Theory

The term Horticulture first appeared in the writings of 17

th
century. The word is
derived from the latin word Hortus meaning garden an cultura meaning
cultivation. According to the modern world, horticulture is defined as the crop
science which deals with the production, utilization and improvement of fruits,
vegetales, ornamental plants, spices and plantation crops, medicinal and aromatic
plants. Horticultural science can e distinguished from agricultural or forestry
science in one or more of the following factors
Horticulture produces are utilized in the fresh state and are highly perishale.
!n contrast, agricultural field crops are often utilized in the dried state of are
usually high in dry matter content.
Horticultural crops generally re"uire intensive cultivation warranting a large
input, capital, laour and technology per unit area of land.
#ultural operations such as propagation, fertilization, training pruning,
harvesting and mar$eting are s$illed operations and are specific to each and
every horticulture crops.
Horticulture crops are rich in sources of vitamins and minerals where as
agricultural crops are generally rich in carohydrates or protein.
Aesthetic sense is an e%clusive phenomenon for horticulture science.
Divisions of Horticulture
1. Pomology
&omology is the study of fruit crops and science.
'oody &lants (vergreen ) Acid lime, *itchi, +ango
,ecid ) Apple, pear
Heraceous perennial ) -trawerry, .anana, &ineapple
2. Olericulture
/lericulture is the ranch of horticulture which deals on 0egetales li$e
leafy vegetales, root, tuer, cole crops etc.
3. Floriculture
1loriculture is another ranch of horticulture which deals on commercial
1loriculture, landscaping and cut flowers.
Aroriculture2 3rowing of trees for aesthetic4scientific4educational purpose
*andscape gardening
/rnamental floriculture
!ndoor garden and /utdoor garden
5. Spices, Plantation, e!icinal an! "romatic crops
-pices ) used for food flavoring to aroma and flavour pepper, cardamom,
clove, nutmeg
#ondiments ) plants used to add taste only 6coriander, cumin7
&lantation crops ) Arecanut, Tea, #offee, 8uer, grown e%tensive area
+edicinal plants ) -enna, periwin$le, Aswagandha
Aroma crops ) (ucalyptus, &almarosa, #itronella
Other #ranches of Horticulture
1. 1ruit nurseries
9. 0egetale41lower seed production
:. 1ruit40egetale processing
5. +edicinal plants e%traction
;. (ssential oil 6oleoresin$
Horticulture crops occupy only 7.<= of the total cropped area. .ut its
contriution to natural income is 1>?9<= of total value of agricultural produce. The
e%port of agricultural crops contriutes 9;= of our e%port out of this, horticulture
crops alone contriutes ;@= of total earnings from agricultural sector. Horticulture
crops fetch 9<?:< times more foreign e%change4unit are than creates due to higher
yields of price.
Fruits an! %egeta#les
i 1ruits and 0egetales are regarded as protected foods since they supply
minerals such as calcium, iron and phosphorus. 0itamins li$e A,.,#. 1ruits
and 0egetales are good la%atives.
ii The nutrition e%pert group presents a daily a minimum of 95<<?:A<<
calories of energy, ;;g protein, <.5?<.; g calcium, 9<g of !ron, :<<< mg of
. carotene 60it A7 1.9?9.< mg thiamine, 1?9.9 mg rioflavin, 1@?9@ mg
nicotinic acid, ;<mg ascoric acid.
iii To otain this, dieticians recommended :<<g of vegetales i?e. 19; g of
leafy vegetales, 1<<g of roots and tuers, 7; g of other vegetales, A< g of
fruits.
iv .ut the per capital availaility wor$s to :<g fruits A9 g vegetales only.
"&'" "(D P&OD)*T+O(, +PO&TS "(D ',PO&TS OF
HO&T+*)-T)&"- *&OPS T"+- ("D) .1//01/2$
F&)+T *&OPS
"3O& D+ST&+*TS *&OPS "&'"
.H"$
P&OD)*T+O(
.Ton$
P&OD)*T+
%+T4
,&!, 0ellore, +,B,
Theni, ,3*.
+ango >;,<<A 5,1:,A<< 5.>7
#.(, (rode, Tuti, C0,
T0+, 0ellore
.anana 7A,:15 :1,17,7>< :A.:1
+,B, ,3* 3uava >,9@A A;,<5< 11.5A
,3*, TC0 *ime @,@A: 1<,5;< 1.;@
-alem, Cama$al, ,3* /range :,:7@ 1>,95< ;.5<
D.D.,.,3*, #B, Eac$ 9,;57 7;,55< 9A.@9
#.(, ,&!, Theni, TC0,
,3*
3rapes 9,9<A 57,59< 91.57
,3* &ear 1,511 9A,@:1 91.<<
,3*, Cama$$al &ine apple 571 1<,;7< 99.55
T/TA* 1,A5,A>7 :>,;;,>97 1A.77
%'5'T"6-'S 7 T"+- ("D) .1//21/8$
"&'" .H"$ P&OD)*T+O(
.Te$
P&OD)*T+%+T4
..To.9ha$
Tapioca >;,95< 9A,>:,5<< :;.<<
Tomato 9;,19< :,7@,><< 1;.<<
/nion 9;,9:< 5,;5,15< 1>.<<
.rinFal >,19< 1,@9,5<< 9<.<<
*adies finger 5,7;< 57,;<< 1<.<<
&otato 5,@7; 1,<9,>;< 99.<<
#arrot 5,57; >A,;<< 9<.<<
3reens 9,:<< :5,;<< 1;.<<
.eans 1,7<< 1:,@<< >.<<
-weet potato 1,9;< :1,9;< 9;.<<
Gam 1,:7< :5,9;< 9;.<<
#aage 1,7;< 1,>:,7;< 1<;.<<
.eet root 1,1<< 9;,:<< 9:.<<
&ump$in @1< 1:,59< 99.<<
/ther veg. >,>;< 9,:>,A;< 97.<<
TOT"- 1,20,:;< ;2,/1,01< 22.1;
SP+*'S "(D *O(D+'(TS
Sl.
(o.
Particulars "&'"
.H"$
P&OD)*T+O(
.Te$
P&OD)*T+%+T4
..Te.9ha$
1. #hillies ><,95< ;@,1@> <.7<
9. #oriander :>,>;< 1;,;5< <.5<
:. Tamarind 1>,A<< @@,1;< :.;<
5. Turmeric 1@,>;< 1,<1,1<< @.<<
;. #ardamom ;,;9< ;1A <.<A
@. &epper :,;;< 1,<@; <.:<
7. 3arlic 1,9@< 7,;@< @.<<
>. #love 7<< 7<< 1.<<
A. 3inger @<< 1;,<<< 9;.<<
1<. /ther spices 1,:;< 9,7<< 9.<<
Total 1,02,82< 2,00,:<2 1.:/
P-"(T"T+O( *&OPS
Sl.
(o.
Particulars "&'"
.H"$
P&OD)*T+O(
.Te$
P&OD)*T+%+T4
..Te.9ha$
1. #ashew >5,9<< :7,>A< <.5;
9. Tea @:,5<< ;,<7,9<< >.<<
:. #offee :9,5<< 1A,55< <.@<
5. .etelvine :,:>< 7@,<;< 99.;<
;. Arecanut 9,@;< 5,;<; 1.7<
Total 1,80,<3< 0,;:,<8: 3.02
Flo=er crops 10,2;: 1,;2,333 8.:<
"6ST&"*T
Particulars "&'"
.H"$
P&OD)*T+O(
.Te$
P&OD)*T+%+T4
..Te.9ha$
Fruits 9,<@,>;< ;<,<;,A5< 95.9<1
%egeta#les 1,7@,;5< 57,A1,@1< 97.159
Spices > con!iments 1,@7,>9< 9,@@,;<9 1.;>>
Plantation crops 1,>@,<:< @,5;,<>; :.5@>
Flo=ers 1@,75; 1,59,::: >.;<<
Total 2,:3,/8: 1,<8,:1,;2< 1;.3/2
SP'*+"- F'"T)&'S OF HO&T+*)-T)&"- *&OPS 5&O?( +( +(D+"
Horticultural crops
1. Btilised in fresh state ? Highly perishale
9. 8e"uire intensive cultivation ? !nput, capital, laour, technology per
unit area
:. &ractices li$e propagation,
fertilization, training, pruning, ? -$illed H specific to hort crops
harvesting H mar$eting
5. 8ich sources of vit.. H minerals ? 1ield crops are rich in #H/ H proteins
;. Aesthetic sense ? (%clusive to horticulture
@. Horticulture therapy2 a recent science fast developing western countries.
',PO&T
Fresh #anana
1//;1/:
Iuantity ? A@@.<> +Ts.
0alue ? >A.;@ la$hs rupees
#hief importing countries ? Cepal, Cetherland, Iatar, 8ussia
5uava '@port .Fresh .or$ !rie!$
1//;1/:
Iuantity ? 1@,>1:.5< +Ts.
0alue ? 5<5>.A> la$h 8s.
!mporters ? .angaladesh, Hong Dong, Duwait,
Cetherlands, BA(, BD, -audi
Drie! 5rapes
1//;1/:
Iuantity ? @:.;; +Ts.
0alue ? :;.>1 la$h 8s.
Fresh angoes
1//;1/:
Iuantity ? 9;,515.:@ +Ts
0alue ? 5,;<9.7: la$h 8s.
!mporters ? BA(, .angladesh, -audi, BD, Duwait
ango Pulp
1//;1/:
Iuantity ? :5,5@< +Ts.
0alue ? ><.71 #rore 8s.
ango slices
1//;1/:
Iuantity ? 1,<A;.A; +Ts.
0alue ? 997.;9 la$h 8s.
ango 3uice
1//;1/:
Iuantity ? 7A:.A@ +Ts.
0alue ? 1A>.7; la$h 8s.
ango PicAles > *hutneys
1//;1/:
Iuantity ? 7,A:;.9> +Ts.
0alue ? 9:9:.@@ la$h 8s.
Papaya1Fresh
1//;1/:
Iuantity ? :9<.>7 +Ts.
0alue ? 55.A< la$h 8s.
*-+"T+* BO('S OF +(D+" FO& HO&T.*&OP P&OD)*T+O(
"!vantages of classification
1. To e%pose the agricultural potentiality of an area
9. *ocation of homo climatic zones?enales identification of soil J climatic
prolems
:. Helps in introduction of new crops eg. /il palms in Derala
5. ,evelopment of crop production technologies specific for the regions.
;. To ta$e up research wor$ to solve regional prolems.
@. To transfer the technology developed.
1. Temperate (orthern region
E H D, H.&., hills of B.&., '...,
#rops2 Temperate fruits H veg.
9. (orth ?estern ari! region
8aFasthan, 3uFarat, parts of &unFa H Haryana
#rops2 .er, &omegranate, Aonla, -eed spices
:. (orth 'aster su#1tropical1humi! region
Arunachal &radesh, Assam, +anipur, +eghalaya, +izoram, Cagaland H
Tripura
#rops2 .anana, &.Apple, #itrus, Eac$ fruit, Tea H #ardmom
5. (orth *entral su#1tropical region
&arts of B.&., .ihar, entire +.&., and part of +aharastra
#rops2 +ango, sapota, sweet oranges H guava.
;. South *entral tropical region
'estern H easter ghats of T.C., A.&., Darnata$ H part of +aharashtra
#rops2 +ango, guava, sapota, &.Apple, turmeric
@. *oastal tropical humi! region
The entire coastal elt of .ay of .engal H Araian sea.
#rops2 .anana, +ango, #ashew, #oconut
7. Southern hilly Cone
'estern H (astern ghat aove ><< + +-*.
#rops2 #offee, Tea, cardamom, pepper, oranges, &.apple
"5&O*-+"T+* BO('S OF T"+- ("D)
1. 5eographic location
-outhern most, >,
o
; and 1:
o
1< Corth *at. H 7@
o
1; and ><
o
9<
o
(ast. A
coastal line of aout 1<<<$m in east H south.
9. Physical characters
a #oastal plaints, .(astern ghats, c.#entral plains and d.'estern ghats.
:. *limate
-emi?arid 6Thorthwaite and +ather7
5. &ainfall
+ean ) A:7 mm.
-easons ) 'inter, -ummer, -outh west and north east.
0ariation e%ists etween regions
;. Temperature
&lains) +ean day ? 9A
o
to :>
o
c
+ean night ? 1A
o
to 97
o
c
Hills +ean ? 1A
o
to 95
o
c
+ean night ? >
o
to 11
o
c
Duestions
1. +ention the maFor disciplines of horticulture
9. 'hat are different agro climatic zone sin !ndia and Tamil Cadu
:. +ention the nutritional uses of fruit and vegetale crops
F"*TO&S -++T+(5 HO&T+*)-T)&"- *&OP P&OD)*T+O(
! 6iotic ? a. ,iseases
. &ests
c. Cematodes
d. other microes
e. plant genetic ma$e up
!! "#iotic ? -oil
#limate ) light, temperature, sunshine, wind speed,
rainfall, evaporation
#ultural practices
'ater
!nputs ) manures H fertilizers, Hormones H other
chemicals
+. 6+OT+*
a. Diseases
.anana ? .unchy top, &anama wilt, sigato$a leaf spot
3rapes ? misdews, anthracnose
Tomato ? spotted wilt, leaf curl, leaf spot
#hillies ? anthracnose
.hendi ? yellow vein mosaic
#oconut ? TanFavur wilt
#.Pests
+ango ? -tem orer, nut weevil
#oconut ? rhinoceros ettle, eriophyid mite, red palm weevil
Tomato
K fruit, orer
.rinFal
.anana ? pseudostem weevil
c. (emato!es ? .anana, #rossandra, grapes, turmeric, potatoes, citrus,
solanaceous veg.
!. other micro#es
e. Plant genetic maAe up
1. A hyrid or selection
9. 0igorous feeder or not
:. 'ater loving or not
5. 8esistance to iotic H aiotic stresses
;. Cature of life cycle
++ "6+OT+*
a7 -oil
7 #limate
c7 #ultural practice
d7 'ater
e7 !nputs?manures H fertilizers, hormones H other chemicals
a$ Soil
i$ Soil type
a7 -andy soil ) coarse, large pore space, poor water H nutrient holding, suits
ppgn activities
7 *oamy soils ) have sand, silt H clay, classified accordingly. -andy loam is
suited for early crops, highly suitale for hort. #rops.
c7 #lay soils ) fine te%tured, very small pore space, not suited for horticultural
crops. !t should e improved with org.manure. !t has etter water H
nutrient holding capacity
d7 /rganic soils 6High org.matter ) 9<=7
+icroorganism ) enzymatic digestion.
6organic matter ) plant H animal waste7
3reen manure cropping
found in swamps, ogs, la$e ottom H river eds.
&eet ) ;<?A<= org.matter ) High water holding capacity ) crops?tuer, root
cole crops7
+uc$ ) 9<?;<= org.matter ) low water holding capacity
ii$ Soil fertility
!t is important to nourish H sustain the soil productivity
-oil, air, soil moisture, soil microes H humus help asorption
Top layer is more fertile usually
#rops li$e coffee, cardamom, pepper, ginger, clove and vanilla prefer fertile soils.
3ood soil management practices necessary.
iii$ Soil reaction
!t influences nutrient availaility eg. .oron?deficient in al$aline soil?unavailale
in very acidic soil
Activity of soil acteria is also influenced and therey nutrient status.
,iseases are promoted ) eg.clu roots disease of cole crops high in acidic soil
-light acidic soil etter for most crops.
Apply 3ypsum H aluminium sulphate to al$aline soils.
Apply lime or epsum 6mg. sulphate7 to acidic soils
Al$alaine soils )sodicity is dangerous
Dnoledge on soil salinity is important.
#lassification of soils ased on salinity tolerance.
Tolerant ? >m.mhos. 6eg.?,ates, 3uava, 1ig, 3rapes7
+oderate ? :?@ m.mhos 6&ome, grape fruit, apple, pear H plum7
-ensitive ? 1.;?: m.mhos 6orange, peach, avocado, strawerry7
iv Soil !epth
A depth of 9.< m is essential for fruit crops
Co hard H compact susoil layers li$e #an$ar, roc$ H heavy clay should e
present
v. Soil !rainage
!t depends on nature of susoil
.etter tree stand in good susoil
&oor aeration?another effect
'ater tale elow 9.<m
Higher water tale?poor aeration
8oot rotting y prolonged sumergence
Higher disease incidence
(g. -weet orange failed in B.& H &unFa
#.*limate
i$ Temperature
-pecific temperature is recommended for each crop
#lassification ) temperate ) sutropical ) tropical
!f temperate crop is grown in tropical 6or7 vice?versa, growth H development will e
affected.
