The study of universe is known as

Cosmology. Total universe is commonly

defined as the totality of everything that
exists including all physical matter and
energy, the planets, stars, galaxies and the
contents of intergalactic space.
Galaxy: A galaxy is a vest system of billions
of stars, dust and light gases bound by their
own gravity.
There are 100 billion galaxies in the
universe and each galaxy has, an average,
100 billions stars. (10
22
stars)
Our galaxy is Milky Way Galaxy (or the
Akash Ganga) formed after the Big Bang. It
is spiral in shape.
Andromeda is the nearest galaxy to Milky
Way.
Latest known galaxy in Dwarf Galaxy.
The Big Bang Theory: Big Bang was an
explosion of concentrated matter in the
universe that occurred 15 billion years ago,
leading to the formation of galaxies of stars
and other heavenly bodies.
Stars are the heavenly bodies made up of hot
burning gases and they shine by emitting
their own light.
Black Hole stars having mass greater the
three times that of the sun, have very high
gravitational power, so that not even light
can escape from its gravity and hence called
black hole.
Comets: Made up of frozen gases. A Tailed
Star.
They move around the sun in elongated
elliptical orbit with the tail always pointing
away from the sun.
Hailey's Comet Reappears in 76 years. last
seen in 1986.
Constellation: The sky is divided into units
to enable the astronomers to identify the
position of the stars. These units are called
constellation. There are 88 known
constellations. Ursa Major, Ursa Minor,
Orion, Scorpion.
Satellite are the heavenly bodies that revolve
around the planets. Moon is the natural
satellite of the earth.
Moon
Diameter 3476 km
Average distance
from Earth
384365 km
Rotation Speed 27 days, 7 h, 43 min
and 11.47 sec
Revolution Speed 27 days, 7 h, 43 min
and 11.47 sec
Time taken by moon
light to reach the
Earth
1.3

Solar System
The solar system consists of the Sun, the
eight plants and their satellite (or moons),
and thousands of other smaller heavenly
bodies such as asteroids, comets and
meteors.

The Sun is at the center of the solar system
and all these bodies revolve around it, it is
the nearest start to the Earth.
Sun
Average distance 149598900 km
Diameter 1391980 km
Temperature of the
core
15000000 C
Rotation Speed 25.38 days (with
respect to equator);
33 days (with respect
to poles)
Time taken by
sunlight to reach the
Earth
8 min and 16.6 sec.
Some Important Facts
Biggest Planet Jupiter
Biggest Satellite Ganymede
Blue Planet Earth
Brightest Planet Venus
Brightest Planet
outside
Sirius
Solar System (Dog Star)
Closet Star of Solar Proxima
System Centauri
Coldest Planet Neptune
Evening Star Venus
Farthest Planet from
Sun
Neptune
Planet with
maximum number of
satellites
Saturn, 63
Fastest revolution in
solar system
Mercury
Hottest Planet Venus
Densest Planet Earth
Fastest rotation in
solar System
Jupiter
Morning Star Venus
Nearest Planet to Venus
Earth
Smallest Planet Mercury
Smallest Satellite Deinmos
Earth's twin Venus
Only satellite with
an atmosphere like
Earth
Titan
Asteroids (or Planetoids)
Small planetary bodies that revolve around
the Sun and found in between the orbits of
Mars and Jupiter. Ceres the largest asteroids.
Also known as minor planets.
Meteors and Meteorites
They are also called shooting stars.
meteors are fragments of rocks coming
towards the earth.
They are formed due to collision among the
asteroids.
Meteors that do not burn up completely in
earth's atmosphere and land on the earth, are
called meteorites.
Classification of Planets
1. Inner Planets include Mercury, Venus,
Earth and Mars.
2. Outer Planets Include Jupiter, Saturn,
Uranus and Neptune.
Inner Planet Outer Planet
They are called as
Terrestrial or Rocky
planets.
*They are called as
Jovian or Gaseous
planets.
They are nearer to
the Sun.
*They are far away
from the Sun.
Planet Profile
Planet Mean
Distance
from
Sun
(million
km)
Orbital
period
Diameter
(Km)
No. of
Known
Satellites
Mercury 57.8 88.0
days
4,879 0
Venus 108.2 224.0
days
12,104 0
Earth 149.6 365.3
days
12,756 1
Mars 227.9 687.0
days
6,787 2
Jupiter 778.4 11.86
years
142,800 63
Saturn 1426.7 29.46
years
120,660 60
Uranus 2871.0 84.01
years
51,118 27
Neptune 4498.73 164.8
years
49,528 13

Earth
The Earth is an oblate spheroid. It is almost
spherical, flattened a little at the poles with a
slight bulge at the center (equator).
Perihelion nearest position of the Earth to
the Sun.
Aphelion farthest position of the Earth from
Sun.
The Earth's interior is composed of three
major layers: the crust, the mantle and the
core.
SIAL (Silicon-Aluminium) Earth crust.
SIMA (Silicon Magnesium) Mantle
NIFE- Core
Statistical Data of the Earth
Age 4550 million years
Mass 5.976 x 10
24
kg
Volume 1.083x10
24

Mean Density 5.518 kg/lt
Total Surface Area 510 million sq km
Land Area 29.2% of the total
surface area
Rotation Speed 23 hr, 56 min and
45.51 sec
Revolution Speed 365 days, 5 hr and
45.51 sec
Dates when days and
night are equal
March 21 (Vernal
Equinox) :
September 23
(Autumnal Equinox)
Longest Day June 21 (Summer
Solstice) Sun is
vertically overhead
at Tropic of Cancer.
Shortest night December 22
(Winter Solstice)
Sun is vertically
overhead at Tropic
of Capricorn
Escape Velocity 11.2 km/sec
Mean Surface
Temperature
14C

Rotation of the Earth spins on its imaginary
axis from west to East in one day.
Result Causation of day and night, tides.
Revolution of the Earth Earth's motion in
elliptical orbit around the Sun in one year.
Result Change of seasons.
LATITUDE
Imaginary lines drawn on the Earth's surface
parallel to the equator. Equator (0) is the
biggest latitude that divides Earth in two
equal hemispheres (North and South)
Tropic of Cancer 23.5 N
Tropic of Capricorn 23.5 S
Arctic Circle 66.5 N
Antarctic Circle 66.5 S
Each degree of latitude equals 111 km.
The most important line of latitude is the
equator.
Statistical Data of the Earth
Meridians are a series of semicircles that run
from pole to pole passing through the
equator. Prime Meridian passes through
Greenwich near London, divides the Earth
in Eastern and Western hemisphere. its
value is 0.
Longitude has very important function i.e., it
determines local time in relation to
Greenwich mean time (GMT).
International Date Line
It is the longitude where the date changes by
exactly one day when it is crossed.
180 East and 180 West meridians is the
same line which is called the International
Date Line.
Indian Standard Time (IST)
The Earth takes approximately 24 hours to
complete one rotation i.e., it takes 24 hours
to complete 360 of its rotation.
1 change of longitude corresponds to 4
minutes difference in time. Towards East
addition Towards West-Subtraction.
Indian Standard Time is calculated on the
basis of 82.5 E longitude which passes
through UP, MP Orissa, Chattisgarh and
Andhra Pradesh.
IST is 5 hr 30 min ahead of GMT.
Eclipses
When the light of the Sun or the Moon is
blocked by another body, the Sun or the
Moon is said to be in eclipse.
Solar Eclipse it is caused when the Moon
revolving around the Earth comes in
between the Earth and the Sun, thus making
a part or whole of the Earth. Thus, the
eclipse can be partial or complete.
Lunar Eclipse when the Earth comes
between the Moon and the Sun, the Shadow
cast by the Earth on the Moon results in
lunar eclipse.
WORLD GEOGRAPHY
Rocks
Rocks are made up of individual substances,
called minerals, found mostly in solid state,
Rocks are classified into three major types
Igneous These rocks are formed by the
solidification of the molten magma, e.g.,
Mica, Granite, etc.
Sedimentary rocks are formed due to
accumulation of rock particles and organic
matter in layers, under tremendous pressure,
e.g., Gravel, Peat, Gypsum, etc.
Metamorphic These rocks were originally
igneous or sedimentary but have been
changed by pressure, heat or action or water,
e.g., Gneiss, Marble, quartzite, etc.
Type of
Rock
Original
Rock
Metamorphic
Igneous Granite Gneiss
Igneous Basalt Homblend
Igneous Limestone Marble
Sedimentary Coal Graphite,
Coal
Sedimentary Sandstone Quartzite
Sedimentary Shale/Clay Slate, Mica
Schist

Landforms
There are three major landforms mountains,
plateaus and plains.
Mountains
An uplifted portion of the Earth's surface is
called a hall or a mountain.
Mountains are classified into following four
types
Fold Mountains These are formed by folding
of crustal rocks by compressive forces. E.g.,
Himalayas (Asia), Alps (Europe).
Block Mountains When great blocks of the
Earth's crust are raised or lowered during the
last stage of mountain building, block
mountains are formed e.g., Vosges in
France, Black Forest mountains in Germany.
Volcanic Mountains: These are formed by
the matter thrown out from the colcanoes,
and are also known as mountains of
accumulation, e.g., Mt Mauna Loa in
Hawaii, Mt. Popa in Myanmar.
Residual or Dissected Mountains They are
known as relict mountains or mountains of
Circumdenudation. They owe their present
form to erosion by different agencies, e.g.
Nilgiris, Girnar and Rajmahal.
Major Mountain Ranges
Range Location Length (km)
Andes South
America
7200
Himalayan,
Karakoram
and Hindu
Kush
South
Central Asia
5000
Rockies North
America
4800
Great
Dividing
Range
East
Australia
3600
Atlas North West
Africa
1930
Western
Ghats
Western
India
1610
Caucasus Europe 1200
Alaska USA 1130
Alps Europe 1150

Major Mountain Peaks
Mountain Peak Location
Mt. Everest
(highest in the world)
Neptal-Tibet
K2 (Godwin Austin) India (POK)
Dhaulagiri Nepal
Annapurna Nepal
Gurla Mandhata Tibet
Tirich Mir Pakistan
Acconcagua Argentina
Cotopaxi Ecuador
Kilimanjaro Tanzania

Plateaus
Plateaus are flat, table like, upland areas
with rough top surface and steep side walls.
Famous Plateaus of the World
Plateau Situation
Tibetan Plateau Between Himalayas
and Kunlun
Mountains
Deccan Plateau Southern India
Arabian Plateau South-west India
Plateau of Mexico Mexico
Plateau of Colombia USA
Plateau of
Madagascar
Madagascar
Plateau of Bolivia North-West North
America
Plateau of Bolivia Andes Mountains
Great Basin South of Colombia
Plateau Plateau, USA
Colorado Plateau South of Great Basin
Plateau, USA

