
module cable on the module
frame.



Positive and negative wire
connections made behind a solar
panel.




To connect the modules in series,
the positive of one module is
connected to the negative of the
adjacent module and so on.







171

The first and the last module are
left with two free ends of +ve & -
ve outputs which are then
connected to the charge
converter.







Wires are put in casing.





Wiring between sub-arrays






ARRAY JUNCTION BOX

(This is how the output cables of
arrays are junctioned). For
instance in this case the number
of panels is 7.


172

Main junction boxes for
paralleling of the junction boxes.








For installing the home
controller, first open the product.





Fix the base plate to the wall. For
fixing the product in wall marks
& makes 4 hole of drill size
6.5mm


RFID is pasted behind every
solar module. This signifies the
characteristics of every panel like
the current, voltage etc.



Separate PCB fixed Base plate
and Top cover.






i


On the base plate, where the PCB
is mounted, labels for connections
are marked. Connections are to be
done according to the labels.
Before the terminal fixing,
grommets are to be inserted to the
cables.


Place the Top cover on the base
plate and fix with screws and put
the screw caps supplied along with.






5.3 Battery
Installation of the battery may be as simple as taking a wet-charged or sealed
battery out of a box and placing it on a firm and level surface.

Alternatively it may involve mixing
acid to the right concentration and
filling the batteries on site.

Fig : picture of EXIDE solar battery


5.3.1 Site
The batteries need to be mounted such that they are secure, i.e. they cant fall
over, they are protected from unauthorized access and away from sources of
ignition. The room or container that they are in should be ventilated so as to
allow the hydrogen produced by charging to escape. This applies even to sealed

ii

batteries as they are able to vent excess gasses should the charging system
malfunction.
Practically this is most likely to mean one of two things:
On a solid floor or racking within a locked and well ventilated
room.
In a purpose designed battery box.
It is important that it is possible to gain access to the batteries in order to
perform maintenance. In the case of a sealed battery this means the terminals,
but for a vented battery it may mean access to the level markings on the side and
the filling caps.

Connection
Table 5.2 Materials required for connection:
1. Solar panel
2. Deep cycle lead/acid battery
3. Battery box
4. DC power meter
5. DC Power input
6. Red and black insulated power
7.Wire cutters


Fig 5.4 Schematics showing electrical connections

iii


Flowchart 5.5 for making electrical wiring connections
Connect the power meter to the battery using insulated
wire.
Connect the positive battery terminal to the positive
terminal on the meter using red wire.
Connect the negative terminals using black wire.Keep
the color / terminal match the same throughout.
Connect the DC input to the battery using insulated
wire.
Connect the solar panel to the battery using insulated
wire.
Connect additional batteries to the first battery if more
power is desired.
Put the panel in the sun so that it begins charging the
battery. Once charged, the plug on the DC input can be
plugged into various appliances to run them off the
battery charge.

Once the battery has been put in place, the individual batteries or cells can be
connected together to form a single battery. If possible battery interconnect cables
supplied by the battery manufacturer or supplier should be used; and if it has to be
made then the thickest cable that is practical should be used.

Great care should be taken when connecting the batteries.
All metal jewellery should be removed before starting.
Insulated tools should be used where available.
Output cables should not be connected at this point.

5.3.4 Earthing
Provision should be made to earth the battery negative terminal. If no suitable
earth is available, then an earth rod must be driven into the ground outside as
near as possible to the battery. This is connected to the battery negative terminal
via green and yellow earth cable of at least 2.5 mm2 and preferably 6 mm2 cross-
sectional areas.

iv

a. Control equipment
POWER CONDITIONING UNIT
The single phase Power conditioning unit
(PCU) provides single phase AC power to
the specific loads with an objective to
reduce the dependency on conventional
power as well as to minimize the
consumption of fossil fuel (e.g. Diesel) in
the event of power failures.

The power conditioning unit mainly comprises of MPPT based, PWM solar charge
controller, and a single phase bi-directional inverter.
The MPPT charger is microprocessor based system IS designed to provide the
necessary DC/AC conversion to maximize the power from the SPV array to charge
the battery bank. The charge controller is equipped with necessary software that
allows precise charging of the battery bank .Many protection features are also
included to ensure that no abnormal or out of range charge conditions are
encountered by the battery bank. The system incorporates a front panel display to
indicate the operational status and fault status of the system, reset system faults
and implement various operating modes.
The high efficiency inverter converts the DC power available from the Array/Battery
into single phase AC, by incorporating IGBT devices for power conversion. When
AC mains is available, the inverter control system uses the internal set point to
monitor the condition of the AC source to determine if the quality of AC mains is
suitable for being to the load. If the AC quality is found to be within specified limits,
it is connected to the load. In the event of power failure and the solar power is
available ,the control attempts to maintain zero current from the battery, thus
transferring as much as possible solar current to the load. During this time the
battery voltage is monitored continuously. When the solar energy is not available
(due to insufficient sunlight) the system enables the battery to deliver the current
through inverter to meet the demand. The microprocessor controlled inverter
incorporates Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) technology and incorporates all the
desired safety features (please refer data sheet).
Important features/protections in the PCU:
MPPT included.
LCD keypad operator interface menu driven.
Automatic fault conditions reset for all parameters like voltage, frequency
and/or black out.