(%ception ) eg. 3rapes4temperate ) tropical
Temperature re"uirement varies with stage also
(g. Tomato at early stage ) re"uires higher night temperature of 1>?97
o
# for fruit
set it re"uires 1: to 17
o
#
!t affects flowering. (g. .anana re"uires 1<
o
# ?5<
o
#. At 1<
o
# 6or7 L choc$ing of
unches is oserved.
Temperature affects "uality of low temperature in grape?high acidity is noticed high
temperature of grape?sweetness.
'inter $ill )death y low temp4chilling inFury
Hardy plants ) Asparagus ) resistant to cold inFury
Tender plants ) cucumer ) susceptile to cold inFury
#old inFury ) ice formation
High temp. ) dessication
ii7 *ight
!ntensity
Iuality
,uration
!nfluences all activities
&hotoperiodism ) ,uration of light and dar$ hours in a day. !t also
affects se% of plants
eg. cucurits ) *,?+ale 1lowers
-,?1emale 1lowers
#offee, #ardamon, #ocoa 1iltered shade
Apple H mango ?good light?good colour H "uality
iii7 Humidity
Humid zone
-emi arid
Arid
High humidity at flowering H fruiting results in high pest and disease
incidence mango, grapes, potato, tea
0egetative propagation methods more successful at high humidity levels.
iv7 8ain fall
Iuantum
,istriution
The re"uirement varies with crop
!f continuous rains e%ist at flowering?pollen washing is resulted, insect pollination
reduced therey pollens get inFured stigmatic fluid is diluted.
#offee?1e?+arch 6.lossom7 showers decides flowering in the successive two
years
#ardamom?1e?April?&anicle initiation
3rape?rainy season crop?poor "uality
&ainfall
1. +ango <9; to 9;< cm4year
9. &epper 19; to 9<< cm4year
:. #adamon 9<< to 9;< cm4year
5. 8uer 9<< to 9;< cm4year
;. ,ates <1; to <9; cm4year
v7 ?in!
*ower H fruit shedding?rea$ing of ranches, trees uprooted?rapid moisture loss
are some of the effects need for irrigation is very fre"uent
vi7 "ir pollutants
<
:
, -o
9
, Co
9
reduce assimilation rate, growth H development eg., mango orchards
in &unFa, B.&., ihar, 'est .engal are effected y lac$ tip disorder since they
were located 1.; $m from ric$ $iln.
#/
9
, -o
9
and acetylene are responsile
vii7 Frost
Thin layer of formation of ice crystals during winter at 9<<<m.msl is noticed
!t damages tea, potato and cole crops.
viii7 Hail storms
Hails at pre?looming or looming of apple, plum, peach affect fruitset.
%i7 "ltitu!e
#ritical factor deciding climate particularly temperature
1or every warm temperature fruits re"uire 1><<m.msl. 1<<m elevation?1oc. To
9oc decrease is noticed
Humid zone fruits H plantation crops ?1<<?1><<m
Tropical fruits re"uires L1<<<m.
#oconut at 1<<<?19<<m ta$es 1<?19 year for flowering
&apaya at hills has only poor taste
Tea?yield and "uality is affected. High altitude resulted in good "uality.
Duestions
1. 'hat are the factors limiting horticultural production
9. How climate influences production of horticultural crops
:. Temperate and arid zone horticulture? ,ifferentiate
etho!s of propagation of horticultural crops an! their a!vantages
an! !isa!vantages
"S',)"- P&OP"5"T+O(
Ase%ual propagation is the method of multiplication of a plant from a tissue
other than zygote which is formed y the comination of male and female gametes.
The cellular asis for this method of multiplication is mitosis viz., regeneration of a
daughter plant from the somatic tissue. The different methods of ase%ual
propagation are.
A7 #uttings
1. 8oot cutting ) 8ed rasperry, .read fruit etc.,
9. -tem cuttings
a. Hardwood )fig, grape, gooseerry, rose etc.,
. -emi hard wood ) coleus, geranium, sweet potato etc.,
c. -oftwood?lilac, Fasmine etc.,
d. Heraceous ) coleus, geranium, sweet potato etc.,
:. *eaf cutting
.egonica, .ryophyllum, -ansevieria etc.,
5. *eaf ud cuttings ) eg. Hydrangea
.7 *ayering
a7 3round layering
1. Tip layering 2 .lac$ erry
9. -imple layering2 3uava, &omegranate, crotons etc.,
:. +ound layering 2 3oose erry, apple etc.
5. #ompound layering 2 3rape, Honey suc$le etc.,
;. Trench layering 2 (tiolation method eg. #herry
7 Air layering 63ootee 6or7 marcotage7 2 *itchi, guava, crotons etc.
c7 3rafting
17 8oot grafting
a7 'hip graft?apple and pear
97 #rown grafting
a7 'hip and tongue graft ) &ersian walnut, apple
7 #left graft ) camellia, plums
c7 -ide graft ? Carrow leaved evergreen, mango
:7 Top grafting
a7 #left ) various fruit trees
7 Cotch graft
c7 .ar$ graft
d7 -ide graft
e7 'hip and tongue graft
f7 0eneer grafting
,7 .udding
a7 T udding 6-hield udding7 ) &omefruits, rose, er etc.
7 &atch udding ) #itrus
c7 8ing udding ) 'alnut and pecan
d7 1lute udding ) 'alnut and pecan
e7 #hip udding ) citrus
(7 Tissue culture
1 7 /ther special parts
17 .uls
.ul is a specialized underground organ consisting of a short fleshy, usually
vertical stem a%is earing at its ape% a growing point or a flower primordium
enclosed y thic$ fleshy scales 6(g.7 /nion, garlic, tulip and Hyacinth.
97 #orm
#orm is a swollen ase of stem a%is enclosed y dry scale li$e leaves with
distinct nodes and internodes eg. 3ladiolus.
:7 -tolons
+odified stems that grow horizontal to the ground eg. 3rass
57 Tuers
!t is a modified stem structure which develops elow ground as a
conse"uence of the swelling of the su apical portion of a stolon and suse"uent
accumulation of reserve materials. (g. &otato
;7 8hizomes
!t is a specialized stem structure in which the main a%is of the plant grows
horizontally or Fust elow the ground surface eg. .amoo, anana, ginger etc.,
@7 #rowns ) &ineapple
77 Tuerous roots
&lants produce thic$ened under ground structures which contain large
amount of stored foods. This thic$ened structures are tuerous roots eg. -weet
potato, ,ahlia 6massive enlargement of secondary roots7
"!vantages of ase@ual propagation
1. !n most horticultural plants, the genetic ma$e up 6genotype7 is highly
heterozygous. The uni"ue characters of such plants are immediately lost if
they are propagated though seed
9. !t is necessary to grow cultivars that produce non viale seeds, eg. .ananas,
fig and grape
:. &ropagation of some species may not e easier through seeds . 1or eg.
#otoneaster seed ) it has comple% dormancy condition ut it is easily
propagated through cuttings
5. To reduce preearing period4or to reduce long Fuvenile stage.
;. To induce dwarfness eg.in apple
@. To induce disease and pest resistance. Troyer citrange is used as a
rootstoc$ for citrus. !t is resistant to tristeza virus.
7. To induce hardiness in cultivars eg. Alnarp apple used for its winter hardy
properties
D+S"D%"(T"5'S
1. *ongevity is not high when compared to the seedling progeny.
9. Ase%ual method is uneconomical and impractical in the case of vegetale
crop propagation and grains 6eg.tomato, rinFal, amaranthus etc.7 since cost
of cultivation is high when compared to se%ual method
:. +ost of the virus disease are not seed orne. 'hen propagated vegetatively
the virus are carried to the ne%t generation eg. Datte disease of cardamom.
5enetic variation in se@ual propagation
3ene or chromosome change
.y mitosis, it ecomes permanent
!t is found in a part of the plant only
The plants with normal and mutated cells are called #himeras
(g. #oleus, crotons, .ougain villeas.
Ein!s of *himeras
17 -ectorial #himeras ? growing point of the stem is found with two types of tissues.
? the leaves H lateral uds are also mutated
97 &ericlinal ? the mutated tissue occurs as a thin s$in with several cell
layers
? the most common type of chimeras
? relatively stale
? this type will revert ac$ if propagated y seed or root
cuttings
:7 +ericlinal ? similar to periclinal
? the outer of mutated cells does not surround fully
? it occupies as a segment of the whole part only
6u!sport
.udsport is one where a ranch of a tree alone is found with genetic change from
the rest of the part
The characters of udsport are inheritale
They can e vegetatively propagated
(g. Apple ) varieties )star $ind and 8icha 8ed ar eudsports from ,elicious
apple
See! propagation !ormancy metho!s of #reaAing the !ormancy
See! germination
-eed is an emryonic plant surrounded with protective seed coat or covering
and supplied with stored food. !t is the physiological process through which
development of seed into a seedling ta$es place when e%posed to favourale
environmental conditions. 'hile germination radicle comes out first followed y
plumule. The radicle gives rise to the rootsystem of plant while the plumule gives
rise to shoot system
There are : factors which are associated with germination of seeds
i. -eed must e viale viz., emryo should alive
ii. -eed should e suFected to favourale environmental
condition
iii. !nternal conditions associated with seed which prevent the
germination have to e eliminated.
3ermination is a comple% iochemical change, which involves moilization
of reserved food within seed and utilization y the emryo for growth.
'nvironmental con!itions affecting see! germination
'hen seed is sown, it asors moisture. This is followed y increase in
enzyme activity, respiration, cell division and elongation resulting in emergence of
radicle. This will occur in favourale environment. The factors affecting seed
germination are as follows.
17 ?ater
!miition of water y seed is the first step in germination process. There
are two important factors which affect the water upta$e. They are
17 Cature of seed and its covering
97 Amount of availale water in the surrounding medium
-ome seeds germination only aove the permanent wilting point of
moisture in soil. -ome can germinate elow permanent wilting point 6&.'.&7
According, vegetale seeds are classified as
3roup !2 Those, which germinate with moisture from &.'.& to aove field
capacity eg. -nap ean, peas, .eet.
3roup !!2 only in soil with moisture near field capacity eg. #elery
3roup !!!2 *ow moisture content and elow field capacity eg. -pinach
97 Temperature
According to the re"uirement range of temperature for germination, seeds
are classified into : groups
a7 -o= temperature
Here, seeds will germinate only at relatively low temperature eg. Alpine.
1or cool season plants, it is 5.;
o
# and for warm season plants, it is 1<?1;
o
#. These
are the lower critical levels. .elow these temperature ranges, seeds fail to germinate
or chilling inFury can occur.
$ High temperature
-eeds of all tropical plants re"uire high temperature for germination. -o, the
upper limits of soil temperature for survival of most of vegetale seeds is etween
><
o
1 6:<c7 and 1<5
o
1 65<c7. over and aove, heat inFury will occur.
c7 Optimum temperature
The temperature which is favourale for germination is called optimum
temperature. !n this temperature, highest rate of germination will occur. The
optimum temperature for most of the plants is etween 9@.;
o
c?:;
o
c
:. O@ygen
-eed gets /
9
through respiration. !t is a must to produce energy.
-ugar J /%ygen M #aron dio%ide J 'ater J (nergy
#
@
H
19
/
@
J /
9
M @#/
9
J @ H
9
/ J @7: D.cal
This will ta$e place as long as the seeds are alive. After sowing, during
germination the rate of respiration will increase consideraly. -eeds of .ermuda
grass, lettuce, petunia an rice will germinate even at low /
9
level. !t is ecause of
the presence of anaeroic energy lierating system within the seeds. #ate tails
6Typha latifolia7 give poor germination in air ut prompt germination under water,
ecause of anaeroic energy lierating system
5. -ight
!t has a significant effect on initiation of germination an on seedling growth.
Cormally when the seeds are sown in soil and light is cut off, it results in start of
germination. .ut, certain seeds will germinate only in the presence of light.
(g. Viscum album
Ficus aurea
Lactuca sativa
.ut, in plants li$e Allium and Amaranthus, germination is affect y light.
A photo chemical reversile reaction, involving the response of pigment
$nown as phytochrome , affects seeds germination
*ight re"uirement can e partially replaced y alternating temperature,
potassium nitrate, $inetin, 3A, and thio?urea.
5ermination process
There are : stages
1. !n the first stage, water is asored y a dry seed and moisture content
increase rapidly. This is purely a physical process called imiition. As a
result swelling seed ta$es place and the seed coat may rea$. &rotein
synthesis and enzyme action will also e initiated.
9. The second stage of germination involves digestion and translocation.
(nzymes appear and egin to digest reserve sustances li$e fats, proteins,
#H/ in the storage tissues to similar chemical compounds. These are
translocated to growing points of emryonic a%is to e used for growth and
the production of new plant parts.
:. The third stage of germination consists of cell division. Here, fresh weight
and dry weight of seedling increase ut weight of storage tissue decreases.
&ole of hormones in the process of germination
Three plant hormones play important role in germination. They are
1. 3ierellins ) control of food moilizing system
9. #yto$inins ) Catural endogenous hormones will also control germination
through ,CA to 8CA transcription system
:. Ascisic acid is an inhiitor that can prevent germination. !t affects 8CA
synthesis.
*ategories of see! !ormancy
,ormant seed 2 -eed e%posed to favourale environment for germination
does not germinate which implies the presence of dormancy.
Four groups of Dormancy
5roup +F See! coat !ormancy
a7 Hard seed covering, impermeale to moisture. (g. *eguminoceae,
+alvaceae
7 Hard seed covering resistant to emryo e%pansion eg. 'alnut
c7 -eed covering containing chemical inhiitors. These are y leaching with
water eg. #itrus. #ucurits.
5roup ++2 -eeds with morphologically undeveloped 6rudimentary7 emryos
(mryos are not well developed at the time of harvest and will grow efore
germination occurs. (g. &almae , Annona
5roup +++2 -eeds with internal dormancy 6endogenous7
3ermination is regulated y the inner tissues of seeds ) endosperm and inner
integumental layer. There are three groups in this category.
a$ Physiologically shallo= !ormancy
This type is present is most freshly harvested seed and disappears with dry
storage over a period of days or months. !t may e due to endogenous inhiitors in
fresh seeds. Treatments with 3A, Dinetine, &otassium nitrate may e used to over
come.
7 Physiologically interme!iate !ormancy
+oisture chilling stimulate germination. This is found in conifers and in
woody plants. Temperature Fust aove freezing 69 to 7
o
c7 are generally most
effective to rea$ dormancy.
c$ Physiologically !eep !ormancy
This will disappear with prolonged moist chilling. This is to regulate
emryo and seed covering to facilitate germination. (g.Temperate zone heraceous
plants.
5roup +%F *om#ine! or !ou#le !ormancy
.oth seed coat 6e%ternal7 dormancy and emryo 6internal7 dormancy occur.
Here treatments must e given in se"uency. (g. 'oody trees and shrus of
temperate region.
Pre1con!itioning of see!s or #reaAing !ormancy
17 +echanical scarification
This is done to modify hard or impervious seed coats. -carification is a
process of rea$ing or scratching or mechanically altering the seed covering to
ma$e it permeale to water and gases.
1. 8uing the seed on sand paper.
9. #utting with a file
:. #rac$ing the seed cover with a hammer
5. -cratching in pestle and mortar.
1or large scale operation, special mechanical scarifiers are used. Here, seeds
may e tumled in drums lined with sand paper or in concrete mi%tures comined
with coarse sand or gravel. The sand and gravel should e of a different size than
the seed to facilitate separation. (g. *eguminous seeds
97 Acid scarification
#oncentrated sulphuric acid is used to modify hard or impermeale seed
covering
,ry seeds are placed in glass or earther ware containers and treated with
concentrated sulphuric acid in the ratio of aout one part of seed to two parts of
acid. The mi%ture should e stirred in intervals to produce uniform results.
The length of treatment should e carefully standardized. This may vary
from 1< minutes for some sp. to as much as @ hours for other sp.
At the end of treatment , the acid is poured off and the seeds are washed with
copious amount of water.