Weathering
The process by which rocks are chemically
or physically broken into fragments.
Earthquakes
Any sudden disturbance below the Earth's
surface many produce vibrations or shaking
in Earth's crust and some of these vibrations,
when reach the surface, are known as
earthquakes.
The intensity of earthquake waves is
recorded by Seismograph.
Intensity of shaking is measured on the
modified 'Mercalli Scale'.
Focus is the point beneath the earth where
earthquake originates.
Epicenter is the point just above the focus on
the Earth's Surface.
Volcanism
Sudden eruption of hot magma (molten
rock), gases, ash and other material from
inside the earth to its surface.
Types of Volcanoes
Active which erupts frequently. e.g., Mauna
Loa (Hawaii), Etna (Sicily), Vesuvius
(Italy), Stromboli (Mediterranean Sea).
Dormant Not erupted for quite sometime,
e.g., Fujjyama (Japan), Krakatoa
(Indonesia), Barren Island (Andaman).
Extinct Not erupted for several centuries.
Ring of Fire Hundreds of active volcanoes
found on the land near the edges of the
edges of the Pacific Ocean.
Tusnami Large Ocean wave that is caused
by sudden motion on the ocean floor.
Motion could be an earthquake, volcanic
eruption or underwater landslide.
Atmosphere
The vast experience of air which envelops
the earth all around is called the atmosphere.
It extends to thousands of kilometers.
It protects the Earth's surface from the Sun's
harmful, ultraviolet rays.
It also regulates temperature, preventing the
Earth from becoming too hot or too cold.
The major constituents of air in the
atmosphere are Nitrogen (78%), Oxygen
(21%), Argon (0.93%) and Carbon Dioxide
(0.03%).
Besides water vapour, dust particles, smoke,
salts and other impurities are present in air
in varying quantities.
Structure of Atmosphere
Layer Height (Km) Feature
Troposphere 0-18 Km contains 75% of the gases in the atmosphere.
As height increases, temperature decreases (temperature
inversion) (about 6.5 C per 1 km ascent).
Stratosphere 18-50 km This layer contains the ozone layer. The temperature remains
fairly constant (-60 C).
Mesosphere 50-80 km This is coldest region of the atmosphere. The temperature
drops to about -100 c.
Ionosphere 80-400 km Radio waves are bounded off the ions and reflect waves back
to the Earth. This generally helps radio communication.
Exosphere Above 400 km Upper part of exosphere is called magnetosphere. The
temperature keeps on rising constantly at high rate.

Greenhouse Effect and Global Warming
A green house gas (sometimes abbreviated GHG) is a gas in the atmosphere that absorbs and
emits radiation within the thermal infrared range. This process is the fundamental cause of the
greenhouse effect.
The primary greenhouse gases in the Earth's atmosphere are water vapour, carbon dioxide,
methane, nitrous oxide and ozone.
In the solar system, the atmospheres of Venus, Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause
greenhouse effects.
Global Warming is the increase of Earth's average surface temperature as carbon dioxide
emissions from deforestation. This is a type of greenhouse effect.
Pressure System of Earth
The pressure exerted by the atmosphere due to it weight, above a unit area of the Earth's surface
is called atmospheric pressure.
It is pressure belts of the earth are equatorial low, sub-tropical high, sub-polar low and polar
high.
Winds
Due to horizontal differences in air pressure, air flows from areas of high pressure of areas of
low pressure. Horizontal movement of the air is called wind. The three types of winds are give
below:
Planetary Winds: The winds blowing throughout the year from one latitude to another in
response to latitudinal differences in air pressure are called planetary or prevailing winds. Trade
winds, westerlies and polar winds are planetary winds.
Trade winds: They blow from the sub-tropical High Pressure Belt to the tropics between 30
North and 30 South latitudes.
Westerlies: They blow from sub-tropical High Pressure Belt to the Sub-Polar Low Pressure Belth
in the temperate latitude between 30 and 60, on the either side of the Equator. These are also
called Roaring Forties, the Furious Fifties and Shrieking or stormy sixties.
Polar Winds: They blow from the Polar High Pressure Belt to the Sub-Polar Low Pressure Belt
between 60 latitude and the Pole on both sides of the Equator.
Periodic Winds: Periodic winds change their direction periodically with the change in pressure
and temperature, e.g., Monsoon, Land and Sea Breeze etc.
Local Wind: Local winds develop as a result of local difference I temperature and pressure. Loo
is an example of local wind.
Cyclones Rapid inward circulation of air masses with a low pressure at center. It is anticlockwise
in the Northern hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern hemisphere.
Anticyclones: Rapid outward movement of air masses with a high pressure at center.
Hurricane: This is also known as tropical cyclone or tropical storm. This is a disturbance of
about 650 km across, spinning around a central area of very low pressure, with winds over 140
km/h.

Local and Regional Winds
Winds Region/Country Nature
Fohn Alps/Europe (Germany) Dry/Warm
Chinook Rockies, U.S.A. & Canada Dry/Warm
Mistral Alps/France to Mediterranean
Sea
Dry/Cold
Sirocco N. Africa /Sicily/Italy Dry/Hot
Khamsin Egypt/N. Africa Dry/Hot
Harmattan W.Africa/Ghana/Nigeria Dry/Hot
Norwesters Bengal/Assam/India Moist/Hot
Berg South Africa Dry/Cold
Pampero Argentina Dry/Cold
Zonda Chile/Peru/Brazil/Argentina Dry/Warm
Brick Fielder Australia Dry/Hot
Buran Siberia/Russia Dry/Cold
Bora Italy/Yugoslavia (To Adriatic
Sea)
Dry/Cold
Southerly Buster Australia Dry/Cold
Samun Persia/Iran Dry/Hot
Nevadas Ecuador Dry/Hot
Norwester New Zealand (South Island) Dry/Hot
Leveche Algeria/Morocco Dry/Hot
Blizzard Siberia, Canada and USA Dry/Cold (snow laden)
Bise France Dry/Cold
Levanter Spain Dry/Cold
Santa Ana USA Dry/Warm
Yamo Japan Dry/Warm
Tramontane Central Europe Dry/Warm


Continent's Highest & Lowest Points
Continent Highest Point Lowest Point
Asia Everest (8848 m( Dead Sea (-396.8 m)
Africa Kilimanjaro (5894 m) Lake Assal (-156.1 m)
North America Mckinley (6194 m) Death Valley (-85.9 m)
South America Aconcagua (6960 m) Valdis Penin (-39.9 m)
Europe Elbrus (5663 m) Caspian Sea (-28.0 m)
Australia Koscisko (2228 m) Lake Eyre (-15.8 m)
Antarctica Vinson Massif (5140 m) Unexplored

Strait Water Bodies Joined Area
Bab-al-mandeb Red Sea and Arabian Sea Arabia and Africa
Bering Arctic Ocean and Bering Sea Alaska and Asia
Bosphorus Black Sea and Marmara Sea Turkey
Dover North Sea and Atlantic Ocean England and Europe
Florida Gulf or Mexico and Atlantic
Ocean
Florida & Bahamas Islands
Gibratler Mediterranean Sea and
Atlantic Ocean
Spain and Africa
Malacca Java Sea and Bay of Bengal Indian and Indonesia
Palk Bay of Bengal and Indian
Ocean
India and Sri Lanka
Megellan South Pacific and South
Atlantic Ocean
Chile
Sunda Java Sea and Indian Ocean Indonesia
Important Canals of the World
Canel Connects
Panama Pacific Ocean with
Caribbean Sea
Suez Mediterranean Sea
to Red Sea
Erie Atlantic Ocean to
Great Lakes
Kiel North Sea to Baltic
Sea
Soo Lake Superior and
Lake Huron
Manchester Manchester and
Isthmus
Cyclones
Typhoons China Sea
Tropical Cyclones Indian Ocean
Hurricanes Caribbean Sea
Tornadoes USA
Willy Willies Northern Australia
Oceans of the World (Areawise)
Pacific Mariana Trench
Atlantic Pureto Rico Trench
Indian Java Trench
Arabic Eurasian Basin
Important Lakes of the World
Lake Location
Caspian Russia and CIS
Superior Canada and USA
Victoria Tanzania (Arica)
Huron Canada and USA
Michigan USA
Tanganyika Africa
Baikal Russia (CIS)
Great Bear Canada
Aral Russia (CIS)
Great Slave Canada
Major Rivers of the World
Lake Location
Nile Victoria Lake
Amazon Andes (Peru)
Yangtza Tibetan Kiang
Plateau
Mississippi Itaska Lake (USA)
Yenisei Tannu-Ola Mountain
Huang Ho Kunlun Mountains
Ob Altai Mountains,
Russia
Congo Lualaba and Luapula
rivers
Amur North East China
Lena Baikal Mountains
Mekong Tibetan Highlands
Niger Guinea
Great Deserts
Name Country/Region
Sahara (Libyan,
Nubian)
North Africa
Australian (Gibson,
Simpson, Victorian
Great Sandy)
Australia
Arabian
(Rub al Khali, An-
Nafud)
Dast-e-Lut
(Barren Desert)
Arabia
Dast-e-Kavir
(Salt Desert)
Iran
Desierto de Sechura Peru
Atacama N Chile
Patagonia Argentina
Kalahari Botswana
Namib Namibia

List of Waterfalls
Rank Waterfall Location
1. Angel Falls Venezuela
2. Tugela Falls South Africa
3. Cataratas las
Tres
Hermanas
Peru
4. Olo'upena
Falls
United States
5. Catarate
Yumbilla
Peru
Riverside Cities
Town River
Akyab (Myanmmar) Irawady
Baghbad (Iraq) Tigris
Basara (Iraq) Tigris and Euphrates
Belgrade Danube
Berlin (Germany) Spree
Bristol (UK) Avon
Budapest (Hungary) Danube
Cairo (Egypt) Nile
Canton Si-Kiang
Glasgow (Scotland) Clyde
Hamburg (Germany) Elbe
Jamshedpur Subarnarekha
Karachi Indus
Khartoum (Sudan) Nile
Lahore Ravi
Lisbon (Portugal) Tangus
London (UK) Thames
Lucknow Gomti
Montreal (Canada) Ottawa
Nanking Yang-tse-Kiang
New Castle (UK) Tyre
New Orleans (SA) Mississippi
New York (USA) Hudson
Paris (France) Seine
Philadelphia (USA) Delawre
Rome (Italy) Tiber
Shanghai Yang-tse-Kiang
Shrinagar Jhelum
Warsaw (Poland) Vistula
Yangon (Myanmar) Irawady
Major Islands of the World
Rank Island's
Name
Area
(Km
2
)
3

Location
1. Greenland 2130800 Denmark
2. New
Guinea
785753 Indonesia
3. Borneo 748168 Brunei
4. Madagascar 587713 Madagascar
5. Baffin
Island
507451 Canada
6. Sumatra 443066 Indonesia
Famous Grasslands of the World
Grasslands Countries
Steppe Eurasia
Pustaz Hungry
Prairie USA
Pampas Argentina and
Uruguay (South
America)
Veld South Africa
Downs Australia
Canterbury New Zealand
Minerals of the World
Mineral Leading Producer
Gold South Africa
Bauxite Guinea
Copper Zaire
Platinum South Africa
Chromium South Africa
Vanadium South Africa
Antimony South Africa
Tungsten Zaire
Phosphate Morocco
Managanese South Africa
Diamond Zaire
Iron Ore South Africa
Petroleum Nigeria

