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HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT

STRATEGIES AND APPROACHES
Panagiotis Kousiouris

1. Human Resource Development (HRD)

Introduction

If we need to find a way to develop employees in order to become effective
contributors to the goals of an organization, we need to have a clear view of what an
effective contribution would look like. The use of personal capacities can be very
helpful in describing the way in which an effective employee should operate and
behave, but there can be no general prescription of an effective employee.
Effectiveness will differ with organizational context, and on whose perspective we
are adopting. The matter of what, finally, makes an effective employee is a
combination of personality, natural capabilities, developed skills, experience and
learning. The process of enhancing an employees present and future effectiveness is
called development.


1.2 A clutch of definitions

The concept of individual and organizational development, or Human Resource
Development, is the mother concept which embraces several concepts of human
resource development, such as:
Education, which is concerned with inducting learners into a whole way of
life. For example, management education is concerned with inducting learners into a
managerial form of life with distinctive values, norms and ways of doing things
within an organizational context.
Training, which is concerned with developing a particular skill, eg learning to
operate a machine or drive a car, to a desired standard by specific instruction and
practice.
Competency, which is performing a skill effectively and successfully.
Learning, which is the process by which skills, knowledge and attitudes are
acquired and translated into habitual forms of behaviour and performance, whether
by design or through the natural passage of time (Harrison, 1993).

According to Harrison, development is the all-important process, through which
individual and organizational growth can through time achieve their fullest potential.
Education is a major contributor to that development process, because it directly
and continuously affects the formation not only of knowledge and abilities, but of
character and of culture, aspirations and achievements. Training is the shorter-term,
systematic process through which an individual is helped to master defined tasks or
areas of skill and knowledge to predetermined standards (Harrison, 1989 cited in
Lundy & Cowling, 1996). However, in the managerial context, individual and
organizational development must be linked to the concepts of effectiveness and
organizational learning in order to give it a more precise meaning and purpose.

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1.3 What is Human Resource Development?

Human Resource Development constitutes the logical outcome of the argument
than an organizations employees are its most valuable resource:
The essence of Human Resource Management is that employees are valued
assets and that their value should be increased by a systematic and coherent
approach to investing in their training and development. Resourcing is about
providing the skills base needed by the organization. Human Resource
Development is about enhancing and widening these skills by training, by helping
people to grow within the organization, and by enabling them to make better use
of their skills and abilities (Armstrong, 1992).

Harrison (1993) maintained that employees must be developed in the context of an
organizations vision, mission and strategy:

1.4 The benefits of Human Resource Development


Armstrong (1992) claimed that investment in Human Resource Development could
bring the following benefits to an organization:
A signal to the employees that management believes they are important.
Motivation to acquire new skills and consequent rewards.
Commitment through the communication of values.
Identification with company goals through better employee understanding.
Two-way communication between management and employees.
Needs satisfaction through achievement and recognition.
Job enrichment through training and the acquisition of new skills.
Increased awareness of the importance of change management.

Provide physical support Spread the vision
Cultivate new behaviour














Provide opportunities for growth Supply nourishing systems
Vision


Mission and goals


Strategy


Implementation

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The above list corresponds to the principles and findings of the Human Relations
School of Management which stresses the importance of Human Resource
Management to organizations.


1.5 Why is Human Resource Development so important now?

Peter Senge (1997) claimed there were three major driving forces to which
organizations were now having to respond:
Technology.
Globalization of business.
Systems breakdown and control.

In order for organizations to cope with the above challenges and ensure reliable
organizational outcomes, their managers will have to invest in Human Resource
Development. Senge was one of the main originators of the learning organization
and continues to stress the need for organizations to share knowledge: Sharing
knowledge occurs when people are genuinely interested in helping one another
develop new capacities for action: it is about creating learning processes (Senge P,
1997).




2. Approaches to Human Resource Development: Training


2.1 The theoretical base of training

As mentioned above, training constitutes a basic concept in Human Resource
Development. It is the systematic modification of behaviour through learning
which occurs as a result of education, instruction, development and planned
experience. As was said earlier, it is concerned with developing a particular skill to a
desired standard by instruction and practice. Training was defined in greater detail
by the British Manpower Services Commission (1981) as follows: A planned process
to modify attitude, knowledge or skill behaviour through learning experience to
achieve effective performance in an activity or range of activities. Its purpose, in the
work situation, is to develop the abilities of the individual and to satisfy the current
and future manpower needs of the organization.