:7 -oa$ing seeds in water
!t is done to modify hard seed coat, remove inhiitors, soften seed coat and
reduce the time of germination. This will overcome seed coat dormancy and
stimulate germination. The seeds can e soa$ed either in cold or hot water
depending on the species. -eeds of winged ean are very hard and normally soa$ed
in cold water for 5> hours so as to hasten the germination.
!n hot water treatment, temperature of water will range from 77
o
c to 1<<
o
c.
After treating for one or two minutes, the heat is immediately removed, and the
seeds are allowed to soa$ in gradullay cooling water for 19 to 95 hours. 1ollowing
this, unswollen seeds can e separated from the swollen ones.
5. -tratification 2 6+oist chilling7
Here, seeds are e%posed to low temperature. !t permits physiological
changes to occur in the emry. Temperature range is from <oc to 1<oc. -o dry
seeds should e soa$ed in water for 19 to 95 hours, drained, mi%ed with moisture
retaining medium and then stored for the re"uired period of time. The usual storage
temperature is 9oc to 7oc. 1or most of the seeds, low temperature stratification
ranged from 1 to 5 months. After it underwent the stipulated period, seeds are
sown without drying.
;. #hemical stimulants
3A
!t will promote germination in some $ind of dormant seed. -eeds are treated
with 3A y soa$ing for 95 hour in water solution at concentration from 1<< to
19<<< ppm. This will improve seed germination.
#yto$inin 6Dinetin7
#ommercial preparation of $inetin are availale. A common synthetic
cyto$inin is .enzyl Adenine. -eeds are soa$ed in 1<< ppm $inetine solution for
three minutes. 1irst, the chemical is dissolved in small amount of dil. Hel, then
made up with water to get the re"uired concentration.
(thylene
'hen ethylene was applid to seeds, it stimulated germination of some seeds
e%perimentally. !n peanut or groundnut 60irginia type7, ethylene is used in the form
of ethrel to rea$ the dormancy.
&otassium nitrate
1reshly harvested dormant seeds germinate etter after soa$ing in potassium
nitrate solution. &otassium nitrate solution of <.9= concentration will improve seed
germination in Dentuc$y luegrass.
Thio?urea
!t is used to stimulate germination of some dormant seeds, particularly those
that do not germinate in dar$ness or at high temperature or that re"uire a moist
chilling treatment. #oncentration varies from <.; to :=. -oa$ing is done for 95
hours.
-eed invigouration
!n most of the species, as the seed ages, it slowly looses the germination
capacity due to a numer of factors li$e accumulation of inhiitors etc., These aged
seeds when treated with specific chemicals li$e potassium dihydrogen
orthophosphate 6DH
9
&/
5
7 sodium dihydrogen orthophosphate 6CaH9 &/57,
dipotassium hydrogen phosphate 6D
9
H&/
5
7 at a concentration of 9<< ppm for 95
hours, drying to original moisture and then sowing has improved the germination
tremendously. !n some cases even water soa$ing has improved the germination eg.
&apaya and chillies.
A&/+!N!-
!t is the occurance of an ase%ual reproductive process in place of normal
se%ual reproductive process of reduction division and fertilization. -imply, it is an
ase%ual seedling developed from a seed viz., a seedling that arises from tissue of the
seed other than emryo
&lants that produce only apomictic emryos are $nown as oligate apomicts,
6(g. +angosteen7 those that produce oth apomictic and se%ual emryos are
facultative apomicts eg. Acid lime
Type of apomi@es
8ecurrent apomi%es
Here, emryo develops from the egg mother cell which doesnt under go any
meiosis. -o., egg has normal diploid numer of chromosome. The same as in the
mother plant. The emryo suse"uently develops directly from the egg nucleus
without fertilization. !n some cases, the emryo develops with stimulus of
pollination 6eg. Allium7 and in some cases, without stimulus of pollination
6eg.+alus7
Adventitious or Cucellar emryony
Here, emryo will rise from a cell or group of cells either in the nucellus or
in integuments. Here, emryo develops outside the emryo sac in addition to the
regular emryos. (g. #itrus
Conrecurrent apomi%es
Here emryo arises from the egg nucleus without fertilization. -ince the egg
is haploid, the resulting emryo will also he haploid. The case is very rare.
0egetative apomi%es
!n some cases, vegetative uds or ulils are produced in the inflorescence in
place of flowers eg. Agave and grass species
&olyemryony
The phenomenon in which two or more emryos are present within a single
seed is called polyemryony 6Cucellar emryony7
-ignificance of apomi%es
1. Apomictic seedlings are true to its mother and apomictic cultivar can e
considered as a clone
9. They are uniform and vigorous
:. 0irus diseases are not seed orne. -o, it is the est method to reFuvenate
virus affected plant crops.
Principles an! metho!s of vegetative propagation #y cuttings
#uttings are vegetative plant portions such as stems, leaves and roots ta$en
from plants to produce new independent plant which, in most cases, will e identical
with the parent plant. This is one of the least e%pensive and easiest methods of
vegetative propagation.
#uttings are ta$en from 17stem 97leaf :7leaf ud and 57 root
!n the case of stem cuttings, it has four groups
1. Hard wood cutting ? spring ) 1eruary, +arch
9. -emihard wood cutting ? summer ) April, may
:. -oft wood cutting ? fall 6or7 autumn ) Eune, Fuly H August
5. Heraceous cuttings ? 'inter ) -eptemer, /ctoer,
Covemer,
,ecemer and Eanuary
Har! =oo! cuttingF .Deci!uous$
The cuttings are fully matured with more reserve food and anatomically, the
ma%imum of sclerenchyma can e seen. The cuttings are prepared during dormant
season 6late fall, winter or early spring7 from wood of previous seasons growth. !n
some species, such as fig, olive and certain plum varieties , two year old wood can
e used. 1ruits propagated through hard wood cuttings are fig, olive, mulerry,
grape, gooseerry, pomegranate, some plums and rose
#uttings should e ta$en from healthy plant grown in full sunlight. *ength
may vary from 5 to :< inches 6#ommon @?>O7 the diameter of cuttings may range
from P inch to even 9O depending upon the species.
At least, two nodes are included in the cutting. The asal cut is usually Fust
elow a node and a top cut Q to 1O aove a node. After preparing cuttings, undles
of cuttings may e uried out of doors in sandy soil or stored in a refrigerated room
efore planting in spring.
'hile planting, cuttings should e planted : or 5O apart and deeply enough
614: of its length placed inside the soil7
(vergreen hardwood
3rapes, pomegranate and some citrus fruits are propagated through hard
wood cuttings. *ength of cuttings range from 5?7O with ; to @ nodes. #uttings are
ta$en during late winter. -pring season is good for planting.
-emi?hard wood cuttings
-tem cuttings of trees and shrus that are ta$en from current season shoots,
which are partly matured are $nown as semihard wood. They have lesser reserve
food compared to hard wood and similarly, the formation of sclerenchyma in the
anatomical development is also comparatively less. *ength of cuttings range from
:to@O. Here we can retain one or two terminal leaves.
-oft wood cutting
#uttings of :?@O length prepared from soft, succulent and new growth may
e called as soft wood cuttings eg. 0ernonia
Heraceous cuttings
This type of cuttings made from succulent heraceous plants Fust near the
terminal uds is called heraceous cuttings 63eranium, #oleus, Alternanthra and
-weet potato7 *ength of cuttings is :?;O with leaves
*eaf cuttings
*eaf lade are utilized in starting a new plant. Advantitious roots and an
adventitious shoot form at the ase of leaf. 6eg.7 -ansevieria, .egonia H
.ryophyllum
*eaf ud cuttings
They consist of a leaf lade, petiole and a very short piece of stem with
attached a%illary ud.
This type of cuttings will e very useful in species which have a tendency to
produce root from the leaf, stem or petiole ut do not produce a shoot system out of
any one of the three parts. !n this case, the a%illary ud serves as a source for new
shoot system. (g.*emon, 8hododendron.
8oot cuttings
8oot piece of 9?5O length are planted horizontally at 1O to 9O depth
(g. .read fruit, #ra apple, .lac$ erry, 8asp erry
Anatomical and physiological asis of rooting
The formation of adventitious roots in cuttings or layering can e divided
into two phases. /ne is initiation which is characterized y cell division and the
differentiation of certain cells into root initials and then into recognizale root
primordia. The second phase is the growth and emergence of new roots, y a
comination of cell division and cell elongation including rupturing of other stem
tissues and formation of vascular connections with the conducting tissue of the
cutting
These root initials are formed adFacent to vascular tissue. !n heraceous
plants which lac$ a camium, the root initials are formed near the vascular undle
close to the phloem. !n woody perennials, the adventitious roots in stem cuttings
usually originate in the young, secondary phloems although they may also arise
from other tissues such as vascular rays, camium or piths.
!n some plants, adventitious root initials form during early stage of intact
stem development and are already present at the time of preparation of cuttings.
These are termed preformed of latent root initials. These generally lie dormant
until the stems are made into cuttings and placed under environmental conditions
favourale for further development and emergence of the primordial as adventitious
roots. 'illow, Hydrangea, &oplar, Fasmines, #itrons are some of the species which
produce preformed root initials. The position of origin of these preformed root
initials is same as that of other adventitious roots. After elaorate studies with easy
and difficult to root plants, some insight into the physiological asis of rooting has
een estalished. The important aspects are summarized elow.
1. Au%in level is closely associated with adventitious rooting of stem cuttings.
9. Cutritional status of plants especially high carohydrate levels with optimum
C is associated with vigourous root growth.
:. 1ew organic compounds interact with au%in to affect rooting and they are
called rooting co?factors
Principles an! metho!s of propagation #y layering
!t is a propagation method y which adventitious roots are caused to form on
a stem while it is till attached to the parent plant. The rooted stems are then
detached and estalished in a medium to ecome a new plant growing on its own
roots.
Types of layering
a7 Air layering or 3ootee
7 3round layering
17 -imple layering
97 #ompound layering
:7 +ound 6-tool7 layering
Air layering
!n air layering, roots form on aerial part of plants where the stem has een
girdled and covered with rooting medium. !t should e done during humid months
ecause root initiation will e high under high humid conditions
-teps2
1. The ranch selected should e of pencil thic$ness
9. The stem should e girdled for aout a length of 1cm to 1O to induce
adventitious root formation aove the cut. !t should e given at 19?1;O from
the tip of the ranch
:. A all of slightly damp sphagnum moss is placed around the girdled stem.
5. A wrap of polythene film is placed around the sphagnum moss and tied
airtight on oth ends.
Time of removal
!t is etter determined y oserving root formation through the transparent
film. !n some plants, rooting occurs in two or three months. *ayering made in
spring or early summer is the est and it will give high percentage of success.
The rooted layers should e potted in a suitale container and placed under
cool humid conditions as a hardening process efore it is used for planting.
3round layering
1. -imple layering
.ranches that have formed roots in one area only are called simple layers.
-uch layers are made y ending the ranches to the ground and covering the
portion with soil.
This should e done in early spring for temperate species efore growth has
started. 1or other tropical species an actively growing period is selected. The tip of
the shoot is left e%posed to carry out normal process of the plant.
&rocedure
1. A healthy shoot of pencil thic$ness from a lower ranch near the ground
level has to e selected.
9. The common practice is to inFure the portion to e covered, y notching,
girdling, cutting or twisting. This practice destroys the phloem tissue
partially or completely and retards the downward movement of food
material as well as hormones manufactured y leaves. !nFury is given @?19O
ac$ from the tip
:. The ent part of shoot is inserted into the soil
5. the usual time for layering depends on species eg.for temperate species, it is
done in early spring and for this, dormant, one year old shoots are used.
;. The rooted layers may e removed from the parent plant and $ept under
cool humid conditions for curing.
9. #ompound or serpentine layering
!t is essentially the same as simple layering, e%cept that the ranch is
alternately covered and e%posed along its length. -o that, the roots stri$e wherever
the plant is covered y soil
:. +ound layering 6or7 stooling
Here, the plant is pruned close to the ground level and all the ranches are
covered with soil. -tri$ing of roots ta$es place at a numer of places and the plant
also produce new shoot system which come out of the mound. (ach shoot with part
of roots formed will e separated and planted in pots for further estalishment.
Apple rootstoc$s are propagated y this method.
The anatomical !evelopment of roots
-tem cuttings
&ropagation through cutting4layering is common in dicotyledonous plants.
However, cuttings of some monocots, such as asparagus can e rooted under proper
conditions
Process of root initiation in stem
!t is divided into three stages
1. #ellular differentiation of camium leading to initiation of meristematic
cells. &roliferation of certain cells to form root initials near vascular undle.
9. These differentiated cells group into recognizale root primoridia
:. The growth and emergence of new roots.
+nitiation of root primor!ia in her#aceous plants
1. /rigin is usually Fust outside and etween the vascular undles 6from
cmium7
9. -mall group of cells, the root initials, continue dividing, forming groups of
many small cells which develop into root primordial 6it loo$s li$e root tip7
:. A vascular system develops in the new root and ecomes connected with
adFacent vascular undle
+nitiation of roots in =oo!y plants
/rigin is in the young secondary phloem, sometimes from vascular rays or
camium The time at which root initials develop after cuttings are placed in the
propagating ed varies widely
*allus
After stem cuttings have een made and placed under favourale
environmental conditions, callus will usually develop at the asal end of cuttings.
This is an irregular mass of undifferentiated parenchyma cells. !t was elieved that
callus formation would e essential for rooting. !n most cases, formation of callus
and formation of roots are independent of each other and if they occur simultaneous
it is due to their dependence upon similar internal and environmental condition.
Principles of grafting an! #u!!ing
!t is the process of operation of inserting a part of one plant into another or
placing it upon another in such a way that an union will e formed and the
comination will continue to grow as one plant. The part of graft comination
which is to ecome the upper portion if termed as the scion 6ion7 and the part
which is to ecome the lower portion or root is termed as root stoc$ or
understoc$ or the stoc$ 8ootstoc$s are commonly grown from seeds, cuttings or
layers. All methods of Foining plants are popularly termed as grafting ut when
the scion part is only a small piece of ar$ 6and sometimes wood7 containing a
single ud, the operation is termed as udding.
&easons for grafting an! #u!!ing
1. 'hen other methods of ase%ual propagation is not successful in perpetuating
a clone, eg.mango and sapota can e successfully propagated on commercial
scale y grafting only.
9. &lants propagated on their own roots may e wea$, susceptile to pests and
diseases, or to any adverse environmental conditions may not adaptale to a
particular soil or climate. 1or many plant species, rootstoc$s are availale
which tolerate all the aove cases and hence they may e e%ploited as a
rootstoc$ through grafting or udding.
:. 1or converting poor trees into more desirale one y top?wor$ing
5. 1or overcoming pollination prolems, self?fertile varieties may e grafted
over self?sterile trees
;. 1or fancy purposes, different types of scion may e grafted in the same plant
@. To modify the growth of the plant as dearf one y employing suitale
dwarfting rootstoc$s
7. /ccasionally the roots, truc$ or large lims of trees are severely damaged y
winter inFury, cultivation implements, certain diseases or rodent. .ut use of
ridge grafting or in arching such damage can e repaired and the tree saved.
Duestions
1. +ention difference etween se%ual and ase%ual propagation
9. 'hat are specialized plant propagules

&ootstocAs
8ootstoc$s also influence the growth and productivity of scion. 8oot stoc$s
can e divided into two groups as follows.
1.-eedling rootstoc$s
0ariation among seedlings can possile ma$e them undesirale as
rootstoc$s. 0ariaility in rootstoc$ seedlings may cause variaility in the growth
and performance of the grafted trees. -eedlings which are wea$ should e avoided.
-eedlings of Q to 9 years old with pencil thic$ness are considered optimum. !n
Tamil nadu seedling rootstoc$s are employed for mango, plums and peaches.
9. #lonal rootstoc$
To avoid variation in rootstoc$s, thus to impart uniformity in the scion, often
rootstoc$s are also propagated y cuttings or layers. -uch rootstoc$s which are
perpetuated a se%ually are termed as clonal rootstoc$s. Cucellar seedling 6poly
emryony7 in certain varieties of mango and all the species in citrus 6e%cepting
C.grandis7 can e also considered as clonal rootstoc$s as they arise from the tissues
other than the true se%ual emryo. !n Tamil nadu clonal rootstoc$s are used in the
propagation of apple and pear.
Factors for successful graft union
1. .otanically the closer a rootstoc$ and scion, the more will e the
compatiility etween these two.