v

MOV type surge arrestors on AC & DC terminals for over voltage protection
from lightening induced surges.
PCU operation from 5C to 55 C
All parameters shall be accessible through an industry standard
communication link.
Over load capacity (for 30 sec) shall be 150% of continuous rating.

Since the PCU is to be used in solar photovoltaic energy system, it shall have high
operational efficiency. The idling current at no load shall not exceed two percent of
the full load current. In PCU, there shall be a direct current isolation provided at the
output by means of a suitable isolating transformer.
Internal faults: Inbuilt protection for internal faults including excess temperature,
commutation failure, and overload and cooling fan failure (if fitted) is obligatory.
Galvanic Isolation: Galvanic isolation is required to avoid any DC component being
injected into the grid and the potential for AC components appearing at the array.
Over voltage protection: Over voltage against atmospheric lightening discharge to
the PV array is provided.
A. Earth Fault Supervision: An integrated earth fault shall be provided to
detect eventual earth fault on DC side and shall send message to the
supervisory system.
B. Cabling Practice: Cable connections shall be made using PVC Cu cables,
as per BIS standards. All cable connections shall be made using suitable
terminations for effective contact.
All doors, covers, panels, and cable exits shall be gasketed or otherwise designed to
limit the entry of dust and moisture.
In the design and fabrication of the PCU the site temperature 5 C to 50 C, incident
sunlight and the effect of ambient temperature on component life have been
considered carefully. Similar consideration has been given to the heat sinking and
thermal for blocking diodes and similar components.
INVERTER CONNECTIONS:

Fig 5.5 : Inverter for 1MegaWatt
power station
The controller, inverter and any
other control and monitoring
equipment can now be installed.

vi

There are four components to be connected together:
solar panels,
charge controller,
batteries and
inverter
The charge controller is needed to make sure that the batteries are not
overloaded.
The inverter is needed to convert Direct Current (DC) to Alternating Current
(AC). Most home appliances run on AC and the output from solar panels and
batteries are DC.
Connect the solar panels together so that the voltage output
will match the batteries
Connect the positive and negative outputs of the solar panel
array to the positive and negative inputs to the charge
converter. The positive and negative outputs or the charge
controller are connected to the positive and negative terminals
of the battery bank.
Connect the positive and negative terminals of the battery
bank to the positive and negative inputs of the inverter. The
outputs of the inverter are connected directly to the house
wiring

i. Connecting two panels (or similar groups of panels) in series will double the
voltage, but keeps the current the same. Wiring two panels (or similar groups
of panels) in parallel keeps the voltage the same but doubles the current.
Figure out the voltages for the panels and batteries so that they match before
buying anything. Also make sure that the ratings for the charge controller and
the inverter match the voltages for the panel array and the battery bank
before buying anything.
ii. Connecting two batteries (or similar banks of batteries) in series (the positive
terminal of one to the negative terminal of the other) will double the voltage
while keeping the current the same. Connecting two batteries (or similar
banks of batteries) in parallel (both positive terminals connected together and
both negative terminals connected together) will keep the voltage the same
while doubling the current.
iii. It is important that the voltage ratings to all four major components (solar
panels, current controller, batteries and inverter) match. The panels and
batteries can be wired in combinations that bring the total networks up to the
required voltages--the networks need not be mirror images of each other as
long as the totals match.

vii

5.4.2 Wiring
The wiring may now be put in place, following the diagram and cable sizes.
Great care should be taken to observe the correct polarity, and ensure that all
connections are well tightened. The cables should be securely clipped to the wall
where it is possible to keep them out of harm and make them look neat. Any of
the final positive connections to battery, solar array or load should not be made
at this stage.
All wiring must be installed in conformity with local electrical regulations, by a
qualified electrician where necessary.

5.5 System Commissioning
System commissioning is the process of checking and testing the installation and
putting it into service. It may be tempting to hurry this procedure; time may be
running short and the user may be impatient to see the system working.
However, the future reliability of the entire system depends on careful
commissioning. If the equipment you are using has any specific commissioning
instructions then follow those in preference to the instructions below.