Training is a highly useful tool which can bring an employee into a position where
he/she can do his/her job correctly, effectively and conscientiously: a) correctly, in
that he/she can apply whatever he/she has been taught, b) effectively, in that
he/she may be in a position where he/she can perform to the expected standards,
and c) conscientiously, in that the behaviour of the trainers can bring the trainees to
the position where they can put their maximum effort at the right time.


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A training course should constitute a key feature in a formal development
programme, and this could be a standard offering by various specialist bodies or in-
house courses developed for the organizations specialist needs. Increasingly, these
options are being combined so that there is the possibility of an externally provided
course tailored to suit an organizations particular needs.

Most training schemes and processes are based on the following model:
Identification of training needs and the setting of training objectives.
Identification and selection of training and development methods.
Design of a training and development programme.
Implementation of the programme.
Evaluation of the programme.

On this point, it is necessary to indicate briefly how learning occurs. According to
Lundy and Cowing (1996) there are four main theoretical perspectives of learning:
The Behaviourist theory, which equates the human being with a machine
stimulated into learning by positive or negative reinforcement.
The Cognitive theory, which equates the human being to a brain and stresses
the importance of critical thinking and problem solving.
The Gestalt theory, which involves the whole personality and stresses that
the whole (the gestalt) is more than the sum of the parts. A gestalt begins to form
when the individual experiences a physical and/or psychological need in relation to
the environment. This moves the individual away from equilibrium in the direction of
action to satisfy a need. Equilibrium is only re-established when the learning
problem is solved.
The Humanistic theory, which maintains that all individuals have the capacity to
learn and, therefore, that the purpose of learning is to encourage each individual to
attain his/her full potential.


2.2 The goals of training

The main goal of training is to help the organization achieve its objectives by adding
value to its key assets the people it employs. Training means investing in people to
enable them to perform better and to empower them to make the best use of their
natural abilities. The particular objectives of training are to:
Develop the competencies of employees and improve their performance.
Help people grow within the organization in order that, as far as possible, its
future needs for human resources can be met from within.
Reduce the learning time for employees starting in new jobs on appointment,
transfer or promotion, and ensure that they become fully competent as quickly and
effectively as possible.


2.3 Training and learning


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Training is a learning experience in that it seeks a relatively permanent change in
an individual that will improve the ability to perform on the job. We typically say
training can involve the changing of skills, knowledge, attitudes, or behaviour. It
may means changing what employees know, how they work, their attitudes towards
their work, or their interaction with their co-workers or supervisor (De Cenzo and
Robbins, 1996). According to De Cenzo and Robbins, there are two ways which have
dominated learning research over the years. Specifically:
Operant conditioning: This way views learning as a behavioural change
brought about by a function of its consequences. It can be described as a type of
conditioning in which behaviour leads to a reward or prevents punishment. Operant
conditioning focuses on learning from external sources, as opposed to learning that
takes place from within (Skinner, 1971). In operant conditioning, there are four ways
in which behaviour can be shaped:
Positive reinforcement, which provides a pleasant response to an
individuals actions.
Negative reinforcement, which involves an unpleasant reward.
Punishment, which penalizes employees for specific undesirable
behaviours.
Social learning theory: This theory views learning as a continuous interaction
between individuals and their environments. According to this theory, learning
occurs through observation and direct experience. Social learning theory focuses on
what individuals observe, and the importance of their perceptions in learning. In
social learning, four processes have been found to determine the influence a model
will have on an individual.
Attentional processes. People only learn from models when they
recognize and pay attention to their critical features.
Retention processes. A models influence will depend on how well the
individual remembers the models action.
Motor reproduction processes. After a person has seen a new
behaviour by observing the model, the observation must be converted to doing.
Reinforcement processes. Individuals will be motivated to exhibit the
modeled behaviour if positive incentives or rewards are provided.


2.4 Diagnosis of training needs

Training has always been important. In recent years, however, the process of
training is more important than ever in order for organizations to cope with
accelerating change which affects existent training needs (eg inefficient job
performance) and future training needs (eg responding to the continuous progress
of technology).