9. &roper season of grafting is essential. 1or deciduous plants, grafting is done
at the winter season or early spring season and for evergreen trees, it should
e done during its active growing season
:. Any grafting or udding method should ensure intimate contact etween the
camium of scion and rootstoc$
5. !mmediately after the grafting operation is completed all the cut surfaces
must e carefully protected from desiccation.
;. &roper care should e given to the grafts for a period of time after grafting
Formation of graft union
!n graftage, freshly cut scion tissue capale of meristematic activity is
rought into close, intimate contact with similar freshly cut stoc$ tissue in such a
manner that camial regions of oth are in close pro%imity. The healing of graft
union ta$es place in a se"uential step as indicated elow
1. &roduction of callus tissues 6&arenchyma cells7 y the camium regions
9. !ntermingling and interloc$ing of parenchyma cells of oth graft components
:. ,ifferentiation of certain parenchyma cells of the callus into new camium
cells connecting with the original camium in the stoc$ and scion
5. &roduction of new vascular tissues y the new camium permitting passage
of nutrients and water etween the stoc$ and scion.
-imitation of grafting or #u!!ing
/ne of the re"uirements for a successful graft union is the close matching of
the callus?producing tissues near the camial layers. 3rafting is generally confined
to dicotyledons. These plants have a vascular camial layer e%isting as a continuous
tissue etween the %ylem and phloem. 1or grafting, it should e orne in mind that
the plants to e comined are capale of uniting. 3enerally, the more closely the
plants to e grafted are related otanically, the more favourale is the chances of the
graft union eing successful.
1. +ntra1varietal graftingF 'hen a scion can e grafted ac$ on the same plant
or a scion from a plant of a given clone can e grafted to any other plant of
the same clone eg.(lerta peach on (lerta peach
9. +nter1varital graftingF when different varieties of a species are employed as
graft parents eg.mango
:. +nter1specific graftingF !n this case, grafting etween the species of the
same genus is done. .ut this is usually difficult ut widely used etween
species in the genus citrus. Eapanese plum 6Prunus salicina7 is grafted
commercially on peach 6Prunus persica7
5. +ntergeneric graftingF when the plants to e grafted together are in different
genera ut in the same family the chanes of union are more remote. .ut
successful union has een reported in the following cases
#itrus spp. on trifoliate orange 6&oncirus trifoliatat7
-athugud 6#itrus sinensis7 on wood apple 61erronia elephantum7
-apota 6Achras sapota7 on pala 6+anil$ara he%andra7
5raft incompati#ility
The aility of two different plant when grafted together to produce a
successful union and also to develop satisfactorily into one composite plant is
termed as compatiility. The inaility of two different plants to do so when grafted
together is often defined as incompatiility or graft incompatiility. The distinction
etween a compatile and an incompatile graft union is not clear cut. /n one
hand, stoc$s an scions of closely related plants unite readily and grow as one plant.
/n the other hand, stoc$s and scions of closely unrelated plants when grafted
together are li$ely to fail completely in union. +any graft comination lie etween
these e%treme viz., compatile to incompatile and therefore the characterization of
incompatiility is not distinct
Partial incompati#ility
'here the stoc$ outgrows the scion has een reported in certain fruit crops.
1or instance, mandarin when grafted onto trifoliate stoc$, the stoc$s outgrew the
scion ut the tree grew well and produced plenty of fruits of good "uality.
!ncompatiility may e classified as translocated incompatiility and localized
incompatiility. The former type refers those cases in which the incompatile
condition cannot e overcome y the insertion of a mutually compatile interstoc$.
This is due to apparently some laile influence moving across it. This type involves
phloem degeneration and development of a rown line or necrotic, are in the ar$.
Hales (arly peach develops incompatiility when grafted on +yroolan?. plus
rootstoc$. .ut when a mutually compatile interstoc$. .rompton &lusis
introduced, the incompatiility still persists indicating that the incompatiility is due
to some factors translocated from the rootstoc$ to the scion through the phloem
causing phloem degeneration
The second type viz., localized incompatiility includes a comination in
which the incompatiility reaction apparently depends upon actual contact etween
stoc$ and scion. !ntroduction of a mutually compatile interstoc$ will normally
overcome the incompatiility. -ymptoms of this $ind of incompatiility is that the
graft is often mechanically wea$ with discontinuity in camium and vascular tissue.
A typical e%ample of this $ind of incompatiility is that when .arlett pear is grafted
directly on "uince stoc$, it is incompatile. 'hen /ld Home interstoc$ is
introduced in etween these comination, the three part comination is completely
compatile and it grows satisfactorily. Another e%ample is that when (ure$a lemon
is grafted on trifoliate rootstoc$s, it proved to e incompatile, due to a to%ic
sustance produced y the scion damaging the conducting tissues of the stoc$.
'hen the interstoc$, 0alencia orange was introduced, the comination proved
successful.
!n some cases, the stoc$?scion comination grows in an apparently normal
fashion for varying periods of times?perhaps for many years and then difficulties
arise. This is called as delayed incompatiility. A good e%ample of the aove
phenomenon is the lac$ line of walnut which occurs in certain &ersian walnut
orchards in #alifornia and 1rance. 'hen cultivars of Juglens regia are grafted on
seedling rootstoc$s of J.hindsii or parado% rootstoc$s 6J.hindsii x Juglens regia7 the
trees grow satisfactorily for 1; to 9< years or even more years of age, thereafter the
troule starts. A thin?layer of camium and phloem and the dead tissue develop at
one point and gradually e%tend around the tree at the graft union until the trees
ecome girdled. The vertical width of the dead area may reach :< cm. -uch
girdling may $ill the plants aove the graft union ut the stoc$ remains alive and
sprout. Another e%ample is that sapota on .assia longifolia stoc$s. !n compatiility
is manifested y overgrowing of scion resulting in pronounced distortion at the ud
Foint and the graft dies prematurely. ,elayed incompatiility has een also reported
in many citrus species as indicated in Tale 1;.:
Symptoms of incompati#ility
3raft union malformation resulting from incompatiility usually e%presses the
following e%ternal symptoms viz.,
1. 1ailure to form a successful graft or ud union with a high percentage of
success
9. Gellowing of leaves in the latter part of the growing season followed y
early defoliation accompanied y decline in vegetative growth, appearance
of shoot die ac$ and general ill health of the tree.
:. &remature death of the trees which may live only a year or two in the nursery
5. +ar$ed differences in the growth rate or vigor of scion and stoc$
;. /ver growth at, aove or elow the graft union.
*auses of graft incompati#ility
1. %irus infectionF one component of the graft comination may carry a virus
and e symptomless, ut the other component may e syceptile to it. 1or
e%ample, when .arlett pear is grafted on &yrus pyrifolia, the tree declines
due to virus infection of the susceptile rootstoc$ while .artlett on
P.communis remains healthy, ecause P.communis is a virus ) resistant
variety
9. 5ro=th !ifferencesF in certain graft comination, the differences in the
time of resumption of camium activity of the stoc$ and scion or differential
growth characteristics of the stoc$ and scion are reported to e a causes for
graft incompatiility
:. Physiological causesF &hysiological incompatiility is due to the inaility
of the stoc$ or the scion to supply the other components with necessary
amount or "uality or materials for normal functioning. There is some
evidence that in certain graft cominations one component 6-cion or stoc$7
produces chemicals that are to%ic to the other, $illing the entire plant, eg.
'hen pear is grafted onto "uince rootstoc$, a cyanogenic glucoside,
prunasin, normally found in "uince is translocated into the phloem of the
pear where it gets ro$en down in the region of the graft union into
hydrocyanic acid. The presence of this acid leads to lac$ of camial activity
at the graft union, leading to graft incompatiility.
StocA1scion relationships
A grafted or udded plant can produce unusual growth patterns which may
e different from what would have occurred if each component part of a graftage
viz., rootstoc$ and scion was grown separately or when it is grafted or udded in
other types of rootstoc$s. -ome of these have maFor horticultural value. this
varying aspect of rootstoc$s in the performance of a scion cultivar or vice versa is
$nown as stoc$?scion relationship
'ffect of stocAs on scion cultivars
1. -ize and growth hait 2 !n apple, rootstoc$s, can e classified as dwarf, semi?
dwarf, vigorous and very vigorous rootstoc$s ased on their effect on a
scion cultivar. !f a scion is grafted on dwarf rootstoc$s eg. +alling !N, the
scion grows less vigorously and remain dwarf only. /n the other hand if
the same scion is grafted on a very vigorous rootstoc$ eg. +alling !! the
scion grows very vigorously,. !n citrus, trifoliate orange is considered to e
the most dwarfing rootstoc$ for grapefruit and sweet oranges. /n the other
hand, in mango, all plants of a given variety are $nown to have the same
characteristic canopy shape of the variety despite the rootstoc$s eing of
seedling origin. .ut recently, rootstoc$s of Dalapade, /lour have een
found to impart dwarfness in the scion cultivars of mango. 3uava cultivars
grafted on &sidium pumilum are found to e dwarf in stature.
9. &recocity in flowering and fruiting 2 The time ta$en from planting to
fruiting i.e., precocity is influenced y rootstoc$s. 3enerally fruiting
precocity is associated with dwarfing rootstoc$s and slowness to start
rootstoc$s are precocious than those grafted on sweet orange or sour orange
or acid lime rootstoc$s
:. 1ruitset and yield 2 The rootstoc$s directly influence on the production of
flower and setting fruits in oriental &ersimmon 6Diospyrous ai cv.
!ichiya7. 'hen it is grafted on ,.lotus, it produces more flowers ut few
only mature ut when ,.$a$i is used as the rootstoc$, the fruitset is more.
the influence of rootstoc$ on the yield performance of cultivar has een well
documented in many fruit crops. Acid limes udded on rough lemon
register nearly 7< percent increased yield than those udded on troyer
citrange, 8angpur lime or its own rootstoc$. -weet orange var. -athugudi
udded on Dichili rootstoc$ gave higher yield that on Eamhari or on its
own seedling.
5. 1ruit size "uality 2 -athugudi sweet oranges grafted on 3aFanimma
rootstoc$s produced large ut poor "uality fruits while on its own roots they
produced fruits with high Fuice content and "uality. The physiological
disorder granulation in sweet orange is very low if grafted on #leopartra
mandarin seedlings, on the other hand rough lemon seedlings stoc$s
induced ma%imum granulation. the physiological disorder lac$ end in
.artlett &ear did not appear if Pyrus communis was used as the rootstoc$.
'hen P.pyrifolia was used as the rootstoc$, this disorder appeared,
affecting fruit "uality.
;. Cutrient status of scion 2 8oost stoc$s do influence the nutrient status of
scion also. -athugudi orange trees have a etter nutrient status of
alnutrients in the leaves when it is udded on C.volarimariana rootstoc$
than on its own rootstoc$ or #leopatra mandarin stoc$s
@. 'inter hardiness 2 Goung grape fruit trees on 8angpur lime withstand winter
inFury etter than on rough lemon or sour orange. -weet oranges and
mandarins on trifoliate stoc$s were more cold hardy.
7. ,isease resistance 2 !n citrus considerale variaility e%ists among the
rootstoc$s in their response to diseases and nematodes. 1or instance, rough
lemon rootstoc$ is tolerant to tristesa, %yloporosis and e%ecortis ut is
susceptile to gummosis and nematode. /n the other hand, treyer citrange
is tolerant to gummosis ut susceptile to e%ecortis virus disease. -imilarly,
guava varieties grafted on #hinese guava 6&sidium friedrichsthalianum7
resist wilt diseases and nematodes
>. Aility to resist soil adverse conditions 2 Among the citrus rootstoc$s,
trifoliate orange e%hiits poor aility, while sweet oranges, sour orange,
8angpur lime rootstoc$s e%hiit moderate aility to resist e%cess salts in the
soil. !m pome fruits, similarly, ariation e%ists among rootstoc$s to resist
e%cess soil moisture or e%cess oron in the soilyroolan plum rootstoc$s
generally tolerate e%cess oron and moisture than +ananna plum root or
other rootstoc$s viz., peach, apricot or almond.
6.'ffect of scion on rootstocA
1. 0igous of the rootstoc$s2 !n apple, it has een found that if apple seedlings
were udded with the 8ed Astrochan apple. The rootstoc$ produced a very
firous root system with few tap roots. /n the other hand, if scion 3olden
urg was udded on the seedlings, they produced two or three pronged deep
roots without firous root system. !n citrus, if the scion cultivar is less
vigorous than the rootstoc$ cultivar the rate of growth and the ultimate size
of the tree is more determined y the scion rather than the rootstoc$s.
9. #old hariness of the rootstoc$2 #old hardiness of citrus roots is affected y
the scion cultivar. -our orange seedlings udded to (ure$a lemon suffered
much more from winter inFury than the unudded seedlings.
:. &recocity in flowering2 Gound mango rootstoc$ seedlings 6@ months to one
year old7 were found to putforth inflorescence when the ranches from old
trees are inarched which can e attriuted to the influence of scion on the
rootstoc$.
Factors influencing the heeling of graft unionF
1. !ncompatiility2 #ertain rootstoc$s an scions are incompatile, therefore, the
graft union etween these two will not normally ta$e place.
9. Dind of plant2 -ome species li$e oa$s are difficult to graft, ut apple and
pears are very easy in producing a successful grant union.
:. (nvironmental factors during and following grafting2 There are certain
environmental re"uirements which must e met for callus tissue to develop
and heel the graft union
a7 Temperature has a pronounced effect on the proeducation of callus
tissues. An optimum temperature is essential for production of callus tissues. !n
most of the temperature fruit crops callus production is retarded.
ist cham#er constuction use an! maintenance
1or successful propagation of plants, plant propagating structure or nursery
structure are often used, ecause certain plants have special re"uirement for light
temperature of humidity for germination of seeds or rooting of cuttings. The
outdoor conditions may not e suitale for growing young plants. There are several
$inds of plant growing structure, the most important ones are green house, mist
units and shade hours.
The greenhouse is mainly used for providing controlled environment either
for germination of seeds or rooting in difficult to root plants and also to harden the
propagated plants, whereas the shade house is used for hardening of young plants
efore they are transplanted to a permanent location.
+ist propagating eds are useful propagating units for the rooting of
cuttings, especially those, which are difficult to root. +ist eds are constructed
usually within the green house. A fine mist is sprayed over the cuttings
intermittently usually during the day2 ,uring night, it is not necessary.
The lay out of the Fest, which form the mist, is very important. All the hades
6Fest7 should e at the same level. They may either e suspended from the roof of
the glass?house aove the eds or e fi%ed on stand ) pipes attached to the eds. the
Fets are arranged in such a manner that each corner of the ed received mist spray
e"ually and uniformly. This can e early achieved when sprays of two Fest overlap.
There must e continuous supply of water for misting. !nstallation of a
pressure tan$ and pump ensures consistent pressure for misting. The water for
misting should e clean and uncontaminated. !n hard?water areas, it is etter to use
rain water or install water treatment e"uipments, which remove dissolved salts from
the water.
5ui!elines for effective functioning of mist cham#er
i The rooting medium should e pathogen?free and well drained
ii The water used for misting should not e al$aline in reaction.
iii Hygiene and cleanliness should e maintained inside the mist chamer.
iv The missing interval and time of interval should e decided on the asis of
species an variety and avoid misting during night.
v #ontinuous mist is undesirale and harmful to rooting in several plant
species and varieties.
vi The nutrients can also e applied if it is felt necessary.
vii -hade is to e provided against intense sunlight without interrupting
sufficient sunlight falling on plants essential for full photosynthetic activity
during rooting period.
viii ,uring rooting period, air should not e allowed to stand still inside the mist
chamer. Therefore cross ventilation should e provided
i% Deep mist propagation e"uipments clean and under wor$ale condition and
provide centrifugal pump with 1?9 H& motor
% The capacity of the motor is decided ased on the size of the mist chamer.
'ater should e allowed to get filtered efore eing pumped into the mist
chamer.
&ressure tan$ ) !t is a thic$ walled airtight metallic chamer. 'ater is filled
automatically when pressure drops elow the limit.
Time cloc$ set 6Timer7 ) !t controls the mist spray at regular intervals
Cozzles ) there are various types of nozzles. ,eflection type of nozzles is est
suited to mist chamer of medium size. &rior to installation of mist propagation,
selection of site is important. !n temperature region, it is essential to select the site
which is in the open sun whereas in tropical and sutropical regions, where summer
is very hot, the mist house should e installed either nearer to a uilding or large
trees which could provide partial shade. A temporary structure can e made with
polythene sheets.