5.5.1 Visual check
With the help of the wiring diagram the system should be carefully examined to
ensure that everything is as it should be. Particular attention should be paid to
the polarity of connections and the battery earth.

5.5.2 Connections
The security of all the connections to the control gear and any other connections
that have been made already, such as the battery negative and earth connections
should be checked.

5.2.3 Testing output of solar panel
To Test the Power Output of a Solar Panel with a Multimeter, the instructions are
given below:
Instructions
Table 5.3 Materials required for testing:
1. Solar panel
2. Multimeter






viii

Flowchart 5.6 testing process flow

* It is wise to turn the
panel away from the sun to
measure the current as the
panel is live when the sun is
shining on its face.
Connecting to the live
junctions when testing the
current can cause sparking.

** It's not unheard of to
get a slightly higher reading
than the current rating
listed on the panel, so you
want to see at least a
matching number. If both
the voltage and amperage
test properly, then its a
good panel and will serve
well.



5.5.3 Applying power
With any load isolators or circuit breakers switched off, the loads to the
controller and / or inverter should be connected.
Next, the battery terminal voltage should be recorded and measured and
the battery positive terminal should be connected. The battery fuse
should be inserted, if fitted. Since a spark is likely to occur, ensure that the
room is well ventilated and the battery caps should be blown across first
to clear any hydrogen if the battery is of the vented type.
Beware of newer glass panels that have
cracks or condensation under the glass.
The conductivity is likely compromised,
meaning you can probably leave your
multimeter in your pocket.
Tips & Warnings

ix

The voltage at the battery connections of the controller and inverter
should be measured. This should be the same as the battery terminal
voltage. If not, all the connections and the battery fuse should be checked.
Finally, the photovoltaic array should be connected. Before doing this,
cover it with an opaque material if possible; and it should be removed as
soon as the connection is secure. The voltage at the input terminals of the
controller should be measured this should be the same as or slightly
higher than the battery terminal voltage.
If there is a reasonable amount of daylight then the controller should
show that the battery is charging. It should be checked that the battery is
actually charging by measuring the terminal voltage, which should be
higher than that initially recorded and rising.
Now the loads should be switched on. All the loads should be checked, if
there is more than one, to make sure that they work.

The commissioning process is now complete.



x

RECOMMISSIONING
Repeating the commissioning of a system that was previously commissioned is
called re-commissioning. Usually, re-commissioning should be the last step in any
substantial maintenance project, such as after replacing major components, especially
inverters; after adding additional modules; after a nonself-clearing alarm is
diagnosed and repaired, such as a ground fault; and as part of a system checkup or
regular annual maintenance visit. In addition, if the original commissioning was
performed during less than optimal seasonal conditions, like shading or extended
poor weather, a re-commissioning event may be called for during better conditions
or in the summer. Re-commissioning results should be closely compared to those
from the original commissioning. if the results are inconsistent (after accounting for
shading or other changes), the system integrator should track down the source of the
inconsistencies. Re-commissioning performance results should also be compared to
updated expected performance numbers and discrepancies addressed.

PARTS AND TOOLS
STANDARD PARTS
DOCK WASHER
(Anti corrosion coated steel)
BOLT
(Stainless Steel)
MODULE MOUNTING CLIP
(Anti corrosion coated steel)
THREADED TAB
(Anti corrosion coated
steel)



SPLICE
(Anti corrosion coated steel)
SLIDE COVER
(Aluminium)
SLIDECOVER SCREW



ROOF TILE PARTS
TILE ROOF BOTTOM
BUTYL PAD (Anti corrosion
coated steel)
TILE ROOF TOP BUTYL
PAD (Anti corrosion
coated steel)
SUPPORT PLATE
(Aluminium)
SUPPORT SCREW
(Stainless)



STANDARD SLIDER MOUNTING SCREW
(Stainless)
TILE ROOF STAND OFF SCREW
(Stainless)


xi

MEASUREMENT
SCALE COMPASS SOLAR INSOLATION
METER
DIGITAL MULTIMETER




TOOL KIT
CORDLESS DRILL
SOCKET
DRIVERS
DRILL SCREW DRIVER SET
NEEDLE NOSE
PLIERS





LINE MANS PLIERS WIRE CUTTERS HAMMER CHISEL
CRIMPING
TOOL




KNIFE TAPE MEASURE EXTENSION CORD CHALK LINE
GLOVES &
SAFETY HELMET




TOOL BELT ROPE LADDERS
SAFETY
HARNESS
AIR MASK





SAFETY GLASSES CALCULATOR
GROUND
WIRE
ELECTRICAL TAPE PENCIL







xii

6 APPLICATION AREAS

6.1 HABITAT APPLICATIONS
6.1.1 Solar Lanterns
CEL SOLAR LANTERN is a versatile and
reliable source of lighting. It comprises a
Lantern, Solar Photovoltaic (SPV) module and
a connecting cable. The SPV module when
exposed to sunlight charges the battery in the
lantern. This stored energy in the battery is
used to operate the lamp when required.