According to Kenney and Reid (1994), the most common methods of diagnosis of
organizational training needs are the following:
Evaluation of personnel. The director (or a team) evaluates the personnels
performance. This process takes place periodically with an evaluation form. That

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form contains questions in which the ability to take good knowledge and the abilities
of organizing, leadership and progress will be reported.
Analysis of work. Every step which takes place during the work performance
examined in order to determine if it is really needed. After determining the
necessary steps, the areas in which employees need training must be identified.
Analysis of skills. The trainer must first identify the differences between new and
experienced employees, in relation to their effectiveness. These differences will
show the size of the training need for the new employees.
Observation. Observation can help the trainer find out what an employee does
not do correctly and in that way to determine the training needs.
Changes in the organization or the job. The creation of new job positions, the
abolition of old positions and the integration of positions are some important
changes which often take place in a company and generate the need for training.
Interviews between superordinates and subordinates. Very often, when the
superordinate and the subordinate discuss matters which concern the organization,
it is a good opportunity to discuss training needs as well. These interviews can be
formal or informal.
Analysis of data. Selecting data from departmental records (such as personnel
statistics, accident records, training reports, and staff appraisal forms) also helps to
identify training needs.
What other organizations do. According to this method, small organizations must
take advantage of information about what larger organizations do in relation to
training.


2.5 Understanding training

To understand how training should be developed and operated within an
organization, the first requirement is to appreciate learning theory and approaches
to providing learning and development opportunities in organizations. It is then
necessary to understand the following approaches to training (Armstrong, 1996):
Training philosophy.
The process of training.
Identifying training needs.
Planning training.
Conducting training.
Responsibility for training.
Evaluating training.


2.5.I Training philosophy

According to Armstrong (1996), the training philosophy of an organization expresses
the degree of importance it attaches to training. Organizations with a positive
training philosophy understand that they live in a world where effectiveness is
achieved by having higher quality people than other organizations employ, and that
this need will not be satisfied unless they invest in developing the skills and

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competencies of their people. They also recognize that actual or potential skill
shortages can threaten their future prosperity and growth. In hard economic terms,
these organizations are convinced that training is an investment that will pay off.
They understand that it may be difficult to calculate the return on that investment
but they believe that the tangible and intangible benefits of training will more than
justify the cost.

It is not enough, however, to believe in training as an act of faith. This belief must be
supported by a positive and realistic philosophy of how training contributes to the
bottom line. Underpinning this belief is the need to set concrete objectives for
training in terms of a return on investment, in the same way as other investments
have to demonstrate a pay-back. The main areas in which such a philosophy should
be developed are the following:
A strategic approach to training: this takes a long-term view of what skills,
knowledge and levels of competence employees of the organization need.
Relevance: Training must be relevant to identify appropriate training needs.
Problem-based: Training should be problem-based in the sense that it should be
planned to fill the gaps between what people can do and what they need to do, now
and in the future.
Action-orientated: Training philosophy should stress that training exists to make
things happen, to get people into action, and to ensure that they can do things they
are doing now better, or will be able to do things that they could not do before.
Performance-related training: A performance-related training philosophy
involves training specifically to performance and competence requirements.
Continuous development: Learning is a continuous process and, therefore, a
policy of continuous development should be pursued.
Training policies: These should provide guidelines on the amount of training
needed, the proportion of turnover that should be allocated to training, the scope
and aims of training schemes, and the allocation of responsibilities for training.


2.5.II Types and the process of training


a) Systematic training

According to Armstrong (1992), systematic training is training which is specifically
designed to meet defined needs. It is planned and provided by people who know
how to train, and the impact of training is carefully evaluated. It is based on a
simple, four-stage model expressed as follows:
Define training needs.
Decide what sort of training is required to satisfy these needs.
Use experienced and trained trainers to plan and implement training.
Follow up and evaluate training to ensure that it is effective.