Propagation #y specialise! plant parts
#ertain plants posses specialized vegetative structure whose primary
functions are storage of food and vegetative reproduction. !f such structures are
naturally detachale for propagation, this procedure is termed as separation /n
the other hand such structure are to e can into sections for ht purpose of
propagation, then this process is called as division the following specialized
vegetative structure are used in propagation
1. .ul
A ul is a specialized under ground organ consisting of a short, fleshy, usually
vertical stem a%is earing at its ape% a growing point or a flower primondium
enclosed y thic$ flesh scales. The outer ul scales are generally fleshy and
contain reserve food materials whereas the scales towards the inner contain
relatively less food materials an dare more leaf?li$e. .uls possessing dry and
memranous outer scales are tunicate uls and uls which lac$ this cover is non?
tunicate
9. #orm
A corm is the swollen ase of a stem a%is enclosed y the dry, scale?li$e leaves. !t
is solid stem structure with distinct nodes and internodes. the propagation of
cormous plants is principally y the natural increase of new corms. the
development of miniature corms etween the old and the new corms is termed
cormels.
:. Tuer
A tuer is modified stem structure which develops elow ground as a result of th
swelling of the suapical portion of a stolon and su?se"uent accumulation of
reserve materials. A tuer has all the parts of a typical stem. #ertain plants produce
aerial tuers in the a%ils of leaves which are $nown as tuercles.
5.Tuerous roots and stem
!n certain plants, the adventitious roots ecome thic$ened and they do have e%ternal
and internal structures of roots nodes and internodes. These are $nown as tuerous
roots. !n other plants such as tuerous .egonia, #yclamen or 3lo%inia, they have
thic$ened structures which have arisen from enlarged hypocotyls tissue. They have
a vertical arrangement and may show features of stems. &ropagation of platn with
such tuerous roots or stem consists of division of such materials.
;. 8hizome
!t refers to a specialized stem structure in which the main a%is of the plant grows
horizontally at or Fust elow the ground surface. A rhizome consists of nodes and
internodes having leaf scars on the node. !n determinate types of rhizomes each
clump ends in a flowering stal$ and growth continues only from lateral ranches.
@. 8unner
8unner is a specialized stem which develops from the a%is of a leaf at the crown of
a plant and grows horizontally along the ground and forms a new plant at one of the
nodes
7. /ffset
!t refers to a special types of lateral shoot or ranch which develops from the main
stem in certain plants and is characterized y shortened, thic$ened stem of rosette?
li$e appearance. /ffsets which produce sufficient roots can e removed y cutting
them close to the main stem with a sharp $nife and used for propagation
>. -uc$ers
A suc$er is a shoot which arises on a plant from elow ground usually from an
adventitious ud on a root. -uc$ers are further $nown as root suc$ers, ground
suc$ers and shoot suc$ers if they arise respectively from root, near the ground and
stem of the plant
A. #rown
The term crown designates that part of a plant at the surface of the ground from
which new shoots are produced. This $ind of crown is oserved in heraceous
perennials li$e strawerry, pyrethrum, 3erera or African violet wherein the stem is
a short and thic$ened structure from which the leaves are produced in a rosette li$e
arrangement
#ertain plants do have one or more of the aove mentioned specialized structures
useful for propagation. .ut particular structure is preferred for commercial
propagation for ovious reasons. -trawerry can e propagated oth y runners and
splits from crown.

Duestions
1. How root stoc$s influence the growth of scion
9. 3raft incompatiility? ,iscuss
P&+(*+P-'S OF +*&OP&OP"5"T+O( "(D +TS "D%"(T"5'S
+icro propagation or in vitro propagation refers to the development of new
plant in an artificial medium under aseptic conditions from very small pieces of
plant, such as emryos, seeds, stems, shoot tips, root tips, callus, single cells and
pollen grains. This techni"ue has een put into various applications in the discipline
of agriculture, horticulture and forestry ever. The various applications of micro
propagation are as follows
1. 8apid rate of multiplication of a plant clonally.
9. &roduction of disease?free and disease resistant plants.
:. !nduction of mutant and selection of mutants.
5. &roduction of haploids through anther culture
;. 'ide hyridization through e%cised emryo and ovule culture
@. -omatic hyrids and cyrids through protoplast fusion
7. Transformation through upta$e of foreign genome
>. Citrogen fi%ation
A. #ryopreservation of germplasm types
&eGuirements for micro propagation
1. *aminar air flower chamer ) !t is useful to perform all operation in aseptic
culture
9. Auto?clave or pressure coo$er ) !t is used to sterilize the media, containers,
petridishes and the various accessories re"uired in the transfer operation.
:. Alcohol lamps, disinfectant and sterile water are also re"uired
5. #ulture medium ) A medium consists of mineral salts, caron and energy
source, vitamins, plant growth regulators and other organic components
Proce!ure for micro propagation
1. *ollection of e@plantF The small piece of plant used to egin a culture is
referred to as an e%plant. The size, age and type of e%plant affect the success
of in vitro propagation.
9. Surface steriliCationF (%plants so collection from field grown plants haror
numerous fungi and acteria, which when inoculated into a nutrient
medium contaminates the entire in vitro system. Hence, surface sterilization
is resorted to prior inoculation of e%plants. The efficacy of the sterilants
used are found to vary depending upon the type of chemical, concentration
used, time of e%posure etc., A few drops of teepol are also added to
facilitate etter contact etween the e%plants and the sterilant.
:. +noculationF Transfer of the e%plant into the culture medium is $nown as
inoculation. This must e done in an aseptic condition. This is achieved y
surface sterilization of the wor$ing tale of the laminar air flower chamer
with asolute alcohol followed y B0 light for :< minutes.
5. Su#1culturingF After inoculation, the e%plant increases in volume or it
proliferate. At this stage, it is divided into different components or parts and
transferred into a fresh medium under aove mentioned aseptic sterile
condition. This process is $nown under aove mentioned aseptic sterile
condition. This su cultured mass should produce a shoot and root system
which is dependent upon the type of growth regulator and its concentration
used in the medium. !t is generally oserved that if the concentration of
cyto$inins is high relative to au%in in a medium, shoots are induced and on
the hand, when the concentration of cyto$ines is low to au%in, roots are
induced and at intermediate concentration, the tissue grows as
undifferentiated callus.
%arious metho!s of culturing plant tissues an! organs
There are five classes of plant tissues culture
1. *allus cultureF A piece of sterile plant tissue with living cells is transferred
to a culture medium to induce callus proliferation. -uculturing is then done
onto a medium with or without altered growth regulator concentration,
ultimately resulting in the induction of adventitious organs or emryos.
9. *ell cultureF #ells are maintained in suspension cultures so as to produce
free cells and are then sucultured to regenerate complete plants from single
cells. This techni"ue is now useful to induce variaility in plant cells and
slowly e%posed to select desirale cell variants and regenerate complete
plants from these variants.
:. eristem cultureF This techni"ue involves aseptic culture of shoot
meristems on nutrient medium so as to produce complete plants. +ost
important application of meristem culture is the production of virus free
plant from these variants.
5. 'm#ryo cultureF involves aseptic e%cision of the emryo and its transfer to
a suitale medium for development under optimum culture conditions. After
the emryo has grown into a plantlet in vitro, it is transferred to sterile soild
or vermiculite and grown to maturity in a green house
;. Protoplast cultureF 1rom different sources, protoplasts, the plant cells
without any rigid cellulose wall ut with plasma memrane only, is allowed
to fuse to form a somatic hyrid. These are cultured in suitale media to
regenerate the cell wall and are again cultured in suitale medium for
differentiation and morphogenesis.
Har!ening
The plant lets developed in the culture tues are acclimatized to a specific
environment having a high humidity, a low light level and a constant temperature.
.esides, the roots developed in vitro are hairless and hence delicate, re"uiring care
during transfer from culture medium. To have etter survival rate, the plantlets may
e transferred to container $ept in mist chamer where relative humidity is
maintained at higher order. /nce new growth is seen, the plants may e slowly
transferred to outside y e%posing to increased light intensity in stages.
Duestions
1. 'hat is micro propagation
9. +ention few horticultural crops propagated y tissue culture
:. 'hat is su?culturing
P-"((+(5, -"4O)T "(D 'ST"6-+SH'(T OF "( O&*H"&D "(D
SO+- T4P'S S)+T'D FO& HO&T+*)-T)&"- *&OP P&OD)*T+O(
There are different systems of planting of fruit crop which could
accommodate a ma%imum numer of trees in an efficient manner
1. 0ertical row plant system, 9.Alternate row plant system, :.Traiangular
system, 5.He%agonal system, ;.Iuincun% system, @.contour system.
'e can select any one of the aove systems of plant depending upon the
slop of the selected area, purpose of utilizing the orchard, availaility of space,
water, convenience etc.,
1. SGuare systemF This system is considered as the simples of all the system of
planting and followed widely. !n this system of planting, e"ual spacing is
given fir all the trees. !n this system, the plot is divided into s"uare shape
and trees are planted at four corners of the s"uare in straight rows at right
angle. !ntercrops can e cultivated.
9. &ectangular systemF Here also, trees are planted on each corner of a
rectangle. The distance etween any two rows is more than the distance
etween any two trees in a row. *i$e in s"uare system, raining intercrops is
also possile in this system. The only difference in this system is, more
plants can e accommodated in the row, $eeping more space etween the
rows.
:. Triangular shapeF The trees are planted as in s"uare system ut the
difference eing that those in the even?numered rows are mid?way etween
those in the odd rows instead of opposite to them. !t accommodates less
numer of trees than the s"uare system. !t is difficult oth to layout and
cultivate trees in this system. /nly advantage of this system is, more open
space is availale for the spread of the trees and intercrops
5. He@agonal systemF !n this system, trees are planted in each corner of an
e"uilateral triangle. Here si% trees form a he%agon with the 7
th
tree at the
centre. This system follows alternate row planting pattern as no tree in a row
is perpendicular to a tree in the adFacent row. This system can e followed
when there is ample supply of water in a highly fertile, valued land.
;. Duincun@ or !iagonal systemF This is nothing ut the s"uare system with
plants in the centre of the s"uare. (venthough this system of planting
accommodates doule the numer of plants, it does not provide e"ual
spacing etween plants. the central ;
th
tree, actually a filler tree, is "uic$
and erect growing and early maturing, li$e anana, pomegranate, papaya
which would e removed as soon as the main trees planted at the corners
come to earing.
@. *ontour systemF This system of planting is followed mainly in the hills
with slopes, where the land is with undulating topography and greater
damage of erosion and difficulty of irrigation persist. /n undulated lands,
generally ench terracing may e done after the trees are planted. Trees can
e planted on terraces or along contours. As the tree position can e decided
only on the spot, the trees will not e e"ual?distant. This type of system is
good for shallow soils where terracing will e%pose roc$y or poor su soil.
!rrigation and cultivation can e done along tree rows only.
7. Fi@ing the #ase lineF .ase line is a straight line mar$ed at a determined
space from a particular point, li$e road, fence, channel etc., !t is the first row
accommodating trees. !t is at a distance e"ual to half the spacing to e given
etween the trees. 3enerally, it is 9 to ; m from the road.
Duestions
1. 'hat are different systems of planting of orchard crops
9. (laorate on H,& planting in mango
"()&'S "(D "()&+(5 OF HO&T+*)-T)&"- *&OPS
+anures are sustances of organic or inorganic nature which are capale of
supplying the nutrients to the plants when applied to the soil. !n general, manures
are divided into organic and inorganic manures. /rganic manures includes cattle
manure or farm yard manure, night soil, guana, ones, oil ca$es, leaf mould, wood
ash, coir compost and vermicompost.
&O-' OF O&5"(+* "()&'S
1. To serve as a good source of maFor and minor nutrients.
9. To uild up soil organic matter and maintain fertility.
:. To improve physical, chemical and iological properties of the soil.
5. To have residual effect.
;. To control pest and diseases.
@. To improve the "uality of the crop.
7. To act as a chelating agent.
The soil organic matter can e increased y the addition of farm yard manure
which is popularly called as compost. #ompost is defined as the material resulting
from the decomposition of plant residues under the action of acteria and fungi.
5reen manure
The soil organic matter can e increased y cultivating green manure crop or
green leaf manures. The green manure crops are generally leguminous plants,
raised in the field for the purpose of serving as manure. (g. -unhemp 6Crotolaria
"uncea7, ,aincha 6#esbania aculeata$% &illipesara &#esbania speciosa$.
5reen leaf manure
3reen leaf manuring refers to the incorporation of the green leaves and other
tender parts of the plants collected from the shrus and trees grown outside the field
and also collected from the waste lands and neary forests into the soil. (g.
3liricidia 6'liricidia maculata$, -esania 6#esbania speciosa$ and &ungam
6Pungamia pinnata$.
*attle manure or Farm 4ar! anure .F4$
+anures produced y horse cattles or other animals.
They contain <.@= C, <.:;= & and <.@= D.
(ight soil
(%creta of human
8ich in nitrogen ie. ;.;= C, 5.5= & and 9.<= D.
5uana
(%creta of sea irds.
Bsed in #oast of &eru and -outh America.
1<.1;= C, A.>9= &
6one
-teamed one meal
:.;= C, 9:= &hoshoric acid also contain lime.
Oil caAes
8esidues left after the oil e%tracted from the seeds of groundnut, castor,
gingelly, pongamia etc.
: ) ;= C, 1.; ) 9= &.
-eaf moul!
'ithered and dry leaves and garden sweepings are used after
decomposition.
8ich in humus.
?oo! ash
8ich in potash
*oir compost
#oir pith otained from coir industry are decomposed y a fungus
Pleurotus so"arca"u.
#4C 8atio 9; 2 1
1.5= C, <.<@= & and 1.9= D.
%ermicompost
/rganic waste materials and animal dungs when fed with certain species
of earthworm.
The e%rements of worms are called R%ermicompostH
+(O&5"(+* F'&T+-+B'&S
1. (itrogenous fertiliCer
These fertilizers supply nitrogen to the crops when applied to the soil. (g.
Brea, ammonium suophate, ammonium nitrate, sodium nitrate etc.
2. Phosphate fertiliCers
These fertilizers supply phosphorus to the crops when applied to the soils.
(g. -uper phosphate, asic slag and roc$ phosphate.
3. Potassic fertiliCers
These fertilizers supply potassium to the crops when applied to the soils. (g.
+uriate of potash 6potassium chloride7 and potassium sulphate.
;. i@e! fertiliCers
!t is a mi%ture of more than one straight fertilizers which can supply more
than one plant nutrient elements. (g. 17217217 comple%.

"!vantage of mi@e! fertiliCers
1. -aving in time and laour in application.
9. -aving from transport of too many straight fertilizers from too many
places.
Disa!vantages
1. -pecific needs of crops and individual nutrient element cannot e
satisfied.
9. Bnit cost of mi%ed fertilizer is higher than unit cost of straight
fertilizers.
6iofertliCers or #io1inoculants
.io?fertilizers are carrier ased preparations containing eneficial micro
organisms in a viale state intended for seed or soil application and designed to
improve soil fertility and help plant growth y increasing the numer and iological
activity of desired microorganisms in the root environment. Three types of io?
inoculants are used to increase the growth and production of horticultural crops.
1. !noculants of iological nitrogen fi%ing micro?organisms. (g. ()otobacter%
*hi)obium and ()ospirillum.
9. &hosphoacterial inoculants. (g. +acillus sp. Pseudomonas sp. &.acteria7,
Pencillium sp. And (spergillus sp. 6fungi7 and &hosphoacteria.
:. +ycorrhizal inoculants eg. 60A+7 0asicular Aruscular +ycorrhizal fungi.
T+' OF "PP-+*"T+O(
The manures are applied to supply the nutrients which are not present in
sufficient "uantities in the soil. Gield is increased when they are applied at proper
time and at proper place. There are certain factors which decide the time of
application of fertilizers and manures after choosing the fertilizers to e used.
1. Citrogen is re"uired throughout the crop growth and all nitrogenous
fertilizers are readily solule in water and loss is found to occur. -o it is
etter to supply nitrogenous fertilizers in split doses. ie.asal and top
dressing.
9. &hosphorus is re"uired in large amounts in the early stages of growth. All
phosphatic fertilizers are found to e slow acting and fi%ed in the soil and
hence the entire "uantity of these fertilizers are applied as asal.
:. &otassium is re"uired throughout the crop growth ut the release of this
nutrient is slow and hence entire "uantity is applied as asal dressing.