Mines of the World
Mine Mineral
Kimberley (South
Africa)
Diamond
Lumbabashi (Zaire) Copper
Wankee (Zimbabwe) Coal
Witwatersrand
(South Africa)
Gold
Katanga (Zaire
Zambia)
Copper and Cobalt
Kasai Province
(Zaire)
Bort Diamond
Industrial Cities
Anshan (China) Iron and Steel
Baku (Azerbaijan) Petroleum
Belfast (Ireland) Ship building
Chicago (USA) Meat Packing
Detroit (USA) Automobile
Havana (Cuba) Cigars
Hollywood (USA) Films
Johannesburg (South
Africa)
Gold Mining
Kansas City (USA) Meat Packing
Kawasaki (Japan) Iron and Steel
Kimberley (South
Africa)
Diamond mining
Krivoi Rog
(Ukraine)
Iron and Steel
Leeds (UK) Woolen Textiles
Leningrad (Russia) Ship Building
Los Angles (USA) Petroleum
Lyon (France) Silk Textiles
Magnitogorsk
(Russia)
Ship Building
Manchester (UK) Cotton Textile
Milan (Italy) Silk Textile
Multan (Pakistan) Pottery
Munich (Germany) Lenses
Nagoya (Japan) Automobiles
Philadelphia (USA) Locomotive
Pittsburg (USA) Iron and Steel
Plymouth (USA) Ship Building
Rourkela (India) Iron and Steel
Sheffield (UK) Cutlery
Vladiovstok (Russia) Ship Building
Wellington (New
Zealand)
Dairying
Important International Boundary Lines
Name of Boundary
Line
In Between
Countries
Radcliff Line India and Pakistan
(1947)
McMahon (1914) India and China
Durand Line (1896) Pakistan and China
Afghanistan
Hindenburg Line Germany and Poland
Maginot Line France and Germany
Oder Neisse Line Germany and Poland
Siegfried Line Fortification
between Germany
and France
38
th
Parallel Line North and South
Korea
49
th
Parallel Line USA and Canada
24
th
Parallel Line Pakistan claims that
it is the boundary
between India and
Pakistan in Rann of
Kuchch
17
th
Parallel Line North Vietnam and
South Vietnam
Changed Name of Cities, States and
Countries
Old Name New Name
Abyssinia Ethiopia
Angora Ankara
Basutoland Botswana
Batavia Djakarata
British Guiana Guyana
Burma Myanmar
Cape Canaveral Cape Kennedy
Cawnpore Kanpur
Central Provinces Madhya Pradesh
Ceylon Sri Lanka
Christina Oslo
Cochin Kochi
Constantinople Istanbul
Dacca Dhaka
Dutch East Indies Indonesia
Dutch Guiana Surinam
Gold Coast Ghana
Madagascar Malagasy
Malaya Malaysia
Mesopotamia Iraq
Nippon Japan
Northern Rhodesia Zambia
Nyasaland Malawi
Peking Beijing
Persia Iran
Petrograd Leningrad
Quilon Kollam
Rangoon Yangon
Rhodesia Zimbabws
Saigon Ho Chi Minh City
Sandwich Islands Hawaiian Islands
Siam Thailand
South West Africa Namibia
Spanish Guinea Equatorial Guinea
Zaire Republic of Congo

Indian Geography
India is the seventh largest country in the
world with an area of 3287263 sq km, which
is 2.42% of world's area.
Total population of India is 1.21 billion
which is 17.5% of world's population.
Lies entirely in the Northern and Eastern
Hemisphere.
North-South Extent 3214 km.
East-West Extent 2933 km.
It has a land frontier of about 15200 km.
Geographical Location 8
0
.4
l

Total Coastline length 7516.5 km. (coastline
length of mainland is 6100 km).
Highest Point Kanchenjunga (8598 m or
28209 ft.)
Lowest Point Kuttanad (-2.2 m or 7.2 ft)
Longest Lake Chilka Lake
Number of States 28
Number of Union Territories 7
Least Populous District Divang Valley, AP
Most Literate State Keerala
Least Literate State Bihar
Most Densely Population State Bihar (1102)
Largest State (area wise) Rajasthan
Smallest State Goa
Most Populous State Uttar Pradesh
Least Populous State Sikkim
In India Tropic of Cancer passes through 8
states (Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh,
Chhatisgarh, Jharkhand, West Bengal,
Tripura and Mizoram).
India shares longest boundary with
Bangladesh (4053 km), followed by China
(3380 km), Pakistan (2912 km), Nepal (1690
km), and Afghanistan (88 km).
Northernmost Point Indira Col
Southernmost Point Indira Point
Westernmost Point West of Ghaur Mota in
Gujarat.
Easternmost Point Kibithu in Arunachal
Pradesh.
State with Longest Coastline Gujarat.
Land Neighbours (7) Pakistan, Afghanistan,
China, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh and
Myammar.
In the south, the Gulf of Mannar and the Pak
Strait separate India from Sri Lanka.
Islands Andaman and Nicobar Islands in
Bay of Bengal; Lakshadweep, Amindive and
Minicoy in the Arabian Sea.
Eastern Ghats and Western Ghats
Eastern Ghats Western Ghats
Located East to
Deccan Plateau.
Located West to
Deccan Plateau.
They are parallel to They are parallel to
Eastern Coast, i.e.,
Coromandal,
Northern Circar, etc.
Western Coast i.e.,
Konkan, Kannad,
Malabar etc.
Mahanadi, Cauveri,
Godavari, Krishna,
etc. rivers are drawn
in this land from
Mahendragiri with
an altitude of 15001
m is the highest peak
here.
Narmada, Tapi,
Sabarmati, and Mahi
etc rivers are drawn
in this land.
Anaimudi with an
altitude of with an
altitude of 2695 m is
the highest peak
here.

Highest Peaks of India
Highest Peak Height
(in m)
State
Kanchenjunga 8598 Sikkim
Nanda Devi 7817 Uttarakhand
Saltoro
Kangri
7742 J & K
Kangto 7090 Arunachal
Pradesh
Reo Purgyil 6816 Himachal
Pradesh
Saramati 3841 Nagaland
Sadakphu 3636 Paschim
Banga
Khayang 3114 Manipur
Anamudi 2695 Kerala
Dodda Betta 2636 Tamil Nadu
Indian States
Situated on the Border
Country Indian States
situated on the
Border
Pakistan (4) Gujarat, Rajasthan,
Punjab, J & K
Afghanistan (1) J &K
China (5) J&K, Uttarakhand,
Himachal Pradesh,
Sikkim, Arunachal
Pradesh
Nepal (5) Uttar Pradesh,
Uttarakhand, Bihar,
West Bengal, Sikkim
Bhutan (4) Sikkim, West
Bengal, Assam,
Arunachal Pradesh
Bangladesh (5) West Bengal,
Assam, Meghalaya,
Tripura, Mizoram
Important Indian Towns in Rivers
Town River
Jamshaidpur Suwarnrekha
Delhi Yamuna
Kanpur Ganga
Surat Tapti
Ferozpur Sutlej
Allahabad At the confluence of
the Ganga and
Yamuna
Varanasi Ganga
Haridwar Ganga
Badrinath Alaknanda
Ludhiana Sutlej
Srinagar Jhelum
Ayodhya Saryu
Ahmedabad Sabarmati
Patna Ganga
Kota Chambal
Jabalpur Narmada
Panji Mandavi
Ujjain Kshipra
Guwahati Brahmaputra
Kolkata Hooghly
Cuttack Mahanadi
Hyderabad Musi
Nasik Godavari
Lucknow Gomti

Important Lakes of India
Chilka Lake Odisha It is a saline and lagoon lake (largest lake of India)
Kolleru Lake Andhra Pradesh It is a freshwater lake.
Loktak Lake Manipur It is a freshwater lake having inland drainage in Manipur.
Sonar Lake Maharashtra It is a meteorite crater lake in Buldhana area of
Maharashtra. The water is highly charged with Sodium
carbonates and Sodium chloride.
Pulicat Lake Tamil Nadu It is a shallow lake which is saline, located near jaipur
Sambhar Lake Rajasthan It is a shallow lake which is saline, located near Jaipur
Vembanad Lake Kerala It is a lagoon lake.
Wular and Dal
lakes
J & K Wular lake was created due to tectonic activities.

Important Rivers of India
Name Originates From Falls into
Gangoes Combined sources Bay of Bengal
Sutlej Mansarovar Rakas Lakes Chenab
Indus Near Mansarovar Lake Arabian Sea
Ravi Kullu Hills near Rohtang Pass Chenab
Beas Near Rohtang Pass Sutlej
Jhelum Verinag in Kashmir Chenab
Yamuna Tamunotri Ganga
Chambal MP Yamuna
Ghagra Matsatung Glacier Ganga
Kosi Near Gosain Dham Peak Ganga
Betwa Vindhyanchal Yamuna
Son Amarkantak Ganga
Brahmaputra Near Mansarovar Lake Bay of Bengal
Narmada Amarkantak Gulf of Khambat
Tapti Betul District in MP Gulf of Khambat
Mahanadi Raipur District in Chhattisgarh Bay of Bengal
Luni Aravallis Rann of Kuchchh
Ghaggar Himalayas Near Fatehbad
Sabarmati Aravallis Gulf of Khambat
Krishna Western Ghats Bay of Bengal
Godavari Nasik district in Maharashtra Bay of Bengal
Cauveri Barhmagir Range of Western
Ghats
Bay of Bengal
Tungabhadara Western Ghats Krishna River

Important River Projects and their Beneficiary States
Project River Purpose Beneficiary States
Bhakra Nangal
Project
Sutlej Power and irrigation Punjab, Himachal
Pradesh, Haryana
Damodar Valley Damodar Power, Irrigation and
flood control
Bihar and Paschim
Banga, shared by
Madhya Pradesh
Hirakud Mahanadi Power and irrigation Odisha
Tungabhadra Project Tungabhadra Power and irrigation Andhra Pradesh and
Karnataka
Nagarjunasagar
Project
Krishna Power and irrigation Andhra Pradesh
Gandak River Project Gandak Power and irrigation,
Nepal ( joint venture)
Bihar, Uttar Pradesh
Kosi Project Kosi Flood Control, Power
and irrigation
Bihar
Farakka Project Ganga, Bhagirathi Avoid accumulation
of slit to improve
navigation
Paschim Banga
Beas Project Beas Irrigation and Power Rajasthan, Haryana,
Punjab and Himachal
Pradesh
Indira Gandhi Project Sutlej, Beas, Ravi Irrigation Rajasthan, Punjab and
Haryana
Chambal Project Chambal Power and irrigation Gujarat
Kakrapara Project Tapti Irrigation Gujarat
Ukai Project Tapti Power and Irrigation Madhya Pradesh
Tawadt Project Tawa (Narmada) Irrigation Madhya Pradesh
Poochampad Project Godavari Irrigation Karnataka
Malaprabha Project Malaprabha Irrigation Karnataka
Durgapur Barrage Damodar Irrigation and
Navigation
Bihar
Mahanadi Delta
Project
Mahanadi Irrigation Odisha
Iddukki Project Periyar Hydro-electricity Kerala
Koyna Project Koyna Hydro-electricity Maharashtra
Ramganga
Multipurpose Project
Chisot Stream Power and irrigation Uttar Pradesh
Mataatilla Project Betwa Multipurpose Power
and irrigation
Uttar Pradesh and
Madhya Pradesh
Tehri Dam Project Bhilangana,
Bhagirathi
Hydroelectricity Uttar Pradesh
Thein Dam Project Rivers Ravi Punjab Irrigation and
Hydroelectricity
Rihand Scheme
Sardar Sarowar
Project
Rihand River
Narmada
Hydroelectricity
Gujarat and MP
Irrigation and
Hydroelectricity
Kundah Project Kundah Hydroelectricity and
irrigation
Tamil Nadu