The model of systematic training provides a good basis for planning training
programmes, but it is often oversimplified training is a more complex process than

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this. Another drawback of systematic training is that insufficient emphasis is placed
on the responsibilities of managers and individuals for training. The concept of
planned training provides a more comprehensive description of the training process.


b) Planned training

Planned training is defined by Kenney and Reid (1994) as a deliberate intervention
aimed at achieving the learning necessary for improved job performance. The
process of planned training consists of the following steps:
Identify and define training needs.
Define the learning required.
Define the objectives of training.
Plan training programmes.
Decide who provides the training.
Implement the training.

c) Identification of learning and training needs

Training must have a purpose and that purpose can be defined only if the learning
needs of the organization and the groups and individuals within it have been
systematically identified and analyzed. According to Kempton (1995), training needs
can be identified at the individual and the organization level.

At the individual level
Identification will need to begin with the job description. This will provide a
list of the skills and knowledge required. It can be compared with the actual skills
and knowledge that the job holder processes.
Another approach could be to look at critical incidents over, say, the past
three months that were particularly challenging or stressful. The training can then be
directed at the areas that are most relevant.
Managers will also be able to identify training for their subordinates. One of
the best ways of achieving this is through the appraisal interview, where agreed
training needs can be identified.
Individuals may request training that they perceive will equip them for a
change of job, either laterally or through promotion.

At the organizational level
Training needs may be identified through the performance appraisal system. This
may provide the key channel for feeding back individual needs. The information
should be processed by a human resource professional in order to plan the overall
needs of the organization.
The management team may identify areas from the corporate plan that
they want included in the training plans.


d) Planning training programmes

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Every training programme needs to be designed individually, and the design will
continually evolve as new learning needs emerge, or when feedback indicates that
changes are required. According to Kempton (1995), before consideration is given to
special aspects of training programmes for managers, team leaders, craft and
technical trainees, and office staff, decisions are necessary in the following areas:
Objectives: The objectives need to be considered against the desired results. The
end-result will be the acquisition of a new skill or changed behaviour. Skills and
behaviours can be learned. A skill can be learnt in isolation whereas a behavioural
change will lead to permanent change in the values and behaviours held. That
means, teaching the skill of juggling to people who can not juggle is achievable.
Location: Is the training to be on-site? Is the training to be run by an external
source?
Timing: Is there an optimum time for the training to take place? What is the
duration of the training, and if it is to be a series of courses does a pilot course need
to be planned?
Level: If the training is to be just conceptual, are the trainees experienced
enough to be able to relate it to the work situation?
Techniques: Consideration should be given to elements of technique. Is it
appropriate to use case studies or role plays? What is the objectivity level of the
trainer and the expectation of the trainee? There is a variety of training techniques
that can be used. According to Armstrong (1996), these techniques can be divided
into:
On-the-job techniques, which are practiced on a-day-to-day basis or as
part of a specially tailored training programme. These techniques include
demonstration, coaching, job rotation, planned experience and mentoring
Off-the-job techniques, which are used in formal training courses away
from the place of work. These techniques include lectures, talks, discussions, the
discovery method, case study, role-playing, simulation, group exercises, team
building, distance learning, outdoor learning and workshops.
On- or off-the-job techniques, which include instruction, question and
answer, action learning, assignments, projects, guided reading, computer-based
training, interactive video and video.

e) Conducting training programmes

According to Armstrong (1996), the only general rules for conducting training
programmes are that first, the courses should continually be monitored to ensure
that they are proceeding according to plan and within the agreed budget and
second, all training should be evaluated after the event to check on the extend to
which it is delivering the required results.

There are, however, a number of considerations which affect the conduct of training
for specific occupations, and those concerning managers and team leaders, sales
staff, skilled workers and office staff are the following:
Management and team leader training.
Sales training.

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Technical and skill or craft training.
Training office staff.
Team building training.
Meeting the training needs of special groups.

f) Responsibility for training

It is believed that most learning occurs on the job through coaching, planned
experience and self-development. The onus is on managers and individuals to ensure
that it takes place. Senior management must create a learning organization in which
managers recognize that training and development are a key part of their role and
one on which their performance will be assessed.
The role of a specialized training function is generally to provide advice and guidance
to managers on their training responsibilities. According to Armstrong (1996), some
of the responsibilities of a training function are the following:
Developing training strategies which support the achievement of business
strategies.
Analyzing and identifying corporate and occupational training needs.
Developing proposals on how these needs should be satisfied.
Preparing plans and budgets for training activities.
Identifying external training resources, selecting external training providers,
specifying what is required from them and ensuring that their delivery of training
meets the specification.
Advising on external training courses for individuals or groups.
Organizing internal courses and training programmes, but often relying on
outside help for the whole or part of formal training courses.
Training managers, supervisors and mentors in their training responsibilities.
Providing help and guidance to individuals in the preparation and
implementation of personal development plans.
Monitoring and evaluating the effectiveness of training throughout the
organization.