'THOD OF "PP-+*"T+O(
1. 6roa!casting
The fertilizer is sprin$led uniformly over the cultivated surface. !t may e
done efore last ploughing or planting or sowing of seeds as asal dressing.
1or top dressing, fertilizers are applied when crop is in field.
-+D)+D F'&T+-+B'&S
1. Starter solution
!t is a solution containing water solule nitrogenous, phosphatic and potassic
fertilizers in small "uantities 6<.<;=7 which are used for the estalishment of
young plants, this solution is called starter solution. (g. Tomato.
2. Foliar application
+any nutrietns are asored through the leaves of the plants. 'hen
compared to soil application plants re"uire less "uantity of nutrients if
supplied through foliar application. 9 or : trace elements can e comined
and applied. (g. Brea spray in rinFal and hendi. #oncentration used for
foliar spraying should e correct otherwise it creates many prolems to the
crop plants.
Duestions
1. 'hat are different nutrients re"uired for plant growth
9. Came some inorganic nitrogenous fertilizers
:. +ention aout organic farming
'THODS OF +&&+5"T+O( +(*-)D+(5 F'&T+5"T+O(
The water relations of plant are of e%treme importance oth for vegetative
growth and for fruit production. !t is necessary for rapid growth and satisfactory
crops and to maintain turgor in cells for ma%imum photosynthetic activity. !n arid
and semi arid zones, irrigation is a very important cultural practice. (ven in humid
areas where distriution of rainfall is not satisfactory, irrigation is essential during
the drought period.
The need for irrigation and also the amount of water that should e supplied
are influenced y the following factors.
1. "nnual precipitationF !f rainfall is high or low ut irrigation facilities are
availale, intensive cropping can e followed. !f irrigation facilities are not
availale and the rainfall is also poor, e%tensive cropping with drought
tolerant crops can e followed.
9. Perio! of moisture shortageF !n south !ndia, the period from ,ecemer )
+arch is totally free of rainfall and during this period, irrigation is a must
even to perennial crops.
:. Stage of the cropF !rrigation re"uirements sometimes depend upon stage of
growth the crop. 1or instance, fruit earing mango trees are to e regularly
irrigated at 1<?1; days interval during the fruit development stage ie. 1rom
fruitset to full development stage.
5. Type of crops an! croppingF +ost horticultural crops have high moisture
re"uirements. -ome fruit trees have deeper root system and hence, during
the period of drought, they suffer very little or not at all if the susoil
moisture is at a high level.
The fre"uency of irrigation is determined y the following factors
1. The nature of soilF 1ine te%ture soil hold moisture longer than soil of coarse
te%ture. ,eep soils hold larger "uantities of water than shallow soil. &resence of
organic matter content also increases the same. 'hen the water holding capacity of
soil is increased the interval etween irrigation can e e%tended.
&ate of a#sorption #y plantsF Transpiration rate of crop plants affects the rate of
asorption of water and conse"uently influences the fre"uency of irrigation. Those
plants with large leaf surface re"uire more water than those with reduced leaf
surface.
The root system of the crop2 A shallow rooted crop re"uires more fre"uent watering
than a deep rooted crop. There is no asolute method for determining when it is
time to irrigate. -ome growers can tell ased on the e%ternal symptoms. The
immediate symptoms of lac$ of water are wilting, drooping of leaves, curling of
leaves, shrin$age of fruit etc. since the feel test is difficult to descrie and re"uires
considerale s$ill, soil moisture meters li$e irritometers and .ouyoucos moisture
meter are availale which measure the moisture content of soil
Systems of irrigation
". Surface irrigation
-upplying water to the soil without aerial application is $nown as surface irrigation.
!t depends on gravity for spread of water over the area. This system generally use
more "uantity of water. ,ifferent systems of surface irrigation are2
1looding2 This is followed in wet lands mostly for anana. This is a wasteful
method which will lead to stagnation of water and help weed growth.
#hec$2 #hec$ unds for large areas enclosing a numer of trees are provided with
channels etween two row. This is more economical than flood system.
.asins2 This is widely practiced. The asins should e s"uare or circular and should
e sloping from the trun$ to periphery
8ing2 !n this system, small ring und will e provided around the trees or one
single irrigation channel connecting all trees will e formed and around each tree,
the channel is widened to form asin.
.ed2 This is adopted in heavy soils for fruit crops li$e anana, wherein :?5 plants
are enclosed in a ed and is irrigated y opening on one side of the ed.
1urrow2 This is most widely followed for vegetale crops li$e tomato, onion,
rinFal etc. All the aove different systems of surface irrigation do not ensure
uniform distriution of water. !t may e more in areas near channels and less in
areas away from the channels.
..-u !rrigation
This method supplies water from elow soil through underground pipes or y
ditches on one side. This is useful for green houses. &ipes are laid 5;?@< cm deep
and @m apart. &ipes will have holes at regular intervals. This method is costly and
deep cultivation is not possile. .ut, evaporation of moisture is prevented to a great
e%tent.
Special irrigation metho!s
1. /verhead irrigation
/verhead irrigation is y the use of sprin$lers. +ost widely used over head system.
!n this systems, the initial cost of installation is rather high ut there are several
advantages. There is saving in laour cost and water. +ore uniform wetting of soil
is possile and erosion will e eliminated. This method is est for step and terraced
lands. This is more widely adopted in &lantations.
9.,rip irrigation
,rip irrigation is $nown y various names li$e tric$le irrigation or high fre"uency
irrigation daily flower irrigation This is a method of watering plants at a rate
e"uivalent to its consumptive on so that plants would not e%perience any stress
during the growin phase. !n this the water is conveyed from a source under low
pressure to the root zone of the crop only.
!t has the following components
1. 'ater supply pump at the source of water
9. filters, fertilizer mi%ing tan$,
:. #ontrol system
5. pressure regulators,
;. monitor valve4water meter,
@. head lines or main lines for conveying water from pumpset to the field where
water is to e delivered.
7. *aterals to carry water to plant rows and
>. the emitters4dripper through which water is finally released at a distance of ;
to 9; cm from the plant ase.
"!vantages
1. 'ater saving ) water is applied directly to the root zone, eliminating
wastage. :< to 7< percent water saving
9. *aour saving ) This is eliminates the need for constructing orders, unds
and laour intensive wor$s associated with conventional irrigation
techni"ues, there y saving aout to @<toA<=
:. Bse of lower "uality water ) water is applied continuously and the root zone
is $ept wet constantly.
5. !ncreased yield and plant vigor ) !t maintains soil moisture at optimum level
eliminating water stress resulting in greater vigour, etter estalishment and
high productivity.
;. 8educed weed growth ) -ince water is applied to the restricted area, wide
spread weed growth is inhiited due to restricted water supply
@. -aving of nutrients ) nutrients are directly applied to the root zone along
with water. *eaching losses are minimized. saving upto :< to @<=
Disa!vantages
1. Higher initial investment
9. #logging of drippers due to o%idants, i o%ides and algae.
Fertigation
1ertigation is a new techni"ue of applying fertilizers particularly solule fertilizers
along with irrigation water, through drip system. /ptimum use of fertilizers, water
and land is the need of hour which is easily achieved through fertigation. The inputs
applied are more efficiently utilized than in any other system.
! system components
1. pump
9. 1iltration system ) sand filters4dis$ filters4screen filters
:. !nFectors?venture4dosatron4closer pump4ladder tan$s4fertilizer tan$s4ul$
inFection systems
5. .ac$ flow prevention e"uipment
!! Types of fertilizers for fertigation
1. 'ater solule fertilizers 6'-17
9. *i"uid fertilizers 6*17
!!! Cutrient sources
C? urea, ammonium nitrate solutions, ammonium nitrate, calcium nitrate and DC/:
D?D#*, D9-/5 potassium thiosulphate, DC/:
&?The choice of phosphorus products is more limited. &hosphoric acid and
ammonium phosphate solution are used most commonly.
!0 prere"uisites for fertigation
-oil nutrient status, nutrient re"uirement of the crop, water properties,
e%perienced personalities for installation and e%ecution, availaility of speciality
fertilizers 6'-1 or *17 crop and site specific nutrient re"uirement, crop nutrient
demand specific to each stage of the crop
Duestions
1. Came different irrigation methods
9. Advantage of micro irrigation
:. +ention aout fertigation
HO&T+*)-T)&"- *&OPP+(5 S4ST'S 7 +(T'& *&OPP+(5 *O%'&
*&OPP+(5
/rchard cultivation refers to the careful management of orchard soil in such
a way that the soil is maintained in a good conditions suitale to the needs of the
tree with least e%penses. This involves maintenance of physical condition of soil, its
moisture and nutrient content. A good system of orchard cultivation should ensure.
1. weed control and saving in moisture and nutrients
9. 0ery little disturance to soil and preventing soil erosion and
:. 8educed cost of cultivation
etho!s of soil management practices
!. #lean culture
This type of cultivation is e%tensively followed in !ndia. This involves
regular ploughing and removal of weeds. The clean culture has many disadvantages
1. Humus will e completely depleted rapidly due to fre"uent cultivation.
9. 1re"uent cultivation causes inFury to the feeding roots and the trees may e
short lived or stunted in growth.
:. #lean cultivation aids in more aeration leading to the depletion of nitrogen
5. Hard pan is created in the soil
;. 1re"uent cultivation causes more soil erosion
The aove mentioned defects in clean cultivation can e minimized y avoiding
deep and fre"uent cultivation and also cultivation when the soil is too wet.
9. #lean culture with cover crops
This type of soil management involves raising of a cover crop or green
manure after removing the weeds. !f clean cultivation is attempted during the rains,
considerale erosion is almost sure to occur. !t is proaly est to plant a green
manure crop etween the trees early in the rains and plough it into the soil towards
the end of monsoon season. !n !ndia, green manurecrops li$e sunnhemp, cowpea,
daincha, lupin etc. are more commonly used. *egume cover cropping in grape,
mango, guava and other fruit crops is ecoming a common practice in the
management of orchards.
!ntercropping
!n young orchards, there is a greater scope for utilization of vacant space. !f
the trees are properly spaced, there will e considerale land which will not e used
y the permanent trees for several years. -imilarly, in the case of other long
duration horticultural crop li$e tapioca, turmeric, ginger and anana, some area
etween adFacent plants will e remaining unoccupied y the main crop for few
months. !t naturally appeals to the grower to get some return from this vacant land
especially when he is getting no return in the early periods.
1. !ntercrops should not e occupy the area where the roots of the fruit trees are
concerned.
9. -oil fertility should e maintained or improved when intercrops are grown4
:. 'ater re"uirement of the intercrops should not clash with those of the main
fruit trees. The intercrop may re"uire an irrigation at a time when it would
e detrimental to the trees
5. !ntercrops should e selected with reference to their effect on soil moisture.
3rain crops remove e%cessive moisture to the detriment of fruit trees. The
intercrops selected should not e%haust the soil water and nutrients and should
not demand more water than is allowed for fruit trees.
0egetales are the est intercrops when compared to millets. The intercropping
should e stopped when trees occupy the entire orchard space.+any growers prefer
some "uic$ growing fruit trees to grow as intercrops. -hort?lived trees are $nown as
fillers eg.papaya.
The recommended intercrops for some important horticultural crops are given
+i%ed cropping
!t refers to the practice of growing certain perennial crops in the alley spaces
of the main perennial crops. The main advantage is the effective utilization of
availale area and increase in the net income of the farm per unit are. !ncrease in
yield 6upto1<=7 is otained in the main crop due to the synergistic effect of the crop
cominations arising out of eneficial micro organisms in the rhizosphere and the
more availaility of maFor nutrients in the active root zone of the crop mi% as
compared to the pure stand.
+ango upto 7 years *eguminous, vegetale, papaya
3rapes upto > months sna$e gourd or itter gourd
Apple upto ; years potato of caage
.anana upto 5 months sunnhemp,onion
Tapioca upto : months small onion, coriander
Turmeric upto : months small onion, coriander
Areacanut upto 1< years pineapple coconut upto : years .anana, tapioca, vegetales
)-T+T+'& *&OPP+(5 7 )-*H+(5
+ulching
This is one of the important soil management practices adopted in certain
countries. #rop residues li$e straw, cotton stal$s, leaves, saw dust, pine needle, coir
dust and other materials li$e polythene films or certain special $inds of paper are
spread in the tree asins and in inner spaces etween trees. +ain oFective of
mulching is to conserve soil moisture and to control weed growth. The other
advantages
1. Deep soil cool in dayS warm at night hours
9. 8educes surface run?off
:. Add humus to the soil
5. &revents soil erosion
;. 1ruits are protected and $ept clean since they fall on the mulches
@. !t allows the asorption of more rain water and
7. !t reduces irrigation fre"uency.
The following are some of the disadvantages
,ry materials used as mulches encourage the ris$ of fire and
conse"uent damage to trees
Thic$ mulches may act as places for mice and rodents to live and
multiply. They may cause damage to tree trun$s and roots y eating
the ar$ and urrowing to the land.
-od
!n this method, permanent cover of grass is raised in the orchard and not tillage is
given. This type of orchard cultivation is followed in B-A and (urope. This may
e useful in sloppy lands for preventing soil erosion. .ut they compete for soil
moisture and availale nitrogen. The drawac$s of this system are the need for
increased manuring and water application. They are harmful to shallow rooted
trees.
-od mulch
This is similar to sod and the only difference is that the vegetation is cut fre"uently
and the cut material is allowed to remain on the ground. This is slightly etter than
the previous one, as the moisture loss is not so great as in sod ) in oth sod and sod
mulch, more nitrogen should e applied to the fruit trees than usual application
ecause the vegetation utilizes more soil nitrogen.
+ultitier system of cropping
#ertain horticultural plants li$e coconut and arecanut are grown for aout ;<
years in a particular land. !t ta$es nearly 5 to 7 years for the aove trees to reach the
earing stage. Ade"uate alley spaces 6nearly 7;=7 are availale in etween these
trees and eing the palm trees, their root system will not also spread eyond one
meter in diameter.
Duestions
'hat is intercropping
+ention aout soil mulching
P&OT'*T'D *)-T+%"T+O( 7 *O(T&O--'D '(%+&O('(T
!n 'est, the climate is e%tremely adverse for most of the year. 1or most part
of the year, the temperature would e elow 1< degree #elsius ruling out open
cultivation of any crops. Hence greenhouses are the only means of cultivation in
such countries. A green house is a structure which has enclosed frame wor$ with
provisions for heating, enrichment of #/9, micro irrigation, fertigation, automated
or semi automated light, humidity and temperature regulation.
5reen house
1ramed structures, covered with transparent 6or7 translucent materials, large
enough to grow crops, under partial 6or7 fully controlled environment, to get greater
productivity of the highest "uality.
High value. *ow volume crops ) -logan of green house cultivation.
!ndia ) :<< to :;< ha. area under cover.
3reen house cultivation is commercial in 7;< countries.
"!vantages
a. #rops grown through out the year.
. High yields of e%cellent "uality.
c. (asy to control pests H diseases.
d. *aour H water re"uirement are minimum.
e. #ontrol of environment results in higher productions is well proved.
Dra= #acAs 1 1. High cost.
9. Con?availaility of various components
-ay out
Type, design H construction depend on climate.
A thorough $nowledge of climate viz. ma%imum H minimum temperature,
relative humidity, wind velocity, rainfall, sunshine hours, type of crops ) necessary
as essential.
!n Corth !ndia Dashmir H Cew ,elhi +ean H +a%imum <T# H 5<T# ) -o,
cool in summerS heat in winter.
!n -outh !ndia ) +ean H +a%imum 19T# H :@T#, Co heating re"uired in
winter, natural ventilation 6:< ) 5<=7.
*rops gro=n
1. Tomato 6off season7, capsicum, cucumer.
9. 8oses, chrysanthemums, carnation H gerera.
:. 0egetale seedlings, planting material, hardening of tissue cultured plants.
3rowing a crops anytime in a year &ossile in green
-ame crop throughout the year house
Tomatoes can e grown throughout the year ) :<< to 5<< t4ha4year.
*aour re"uirement heavy ) 1< men4ha.
/pen cultivation ) 1 man 4 ha.
3reen house farming is always
1. #apital intensive venture.
9. #onstruction
:. ("uipping.
Potentials
&roduction of plant 8ange can e increased
material &roduction can e increased
Iuality can e increased
1. -upply of fresh produce to cities ) off season production of vegetales.