Solar Lantern consists of a 7W CFL (light out
put equivalent to a 40W incandescent lamp) which can be used for 3-4 hours daily.
The system comprises SPV Panel, lantern (with maintenance free lead acid battery)
and a detachable connecting cord.
Soar PV Module
A number of high grade crystalline Silicon Solar Cells, interconnected in a series
combination and hermetically sealed with a toughened and highly transparent front
glass cover, from the SPV Module. CEL's Solar Lantern is the final and latest answer
to many lighting problems.
Salient Features
1. Environment Friendly 2. Rugged and Dependable
3. Portable
4. Light output 400 lumens i.e. equivalent
to a 40 watts incandescent lamp
5. Silent Operation
6. LED for battery status indication and its
safeguard
Applications
1. Emergency Light Source 2. Garden Lighting
3. Picnic Sports and Farm Houses 4. Military Outposts
5. Light sources for the field personnel of
Agriculture extension, Adult Education and
other Mass Communication Programmers
6. Light Source in remote
un-electrified villages
Specifications:
Components Ratings
1. Solar PV Module Wattage 10 -12Wp
2. Operation per Day 3-4 Hrs.
3. Light bulb 7 Watt Compact Fluorescent Lamp
4. Battery 12 Volt/7AH Sealed maintenance free.

xiii


6.1.2 Domestic habitat light & fan system
CEL's Domestic Lighting Systems provides un-
interrupted light and is completely noiseless,
smoke-free, and free from fire hazards. The
independent lighting system consisting of
Compact Fluorescent Lamps (CFL) fixtures, a
storage battery powered by the SPV Module
provides 3 to 4 hours of light per day.

Applications
1. Houses 2. Clinics
3. Schools 4. Holiday Resorts
5. Offices 6. Huts and Cottages
7. Bank 8. Other Indoor Applications
CEL's Solar Domestic Lighting Systems are easy to install and requires minimal
maintenance. CEL can supply Customized System also.

Specifications
SPV Home
Lighting
System
SPV Module Battery
CFL -9
W
Charge
Controller
M.S.
Structure &
wiring Set
MODEL I PM 20 - 1 No 12V, 20AH 1 Nos 3 Amp 1 Set
MODEL II PM 37 - 1 No 12V, 40AH 2 Nos 5 Amp 1 Set
MODEL III PM 75 - 1 No 12V, 80AH 4 Nos 6 Amp 1 Set


6.1.3 Outdoor & street lighting system
CEL's Solar Street Lighting System provides
Bright Light during night. The system
completely Noiseless, Smoke-free and Free
from Fire Hazards. This is a stand-alone
lighting system consisting of Lamp Assembly
(with control electronics) with one Compact
Florescent Lamp (CFL) of 11 Watt, a Storage
Battery charged by the SPV Modules and
provides lighting during night hours. It works
automatically from Dusk to Dawn.


xiv


Applications
1. Path Lighting 2. Township
3. Farm House Lighting 4. Holiday Resorts
5. Campus Lighting 6. Watch Tower Lighting
7. Warning Signals at Railway
crossings
8. Railway and Shipyard Lighting

Specifications
Each SPV Street Lighting System comprises of following
1. SPV Module Type PM-75 1 No.
2. Battery 12V,80AH 1 No.
3. Pole Assembly 1 No.
4. Battery Box 1 No.
5. Lamp Assembly 1 No.
6. Wiring Set 1 Set.
CEL's Solar Street Lighting Systems are easy to install and requires minimal
maintenance. CEL can supply Solar Street Lighting System with SPX Lamp or as per
choice of customer.

6.1.4 Water pumping system
CEL's Solar Photovoltaic Water pumping system
is modular, flexible and is available in two types
i.e. Shallow well type and Deep well type. They
are ideally suitable for those areas where
conventional grid supply is either erratic or non-
existent. CEL's Solar Water Pumping System
requires minimal maintenance. These systems
don't require batteries. DC power generated by
Solar Modules is directly fed to the pump.

Applications
Drinking water Agriculture related use
Irrigation Horticulture
Animal Husbandry Poultry farming
Aquaculture High value crops
Orchard Farming


xv

Shallow Well Water Pumping System (Model SW 1800)
Components Ratings
1. SPV Panel 1800 Wp
2. Type of Pump Centrifugal DC Monoblock
3. Max. Suction Head 6.0 meters
4. Max. Total Dynamic head 12.0 meters
5. Capacity of Motor 2 HP
6. Mounting structure
MS hot dipped galvanized with three
times Manual tracking facility
Water Output
The system would deliver 1,30,000 liters per day at 10m total dynamic head on a
clear sunny day with three times tracking of SPV panel when solar radiation on
horizontal surface is : 5.5 KWH/sq.m/ day.

