Cellular respiration

1. Why do all organisms need ATP?

All organisms need ATP to provide the potential chemical energy that powers the chemical
reactions that occur in their cells.
2. What are the three general ways to generate ATP from food, and which organisms use
each pathway?
Anaerobic respiration: microorganisms; Aerobic respiration: plants, animals, and bacteria in O2
rich environments; Fermentation: microorganisms
3. What is the overall equation for cellular respiration?
The overall euation that describes cellular respiration is:
!O2 " #!$%2O! &&&&&&&&&&&&& !#O2 " !$2O " '!ATP
. !ow is cellular respiration related to "reathing?
(reathing inhales air to bring in the needed O2 )or aerobic respiration and e*hales air to remove
the #O2 created in aerobic respiration.
#. !ow can plants release more $2 in photosynthesis than they consume in respiration?
Plants can release more O2 in photosynthesis than they consume in respiration because they do
not respire all o) the glucose they produce. For e*ample, plants may store glucose as starch or
cellulose.
%. Why do the reactions of respiration occur step&"y&step instead of all at once?
+) the reactions o) respiration occurred all at once, the sudden release o) heat energy would harm
or destroy cells.
'. What occurs in each of the three stages of cellular respiration?
,lycolysis splits glucose into two pyruvate molecules and produces ATP and some -A.$ )or
later use. The /reb0s cycle releases #O2 and produces additional ATP and -A.$, as well as
FA.$2. The electron transport chain uses energy stored in the electron carriers -A.$ and
FA.$2 to create a gradient o) hydrogen ions across the inner membrane o) the mitochondrion.
ATP synthase uses this gradient to phosphorylate A.P to )orm ATP.
(. What are the parts of a mitochondrion?
The parts o) a mitochondrion are an outer membrane that envelops the mitochondrion; a highly
)olded inner membrane; an intermembrane compartment between the two membranes; and an
inner )luid called the mitochondrial matri*.
). Which respiratory reactions occur in each part of the mitochondrion?
The electron transport chain is located on the inner mitochondrial membrane. The /rebs cycle
occurs in the mitochondrial matri*. 1+n pro2aryotes, the electron transport chain is embedded in
the cell0s outer membrane, and the /rebs cycle occurs in the cytoplasm3.
*+. What are the starting materials of glycolysis?
The starting materials o) glycolysis are glucose and 2 molecules o) ATP.
**. !ow is su"strate&level phosphorylation different from chemiosmotic phosphorylation?
4ubstrate5level phosphorylation uses an en6yme to directly trans)er a phosphate group )rom a
donor molecule to A.P, )orming a molecule o) ATP. #hemiosmosis uses an electron transport
chain to create a gradient o) $
"
ions; ATP synthase uses the potential energy in the gradient to
add a phosphate group to A.P.
*2. What is the net gain of ATP and ,A-! for each glucose molecule undergoing
glycolysis?
There is a net gain o) 2 ATPs and 2 -A.$s )or each glucose molecule that undergoes glycolysis.
*3. Pyruvate contains three car"on atoms. an acetyl group has only two. What happens to
the other car"on atom?
The third carbon atom )rom pyruvate is released as #O2.
*. !ow does the /re"s cycle generate 0$2, ATP, ,A-!, and 1A-!2?
The /rebs cycle generates #O2, ATP, -A.$, and FA.$2 as it rearranges and o*idi6es citrate
through several intermediate molecules. The energy and electrons derived )rom these chemical
reactions are stored in ATP, -A.$, and FA.$2. A molecule o) #O2 is released in two o) these
chemical reactions.
*#. !ow do ,A-! and 1A-!2 power ATP formation?
These molecules deliver energy5rich electrons to the electron transport chain to power the
concentration o) hydrogen ions 1also delivered by -A.$ and FA.$23. Those concentrated
hydrogen ions are used to power the addition o) a phosphate group to A.P.
*%. What is the role of $2 in the electron transport chain?
+n the electron transport chain, O2 )unctions as the )inal electron acceptor. O2 binds to electrons
that have traveled to the end o) the transport chain, which allows subseuent electrons to move
along the pathway.
*'. 23plain how to arrive at the estimate that each glucose molecule theoretically yields 3%
ATPs.
$ere is how you estimate that each glucose molecule yields '! ATPs. ,lycolysis yields 2 -A.$
and 2 ATP; the )ormation o) acetyl #oA yields 2 -A.$; the /rebs cycle yields ! -A.$, 2 ATP, 2
FA.$2. 7hen the -A.$ and FA.$2 )rom glycolysis and the /rebs cycle contribute their
electrons to the electron transport chain; they yield a total o) '8 ATP 1derived )rom -A.$ and
FA.$23. Once 2 ATP are subtracted 1the 9cost: o) moving -A.$ )rom glycolysis to the
intermembrane space3, the net yield is '! ATP per molecule o) glucose.
*(. !ow does the actual ATP yield compare to the theoretical yield?
The theoretical yield is '! ATP, but some protons lea2 across the membrane o) the mitochondria
and energy is used to move pyruvate and A.P across the mitochondrial membrane which would
reduce the actual ATP yield to about '; ATP per molecule o) glucose.
*). At which points do digested polysaccharides, proteins, and fats enter the energy
pathways?
.igested polysaccharides enter at glycolysis. Proteins enter at glycolysis, the transition reaction
and the /rebs cycle. Fats enter at both glycolysis and the /reb0s cycle.
2+. !ow does the "ody store e3tra calories as fat?
Acetyl #oA molecules can be diverted and combined to )orm )ats.
2*. What are some e3amples of alternative electron acceptors used in anaero"ic
respiration?