9. (%port of agricultural produce ) cultivation near lifting points and facilitate
this.
:. #ultivation of rare medicinal, aromatic H ornamental species ) conservation,
cultivation H e%ploitation.
5. 3reen house technology a ase for other iotechs li$e hydroponics, nutrient
film techni"ue etc.
;. #ultivation in prolematic regions H e%treme climates ) 67; million ha of
arren H uncultivale land in !ndia7
Temperature, light sha!e management
Temperature affects other factors alos.
3reen house designed H positioned to collect ma%imum sunlight for
ma%imum plant growth ) leads to heating prolems in summer sometimes.
3reen house to e cooled when temperature crosses upper limit. !f not,
partial 6or7 total crop failure occurs.
Catural ventilation
etho!s of cooling
1orced ventilation
0entilation ? /pen circuit ventilation
#lose circuit ventilation
Hyrid ventilation system.
&oof Sha!ing
-olar energy ) intensity reduced y applying opa"ue materials directly to
glazing.
Fan > Pa! system
1an ) e%hausts out hot air ) A vacuum is created enters fresh cool air thro
pad. 3reen house has to e maintained airtight.
All access, openings and door have to remain closed.
5reen house heating
Cecessary in cold environments.
(nergy is used as heat.
Heat supplied y urning fossil fues, feothermal H hydroelectric source.
Artificial lighting is also practised.
Sha!ing
Application of shading paint to glazing.
'hite paint is less e%pensive in general.
.
*)-T+%"T+O( OF HO&T+*)-T)&"- *&OPS +( 5&''( HO)S'
7 OP'&"T+O( "(D "+(T'("(*'
-tates have sizale area under green house Darnata$a, Tamil Cadu, Andhra
&radesh, 'est .engal, +aharashtra, 8aFasthan, Btter &radesh, ,elhi H Haryana.
3reen house area in !ndia 9<< ha. !t may increase to ;<< ha in future. #rops grown
) 8oses, cornation, chrysanthemum, gerera, anthuriums, liliums, orchids. 8ose )
7<< ) 7;< udded plants41<< m
9
area. Average yield 9;< flowers 4 m
9
4year ) 67
plants4m
9
7. -o, 8s.;<,<<<4? will e the gross return for 1<< m
9
area.
Operation an! maintenance
A thorough $nowledge of the environment on crop growth is essential.
*ight, temperature, relative humidity, #/
9
and soil root medium are
important.
*ight ) intensity, "uality ) many physiological process affected. ) duration
influences flowering H fruiting.
*lassification
a. &hotoperiod insensitive 6or7 day neutral. (g. Tomato, rinFal, pepper,
cucurits.
. -hort day H long night plants. (g. &otato, sweet potato, soyean,
chrysanthemum.
c. *ong day H short night ) eg. #hinese caage, radish, spinach, peppermint.
Temperature
Iuality H maturity rate affected.
&hotosynthesis, transpiration H respiration increase with temperature.
*ow temperature ) active growth ) low respiration ) influences initiation H
development of rep. /rgans.
High temperature ) higher senescence.
&elative humi!ity
&lants in humid ) large sized fleshy leaves, stems H flowers.
*ow humidity ) inFury to leaf margins, tips, petals, wilting and senescence. )
*eaves H flowers wea$ H distorted.
&lants under high humidity continuously ) soft, mushy H rotting.
*O
2
+ain source for iomass production.
High #/
9
) high growth rate ) short time for flowering.
*ultivation > management
#rops grown in ground eds ) various soil H soil less media.
&hysical H chemical properties adFused.
Soil 1 #ommon media
Amended with org. manure, compost, peat H others ) nutrients, physical
structure.
Soilless me!ia ) peat, sand, gravel, perlite, vermiculite, roc$wool.
5roun! #e!s
Amended with range of materials ) physico chemicals ) nutrient availaility )
good aeration H drainage.
-terilized ) nematodes H disease.
+ulching ) water H temp. of soil altered ) soil orne disease fusarium )
evaporation reduced ) humidity reduced.
Co heavy soils ) poor rooting ) poor aeration ) poor growth ) high disease.
*ontainers
-terilized media ) polyags ) placed on poly sheets ) rooting inside the soil
prevented.
?ater management > Fertigation
1ree from impurities ) #a, Ca other salts ) (c influences asorption of
nutrients.
-oil moisture ) at field capacity.
,rip system ) etter.
-ediment free water for drip ) filters.
Fertigation
/nly water solule fertilizer ) C, & H D at re"uired concentrations.
Spacing of crops 7 good air movement ) ventilation ) reduce ) competition ) light,
water H nutrients.
Training ) Tall growing plants ) trained on strings.
Pruning 1 &runed to single stem?remove few fruits H flowers to avoid
collapsing ) old senescent leaves to e removed.
Pro!uctivity of cropping seGuence
#ropping se"uence round the year.
Cormally three
-weet pepper ) -weet pepper ) o$ra 1<;9.A "uintals4ha4yr. )open field )
:>;.1 "uintals4ha4yr
Pollination 2 *ight tapping of flower clusters ) good fruit set. -trings also help )
use parthenocarpic types.
Pest > !iseases 'arm Temp. J humidity J still wind ) timely control
necessary.
Duestions
1. 'hat is green house
9. +ention different types of green houses in aroad
:. ,ifference etween a shade net house and a green house
F-O?'&+(5, PO--+("T+O( "(D F&)+T S'T +( HO&T+*%-T)&"-
*&OPS
&ollination refers to transfer of pollen grains from anther to stigmatic surface.
!t is of two types viz., self?pollination and cross?pollination.
!f the transfer is from stamen to stigma of the same flower or to the stigma of
another flower on the same plant or to the stigma of a flower on any plant of the
same clonal variety, then this type of pollination is $nown as Uself?pollination.
!f it is effected without the aid of any outside agency, such as wind or insect,
then this process is $nown as Uautogamy
!f the pollen is to e transferred to the flower of another individual or in the case
ofpomologicalVvarieties, to the flower of another variety, this process in $nown
as Ucross?pollinationU.
#ross?pollination may e re"uired for a numer of reasons in Horticultural crops.
1. ,ue to the dioeciously nature 6eg. &apaya, ,atepalm, Cutmeg7
or monoecious nature 6#ucurits7
9. ,ue to the peculiar floWver structure, 6eg. .rinFal, ,elicious apples,
0anilla7
:. ,ue to the dichogamy nature 6/nion, #arrot, -apota7
5. ,ue to the ehaviour of ise%ual flowers as functionally unise%ual
6eg. Avocado and Allspice7
;. ,ue to self?incompatiility or self?sterility factors 6eg. Apple7.
The pollen may e transferred from the anther to the stigma in a variety of ways.
!n most plants, pollen is shed at or after anthesis and is transferred to the stigmas
y insects or y mechanical means primarily the wind.
!n maFority of the horticultural crops, pollination is effected y insects and
pollination y wind is not a common one.
1ruit crops li$e sapota, Fac$ and amla and nutcrops li$e walnut,
chestnut and pecans are reported to e pollinated y winds.
They normally produce large "uantity of pollen grams which are light in weight
so that they can e carried to distance places. !n these nutcrops, the stigma is
also feathery to facilitate wind pollination.
Honey ees, ants and many insects aid in cross?pollination. Their activity is
greatly affected y weather conditions especially low temperature and rain
which sharply curtail their activity. Hence, honey ee $eeping is important.
!n apple orchards, each honey ee usually forages 9?: trees and visits ;<?1<<
flowers per trip. Thus in a day, it visits aout ;<<<< flowers. Hence, 1<?19
colonies per hectare at. a distance of 1;< metre are ideal for temperate fruit
orchards.
8ecently, a chemical sustance 6proprietary product Came2 .ee?I7 is used to
attract the ees so as to increase the fruit set. !t has een estimated that nearly
doule the numer of flowers are pollinated in cardamom if such chemical is
used at the time of early and mid flowering phases.
"rtificial pollination
-elf?incompatiility is common in apple and pear. This has een recently
overcome with the UrecognitionU or Umentor pollenU techni"ue.
!n this techni"ue, pollination is effected with a 921 mi%ture of +ethanol $illed or
irradiated compatile pollen and self pollens which results in seed set.
!t is elieved that the regualtory su stance from the mentor pollen to the in
compatile4incongruent pollen helps to overcome the crossing arriers.
Another techni"ue viz,Rpioneer pollenI is also reported to increase the seed set
in such 1ruit cropsU
!n this method, pollination twice with compatile pollen with an interval of 1?9
days is done. !t appears that the first applied pollens promote the activities of
the pollens in the second application, hence the first applied pollen is called
Ipioneer pollenI.
!n emergent situations, when adverse weather conditions prevail or the orchard
has inade"uate pollinizers, hand pollinaion can e resorted to.
This is much helpful in temperate fruit orchards and is eing practised in
(uropean countries and not yet in !ndia.
The following are some of the methods y which artificial pollination is done.
1. Artificially collecting the pollens, mi%ing it with spores of Lycopodium
6fern7 and applying to flowers ,ith a soft rush.
9. &lacement of ou"uets ? in this method, ranches of flowers of pollinizers are
hung in the trees to e pollinated.
FRUIT SET
!n an orchard, all the fruit trees do not ear e"ually or regularly.
-ometimes one fails to ear and at the same time, another tree of the $ind under
similar conditions produces a heavy crop.
This prolem may e due to failure to set the fruits, unfruitfulness and sterility.
The following terminologies are useful in understanding the prolem of
unfruitfulness.
1ruit setting refers to the initial setting of fruit at or Fust after the time of
lossoming and to its remaining on the plant until maturity.
A plant is said to e fruitful which not only lossoms and sets fruit ut carries it
through to maturity.
&lants which are unale to do this are also $nown as IunfruitfulI or I#arrenI.
JFertilityI on the other hand refers to the aility of the plant not only to set and
mature fruits ut to develop viale seeds.
!naility of a plant to do this is $nown as IinfertilityI or 'sterilityI.
1ertile plants are necessarily he fruitful and all the fruitful plants need not e
IfertileI.
ISelf fruitfulnessX indicates the aility of the plant to mature fruit without the
aid of pollen from some other flower 6or7 plant and those plants are. $nown as
Iself fruitful plantsI
Duestions
1. How pollination occurs in horticultural crops
2. +ention different pollinating agents
6'"&+(5 H"6+TS OF HO&T+*)-T)&"- *&OPS
6earing ha#its
1ruit trees may ear fruits either terminally on a long or short growth, laterally
on current or past season growth or adventitiously from any point of the trun$.
The relative position of a fruit with reference to its potential ud giving rise to
flower or inflorescence in the shoot is often $nown as earing hait.
A $nowledge on the aring hait is a pre?re"uisite efore resorting to pruning in
any fruit crop.
The position of flower or inflorescence on the shoot in relation to the growth of
current season is characteristic of a species or variety.
&osition of fruit unds ears a relationship with the growth hait and the trees
are rather compact when compared to plants having lateral fruit ud earing
hait since they force the development of laterals elow rather than eyond the
flowers or flower clusters.
Different Ain!s of flo=er #earing shoots
.ased on the position of fruit ud and the $ind of flower earing shoots they
produce, fruit trees can e classified into the following groups.
5roup 1 2 1ruit uds orne terminally which unfold to produce inflorescence
without leaves
e.g. ango.
5roup 2 2 1ruit uds orne terminally which unfold to produce leafy shoots
that terminate in flower clusters e.g. apples.
5roup 3 2 1ruit uds orne terminally unfolding to produce leafy shoots with
flowers or flower clusters in the leaf a%ils e.g. guava.
5roup ; 2 1ruit uds orne laterally unfolding to produce flower parts only
without any leaves e.g. citrus, coconut, papaya, coffee.
5roup : 2 1ruit uds orne laterally unfolding to produce leafy shoots
terminating in flower clusters e.g. grapes.
5roup 0 2 1ruit uds orne laterally unfolding to produce leafy shoots with
flower clusters in the leaf a%ils, e.g. avoca!o.

5roup 2 2 1ruit uds orne oth terminally an! laterally unfolding to produce
inflorescence terminally, e.g. =alnut.
5roup 8 2 1ruit uds always orne a!ventitiously in old trun$ or shoots. (.g.,
Fac$, cocoa, !ndian star gooseerry 6cauliflorus earing7
F&)+T D&OP 7 *")S'S "(D P&'%'(T+O(
Fruit !rop
1ruit trees usually ear a large numer of flowers and only a small
percentage of which are enough to give a normal yield. 1or instance, a single
inflorescence of mango contains as many as ;<<< flowers and an average of ; fruits
per inflorescence would provide a good and heavy crop, however, the actual
percentage of fruit set will e much lesser. 'hen the fruit set is much more that the
tree can normally carry to maturity, there will e drop of fruits at various stage of
fruit development as an adFustment y the tree to its resources.
First !rop
!t occurs a fortnight later than the first drop. Bsually flowers with aorted pistils
drop off at this stage. *ac$ of pollination, low stigmatic receptivity, defective
flowers, poor pollen transference and occurrence of incompatiility are some of the
causes attriuted for this drop.
Secon! !rop
!t occurs a fortnight later than the first drop. This drop includes unfertilized
flowers and some fertilized flowers. 1ertilized flowers also drop off at this stage as
a result of adFustment in the trees etween nutritional factors and fruit set.
Third drop
This drop occurs when the fruits are of marle size due to the formation of
ascission layers in the young fruit stal$s. This drop generally occurs in most
deciduous fruit and as it coincides with the month of Eune, this drop is also $now as
Eune drop
Pre1harvest !rop
Another $ind of fruit drop which is a loss to the grower is referred as pre?harvest
drop. !n this case, dropping or shedding of fruits occur efore harvest. At this
stage, half?developed and three?fourth developed fruits are shed due to many causes.
This is a loss to a growers and is a serious prolem confronted y them especially in
apples, pear mango and citrus fruits
*auses of fruit !rop
1. +echanical ) 'ind and hailstorm cause fruit drop
9. #limatic factors ) #limatic factors such as high temperature, low humidity
and very low temperature hasten the formation of ascission layers and
conse"uently the fruits drop. !t has een oserved in -outh !ndia that
shedding of fruits in mango will e more if the temperature is high and
humidity is low
:. &hysiological factors ) Anormal fluctuations of soil moisture favour heavy
fruit drop
5. Cutritional ) *ac$ of availale nitrogen and other nutritional factors may
causes fruit drop. The shed is more in wea$ shoots than in strong ones and
also more in young trees than in medium or old trees.
;. cultural practices ) ,eep digging or deep ploughing during the fruit
development phase will inFure the roots and cause the fruit to e shed.
,rought or lac$ or irrigation especially in mango during the third drop stage
increases the dropping percent.
@. &athological causes ) !ncidence of pests and diseases will cause more
shedding of fruits. 1or instance, high incidence of diseases li$e powdery
mildew and anthracnose and pests li$e hopper and mealy ugs in mango
favour more fruit drop
7. 0arietal factor ) 'ithin a $ind of fruit, the varieties differ among
themselves in the e%tent of fruit drop. !n one study, it has een found that
under similar conditions, the e%tent of shed varied form <.A= in 'illard
variety to :9.;= Eehangir variety of mango
Prevention
The pre?harvest drop may e reduced y controlling the causes to a certain
e%tent. &roper and timely culture such as irrigation and manuring. &lant protection,
provision of pollinisers and wind rea$s will help to prevent or reduce the amount
of fruit drop
A define relationship etween the au%in content and the ascission of fruits
during various stages of development has een estalished is apple fruits. !n the
final stages of fruit growth, a rapid decline in au%in content is correlated to
degeneration of endosperm causing preharvest fruit drop. This led to the thought
that high concentration of au%ins supplied e%ogeneously may inhiit fruit drop
The possiility of reducing the preharvest drop y means of plant regulator
sprays has een well estalished in many fruit crops. Capthalene Acetic acid and its
related compounds are very effective in reducing the drop of fruits in pome fruits
such as apple and pears.
Duestions
1. +ention different flower earing haits in horticulture crops
9. How flower drop can e prevented
P&'H"&%'ST OP'&"T+O(S FO& HO&T+*)-T)&"- *&OPS
The "uality of a crop at harvest can have a maFor effect on its post harvest
life. There are numerous factors involved and these fre"uently interact. 3iving
comple% interrelationships. !C tree crops, fruit produced on the same tree and
harvested at the same time may ehave differently. The factors which influence
"uality include ovious things such as harvest maturity and cultivar or variety, ut
also the climate and soil in which it was grown, chemicals which have een applied
to the crop, and its water status.