SPV Deepwell Water Pumping System (Model DW 1200)
Components Ratings
1. SPV Array Wp 1200
2. Type of Motor Pump set Submersible
3. Max. Total Dynamic
head
70.0 meters
4. Mounting structure
MS hot dipped galvanized with three
times manual tracking facility
Water Output:
The system would deliver 30,000 liters per day at 30m total head and 12,000 liters per
day at 70m total head on a clear sunny day with three times tracking of SPV panel
when solar radiation on horizontal surface is: 5.5 KWH/sq.m/ day.

SPV Deep well Water Pumping System (Model DW 1800)
Components Ratings
1. SPV Array Wp 1800
2. Type of Motor Pump set Submersible
3. Max. Total Dynamic head 70.0 meters
4. Mounting structure
MS hot dipped galvanized with three
times manual tracking facility
Water Output:
The system would deliver 42,000 liters per day at 30m total head and 19,000 liters per
day at 70m total head on a clear sunny day with three times tracking of SPV panel
when solar radiation on horizontal surface is: 5.5 KWH/sq.m/ day.


xvi

6.2 INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS
6.2.1 ONGC offshore power

Offshore platforms that pump oil and gas under the sea are unmanned and need to
be remotely monitored. It becomes vital then, for the power system to be highly
reliable, long lasting, well-engineered and capable of operating in a vast spread of
conditions. The ONGC module is a pioneering intrinsically safe double glass module
developed specifically for operation in explosion prone environments, such as on the
offshore, oil production platforms of ONGC.

These are the 1
st
modules in the world to be certified with Gr.I, Gr.IIA and Gr.IIB by
Central Mining Research Station (CMRS), Dhanbad and accepter by international
insurers, Lloyds of U.K.

The solar power generation system used on the ONGC wellhead offshore platforms
powers telemetry, gas detection, lighting and navigational aid systems.

The system comprises of
1. solar modules for hazardous area application 2. battery bank
3. an explosion proof junction box 4. nav-aid lantern
5. marine-grade structures with special coating
for PV modules
6. fire-survival cables

6.2.2 Very Low Power TV Transmitter & Radio Receiver


xvii

6.2.3 Obstruction Warning Lights at Airports
The obstruction light is a system of red lights
used to show the presence of manmade or
natural objects that are dangerous to airway
path.
These obstruction lights are now days made
from LED, Xenon Lamps, Neon Lamps,
Incandescent lamps etc.
Obstruction lights shall be located as close as practicable to the top of the object.
Obstruction lights are installed on all obstructions that present a threat to air traffic,
cautioning pilots of the presence of an obstruction during hours of darkness and
during periods of limited daytime visibility. The use of solar energy to illuminate the
Obstruction Lights during day time will be more economical and viable also
environment friendly and save electricity.

6.2.4 Railway signalling (Supplementary Power)
The efficient running and control of railway
traffic, one of the largest means of transportation
in the country is seriously hampered by
irregular grid supply, often resulting in traffic
congestion and great inconvenience to public
and adversely affecting the operating cost.
The alternative method of supplementing grid
supply by the use of Diesel Generator sets pose
considerable logistic problems. It has a high maintenance cost, necessitating use of
additional DG Sets as stand-by. Diesel oil has to be transported to the far-flung
location at prohibitive cost. Diesel oil is further prone to pilferage. Thus this
alternative becomes extremely costly, apart from disadvantage of atmospheric
pollution.
As a result of decade of research and field experience CEL now brings the source of
power Solar PV power source by harnessing the Solar Energy abundantly
available and non-polluting by nature. CEL SPV power system comprising of the
Solar Photovoltaic arrays, storage batteries and control electronics now offers the
best alternative power source for panel station of Indian Railways.

A typical SPV power source for Panel Stations for Railways consists of:
A Solar Photovoltaic Array.
A Battery Bank.
An Electronic Control Unit and Panel.


xviii

6.2.5 Telecom towers

As many as 400 telecom towers are to be powered by solar panels that will sit on
them, reflecting light from the sun to produce electricity that will be used by the
towers. The towers are part of a Rs 120 crore project under the Jawaharlal Nehru
National Solar Mission (JNNSM) of the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy.
The 400 projects include 100 each for telecom operators Bharat Sanchar Nigam Ltd.
(BSNL, New Delhi, India), BhartiAirtel Ltd. (New Delhi, India), Indus and GTL Ltd.
(Navi Mumbai, India).