Geographical Epithets Important Passes
City of Skyscrapers New York Niti-La-Pass Zaskar Range (UP)
City of Seven Hill Rome Burzi-La-Pass J & K
City of Dreaming
Spires
Oxford Joji-La-Pass J & K
China's Sorrow Hwan Ho Shipki-La-Pass HP
Gate of Tears Strait of Bab-el-
Mandeb
Dharma Pass Zaskar Range
Gate of India Bombay Thal Ghat Pass Sahyadri
Gift of the Nile Egypt Bgorghat Pass Sahyadri
Holy Land Palestine Palghat Between Nilgiris &
Annamalai
Lane of Midnight Sun Norway Banihal Main gateway to the
Valley of Kashmir
from the plains of
India.
Land of the Morning
Calm
Korea Bolan Between Kirthar and
Sulaiman Range
Land of White
Elephant
Thailand Mala Zaskar Range
Land of Lakes Scotland Nathu-La-Pass Sikkim Himalaya
Rose Pink City Jaipur Jelep-La-Pass Sikkim Himalaya
Sugar Bowl of the
World
Cuba
Windy City Chicago
Yellow River Hwang-Ho

Important Rive Projects and National Parks
National Park/ Sanctuary Place State
Karzirange National Park Jorhat Assam
Manas Wildlife Sanctuary Barpet Assam
Namdapha Wildlife Sanctuary Tirap Arunachal Pradesh
Chandra Prabha Sanctuary Varanasi Uttar Pradesh
Corbett National Park Nainital Uttar Pradesh
Dudhwa National Park Lakhimpur Kheri Uttar Pradesh
Govind Sanctuary Uttar Kashi Uttar Pradesh
Simlipal Sanctuary Mayurbhanj Orissa
Nalpati Bird Sanctuary Nellore Andhra Pradesh
Mudumalai Sanctuary Nilgiri Tamil Nadu
Vedanthangal Bird Sanctuary Chinglepet Tamil Nadu
Bandipur National Park Bandipur Karnataka
Dandeli Sanctuary Dharwar Karnataka
Sharavati Valley Sanctuary Shimoga Karnataka
Rangathitoo Bird Sanctuary Mysore Karnataka
Banarthatta National Park Bangalore Karnataka
Bhadra Sanctuary Chikmanglur Karnataka
Nagarhole National Park Durg Karnataka
Someshwar Sanctuary Kanara Karnataka
Tungabhadra Sanctuary Bellary Karnataka
Parambikulam Sanctuary Palghat Kerala
Periyar Sanctuary Idukki Kerala
Kanchanjunga National Park Gangtok Sikkim
Dampha Sanctuary Aizawal Mizoram
Gir National Park Junagarh Gujarat
Dachigam Sanctuary Sri Nagar Gujarat
Jaldapara Sanctuary Jalpaiguri West Bengal
Sunderban Tiger Reserve 24 Pargana West Bengal
Palamau Sanctuary Daltonganj (Betla) Bihar
Bhimbandh Sanctuary Monghyr Bihar
Gautam Buddha Sanctuary Gaya Bihar
Hazaribagh Sanctuary Hazaribagh Bihar
Dalma Sanctuary Singhbhum Madhya Pradesh
Panchmarhi Sanctuary Hoshangabad Madhya Pradesh
Madhav Nation Park Sheopuri Madhya Pradesh
Kanha Kisli National Park Balaghat Madhya Pradesh
Bandhavgarh National Park Shahdol Madhya Pradesh
Indravati National Park Bastar Madhya Pradesh
Fossil National Park Mandla Madhya Pradesh
Panna National Park Panna Madhya Pradesh
Sanjay National Park Sidhi (Sarguja) Madhya Pradesh
Satpura National Park Hoshangabad Madhya Pradesh
Ratapani Sanctuary Raisen Madhya Pradesh
Borivalli Sanctuary Mumbai Maharashtra
Tadowa Sanctuary Chandrapura Maharashtra
Pench Sanctuary Nagpur Maharashtra
Navgaon National Park Bhandara Maharashtra
Ranthambhore National Park Swami Madhopur Rajasthan
Sariska Sanctuary Alwar Rajasthan
Keoladeo Ghand Bird
Sanctuary
Bharatpur Rajasthan
Ross Island National PArk Ross Island Andaman & Nicobar
Marine National Park Andaman Andaman & Nicobar

FORESTS OF INDIA
Forest Type Distribution Climatic
Condition
Species
Tropical
Evergreen
Forests
Rainy slopes of western
Ghats NE India excepts
Arunachal Pradesh.
Easter part of West
Bengal and Odisha.
Andaman and Nicobar
Islands
Rainfall>200 cm
Relative Humidity
>70%
Average
Temperature is
about 24C
Hot and Humid
Height of
tress is 40
to 60 cm.
Leaves are
dark green
and broad
Manogany,
Mahua Bamboo,
Cones,
Iron wood,
Kadam, Irul,
Jamun, Hopea,
Rubber Tree,
Climate Toon, Telsur etc.
Tropical
Moist
Declduoud
Forests
Eastern parts of
Sahyadris (Western
Ghats)
North Eastern part of
Peninsula.
Middle and Lower Ganga
valley.
Foothills of Himalayas in
Bhabar and Tarai region.
These cover about 20%
India's forest area.
100 to 200 cm
rainfall per annum.
Moderate
temperature
30 to 40 m
high trees.
Due to
deficiency
of water,
they shed
their
leaves in
spring
(onset of
summer).
Sal, Teak, Arjun,
Mulberry,
Kusum,
Sandalwood,
Siris, Haldi,
kahair, Mango
Banyan tree etc.
Tropical
Dry
Large parts of
Maharashtra and Andhra
Pradesh.
Parts of Punjab, Haryana
and Eastern parts of
Rajasthan.
Northern and Western
parts of Pradesh.
Tamil Nadu
Southern parts of Uttar
Pradesh

50 to 100 cm
rainfall.
Moderate humidity
6 to 15
high
Roots are
thick and
long
Teak, Sal,
Bamboo, Mango,
Acacia, Neem
Shisham etc.
Dry Forests
or Arid
Forests
Rajasthan and adjoining
Areas of Haryana,
Gujarat and Punjab.
Rainshadow area of
peninsular India.
Low rainfall (less
than 50 cm per
annum).
Relative humidity
is less
Thorny
vegetation.
Roots are
very log.
Leaves are
small
Cactus, Throny,
bushes, Kikar,
Babool,
Date, Palm,
Acacia, Khair,
Euphorbias etc.

Other Forests of India
Mountain Forests of Himalayan Forests
Due to the increase of altitude, the temperature decreases hence Himalayan forests
countain all the varieties of world except equatorial forests.
Importat species of tress are Sal, Teak, Chir, Deodar, Oak, Alive, Chestnut, Conifers,
Spruce and Lirch etc.
Tidal Forests or Mangrove Forests or Swampy Forests
These are found in deltaic plain along the coast of sea and proven to be one of the best
species of tress which maintains healthy ecological balance.
These can survive in salty as well as in fresh water.
Important species are Sunari, Mangrroves, Bruguiera, Sonneratia, Agar, Keora, Nipa etc.
Tribes of India
Tribe States Tribe States
Abors Arunachal Pradesh Khasia Asom, Meghalaya
Baigas Madhya Pradesh Lushais Tripura
Bhils MP & Rajasthan
mainly
Mundas Bihar, Odisha,
Paschim Banga
Chechus Andhra Pradesh,
Odisha
Nagas Manipur, Nagaland
Gaddis Himachal Pradesh Shompens Andaman and Nicobar
Islands
Nick Names of Important Indian Places
Nice Name Place Nick Name Place
Manchester of India Ahmedabad Switzerland of India Kashmir
Golden City Amritsar Venice of the East Kochi
Egg blow of Asia Andhra Pradesh Garden of Spices of
India
Kerala
Silicon Valley of
India
Bengaluru Queen of Arabian Sea Kochi
Space City Bengaluru City of Buildings Kolkata
Garden City of India Bengaluru Sorrow of Bihar Kosi River
Electronic City of
India
Bengaluru City of Nawabs Lucknow
Manchester of the
South
Comibatore Soya Region Madhya Pradesh
Sorrow of Bengal Damodar River City of Awabs Madurai
Sacred River Ganga Pearl of Karnataka Maysor
Old Ganga Godavari Hollywood of India Mumbai
Dakshin Ganga Godavari Gateway of India Mumbai
Twin City Hydrabad-
Secundarabad
Cit y of Seven Islands Mumbai
Heaven of India J & K City of Rallies New Delhi
Pink City Jaipur State of Five Rivers Punjab
Steel City of India Jamshedpur
(Tatanagar)
Abode of the Gods Prayag (Allahabad)
Manchester of the
North
Kanpur City of Temples Varanasi

Mangroves of India Monsoon
Region State/UT A type of wind system in which there is almost
complete reversal of prevailing winds
direction.
Type
1. South West Monsoon (June and July)
2. North East Monsoon (September to
December)
Seasons of India
Sundarban West Bengal
Mahanadi Delta Bhitarkanika (Orrisa)
Godavari and Krishna Andhra Pradesh
Vembanad Kerala
Teak and Deodar woods is used for
making railways sleepers. Willow and
mulberry wood is used for making
sports goods.
Jalandhar, Amritsar, Jammu and
Meerut are important Centres for sports
goods.
Winter Season Mid December to Mid
March.
Summer Season Mild March to May.
Rainy Season June to September.
Season to Retreating Monsoon October
of Mid December

