Chapter 1

Introduction

Heat transfer is the transfer of thermal energy from a system at a high temperature
to one at lower temperature. It plays an important part in many aspects of
engineering. In some cases the engineer requires a high rate of heat transfer through
a small area with a low temperature difference, for example in the temperature
control of electronic components; alternatively it may be desirable to maintain a
temperature difference while maintaining a low rate of heat transfer, for example in
the fabric of a building or where pipework carries hot or cold fluid. We will examine
many examples of these applications and pay particular attention to the design and
selection of heat exchangers – devices whose purpose is to facilitate the transfer of
thermal energy from one fluid stream to another.
Most practical heat transfer problems require the engineer to make various
assumptions and approximations. For hand calculations empirical correlations are
widely used. These are relationships which may have some theoretical or conceptual
basis but are underpinned by experimental results.

Heat transfer occurs by one of three mechanisms, or a combination of these

mechanisms:
• Conduction
• Convection
• Radiation
Conduction is the transfer of energy though a material without bulk motion. It is the
only mechanism of heat transfer in most solids, and occurs in fluids at rest and in the
layer of a fluid immediately adjacent to a solid surface.
Convection occurs in liquids and gases. Fluid at a high temperature physically moves
from one region to another, while cooler fluid replaces it. Energy is thus transferred
from one region to another. We are primarily concerned with convection from a
solid surface to the bulk of the fluid, or from a fluid to a solid wall.
The study of convection is subdivided: if the movement of the fluid is induced by a
blower, fan or pump then it is known as forced convection. Natural, or free,

1.1
convection occurs when the fluid movement is induced by temperature differences
within the fluid.
Boiling and condensation are special cases of convection.

Radiation: all surfaces above absolute zero emit electromagnetic radiation and
absorb radiation from other surfaces or the surroundings. In this way energy is
transmitted from a body to another. Radiation does not rely on a medium and can
occur in a vacuum, it is the only form of heat transfer which can occur in a vacuum.

All three modes of heat transfer may occur in one problem – either in series, as heat
is transferred from a fluid to a solid and through the solid, or in parallel as heat is
transferred from a hot body by both radiation and convection.
Heat Exchangers are thermal devices in which heat1 is exchanged from one fluid
stream (or exceptionally a solid) to one or more other fluid streams. The term heat
exchanger encompasses a range of devices which permit heat exchange to take place
in one of four ways:

Heat transfer plays an important role in many engineering applications including:

i. Recuperative heat exchangers - hot and cold streams flow in close proximity but
are physically separated by a solid wall
ii. Regenerative heat exchangers - hot and cold streams flow alternately through a
matrix which is heated by the passage of the hot fluid and releases heat to the
cold fluid.
iii. Direct contact - two fluids are allowed to come into contact with each other and
are then at least partially separated. If the temperatures of the fluids differ then
energy will be transferred while the fluids are in contact. The most common
application of this type of heat exchanger is the direct contact cooling tower.
iv. From a solid to a fluid -thermal energy may be liberated in a solid due to the
passage of an electric current or a chemical or nuclear reaction. This energy may
be dissipated to a passing fluid.

1
In the study of heat transfer we tend to be less rigorous in our terminology than thermodynamicists
- strictly heat is an interaction describing the energy transfer from one system to another due to a
temperature difference, it is energy that is transferred. In heat transfer the terms heat and thermal
energy are used interchangeably.

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v. Through insulation: All materials will permit some heat transfer, however there
are many applications in which it is undesirable, the engineer needs to be able to
quantify the heat loss which will occur.

In this module we will be dealing principally with the theory which allows us to tackle
problems in I, iv and v above.

Some comments about temperature and other units:

Temperature may be given according to one of several scales. Two will be used in
this module: The Celsius scale and the Absolute, or Kelvin, scale. The Celsius scale is
based on two reference points; the freezing and boiling points of ware at normal
atmospheric pressure are set at 0oC and 100oC, respectively. This is a convenient
scale – many everyday processes occur within or close to this range. The Celsius
scale is essentially arbitrary as far as thermodynamics is concerned, a fundamental
measure of temperature based on absolute zero – the temperature at which atoms
would have no kinetic energy and a perfect gas would have zero volume. Absolute
zero, or 0 Kelvin may be expressed as -273.15oC. The unit of absolute temperature
is the Kelvin, K, 1K has the same magnitude as 1oC. Therefore:
(Temperature K) = (Temperature oC + 273.15)
T K = t oC + 273.15
Upper case T is traditionally used for absolute temperature and lower case t is used
for temperatures expressed in Celsius. (Some texts use other symbols for
temperature e.g. θ)
Temperature measurements and many tables of properties are expressed as Celsius.
However, where temperature ratios are to be used or a temperature is to be raised
to a power, then it is essential that the absolute temperature is used. Either
temperature scale is acceptable when dealing with temperature differences and will
give the same numerical result.
Illustrative examples:
(a)A building is maintained at an internal environment of 21oC while the external
temperature is 4oC. What is the temperature difference across the building wall:
t i − t o = 21 − 4 = 17 o C

Ti − To = (21 + 273.15) − (4 + 273.15) = 17 K

1.3
(b)The pressure and temperature of a perfect gas are related by the expression
pv = RT . A sealed pressure vessel has a pressure of 1.5 bar at 12oC it is then
heated to 24oC. Calculate the new pressure in the vessel.
p 2 T2
= since R and v are constant.
p1 T1

T1 = 12 + 273.15 = 285.15K
T2 = 24 + 273.15 = 297.15 K
p1 = 1.5bar

T2 297.15
p 2 = p1 = 1.5 × = 1.563bar
T1 285.15
Clearly a different, and wrong!! answer would be obtained if Celsius was used.
Properties and heat transfer may be expressed in a range of units. We will use the SI
system. It is important that all calculations are carried out with consistent units. In
many heat transfer calculations dimensionless groups are used, in which case
whether you work with kW, KW/m2 etc or W, W/m2 etc is largely a matter of
personal preference. However you must be consistent!!. If a dimensional parameter
is to be raised to a power, (e.g α= C(Q/A)0.67 ) then it is important that the unit used
for Q is consistent with that used in the derivation of C in the correlation.

A little thermodynamics
Energy is conserved.
For a solid transferring heat at a rate Q& W (or kW) to a fluid flowing at a rate m& kg/s
the temperature change of the fluid is given by:

Q& = m& (hout − hin )

where h is the specific enthalpy of the fluid J/kg or kJ/kg – a measure of the energy
content of the fluid.
For a single phase fluid undergoing a moderate temperature change:

Q& = m& (hout − hin ) = m& c p (Tin − Tout )

Where cp is the specific heat capacity of the fluid, J/kgK or kJ/kgK

1.4
If we make some simplifying assumptions we can say that for a two-fluid heat
exchanger:

Rate of Energy gained by cold fluid =Rate of Energy lost by hot fluid

m& c (hc ,out − hc ,in ) = m& h (hh ,in − hh ,out ) = Q&

(1.3)
m& c ∆hc = −m& h ∆hh

If both fluids are single phase and have constant specific heat capacities:
m& c c p ,c (Tc ,out − Tc ,in ) = m& h c p ,h (Th ,in − Th ,out )
m& c c p ,c ∆Tc = − m& h c p ,h ∆Th
(1.4)

Recommended Text

There are numerous texts covering heat transfer and heat exchanger design
available. Some are written as text books, while others are comprehensive sources
of reference material.

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Textbooks which include an introduction to heat exchangers
Rogers G.F.C. and Mayhew Y.R., Engineering thermodynamics, work and heat transfer,
Longman, 4th Edition,1992
Eastop T.D. and McConkey A., Applied thermodynamics for engineering technologists,
Longman, 5th Edition, 1993.
Kreith F. and Bohn M.S. Principles of heat transfer, PWS, 5th Edition

Specialist Texts and Reference works

Saunders E.A.D., Heat exchangers: selection, design and construction, Longman,
1988
Fraas A.P. Heat Exchanger Design, Wiley, 2nd Edition, 1988
Kays W.M.and London A.L.,Compact heat exchangers, McGraw-Hill, 2nd Edition,
1964
Hesselgreaves J.E., Compact heat exchangers, selection design and operation,
Pergamon, 2001
Hewitt G.F. (Ed), Handbook of Heat Exchanger Design, Begell House, 1992
Yokell S. A working guide to shell-and-tube heat exchangers, McGraw-Hill,1990

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