The towers are located in multiple Indian states, with GTL's 100 tower PV projects in
Uttar Pradesh, Indus' 100 systems in Andra Pradesh, and Airtel's 100 systems in
Bihar.

Multiple economic analyses have indicated that PV systems are far more cost-
effective over time for supporting telecom applications in off-grid areas than diesel
generation, even before the inherent uncertainty in fuel costs is factored in. Thus
CEL being one of the largest manufacturers of solar cells in India, telecom towers
will be considered as one of the markets for using solar PV as an industrial
application.


xix

6.3 DEFENCE USE
6.3.1 Lightweight foldable solar charger for Manpack Radio Equipment


CEL's Lightweight,
Foldable Solar Charger is
suitable for charging 12 V,
18 V and 24 V Lead Acid
and Nickel Cadmium
batteries for Manpack
Radio Equipment. This
solar charger is specially
designed to meet Joint
Service Specifications
55555 and is ideal for
charging batteries at
difficult and inaccessible
areas a temperature
varying between -30C to
+65C.


The Lightweight Solar Charger has been designed for use by the Army and Para-
military Forces for charging re-chargeable lead-acid and nickel-cadmium batteries
used in low power manpack radio sets, The Solar Charger totally eliminates the
second set of batteries and/or heavy manually operated generating set (with fuel)
that normally form part of a manpack radio detachment thereby reducing at least
one man-load. It is hence most suitable for the soldiers operating at high altitudes,
remote and inaccessible areas and for long range patrols.

The Solar Charger consists of a pair of foldable solar photovoltaic (SPV) panels. Each
panel is of 24 W capacity and capable of charging a 12 V battery. The two panels can
be connected in series or parallel for charging 24V/18V or 12V battery systems as
required.
The charger is provided with a support stand for the SPV panel, an Indication Unit
having a current meter and requisite connectors; all capable of being assembled and
packed in a water-proof carrying harness. Indication Unit helps the user to correctly
orient the SPV panel for capture of maximum sun insolation and also know the
charging current.

xx

Features
Lightweight
Foldable & easy to carry
Ideal for remote locations
Easy to assemble & operate
No moving parts & no noise
Maintenance free

Technical specifications
Parameter
Single
Panel
Two Panels in
Parallel
Two Panels in
Series
Open circuit voltage (Voc)
Volts
20.50 20.50 41.00
Short circuit current ' (Isc)
Amp.
1.75 3.50 1.75
Peak electrical power (Pm)
Watt
24.00 48.00 48.00
Peak charging current (Im)
Amp.
1.50 3.00 1.50
Suitable for battery 12V 3 to
7AH
12V 5 to 12AH 24V/18V 6 to 7
AH
These electrical parameters are measured at standard test conditions (STC) of 100
mW/Sq.cm cell temperature of 25C and Air Mass of 1.5. Weight of Solar charger
with all accessories
Single panel 4.0 kg.
Two panels 7.5 kg.

Environmental
Specifications subject to change without prior notice due to continuous in-house
improvement. Measurement accuracy within +5%
Operating Temperature range -30C to +65C
Storage Temperature Range -40C to +70C
Relative Humidity 95% max. at 40C



xxi

6.3.2 Lightweight foldable solar charger for Manpack Wireless Communication
Equipment SCU-01
CEL's Lightweight Foldable Solar
Charger is suitable for charging 12V
Lead Acid and Nickel Cadmium
batteries for Manpack Wireless
Communication Equipment. This
Solar Charger is specially designed to
meet Joint Service Specifications
55555 as per Table L.3 and is ideal for
charging batteries at difficult and
inaccessible areas to temperature
varying between 30Cto + 65C.
Features
1. Lightweight 2. Foldable and easy to carry
3. Ideal for remote locations 4. Easy to assemble and operate
5. No moving parts and no noise 6. Maintenance free

The Lightweight Solar Charger has been designed for use by the Army and
Para-military Forces for charging rechargeable lead-acid and Nickel-
Cadmium batteries used in low power manpack communication sets.
The Solar Charger totally eliminates the carriage of back-up batteries and/or
heavy manually operated generating set (with fuel) that normally form part
of a manpack radio detachment thereby reducing at least one man-load. It is
hence most suitable for soldiers operating in high altitudes, remote and
inaccessible areas and for long range patrols.
The Solar Charger consists of a pair of modules (each module having 16
single crystalline solar cells, connected in series) with integral indication unit
and a support stake. The modules are again connected in series to charge a 12
V battery.Indication Unit helps the user to correctly orient the SPV panel for
capture of maximum sun insolation and also to know the charging current. It
consists of a current meter and pair of terminals for connecting the battery to
be charged.
A Schottky diode has been provided as blocking diode (to avoid reverse flow
of current).
Support Stake has been provided on the back side of the charger to keep the
charger at an angle for getting maximum sun insolation.



xxii

Electrical parameters
Parameter
Values
(Nom)
These electrical
parameters are
measured at standard
test conditions (STC)
of 100 mW/Sq.cm.,
cell temperature of
25C and Air Mass of
1.5.