Climatic Regions of India
Type Areas Characteristics
Tropical Rain Forests Western Ghats, West Coastal
Plains, Parts of Assam
High, Temperature throughout this
year, heavy seasonal rainfall,
annual rainfall 200 cm annually
(May to November)
Tropical Savana Climate Most of Peninsular region
(expect leeward side of
Western Ghats)
Dry winters, annual rainfall varies
from 76 cm to 150 cm.
Tropical Semi-Arid-
Steppe Climate
Rainshadow belt running
South ward from Central
Maharashtra to Tamil Nadu.
Low rainfall varies from 38 cm to
80 cm and temperature from 20 to
30 C.
Tropical and Sub-tropical
Steppes
Punjab, Haryana and kuchchh
region
Temperature varies from 20 to 30
12-35 C
Tropical Desert Western Parts of Barmar,
Jaisalmer and Bikaner district
of Rajasthan and parts of
Kuchchh South of Himalayas
Scanty rainfall (mostly in form of
cloud burst), high temperature
Humid Sub-Tropical
Climate with Dry winters
Mild winters and extremely not
summers
Mountain Climate Mountains region (above 6000
m or more)
Rainfall varies from 63.5 cm to
254 cm. (mostly during South
West Monsoon)
Chief Crops and Producing States
Type Name Major Producers
Cereals Wheat Uttar Pradesh, Punjab and Haryana
Rice West Bengal and Tamil Nadu
Gram Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan
Berley Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan
Bajra Maharashtra, Gujarat and Rajasthan
Cash Crops Sugarcane Uttar Pradesh and Maharashtra
Poppy Uttar Pradesh and Himachal Pradesh
Oil Seeds Coconut Kerala and Tamil Nadu
Linseed Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh
Groundnut Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat and Tamil Nadu
Rape and Mustard Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh
Sesame Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan
Sunflower Maharashtra and Karnataka
Fibre Crops Cotton Maharashtra
Jute West Bengal and Bihar
Silk Karnataka and Kerala
Hemp Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh
Plantations Coffee Karnataka and Kerala
Rubber Kerala and Karnataka
Tea Assam and Kerala
Tobacco Gujarat, Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh
Spices Pepper Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu
Cashewnuts Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh
Ginger Kerala and Uttar Pradesh
Turmeric Andhra Pradesh and Orissa
Mineral Resources of India Non Metallic Coal, Mica, Manganese,
Petroleum and Sulphur
Types of Minerals Radioactive Uranium and Throrium
Metallic Iron ore, Copper, aluminum, tin, lead,
gold and silver
Gondwana rocks (Chhotanagpur Plateau) are
the richest mineral deposits in India.
Mineral Resources of India
Mineral States
Coal West Bengal, Jharkhand, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh and Chattisgarh
Copper Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Jharkhand, Karnataka
Gold Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh
Iron Madhya Pradesh, Goa, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Odisha
Bauxite Orissa, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh,
Gujarat and Tamil Nadu
Mica Jharkhand, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh and Rajasthan
Petroleum Gujarat, Mumbai High, Bassein (South of Mumbai High)
Uranium Jharkhand, Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh and Karanataka
Thorium Kerala Coast, Rocks of Aravali in Rajasthan
Silver, Zinc and
Lead
Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka (Kolar mines)
Diamond Panna (MP) Banada (UP)

Soils in India
Types of Soils States where
found/occurrence
Compositions Crops grow
Alluvial Punjab, Haryana, Uttar
Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand
Rich in Potash and
Lime but deficient in
nitrogen and
phosphoric acid
Large variety of Rabi
and Khariff crops
such as wheat, rice,
sugarcane, cotton and
jute etc.
Black (or Regur
Soil)
Deccan Plateau, Valleys
of Krishna and Godavari,
Andhra Pradesh, Madhya
Rich in iron, lime,
aluminium,
magnesium, calcium
Cotton Sugarcane,
jowar, tobacco, wheat,
rice
Pradesh and Tamil Nadu but lacks in nitrogen,
phosphorus and
humus
Red Eastern parts of Deccan
Plateau, Tamil Nadu, Goa,
Orissa and Meghalaya
Rich in iron and
Potash but deficient in
lime, nitrogen
phosphorus and
humus
Wheat, rice, cotton,
sugarcane and pulses
Leterite Summits of Eastern and
Western Ghats, Assam
hills, Andhra Pradesh,
Karnataka and Orissa
Rich in iron but poor
in Silica, lime
phosphorus, potash
and humus
Tea, Coffee, Rubber,
cashew and millets
Desert West and North-West
India, Rajasthan, North
Gujarat and Southern
Punjab
Rich in soluble salts
but deficient in
organic matter
Generally unsuitable
for cultivation of
drought-resistant lime,
millets, barely, cotton,
maize and pulses
Mountain Hills of Jammu and
Kashmir, Uttarakhand and
Assam Hills
Rich in iron and
humus but deficient in
lime
with fertilizers, tea,
fruits and medicinal
plants can be grown
Saline and
Alkaline
Drier parts of Bihar,
Jharkhand, Uttar Pradesh,
Haryana, Punjab,
Rajasthan and
Maharashtra
Many slats such as
sodium, magnesium
and calcium
Unfit for agriculture
Peaty and Marshy Kerala, coastal regions of
Orissa, Tamil Nadu and
Suderbans of West Bengal
Contain large amount
of soluble salts and
organic matter but
lack in potash and
phosphates
Useful of rice and jute
cultivation

Transportation in India
Railways
Indian Railway system is the largest in Asia
and the fourth largest in the world.
The Indian Railways operate in three
different gauges.
Broad Gauge
(Distance between rails in 1.676 m)
Metre Gauge
(Distance between rails is 1.00 m)
Narrow Gauge
(Distance between rails is 0.762 or 0.610 m)
The longest railways platform in
India is now Gorakhpur with a
stretch of around 1.3 km.
Railway Zones
Railway Zone Headquarter
Central Mumbai
Eastern Kolkata
Northern New Delhi
North Eastern Gorakhpur
North-East Frontier Maligaon-Guwahati
Southern Chennai
South Central Secunderabad
South Eastern Kolkata
Wetern Mumbai
Churchgate
East Coast Bhupaneshwar
East Central Hajipur
North Central Allahabad
North Western Bengaluru (Hubli)
West Central Jabalpur
South-East Central Bilaspur
Kolkata Metro Kolkata

The first train ran in India between Bombay
and Thane, a stretch of 34 km on April 16,
1853.
The Second trains ran between Howrah and
Hooghly in 1854.
The first electric train in India was Deccan
Queen. It was introduced in 1929 between
Bombay and Poona.
The longest train route if 'Vivek Express'
from Dibrugarh in Asom to Kanyakumari in
Tamil Nadu. It covers a distance of 4278 km
(2658 miles)
The first metro rail was introduced in
Kolkata (Paschim Banga) on October 24,
1984. The two stations connected were
Dumdum and Beigachhia.
Indian railways has a network of 7030
stations spread over a route length of 63974
km with a fleet of 8593 locomotives.
Road Transport
India has one of the largest rad networks in
the world (33 lakh km approx). It consists of
National highways, State highways;
major/other district roads and rural roads.
NH 7 is the longest highway of India.
NH 47 A is the smallest highway of India.
The Golden Quadrilateral project connecting
the four metropolitan cities of Delhi,
Mumbai, Chennai and Kolkata and covering
a total distance of 5952 km, is currently
being processed. It is the first phase of the
national Highways Development Projects
(NHDP).
Important National Highways
NH Connects
NH1 New Delhi-Ambala-Jalandhar-
Amritsar
NH2 Delhi-Mathura-Agra-Kanpur
Allahbad-Varansi-Kolkata
NH3 Agra-Gwalior-Nasuik-Mumbai
NH4 Thane and Chennai via Pune and
Belgaum
NH5 Kolkata Chennai
NH6 Kolkata Dhule
NH7 Varanasi-Kanyakumar
NH8 Delhi-Mumbai(via Jaipur, Baroda
& Ahmedabad)
NH9 Mumbai-Vijaywada
NH10 Delhi-Fazlka
NH24 Delhi-Lucknow
NH26 Lucknow-Varanasi
NH81 Bihar (W. Bengal)
NH86 U.P., M.P.
NH88 HP
NH89 Rajasthan
NH152 Assam
NH212 Kerala, Karnataka

The North South-East West Corridor (NS-
EW) is the largest ongoing expressway
project in India. It is the second phase of the
National Highways Development Project
(NHDP) and involves building 7300 km of
six lane expressway connecting Srinagar,
Kanakumari, Porbandar and Silchar.
NS-ED Corridor cut each other at Jhansi.
Maharashtra has the maximum length of
surfaced roads in India.
Water Transport
The government has recognized the
following National Waterways of India.
NW1 Allahabad to
Haldia
1629 km
NW2 Sadia to
Dhubri on
Brahmaputra
river
819 km
NW3 Kollam to
Kottapuram
186 km
NW4 Kakinada to
Marak-
kanam along
Godavari
and Krishna
river
1110 km
NW5 Talcher-
Dhamra
stretch of the
Brahmani
Rivers
623 km
NW6 Lakhipur to
Bhanga of
river Barak
121 km

12 Major Ports in India
Western Coast
Kandla (child of
partition) Gujarat
Eastern Coast
Paradip (exports raw
iron to japan) Odisha
Mumbai (busiest &
Diggest)
Maharashtra JL
Vishakhpatnam
(deepest port)
Andhra Pradesh
Nehru (Fastest
growing)
Maharashtra
Mermugao (Nagal
base also) Goa
Chennai (oldest &
artificial) Tamil
Nadu Ennore (most
modern in private
hands) Tamil Nadu
Mangalore (exports
Kudremukh Iro-ore)
Karnataka Cochin
Post Blair (natural
harbor) Kerala
Kandla is a Tidal
port.
Tuticorin
(southernmost)
Tamil Nadu

(Strategically
important) Andaman
and Nicobar Islands
Air Transport
On February 18, 1911, first commercial
plane flew in India between Allahabad and
Naini with a consignment of mails. 2011
marks its hundred years of celebrations in
India.
JRD Tata was the first person to take a solo
flight from Mumbai to Karachi in 1931.
In 1953, all the private airline companies
were nationalized and Indian Airlines and
Air India came into existence.
There are 12 international airports in India.
International
Airports
City
Begumpet Airport Hyderabad
Calicut International Calicut
Airport
Chhatrapati Shivaji
International Airport
Mumbai
Hal Airport Bangaluru
Goa Aiport in Vasco
da Gama City
Goa
Netaji Subash Chandra
Bose International
Airport
Kolkata
Thriuvananthapuram
International Airport
Thiruvananathpura
m
Lokpriya Gopinath
Bordoloi Internatioal
Airport
Guwahati
Sardar Vallabhbhai
Patel International
Airport
Ahmedabad
Indira Gandhi
International Aiprot
Delhi
Meenambkan
International Airport
Chennai
Raja Sansi
International Airport
Amritsar