Temperature
The temperature in which a crop is grown can affect its "uality and post
harvest life. 1or eg. /ranges grown in the tropics tend to have a higher sugar and
total solids content than those grown in the sutropics. However, tropical?grown
oranges tend to e less orange in colour and peel less easily.
Cutritional status of crop at harvest
(%cess of deficiency of certain elements from the crop can affect its "uality and
its post harvest life.
#rops which contain high levels of nitrogen have poorer $eeping "ualities that the
same variety of crop with lower levels.
High rate of nitrogen fertilizer to apple trees can adversely affect the flavour of
the fruit.
Citrogen fertilizer in crease their susceptiility to physiological disorders and
decrease fruit colour.
(g.Apples called itterpit. !t is principally associated with calcium deficiency
and influenced also y the dynamic alance of minerals in different parts of the
fruit, as well as the storage temperature and levels of o%ygen and caron dio%ide
in the store.
-trawerries are called alinism
The ratio of D2#a and C2ca was found to e greater in such fruit than in red fruit.
!malance of fertilizers can result in the physiological disorder of watermelon
called lossom end rot.
Flo=ering
A physiological disorder of mangoes called Felly?seed can develop during
storage
Tommy at$ins is associated with flowering time delaying flowering y removing
all the inflorescences from the tree greatly reduced Felly? seed in fruit which
develops from the suse"uent flowering. These fruits were larger than those
produces from trees where the inflorescences had not een removed ut the
numer of fruit per tree was reduced.
-ight
1ruits on the parts of trees which are constantly e%posed to sun may e of different
"uality and have different post harvest characteristics from those on the shady side
of the tree or those shaded y leaves. #itrus and mango fruits produced in full sun
generally had a thinner s$in, a lower average weight, a lower Fuice content and a
lower level of acidity ut a higher total and solule solids content.
Day length
This is related to numer of hours of light in each 95 hour cycle. #ertain crop
species and varieties have evolved or een red to re"uire certain day lengths in
which to mature. !f this re"uirement is not met then the crop may still e immature
at harvest. (g. /nion
?ater relations
#rops which have a higher moisture content generally have poorer storage
characteristics. -ome varieties of crop naturally have high moisture content. eg.
Hyrid onion cultivars?a high yield of uls with a low dry matter content and very
short storage life. !f ananas are allowed to mature fully efore harvest and
harvesting is shortly after rainfall or irrigation the fruit can easily split during
handling operations, allowing microorganisms infection and post harvest rotting.
The incidence of damage in carrots ) heavy irrigation during the first A<
days after drilling resulted in upto 9<= growth splitting, while minimal irrigation
for the first 19< days followed y heavy irrigation resulted in virtually split?free
carrot with a etter s$in colour and finish !n leaf vegetales too much rain or
irrigation can result in the leaves ecoming more hard and rittle. -usceptile to
damage and decay during handling and transport.
*hemical treatment
.esides fertilizers, which are applied to the soil and some times to the
growing crop. #hemicals are applied for other purposes. The control of pests and
diseases in commonly achieved y spraying chemicals directly onto the crop. These
chemicals, particularly fungicides, can have a considerale effect on the post harvest
life of the crop. 3enerally, if a fruit has suffered an infection during development,
its storage or mar$etale life may e adversely affected. .ananas which suffers a
severe infection with diseases such as leafspot may ripen prematurely or anormally
after harvest.
#hemicals may also e applied to certain crops in the field to prevent then
sprouting during storage and thus to e%tend their storage period 3rowth regulating
chemicals have een applied to trees to increase fruit "uality and yield. ,aminozide
applied to #o%s /range &ippin apples at 9;<< ppm in late Fune and mid August
caused more red colour in the s$in and firmer apples than unsprayed fruits.
&re?harvest infection or infestation
1re"uently crops are infected with microorganisms or infested with
inverterate pests during production. 1ield infestation of yam tuers with parasitic
nematodes was shown to increase when the tuers were stored in tropical amient
conditions, resulting in areas of necrotic tissue. However, when the tuers were
stored at 1:
o
#, there was no increase in nematode population and no increase in
necrosis. The potato tuer moth may infest tuers during growth if they are e%posed
aove the soil. +ealy ugs on pineapples occur in the mar$eting chain from field
infestation.
Preharvest fungici!al sprays for post harvest !isease control
+any post harvest diseases of fresh fruits and vegetales egin during
production. The time etween infection and the symptoms of the disease
developing may e lengthy, for e%ample anthracnose 6Colletotrichium musae7 in
ananas can ta$e over ; months. 1ungal and acterial infections can occur through
mechanical inFuries and cut surfaces of the crop, growth crac$s or pest or disease
damage. They also occur through natural openings in the surface tissue of the crop,
such as stomata, lenticels and hydrathodes.
(g. +angoes ) anthracnose diseases
&reharvest sprays with chemical fungicides have een shown to reduce post
harvest disease ut the effects have not always een consistent. !n BD, single
sprays of apples with <.<9;= enomyl in Eune, Euly or August controlled rots
caused y infection with 3loeosprorium spp. which developed in suse"uent storage
from -eptemer onwards at :.:
o
# in unsprayed fruit. The control of anthracnose in
papaya also caused y #.gloeosporiodes, was achieved y preharvest sprays copper
o%ychloride ;<= wettale powder at 5<< g 1<< litres
?1
water applied at 7?1< day
intervals.
Duestions
1. +ention different preharvest sprays in horticultural crops
9. How the post harvest diseases in mango can e controlled
"T)&+T4 +(D+*'S 7 H"&%'ST+(5 7 H"(D-+(5 OF
HO&T+*)-T)&"- *&OPS
etho!s to !etermine the proper time to picA the fruits
1. aturity tests
1ollowing are the rough ut ready maturity tests of fruits employed to pic$
the well matured fruits
a. #olour changes ) The changing of colour is one of the criteria to Fudge the
maturity of fruits. The change of peel colour from green to yellow is the
main criterion to test maturity in mangoes. -imilarly in papaya changes of
colour at apical end of the fruit indicates the full maturity stage. !n the case
of pineapples nearly 9;= of the fruit surface should have turned to yellow
colour.
. !ncreasing in size
c. -oftening of the tissue of the fruits eg. 1igs and grapes
d. (ase of detachment from the stal$. eg. sapota and annona
e. -hrivelling of fruit stal$ eg. 'atermelon
f. Time elapsed from the date of flowering to pic$ing maturity.
g. -ound y tapping?Fac$ and watermelon when ripe produce hollow and dull
sound on tapping ut produce metallic sound if unripe
i7 ,rying of foliage or top
ii7 1lowering4.olting can generally included e ta$en as maturity indices
2. "ccurate tests
a. #olour charts ) #harts are prepared for indicating colour on different
stages of maturity. .y referring to this ready chart, one can easily Fudge
the correct stage of maturity.
. &enetrometer ) !t is an instalment which indicates or measures the
softening of tissues as an inde% of maturity. !t chiefly helps in
determining when fruits are too soft and ripe to storage rather than when
pic$ing should egin. 1irmness of the flesh can e assessed y removing
a thin slice of the s$in and flesh with a $nife and using a special hand
operated testder which records the $ilogram of pressure for the plunger to
penetrate the flesh.
c. -ugar4acid or .ri%4acid ratio ) This is ased on the principle that acid
content reduces and sugar increases on ripening.
Tomato2 The maturity standards of tomato are grouped as follows.
i !mmature2 .efore seeds have fully developed and Felly li$e sustance
surrounding the seeds have formed. 1ruits are not suitale for consumption
ii +ahuv green 2 1ully mature, light green at loom end and yellowish green in
all other areas. -eeds are surrounded y Felly li$e sustance, filling the seed
cavity. this $ind of fruits are artificially ripened and ecome suitale for
long distance mar$et.
iii &in$ 2 :45
th
surface shows pin$ colour
iv Hard ripe 2 Cearly all the areas are red or pin$ ut flesh is firm
v /ver ripe2 fully red coloured and soft
vi This is suitale for processing as it possesses good "uality and colour
development
Onion2 .uls are considered mature when the nec$ tissue egin to soften and tops
are aout to acise and decolourise.
OAra 2 development of crude fire is used to determine the optimum stage of
maturity
French #eans2 -eed size, percent seed, dry matter content, distriution of seeds are
some of the reliale maturity indices. Tender and fleshy pods can e harvested for
vegetale purpose.
PeasF !n peas, pod colour changes from dar$ green to light green with well filled
grains4seeds at full maturity
Tapioca2 in tapioca, maturity is indicated y the crac$s formed in the soil,
yellowing and falling leaves.
S=eet potato2 'hen the leaves turn yellow and egin to shed, tuers can e
harvested. The tuers can also e cut and Fudged. !n immature tuer, cut surface
show dar$ greenish colour while the colour will e mil$y white in fully mature
tuers.
Dioscorea and amorphophallus2 !n these crops, maturity is indicated y yellowing,
drying and then dropping of leaves.
6rinKal an! cucum#er2 Tenderness is the main structure is the indication of
maturity for harvesting.
usA melon2 ,evelopment of net li$e structure is the indication of maturity for
harvesting
*hillies 2 ,evelopment of uniform red colour is treated as maturity inde%.
++ Harvesting
Harvesting of vegetales at optimal maturity and careful handling constitute
the very $ey to their successful long storage life. Harvesting is done in two way
viz., y hand, with or without mechanical aids or gadgets and mechanical
harvesting. !n !ndia, most the vegetales are harvested manually.
8oot crops2 .eet root, #arrot, 8adish, Turnip and tuers li$e &otato, Tapioca and
-weet potato are easily harvested y digging into the soil elow the roots or tuers.
then it is levered upwards so as to loosen the soil and to reduce the possiility of
mechanical damage. !n &unFa, tractor drawn potato diggers are used for
harvesting potato.
*eaf vegetales2 !n spinach and methi, the lateral uds and they snapped off y
hand.
#aage, cauliflower, $nol$hol and lettuce2 Here, the main stem is cut off with a
sharp $nife.
6ul#ous cropsF 3reen onions and lee$s can e easily pulled out y hand from the
moist soil whereas for harvesting of fully mature onions and garlic uls, soil is
loosened first with a for$ or how. simple tractor drawn implements are also
availale for loosening the soil in onion and garlic li$e crops. /nion could e
harvested. Harvesting og immature uls cause shriveling and rotting. ,elay in
harvest cause splitting and olting
Tomato2 Harvesting the fruits at rea$er stage is recommended for long shelf life
and optimum "uality. Harvesting during evening hours in summer $eeps the fruit
firm and uniform ripening is effected.
/$ra 2 !mmature, green, tender fruits should e pic$ed from :
rd
?;
th
day of first pod
formation.
.rinFal2 .rinFal is harvested at tender stage ie. 1;?9< days after fruit?set when the
seeds are immature.
The fruit growers should estow more attention and considerale care during
the pic$ing season to reduce to a minimum level of careless handling of fruits y
pic$ers
i &ic$ing must e commenced from the lower ranches of tree advancing
towards the top in order to reduce dropping of fruits to the minimum
ii As far as possile, dropping of fruits from the tree should e avoided to
avoid any possile physical damage.
iii ,uring pic$ing, care must e ta$en to avoid any possile damages to the
ranches especially to the spurs as the suse"uent cropping depends upon
them
iv &ic$ing early in the morning is always est. &ic$ed fruits should e $ept in
shade and e%cluded from sun. After pic$ing, the fruits must e $ept in the
coolest place availale which is well ventilated to arrest respiration and
rea$ down as much as possile
v There should not e any ruises in the fruits while pic$ing as it will lower
the mar$etale "uality
vi !f pic$ing is done in mid day or hot weather, fruits should e $ept in a shed
overnight to cool.
Han!ling
Handling includes all process from pic$ing to deliver or disposal at the
consumer point. this includes the treatments given for getting the fruits ready for
the mar$et viz., pac$aging and wrapping, ripening and storage. /ne of the
important treatment is the dipping the fruit in antiseptic solutions li$e 1?9= caustic
soda to remove the dust and infestation of scale insects and washing with 1?1;= of
Hydrochloric acid to remove any spray residue and to improve the appearance.
&re?cooling 2 !t refers to the rapid removal of the field heat from the freshly
harvested fruits and vegetales in order to sow ripening and reduces deterioration
prior to storage and shipments. ,ifferent methods are adopted to precool the fruits,
the important ones are
1. Air cooling in which the fruits and vegetales in a cold room
9. hydro cooling?dipping of the fruits in cold water or y spraying cold water
on the fruits and
:. vacuum cooling?a costlier techni"ue in which the atmospheric pressure is
reduced so as to reduce the pressure of water vapour in chamer which
results in evaporation of water from fruits which ring down the
temperature. 0acuum cooling aout 1= weight loss in the produce.
5ra!ing
3rades or grading refers to the assortment of the fruits into different groups
ased on certain characters. this includes colour, condition to firmness and
soundness and free form lemishes and also size of the fruit. 3rading is a good
mar$et practice which improves the mutual confidence of salesman and consumer
Agriculture prescries the following grades to apples in the B-A
1. B- (%tra fancy
9. B- 1ancy
:. B- Co.1
5. B- commercial
!n !ndia, grading of fruits li$e apple plum, pear and mango varieties li$e alphonso,
rumani, angalora and sathugudi is done y agmar$ mainly ased on size only.
?rapping
#overing the fruits after harvest with any material in order to improve its
post harvest life is $nown as wrapping. The materials commonly employed as
wrappers are tissue papers, wa%ed paper, pliofilm, cellophane paper, aluminium
foils and al$athene paper etc. 'rapping has the following advantages.
1. it minimizes the loss of moisture in shriveling
9. it protects against the spread of diseases from one to the other.
:. it reduces ruises.
5. it reduces damage during transport or in storage and
;. it ma$es the fruit more attractive.
#are must e ta$en to see the wrap is not too impervious to the passage of o%ygen
and caron?di?o%ide. &re?pac$ing of anana fruits is done in 1<< gauge polythene
ags under room temperature and cold storage. 'a%ing2 Another treatment given to
the fruits during handling is wa%ing. 'a%ing of fruits helps in reducing the
moisture loss, improving the appearance of fruits and reduces the incidence of
storage diseases. wa% emulsion is prepared y melting microcrystalline paraffin or
cranaue wa% along with emulsifiers. .oiling water free from hardness is slowly
added to the molten ingredients and thoroughly stirred in order to ma$e a stale
emulsion. The harvested fruits are dipped in dilute wa% emulsion for a minute and
then these are completely dried for 1<?1; minutes.
PacAaging an! pacAing 2 The term pac$aging encompasses oth the direct or
primary pac$aging around the product and the secondary and tertiary pac$aging, the
over pac$aging such as over warts, cartons and crates etc. &roper pac$aging is
essential otherwise the spoilage of fruits and vegetale are more in our country.
A pac$aging material should e sturdy and it should protect the fruits in
transport, more specifically it must e economical. The materials that are generally
used in !ndia for construction of a pac$age of fruits and vegetales are amoo,
wood, gunny ags, plastic, films, fire and plast corrugated oards etc. .amoo
as$ets and wooden crates of different shapes and sizes are used for a numer of
perishale commodities. +ud pots, gunny ags and palmyrah mats are also used for
a variety of purposes. .amoo as$ets are though relatively cheaper, they have
many disadvantages li$e 617 the low dimensional staility and inaility to withstand
stac$ing load 697 they are not strong enough to withstand rough handling.
&ac$aging of grapes in mud pots is "uite common in south !ndia . !t is often
oserved that during transport, the mud pots rea$ and the contents get damaged.
Though the mud pot has its own advantages as a container for grapes and such other
fruits, it has to e handled very carefully thus affecting the speed of handling. !n
some cases li$e mango, pine apple, anana etc. a straight load is practiced in certain
regions. 1or e%ample, anana in unches are loaded without any pac$aging into the
railway wagons or truc$s and transported from +aharashtra to ,elhi. -imilarly,
mangoes are transported form -outh to Corth and pineapples are shipped form
Corth (ast !ndia and Derala to different regions. !n these cases, it has een
oserved that the loss due to spoilage are considerale.
*ushioning materials
The cushioning materials used for pac$aging fruits and vegetales are dry grasses,
paddy straw, leaves saw dust, paper shavings etc.
Duestions
1. +ention different pac$age material used for pac$ing mango
9. +ention the maturity standards for mango and sapota