Open circuit voltage (Voc) Volts 18.0
Short circuit current (Isc) Amps 1.3
Peak electrical power (Pm) Watt 14.0
Peak charging current (Im) Amps 1.0
Suitable for battery 12 V 1-4 AH

Mechanical
Solar Panel
(Foldable)
Closed
(mm)
Open
(mm)
*with
meter
assembly
unfolded
Length 305 305
Width 266 *630
Height 45 22.5

Weight
Weight of Solar Charger - 2.2 Kg (Max.)

Environmental
Operating Temperature Range
30C to + 65C
Storage Temperature Range 40C to + 70C
Relative Humidity 95% max. at 40C
Measurement accuracy Within 5%
Specifications subject to change without prior notice due to continuous in-house
improvement.

The Solar Charger is cleared by Inspection authority (Ministry of Defence, Govt, of
India) for induction in service for radio sets RS-HX (MAT-20M).



xxiii

7 MAINTENANCE & TROUBLESHOOTING

Recommended preventive maintenance work
It is a recommended that preventive inspection and maintenance works are
carried out every six to twelve months. The PV modules require routine visual
inspection for sign of damage, dirt build up or shade encroachment . soar PV system
fixtures must be checked for corrosion. This is to ensure that the solar PV system is
safely secured.
While the inverters functionality can be remotely verified, only onite
inspection can verify the state of lighting surge arrestors, cable connections and
circuit breakers.
The following table shows some recommendations on the preventive
maintenance, works on the component and equipment and the corresponding
remedial actions to be carried out by the qualified personal.
S.No.
Component /
Equipment
Description Remedy / Action

1.

PV modules Check for dust/ debris on
the surface of PV module

Wipe clean. Do not use
solvents other than
water.
Check for physical
damage to any PV
module.
Recommend
replacement if found
damaged.
Check for loose cables
termination between PV
modules, PV array etc.
Retighten connection.
Check for cable
condition.
Replace cable if
necessary.

S.No.
Component /
Equipment
Description Remedy / Action
2. PV inverter
Check functionality.
Example: Automatic
disconnection upon loose
of grid power supply.
Recommend
replacement if
functionality fails.
Check ventilation
condition.
Clear dust and dirt in
ventilation system.
Check for loose cable
terminations.
Tighten connection.
Check for abnormal
operating temperature.
Recommended
replacement.


xxiv

S.No.
Component /
Equipment
Description Remedy / Action
3. Cabling Check for cable
conditions i.e. wear and
tear
Replace cable if necessary.
Check cable terminals
for burnt marks,
hotspots or loose
connections.
Tighten connections or
recommend replacement.

S.No.
Component /
Equipment
Description Remedy / Action
4. Junction boxes Check cable terminals
i.e. wear and tear or
loose connections.
Tighten or recommend
replacements.
Check for warning
notices.
Replace waring notice if
necessary.
Check for physical
damage.
Recommend
replacement/Troubleshoot

S.No.
Component /
Equipment
Description Remedy / Action
5. Means of isolation
Check functionality
replacement.
Recommend/Troubleshoot

S.No.
Component /
Equipment
Description Remedy / Action
6. Earthing of solar PV
system.
Check earthing cable
connection.
Recommend
replacement/Troubleshoot
Check the physical
earthing connection.
Retighten connection.
Check continuity of the
cable to electrical earth.
Troubleshoot or
recommend replacement

S.No.
Component /
Equipment
Description Remedy / Action
7.
Bonding of the
exposed metallic
structure of the solar
PV system to
lightening earth.
Check bonding cable
conditions.
Recommend
replacement/Troubleshoot
Check physical bonding
connection.
Tighten connection and
troubleshoot.
Check continuity of the
bonding to lightening
earth.
Troubleshoot or
Recommend replacement