Ocean Currents
The regular movements of water from one
part of the ocean to another are called
"Ocean Currents". They are mainly caused
by the difference in density of sea water due
to variations in temperature and salinity. The
prevailing winds push them onwards. The
position of the land masses and the shape
and depth of the ocean basins also have
some influence. Main causes of ocean
currents include winds, difference in density
owing to variations in temperature and
salinity. Ocean currents may be cold or
warm.
Atlantic Ocean Currents
1. North Equatorial Current: Attributed
to NE-Trade winds, it starts from
west coast of Africa where upwelling
of cold water takes 5 and 20 N as
warm current. A branch of it is
diverted into Caribbean Sea as
"Antilles Current."
2. South Equatorial Current: Flows
south of the equator 0 and 12
latitude in between the coast of
Africa and S. America. This warm
current is virtually the continuation
of cold Benguela current.
3. Equatorial Counter Current: This
warm current flows between the two
strong equatorial currents and moves
towards the opposite direction in the
east. In the eastern part it is known
as "Guinea Current".
4. Florida Warm Current: It flows from
the strait of Florida to Cape Hatteras
which is a continuation of North
Equatorial current in the Gulf of
Mexico.
5. Gulf Stream: The warm water of
Antilles and Florida current after
joining together flows as Gulf
Stream, off the Cape Hatteras. Then,
it is deflected eastward under the
combined influence of westerlies and
the rotation of the earth.
6. North Atlantic Drift: East of Grand
Bank, the Gulf Stream flows as slow
moving North Atlantic Drift. It is
further divided into two parts the
northern branch flows in the
Norwegian Sea and the southern
branch flows south of Ireland as
"Irminger Current"; another branch
flows along the coast of France and
Spain as "Canary Current".
7. Labrador Cold Current: It flows from
Arctic Ocean and move southward
along the coast of Canada and meets
the warm Gulf Stream producing
famous fog around along the
Newfoundland as the great fishing
ground.
8. Brazilian Warm Current: It flows
along the S. American coast as the
southward continuation of South
Equatorial Current.
9. Falkland Cold Current: Similar to
Labrador cold current, this cold
current, this cold water of Antarctica
moves on along the Argentina coast.
It brings bergs with it.
10. South Atlantic Drift: It is
continuation of easterly deflected
Brazilian current which moves
earthward between 45 to 60 S
under the influence of strong west-
erlies. A branch of it is diverted
along the west coast of Africa and
moves north as "Benguela Current".
11. Benguela Current: This cold rent
flows northward along the west-
Africa coast. It finally joins South
Equatorial Current.
Indian Ocean Currents
Being blocked in the north by the
continental mass the Indian Ocean
represents only the Southern parts of the
ocean. The northern part develops a reversal
system of currents as per the seasonal
rhythm of Monsoon. In summer the North
Equatorial current is replaced by SW
Monsoon current flowing from west to east
and throwing branches into the Bay of
Bengal and the Arabian Sea. On the northern
coast of Africa along Somaliland the
upwelling takes place and a cold current
develops, known as "Somali Current". South
Equatorial current flows north of 20S
between Australia and Africa. After striking
the landmass of Africa it splits into many
branches; the major one turning southward
to form the "Agulhas Current",
Mozambique Current: A branch of South
Equatorial Current at 65E is bifurcated
towards the North of Malagassy Republic
and Flows through the Mozambique
Channel known as Mozambique current.
West Wind Drift: Under the stress of
westerly wind the cold water, 40S moving
in the easterly direction is known as West
Wind Drift. Or branch of it flows northward
along Australia which forms West Australia
Cold Current.
West Australian Cold Current: Flowing on
the west coast of Australia, it gains its water
from west wind drift.
Pacific Ocean Currents
The Ocean Currents in the Pacific Ocean
have a pattern similar to that in the Atlantic
Ocean. Due to vast water masses the counter
current has become very stable.
1. North Equatorial Current: It flows
from Mexican coast to Philippines.
between 5N and 10 N latitude. It is a
warm well developed 'current.
2. South Equatorial Current: It is also a
warm current, south of North
Equatorial current.
3. Counter Equatorial Current: This
warm current is very stable in nature.
4. Kuroshio Warm Current: Similar to
Gulf stream of Atlantic Ocean, it
flows from Formosa to Rique,
"Tsushima Current" is its branch
which goes (to Japan Sea and is a
warm current).
5. Kurile/Oyashio Cold Current: It
flows southward from the Bering
strait. Near 50N latitude it meets to
Kuroshio Current causing fog.
6. Californian Cold Current: Similar to
Canaries current it flows along the
west coast of N. America.
7. Peru! Humboldt Cold Current: It
flows along the Peru Coast.
8. East Australian Current: It is warm
current along the east Australian
Coast.
9. West Wind Drift: This cold current
flows from west to east direction
between 405 and 505. It is also
called as "Roaring Forties".

Tides
The alternative rise and fall of the level of the Sea, approximately twice a day, caused by the
gravitational pull of the moon and the Sun is called tide. The gravitational attraction of the moon
is twice as powerful as that of the Sun. The moon despite being much smaller in size than the
Sun is relatively very close to the earth and is thus able to attract more than the Sun.
High Tide: When the intensity of the wave is great, the waves are of considerable amplitude and
so the sea water comes over the coast to some extent. Such waves constitute a high tide.
Low Tide: When the height of the wave is not much, sea water recedes from the shore. Such
waves constitute a low tide.
Ebb Tide: The tide between a high tide and a low tide is known as ebb tide.
Spring tide: When the amplitude difference of the tide in a day is at maximum, the tide is called
spring tide. It occurs on new moon and full moon days. High tides are very high and low tides
very low on those days.
Neap Tide: When the amplitude of the tide is minimum. It occurs on the first quarter and last
quarter of the moon. High tides are comparatively low and low tides comparatively high.
Tidal Bores: When a tidal wave meets a tidal river or estuary, a tidal bore is formed. Where the
outgoing river currents are strong and the tidal river rather swallow and tunnel shaped, the
rapidly rising high water advances up stream like a high vertical wall, known as tidal bore.
Geographical Terms
Alluvium : Sedimentary matter deposited by rivers. It makes the soil fertile.
Aphelion : The position of the earth in its orbit when it is at its greatest distance
from the Sun (opposed to perihelion).
Archipelago : A group of islands, such as Malaysian Archipelago.
Atoll : It is a coral reef of the shape of a horse-shoe or ring with a lagoon in
the centre, e.g. Laccadive Islands.
Black Soil : It is the black soil of Deccan, also known as Regur. This soil is very
fertile, and ideal for the production of cotton.
Cape : The point of termination or a neck of land extending into the sea.
Cold Wall : A cold current that flows between Greenland and America.
Coniferous Forest : A forest of evergreen cone-bearing tress, the shape of whose leaves is
like a needle.
Continental Shelf : A part of land which is submerged under the sea, and whose depth is
nor more than 600 ft. This area is the richest fishing ground.
Contours : Lines connecting parts of the same altitude above sea level.
Coral : A kind of rock formed from skeleton of certain marine polyps (small
insects). coral islands are near Australia. The skeleton is composed of
carbonates of lime. These organisms are also known as Arthozoa.
Crop Rotation : Crop produced in regular succession one after the other so that the
land may not remain vacant, and the fertility of the soil may not be
affected.
Date line : It is situated 180 meridian from Greenwich; a ship while crossing the
line eastwards goes forward a (or International Date Line) day, while
westwards it goes back a day.
Deciduous Forests : Broad-Leaved tress found in temperature regions. The leaves fall off
in autumn.
Delta : An alluvial deposit shaped like the Greek letter formed at the mouth of
river. The Nile Delta is well known.
Dry Farming : A method of farming without irrigation in an area of limited rainfall,
the land being treated so as to conserve the moisture it contains. The
term is usually confined to raising of crops in such areas.
Doldrums : The region lying within 5N and 5S of Equator where the air is rising
and the pressure is low. The doldrum belt characterized by thundry
conditions; convectional downpours are a rule every after noon. This
is a region of high rainfall, high humidity and uncomfortable
temperature.
Eclipses : They are caused on account of the revolution of the earth and the
moon; the principle is that light travels in a straight line. When the
earth comes in between the sun and the moon, lunar eclipse is caused,
whereas we have solar eclipse when the moon comes in between the
earth and the sun.
El Nino : A phenomenon noticed in the Pacific Ocean near the Chilean coast. It
is now believed that it has a major impact on the onset of monsoons in
India.
Equator : The imaginary line around the earth which divides it into two equal
parts, the northern and the southern hemispheres.
Equinoxes : March 21 and September 23, when days and nights are of equal
duration throughout the globe.
Erosion : Gradual destruction or wearing away of the land by rain, river water,
glacier and wind.
Estuary : A broad channel such as the Thames Estuary, where river and sea
waters mingle.
Fauna : The animals founds in any particular region.
Flora : The plant life of any particular region.
Fossil : Remains of plants and animals, preserved in the rocks, or under the
earth. It traces the evolutionary changes in animal and plant life.
Geyser : Is a fountain of hot water issuing from a hold which extends deep into
the earth's crust. The water is hurled high into the air by the force of
steam formed low down in the hole. It contains minerals in solution,
and they get deposited around the hold from which the water gushes
out.
Greenwich Mean
Time
: The local time of Greenwich Observatory, London (on the zero
meridian). which is the standard time for the British Isles. France in
1979 decided to discontinue observance of GMT.
Horse Latitudes : The regions of calm between 30 to 35 north and south of equator.
Hydrosphere : It is the liquid cover, which surrounds the earth. It refers to watery
surface. It accounts for 71% of the earth's surface. It consists of a
number of oceans, seas, bays, gulfs and lakes.
Ice Age : A period during which ice-sheets and glaciers covered large areas of
the continents. The present ice-sheets of Greenland and Antarctica are
relics of this Ice Age.
Iceberg : A large mass of ice detached from glacier and floating in the sea.
Igloo : It is the dome-shaped hut of snow in which Eskimos live.
International Date
Line
: See under Date Line
Lagoon : A shallow lake formed at the mouth of a river or near the sea, but
separated from it by a sand mound.
Lithosphere : The hard crust of the earth on which we live. The solid globe of the
earth as distinguished from its two envelops, the atmosphere and the
hydrosphere. IT covers only 29% of the surface of the earth.
Lithosphere is very important because man builds his home and finds
or creates conditions favourable for his material development
Light Year : The distance travelled by light in one year. Light travels at the rates of
1,86,000 miles per second. It is a unit of measuring the distance
heavenly bodies
Perihelion : The position of the earth, or of another heavenly body in its orbit
when it is at its nearest point of the sun. The earth reaches its
perihelion during the northern winter.
Prime Meridian : The prime or first meridian if the meridian from which longitude is
measured. It passes through Greenwich.
Reef : Ridge of rock and sand at or just above or below the surface of water.
Roaring Forties : Steady north-west anti-trade winds between latitude 40 and 50 degrees
south.
Seismograph : It is an instrument, which indicated the locality and intensity of an
earthquake.
Snow Line : That altitude above which snow lies permanently at any place, and it
does not melt throughout the year; generally this altitude is 18,000 ft.
Tides : The alternate rise and fall of the surface of the sea, approximately
twice a day caused by the gravitational pull of the moon and to a
lesser degree of the sun.
Trades Winds : Regular steady winds in the tropics between latitude 30 degrees N and
30 degrees S blowing towards the equator.
Tundra : A stretch of land or undulating plaints round the shores of the Arctic
Ocean, 60N is the northern most limit. The temperature is below
freezing point at least in one month. The Eskimos follow hunting and
fishing as occupation. Reindeer is the principal animal but dog a
domesticated animal.
Tornado : A violent storm of the cyclonic type, occurs usually in spring or early
summer in the U.S.A. and Australia.
Westerlies or : Blow between 30 degrees to 60 degrees N and S of the equator, and
give rainfall on the west margins Anti-Trade winds of the continents.
Zenith : The highest point in the heavens directly above our head.