Alternative electron acceptors in anaerobic respiration include nitrate, sul)ate, and carbon dio*ide.
22. !ow many ATP molecules per glucose does fermentation produce?
A )ermenting organism produces 2 ATP molecules per glucose molecule.
23. What are two e3amples of fermentation pathways?
Alcohol )ermentation and lactic acid )ermentation are two e*amples.
2. Which energy pathway is pro"a"ly the most ancient? What is the evidence?
,lycolysis is probably the most ancient energy pathway. <irtually all cells have glycolysis, a
process that does not reuire O2 and could have arisen in an o*ygen5)ree or o*ygen5poor
environment.
2#. Why must the first meta"olic pathways have "een anaero"ic?
The )irst metabolic pathway must have been anaerobic because O25producing photosynthesis by
cyanobacteria dates to '.= billion years ago. >i)e has been on ?arth at least a billion years longer
than that.
2%. What is the evidence that photosynthesis may have evolved from glycolysis?
4ome o) the reactions o) the #alvin cycle are the reverse o) some o) those o) glycolysis.
2'. !ow are "reathing and cellular respiration similar? !ow are they different?
(oth involve gas e*change by ta2ing in o*ygen and releasing carbon dio*ide. They di))er in where
the process ta2es place. +n breathing, the e*change ta2es place in the alveoli o) the lungs; in
cellular respiration, it ta2es place in the cells themselves.
2(. !ow do chemiosmotic phosphorylation and su"strate&level phosphorylation each
generate ATP? 4n which pathways does each occur?
4ubstrate level phosphorylation generates ATP when a high5energy donor molecule physically
trans)ers a phosphate group to A.P. This process occurs in glycolysis and the /reb0s cycle.
#hemiosmotic phosphorylation reuires a proton gradient. As ATP synthase channels protons
across a membrane, A.P is phosphorylated to ATP. This occurs in the electron transport chain.
2). !ow does aero"ic respiration yield so much ATP from each glucose molecule,
compared with glycolysis alone?
The remaining $" ions in glucose are removed and transported by -A.$ and FA.$2 to the
electron transport chain. The accumulation o) hydrogen ions by the electron transport chain
powers the production o) ATP.
3+. 0ite a reaction or pathway that occurs in each of the following locations5
a. cytoplasm
b. mitochondrial matri*
c. inner mitochondrial membrane
d. intermembrane compartment
1a3 #ytoplasm: glycolysis; 1b3 @itochondrial matri*: /rebs cycle; 1c3 +nner mitochondrial
membrane: electron transport chain; 1d3 +ntermembrane compartment: ATP synthase dissipates
the high concentration o) protons in this compartment
'%. At what point does O2 enter the energy pathways o) aerobic respirationA 7hat is the role o)
O2A 7hy does respiration stop i) a person cannot breatheA 7hat happens i) cellular respiration
stopsA
O2 enters the energy pathways at the electron transport chain; it is the )inal electron acceptor.
#ellular respiration reuires o*ygen to proceed. +) an individual cannot breathe, then his or her
cells will not receive the o*ygen necessary to complete cellular respiration. Also, #O2 levels will
rise in the blood i) #O2 is not eliminated through breathing. The cessation o) cellular respiration
deprives the cell o) energy, eventually 2illing the cell.
32. -escri"e the energy pathways that are availa"le for cells living in the a"sence of $2.
7ithout O2, cells can use anaerobic respiration, in which an inorganic molecule 1not O23 is used
as the )inal electron acceptor. +n )ermentation an organic molecule is used as the acceptor
1acetaldehyde or pyruvate itsel)3.
33. 6en decides to "a7e "read. The recipe says to dissolve yeast in a mi3ture of sugar and
hot water. 8hortly after he does so, the mi3ture "egins to "u""le. What is happening? !ow
would the outcome change if 6en forgets to add the sugar?
The yeast is using the glucose in the sugar as a )uel )or )ermentation. One byproduct o) alcohol
)ermentation is #O2 gas, which ma2es the mi*ture bubble. 7ithout the sugar there would be no
)ermentation and no bubbling.
3. !ow are photosynthesis, glycolysis, and cellular respiration interrelated?
Bespiration and photosynthesis each generates products reuired as the starting materials )or the
other. Photosynthesis uses #O2 and $2O to generate glucose and O2; glycolysis splits the
glucose and passes the products to the reactions o) cellular respiration, which uses the glucose
and O2 to generate #O2 and $2O.
3#. 23plain the fact that species as diverse as humans and yeasts use the same
"iochemical pathways to e3tract energy from nutrient molecules.
All species share a common ancestor and there)ore share many o) the same biochemical
pathways.
3%. Where do the $2 and glucose used in respiration come from?
O*ygen is provided )rom the environment and enters the cell through the plasma membrane.
,lucose is provided )rom digesting other organisms or )rom photosynthesis.
3'. !ow many ATP, ,A-!, 0$2, 1A-!2, and !2$ molecules are produced at each stage?
#onverting glucose to 2 pyruvates produces 2 ATP and 2 $2O.
4huttling 2 pyruvates into the mitochondrion produces 2 -A.$.
The 2 Acetyl #oA enter the /rebs #ycle and produce 2 ATP, ! -A.$ and 2 FA.$2.
From all these products, the electron transport chain can produce up to '! ATP.
3(. What happens to the 0$2 and !2$ waste products?
?*cess carbon dio*ide and water leave the cell through the plasma membrane; water is used
throughout the organism, and #O2 is returned to the e*ternal environment.
3). What do cells do with the ATP they generate in respiration?
ATP is the source o) energy to power most o) the chemical reactions that ta2e place in the
cell.