xxv

TROUBLESHOOTING

7.1 Light units not glowing and no low battery indication on charge controller.
Possible
Failure
Possible Cause Action
Load cables
1. Breakage
Replace cable
2. corrosion
3. Loose
connection
4. Improper
connection
Verify the wire connections are tight,
corrosion free and of correct polarity
Load centre
1. corrosion
Replace load centre 2. Mechanical
damage
Light unit
1. CFL Replace CFL
2. Fuse Replace fuse of the same type
3. Electrical
failure
Replace light unit 4. Dry soldering
5. Loose
connection
Earth tag
1. Loose
connection
Connect the wire to the metal strip and
ensure proper connection
2. Improper
fixing
Place the metal strip between the limbs of
the CFL
Connector
Assembly
1. Loose
connection Replace connector
2. Pin Loose
3. Improper
Fixing
Fix connector properly
Charge
controller
1. Electronic
Failure
Replace charge controller


xxvi

7.2 No charging indication on the charge controller
Possible
Failure
Possible Cause Action
Solar module
1. Shading
Remove the shades or change the location
of the module and ensure maximum
sunlight falls on the module
2. Dirt
accumulatio
n
Clear the particles on the module
Module cable
1. Breakage
Replace cable
2. Corrosion
3. Loose
connection
4. Dry solder
Module
1. Broken
module
Replace module
Charge
controller
1. Electronic
failure
Replace charge controller
7.3 Low duration
Possible
Failure
Possible Cause Action
Installation
1. Shading
Remove the shades or change the location
of the module and ensure maximum
sunlight fall on the module.
2. Dirt
Accumulation
Clear the particles from the module
Module cable
1. Breakage
Replace cable
2. Corrosion
3. Loose
Connection
4. Dry Solder
Charge
controller
1. Electric Failure
Replace charge controller
2. Corrosion
Customer
1. Insufficient
Charging
Charge the battery till full charge
condition and check the duration
2. Improper
Installation
Place the module in such ways that direct
sunlight falls on panel for longer duration
and during peak hours of the day.
Battery
1. Low capacity
Replace battery
2. Acid Leakage
3. Terminal
Broken


xxvii

7.4 Incident switch off
Possible
Failure
Possible Cause Action
Switch
1. Corrosion
Replace Switch 2. Mechanical
Damage
Fuse holder
1. Corrosion
Replace Fuse holder 2. Mechanical
Damage
Battery
1. Low Capacity
Replace battery
2. Acid Leakage
3. Terminal
Corrosion
Charge
Controller
1. Electronic
Failure Replace Charge Controller
2. Corrosion
Load center
1. Loose
Connection
Replace Load Center
2. Improper Fixing
3. Pin Loose

7.5 Breakage
Possible
Failure
Possible Cause Action
Light diffuser
(CFL)
1. Material
Degradatio
n Replace the item
2. Transportati
on
3. Customer
Abuse
Warranty not applicable



xxviii

7.6 Lamp Flickering
Possible
Failure
Possible Cause Action
CFL
1. Crimping not
proper
Replace CFL 2. Improper fixing
3. Base Loose
4. Lamp blackened
Light Unit
1. Terminal
corrosion
Replace Light Unit 2. Pin loose
3. Dry Solder
4. Loose Connection
Earth Tag
1. Loose connection
Connect the wire to the metal strip
and ensure proper connection.
2. Improper Fixing
Place the metal strip between the
limbs of the CFL
Load centre
1. Loose connection
Replace load centre
2. Pin Loose
3. Improper Fixing
Fix the load centre properly and
ensure they are tight
Charge
Controller
1. Electronic Failure
Replace charge controller
2. Corrosion

7.7 Lamp Semi Glow
Possible
Failure
Possible Cause Action
CFL
1. Crimping not
proper
Replace CFL 2. Improper Fixing
3. Base Loose
4. Lamp Blackened
Light Unit
1. Corrosion
Replace Light Unit
2. Breakage
3. Pin Loose
4. Dry Solder
5. Loose Connection
Earth Tag
1. Loose Connection
Connect the wire to the metal
strip and ensure proper
connection
2. Improper Fixing
Place metal strip between the
limbs of the CFL



xxix

7.8 Lamp Blackening
Possible
Failure
Possible Cause Action
CFL
1. Crimping not proper
Replace CFL
2. Improper Fixing
3. Base Loose
4. Blackening Premature

7.9 No Indication
Possible
Failure
Possible Cause Action
Charge
Controller
1. Electronic Failure
Replace Charge Controller
2. Corrosion
Module Cable
1. Loose Connection Replace Module Cable
2. Improper Fixing
Fix the cable properly and ensure that
the connections are tight with correct
polarity
SPV Module 1. Breakdown Replace module

7.10 Water entry or Insect entry
Possible
Failure
Possible Cause Action
Light units
1. Installation of
the system
Fix the light units in such a way that water
should not enter the light units during
rainy season.
2. Light Diffuser
Check if the light Diffuser is broken or may
be improper fixing of light diffuser.
Charge
controller
1. Installation of
the system
The charge controller which is fixed on the
battery box should be located in such a
way that water should not enter during
rainy season.