Industries in India
A number of industries have developed in India. The major industries are:
(i) Cotton textiles: This is the most important industry in India in terms of employment
and production of export goods. Although Maharashtra and Gujarat are the chief
centres, other important states in this field are Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh, West
Bengal, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. Tamil Nadu has the largest
number of cotton textiles mills.
(ii) Jute: India manufactures the largest quantity of goods in the world. This industry of
jute goods in the world. This industry is located mainly in West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh
and Madhya Pradesh.
(iii) Silk Textiles: Karnataka leads in silk textiles, followed by Assam, West Bengal,
Bihar, Madhya Pradsh and Jammu & Kashmir.
(iv) Woollen Textiles: The distribution of the woollen industry seems to have been
affected industry seems to have been affected more by the market factor than by the
raw material factor. The most important producers as Punjab, Maharashtra and Uttar
Pradesh followed by Gujarat, Karnataka and Jammu and Kashmir.
(v) Iron and Steel: This industry is basic to industrial development. It is located near the
sources of raw material of Jamshedpur, Burnpur, Bhadrawati, Salem and
Visakhapatnam. Except for the Tata Iron and Steel Company (TISCO) plant at
Jamshedpur, all of them are in the public sector. Steel Authority of India limited is the
fully owned company of Government of India which five integrated Steel Plants are
working. Together they account for a capacity of 9.4 million tones of ingot steel per
years. The per capita consumption of steel in the country is only fourteen kg. which is
extremely low when compared to 700 kgs. to 800 kgs. in certain develop countries.
the steel plants are: (1) Bhilai steel plant in Chattisgarh (2) Durgapur Steel Plant in
West Bengal (3) Rourkela Steel Plant in Orissa (4) Bokaro Steel Plant in Jharkhand
(5) Burnpur Steel Plant in Orissa. The Bhilai and Boka plants were established with
Soviet collaboration, the Durgapur plant with British collaboration, and the Rourkela
plant with German collaboration. A new shore-based plant has been established a
Visakhapatnam in Andhra Pradesh in collaboration with Russia.
(vi) Aluminium: The location of this industry (smelting of aluminium) is closely related to
the availability of raw material or means of transport and cheap electricity. Smelting
units are in Belgaum, Hirakud, Alwaye, ALupuram, Renukoot, Mettur, Jaykaynagar,
Koraput, Korba and Ratnagiri.
(vii) Copper smelting: The maubhander unit of the Indian Copper Corporation Ltd was the
first copper smelting unit in India. The second is in Khetri, Rajasthan, one of the
largest of its type in the world. Hindustan Copper Limited has
implemented the Malanjkhand Copper Project in Balaghat district in Madhya Pradesh
and Taloja Copper Project in Maharashtra.
(viii) Heavy Machinery: This is called the heavy engineering industry. The major plants are
located at Ranchi, Visakhapatnam and Durgapur.
(ix) Machine tools: The most important company in this field in Hindustan Machine Tools
Ltd with plants Bangalore, Pinjore, Kalamassery, Hyderabad and Sringar.
(x) Heavy Electricals: The Bharat Heavy Electrical Ltd plants are located at Bhopal,
Hyderabad, Tiruchirapalli and Hardwar.
(xi) Railway Equipment: Railway engines are made of Chittaranjan, Varanasi,
Jamshedpur and Bhopal (electric engines). Railway coaches are made at the Integral
Coach Factory at Perambur, Tamil Nadu and at Kapurthala in Punjab.
(xii) Ship Building: The largest shipbuilding unit is Hindustan Shipyard at Visakhapatnam,
followed by the Cochin Shipyard. Mazagaon Dock at Mumbai is smaller unit.
(xiii) Automobiles: Cars are manufactured at Bombay (Fiat), Calcutta (ambassador), and
Gurgaon (Maruti), heavy vehicles (Ashoka Leyland at Madras). Buses and trucks are
manufactured at Madras and Bombay: jeeps and four and three-wheeler tempos and
trucks are manufactured at Bombay, Pune and Gurgaon. Two-wheelers (scooters and
motor-cycles) are manufactured at Pune, Bombay, Faridabad, Madras, Mysore,
Ludhiana and Tirupati.
(xiv) Cycles: The chief centres of bicycle production are Bombay, Asansol, Sonipat, Delhi,
Madras, Jalandhar and Ludhiana.
(xv) Tractors: Tractors are manufactured at Faridabad, Pinjore, Delhi, Bombay and
Madras.
(xvi) Fertilisers: The fertilizer industry has developed at several centres. The major centres
include Sindri, Nangal, Trombay, Gorakhpur, Durgapur, Namrup, Cochin, Rourkela,
Neyveli, Varanasi, Baroda, Visakhapatnam, Kota and Kanpur. Tamil Nadu, U.P.
Gujarat, Kerala and A.P. lead in the production of fertilizers.
(xvii) Pharmaceuticals: This is one of the oldest industries in India. Antibiotics are
produced at Pimpri and Rishikesh. The Hindustan Antibiotics plant at Rishikesh is
one of the largest in the world. Another important plant producing the
pharmaceuticals in the world. Another important plant producing the pharmaceuticals
is the Indian Drugs and Pharmaceuticals Ltd (IDPL) unit at Hyderabad. A number of
other units are concentrated in Bombay, Baroda, Delhi, Calcutta and Kanpur.
(xviii) Pesticides: Pesticides are produced by a number of units. The important ones are the
Hindustan Insecticides Ltd units at Delhi and Alwaye.
(xix) Cement: The leading producers of cement are Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar,
Gujarat, Karnataka, A.P. and Rajasthan.
(xx) Leather goods: Hides and Skins are available in abundance. The chief centres of
production of leather goods are Agra, Kanpur, Bombay, Calcutta and Delhi.
(xxi) Glass: Although glass products are made in practically all parts of the country, U.P.
Maharashtra and W.B. lead the industry.
(xxii) Paper and paper board: This is a forest based industry. The first modern paper mill of
the country was set up in 1832 at Sehrampore in West Bengal. A raw material-based
industry, most of the paper production units are in W.B., A.P., Orissa, Maharashtra,
Karnataka, M.P. and Bihar.
(xxiii) Sugar: Sugar is a very important agro-based industry, tied to areas of raw materials
supply. The leading sugar-cane-producer states are also the leading sugar producers.
They are U.P., Maharashtra, A.P., Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Bihar. There are more
than 250 Sugar mills in India, with the largest number located in U.P. followed by
Maharasthra.
(xxiv) Atomic Research Centres in India (a) Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, was
established in 1945 by the late Dr. H.J. Bhabha at Mumbai. (b) Bhabha Atomic
Research Centre at Trombay near Mumbai is the main centre in India for Research in
peaceful uses of Atomic Energy that is production of radio isotopes and their
application in agriculture, biology, industry and medicine, and production of electric
power.
Atomic Reactors: BARC has five research reactors functioning: APSARA, CIRUS,
ZERLINA, PURNIMA, DHRUVA.
KAMINI: India's first Neutron Reactor at Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research
at Kalpakkam near Chennai.
Heavy Water Plants: (a) Kota in Rajasthan, (b) Baroda in Gujrat, (c) Tuticorin in
Tamil Nadu, and (d) Talchar in Orissa.
(xxv) Atomic Power Stations: India's Nuclear Power Projects are: (a) Rana Pratap Sagar
Atomic Power Plant at Rawatbatta in Rajasthan; (b) Tarapur, 80 km. North of
Mumbai in Maharashtra; (c) Madras Atomic PowerPlant (MAPP) at Kalapakkam
near Madras in Tamil Nadu; (4) Narora Atomic Power Plant Station at Narora, near
Bulandshahr in U.P.; (5) Kakrapar Atomic Power Station in Gujrat.
(xxvi) Space Research in India: The Indian Space programme began with the setting up of a
sounding rocket launching facility at Thumba, near Trivandrum, in 1963. The
Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station (Terls) served as the nucleus for the
growth of Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO). In 1972 the Department od
space (DOS) was established with its headquarters at Bangalore. DOS is responsible
for the execution of India's space activities through ISRO. ISRO today encompasses
the following centres:
(1) Vikram Sarabahi Space Centre (VSSC), Thumba near Trivandrum (Kerala);
(2) Sriharikota Range (SHAR) Satellite Launching Station in Andhra Pradesh;
(3) Space Application Centre at Tumba;
(4) Physical Research Laboratory, Ahmedabad (Gujrat);
(5) ISRO, Satellite Centre (ISAC), Bangalore;
(6) Auxiliary Propulsion System Unit (APSU), Bangalore,
(7) ISRO Telemetry; Tracking & Commando Network (ISTRAC) with its
headquarters at Bangalore; and
(8) National Remote Sensing Agency (NRSA), Hydrabad.
(9) Missile Testing Range, Chandipur, Orissa.
(xxvii) Oil Refineries: India has made significant progress in the oil Refining Sector. The
tweleve or more refineries manufacture many products. The refining capacity has
increased from 5 MT. in 1951 and over 55 MT. in 1996-97. The largest public sector
that is Indian Oil Corporation has singed an agreement with Reliance. It has the
largest refining capacity. The Oli Refineries are: Barauni (Bihar), Nunamati near
Guwahati (Assam, Koyalti (Gujrat), Cochin (Kerala), Madras ( Tamil Nadu), Haldia
near Calcutta (West Bengal), Mathura (U.P.), Karnal (Haryana), ESSO at Trombay,
Caltex Refinery at Vishakhapatnam, Assam Oil Company at Digboi.
Geography of Punjab
Physical Features
Punjab falls into two broad physiographical
regions, the Siwalik Hills and the Plains.
The Siwalik Hills: The low range of the
Siwalik hills separate the Himalayas from
the plains. The hills are roughly six to ten
kilometers in width. The height ranges
between 400 and 700 metres above sea
level.
The plains: The Punjab plain is a part of the
great Indo-Gangetic plain that is synclinal
basin formed by the elevations of the
Himalayas. The rivers of the region indicate
that the plain is the result of recent
deposition and these very rivers have formed
the plain. The Punjab plain lies between 180
and 300 metres above sea level.
Drainage
The Ravi River: The Ravi River rises from
the northern face of the Rohtang Pass in the
Kulu hills in Himachal Pradesh, at the
elevation of about 4,210 m above sea level.
The river flows through Gurdaspur and
Amritsar district forming the international
boundary between India and Pakistan and
Finally enters Pakistan near Kakar Manj.
The length of the river from its source to the
Pakistan border is 725 km. The catchment
area is 5,957 sq. km. From the point of view
of the catchment area, it is the smallest
rivers of the Indus Valley river system. The
historical towns situated on the banks of the
Ravi and Chamba, Dalhousie, Basohli,
Narot Jaimal Singh, Kartarpur, Dera Baba
Nanak, Lahore and Sahiwal.
The Beas River: The Beas River rises close
to the source of the Ravi in the Beas Kund in
the Pir Panjal range on the southern face of
the Rohtang Pass at 4,060 meters above sea
level. After flowing through the plains for
about 160 km, it joins the Satluj at Harike.
The total length of the river from the source
to the confluence with Satluj at Harike is
470 km.
The Satluj River: The Satluj River is an
antecedent drainage channel. It rises at an
altitude of 4,630 m near the southwest of
Rakasthal and Mansarovar lakes in Tibet,
close to the course of the mighty Indus and
the Brahmaputra rivers. The river cuts
across the Naina Devi range of hills at
Bhakra where the world's second highest
dam has been built fourteen kilometers
below Bhakra is built the Nangal Dam from
where the Nangal hydel channel takes off.
About 160 km downstream from Ropar, the
river Beas joins the Satluj at Harike. Just
below the confluence of the Satluj and the
Beas rivers is constructed the Harike
Barrage, which is the head works of
Rajasthan and Firozepur Feeders and the
Makhu Canal.
The Ghaggar River: The Ghaggar rivers, the
defunct Saraswati, which emerges from the
hills midway between Yamuna and Satluj
and flows along the boundary of the present
Punjab and Haryana, disappears into the
sands of the Rajasthan desert.

Climate
The subtropical continental location of Punjab reflects in its climate that varies from
extremely hot and dry during the summer season to fairly cold and dry during the winter with
monsoon during a part of the summer and western disturbances during the winter.
Temperature: The variations in temperature from month to month are very high. The annual
range of temperature allover the state is around 21C.
Rainfall: The amount of rainfall in the Punjab ranges between 250 mm and 1,000 mm, the
maximum falling near the Siwalik hills and the minimum towards the desert in the west. The
major part of the annual rainfall is experienced during the monsoon period when the monsoon
current in the Arabian Sea enters from the southwest. The normal onset of the monsoon in
Punjab is in the first week of July. During the winter season weather in Punjab is normally cool
and dry. This monotony is broken intermittently by short intervals of rainfall. This type of
weather is associated with the passage of western disturbances through the region. In the area
adjoining the Siwalik Hills, winter crops till very recently have been dependent upon this rain.
Seasons
There are three well-defined seasons in Punjab. These are:
1. Hot season (mid-April to the end of June).
2. Rainy seasons (early July to the end of September).
3. Cold season (early December to the end of February).
The transitional seasons are:
1. Autumn: the post- monsoon from October to end of November.
2. Spring the pre-hot season from March to mid-April.
Soils
Soil is the most important natural resources of Punjab. The Punjab plain lies in Indo Gangetic
drainage system, and is formed by the deposition of alluvium brought down from the Himalayas.
Quartz is generally the most abundant mineral in the sand fractions and its content increases with
an increase in sand content. Some other minerals are also present in the sand fractions.
Soils of Arid South Western Zone: This zone covers southern and southwest parts of the state
(Bhatinda and parts of Faridkot, Firozepur and Sangrur district adjoining Rajasthan and Haryana
with annual rainfall less than about 400 mm per annum. These soils are characterized by aridic
moisture regime. Because of limited leaching and pronounced Aeolian activity (in parts of this
zone) these are generally coarser in texture calcareous.
Soils of Semi-arid Central Plain Zone: The soil of this zone has developed under semi-arid
conditions. The soil is sandy loam to clay with normal reaction. The soil covers the districts of
Sangrur, Patiala, Fatehgarh Sahib, Ludhiana, Jalandhar, Kapurthala wanshehar, Amritsar, Moga,
eastern Firozpur and western parts of Gurdaspur and Ropar.
Soil of the Eastern Zone: The soil has developed in the sub-humid foothill areas bordering
Himachal Pradesh and cover eastern parts of Gurdaspur, Hoshiarpur Nawanshehar, Ropar and
northeastern fringes of Patiala districts. The fertility of the soil is medium to low and the texture
is loamy to clayey. The eastern zone is further divided into lower kandi and upper kandi.
Electric Power
State Owned Hydro Power Projects
There are five hydro projects exclusively owned by Punjab. These are:
(1) Mukerian
(2) Anandpur Sahib
(3) Shanan
(4) Upper Bari Doab Canal System I
(5) Upper Bari Doab Canal System II
In addition, there are four micro hydro plants. These are:
(1) Nindampur Micro
(2) Daudhar Micro
(3) Rohit Micro
(4) Thuhi Micro

Thermal Power Projects
Guru Nanak Thermal Plant, Bhatinda: This was the first thermal power plant installed in the
state. This plant at Bhatinda named as the Guru Nanak Thermal Plant was commissioned in
1974.
Guru Gobind Singh Super Thermal Plant, Ropar: This thermal project is located at a distance of
11 kilometers from Ropar on the Ropar-Nangal highway. Work on the project was started in
1980 and completed in 1985. The plant is spread over an area of about 2,500 acres on the banks
of River Satluj.
Common Pool Projects: Bhakra Nangal Complex, Dehar and Pong Power plants are the three
projects of the common pool.
Bhakra Nangal Complex: The Bhakra Nangal Project is the most prestigious hydroelectric
project of India, which harnesses the waters of river satluj. The Bhakra Nangal project not only
provides electric power to Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan but also to common pool consumers
like the Nangal fertilizer Factory, the Delhi Electric Supply Undertaking (DESU), to Himachal
Pradesh and to Jammu & Kashmir. Bhakra Nangal Complex contributes about 15 percent
towards the total power requirement of Punjab.
Central Sector Projects: There are 13 central sector projects from which Punjab is sharing power.
Two of these projects are in Jammu & Kashmir, one is in Rajasthan, two are in Himachal and
eight are in Uttar Pradesh.
1. Ranjit Sagar Dam Project.
2. Govindwal Sahib Thermal Project.
3. Naptha Based Thermal Project, Bhatinda.
4. Shahpur Kandi Project
5. Anandpur Sahib Hydel Project
6. Mukerian Hydep Project
7. UBDC Stage 3
8. Guru Hargobind Termal Plant Stage 2

Forests
The present forest covered area of Punjab is around 7% of the area of the state. The important
trees found in the forests are shisham, kikar, eucalyptus, khair, bamboo, mulberry and chil. The
major forest produce in Punjab is timber and firewood. Among the minor forest produce are
bamboo, bhabbar grass, fodder for grazing, fruit, resin etc.
Types of Forests
The types of forests vary along the northeast to southwest cross-section and correspond to the
annual amount of rainfall. They are mainly categorized into five parts and they are:
Himalayan Moist Temperate Forest
Sub-tropical Pine Forest
Sub-tropical Broad Leave Hill Forest
Tropical Dry Deciduous Forest
Tropical Thorn Forest
Crops
Wheat: Wheat is grown in Punjab during the winter season. It is sown in November when the
mean temperature ranges from 18C to 20C, which is ideal for germination of the wheat seed.
During December, January and February the mean monthly temperature in the State ranges
between 12C and 17C and is conducive to the vegetative growth of wheat crop. The season
warms up by the end of March and April, which is favourbale for crop maturity. Dwarf varieties
of wheat were received in India from Mexico. These were distributed at various centres in the
country for trial. Scientists and agriculturists of Punjab selected two promising strains, V-18 and
S-227, and designated them as PV 18 and Kalyan-Sona 277.
Barley: Barley is next in importance to wheat among the winter seasons cereal crops. As it si a
drought resistant crop, it is confined to areas with scanty rainfall and is cultivated on poor and
marginal soil with inadequate irrigation facilities. In Punjab crop is usually sown after paddy,
kharif fodders, cotton or after bajra.
Rice: Rice if the second most important crop of Punjab. The revolution in rice production started
with the introduction of dwarf variety IR 8 in 1968. This was followed by another high yielding
variety Jaya. Punjab, being a non-consuming State, send the rice to other deficit states and
provides the highest rice quota to the central pool.
Maize: Punjab ranks ninth in maize area in India. Maize is sown with the advent of the monsoon
rains and its growing period is from July to October. During this period the temperature ranges
from 24C to 32C which is quite suitable for maize cultivation. This crop required about 750
mm of rainfall and its water requirements is met primarily from rainfall.
Sugarcane: Sugarcane is the fifth ranking crop of Punjab. It flourishes during the summer months
when the mean air temperature ranges from 21C to 34C. Low temperatures and frost during
winter months are, however, impediments to its growth resulting in low sugarcane yield.
Cotton: Cotton is an important crop that covers about 9.5 percent of the crop area of the State.
After rice it is the second important Kharif crop growing from April to November. Two types of
cotton are grown in Punjab, one is long staple known as "America" and the other is short and
medium staple known as desi cotton. Cotton is grown as a summer (kharif) crop as the
temperature is suitable for its cultivation.
Pulse Crops: There are five major pulse crops grown in Punjab. By order of importance, these
are moong, gram, arhar, massar and mash. Moong, mash and arhar are the summer crops while
gram and massar are grown during the winter season.
Oilseed Crops: Important oilseed crops in the state are sunflower, rape and mustard groundnut,
sesamum and linseed. Sunflower crop has come into prominence in Punjab very recently and it is
gaining ground year by year. The major advantage of this crop its short duration from sowing to
maturity. Jalandhar, Hoshiarpur, Amritsar and Kapurthala are the major producers of sunflower.
Fruit Crops: By order of production, the most important fruits crops of the state are kinnow, pear,
mango, peach, grave, grapes, orange, malta and litchi. The major producing areas are the sub
mokutainous and the far eastern parts.
Industries
Cotton Textile Industry: The arid climate of western parts of Punjab is ideal environment for
producing the best quality cotton in India. The easy availability of the raw material facilities the
localization of this industry in Punjab. Patiala, Ludhiana and Sangrur- these three districts
collectively account for about 70 percent of the cotton textile Industry of the state.
Hosiery and Garments Industry: Punjab leads the other states of the country in the manufacture
of hosiery products. More than 95 percent establishments engaged in hosiery making are
localized in Ludhiana. The hosiery industry not only caters to the country's needs but also is a
major foreign exchange earner. The main products are pullovers, jerseys, cardigans, mufflers and
socks. Majority of the hosiery units are in the small scale sector.
Sports Goods: The sports goods industry of Punjab became well known only after 1947 when
most of the skilled people, migrated from Sialkot (Pakistan) and settled at Jalandhar. Jalandhar is
the main centre of the production of sports goods.
Bicylces: Punjab ranks at the top among the states of India in the manufacture of bicycles and
bicycle parts. Ludhiana and Rajpura are leading cities.
Sewing Machines: Production of sewing machines is confined to the small-scale sector.
(Fatehgarh Sahib) are important centres for the production of sewing machines and sewing
machine parts.
Agricultural Implements: The important centres of manufacture of agricultural implements are
Batala, Ludhiana, Phillaur, Jalandhar, Phagwara, Goraya, Amritsar and Mohali.
Transportation
Through the construction of roads started before the Mughal period, it was during the reign of
Sher Shah Suri that an excellent trans-Punjab road system was constructed. The present Grand
Trunk Road, also known as Sher Shah Suri Marg connecting Delhi with Peshawar, is the same
road that was constructed by Emperor Sher Shah Suri.
Railways: Amritsar, Pathankot, Jalandhar, Ludhiana and Bhatinda are some of the biggest and
busiest railway junctions of the country.
Roadways: Punjab has a very sound network of roadways. It is knitted into a web made of fibres
of national and state highways. All the national highways passing through the state are
mentioned below.