g) Evaluation of training

One of the most nebulous and unsatisfactory aspects of training programmes is the
evaluation of their effectiveness. Evaluation has been defined by Hamblin (1974), as
any attempt to obtain information (feedback) on the effects of a training
programme, and to assess the value of the training in the light of that information.
Evaluation leads to control which means deciding whether or not the training was
worth the effort and what improvements are required to make it even more
effective. According to Hamblin, there are five levels at which evaluation can take
place:
Reactions of trainees to the training experience itself.
Learning evaluation requires the measurement of what trainees have learned as
a result of their training.

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Job behaviour evaluation is concerned with measuring the extent to which
trainees have applied their learning on the job.
Organizational unit evaluation attempts to measure the effect of changes in the
job behaviour of trainees on the functioning of the part of the organization in which
they are employed.
Ultimate value evaluation aims to measure how the organization as a whole has
benefited from the training in terms of greater profitability, survival or growth.


2.6 Trainees and trainers

Since the real organizational needs are known, the process of training can begin.
Exclusive of the training techniques, the trainees and the trainers constitute other
key elements of a training programme.
2.6.I The trainees

The selection of trainees is a very important activity in order for an organization to
achieve desirable training results. According to Peel (1994), the elements of trainees
which have to be taken into consideration in order for the selection of appropriate
training methods are the following:
How many they are.
The level of education they have.
The qualifications they have.
The experience they have.
Why they are chosen.
What job they do now.
Why they have to be trained.
If they work as a team.

2.6.II The trainers

Trainers constitute the key for the successful holding of a training programme. It is
really difficult for an organization to succeed effective training if the trainers do not
have the necessary abilities for that. According to Peel (1994), possible trainers can
be:
Inside the company trainers.
Outside consultants.
Universities.
Managers.
Colleagues.
Many employees of the same company can be excellent with their work but it can be
proved that they are not relevant to be trainers. According to Stout (1993), the ideal
trainer must be:
Knowledgeable about the organization.
Able to communicate effectively and listen carefully to others.
Able to analyze and solve problems.

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Flexible in the use of training methods.
2.7 Basic concepts for effective training

2.7.I Learning organization

Much has been written about the concept of the learning organization. The
underlying idea would appear to be that of transforming an organization through an
open learning approach to present and future performance. According to Pedler,
Boydell and Burgoyne (1989), learning organization is an organization which
facilitates the learning of all its members and continually transforms itself.
Swieringa and Wierdsma (1992) offer an alternative definition of organizational
learning: By the term organizational learning we mean the changing of
organizational behaviour. The changing of organizational behaviour is a collective
learning process. Handy (1989) describes a learning organization as one that both
learns and encourages learning in people. It creates space for people to question,
think and learn, and constantly reframes the world and their part in it. The learning
organization, according to Handy, needs to have a formal way of asking questions,
seeking out theories and reflecting on them. Members of the organization must be
encouraged to challenge traditional ways of doing things and suggest improvements.

All successful organizations are good at doing certain things. This is their knowledge
and skills base. This base must be developed to match changing conditions. Learning
is not just the acquisition of new knowledge. It is, rather, a collective process of
observation, experimentation and experience, which can be mobilized to deal with
new opportunities or threats.

It is necessary for organizations to make space in meetings, workshops and
conferences, so that people can reflect on what they have learned and need to learn.
But what needs to be learned cannot always be taught. Human resource
development programmes must therefore help people to learn from their
experience. Learning cannot be left to chance.

In relation to what a learning organization does, a group of fifty USA Human
Resource Development professionals and managers agreed to the following:
It learns collaboratively, openly and across boundaries.
It values how it learns as well as what it learns.
It invests in staying ahead of the learning curve in its industry.
It gains competitive edge by learning faster and smarter than competitors.
It turns data into useful knowledge quickly and at the right time and place.
It enables every employee to feel that every experience provides an opportunity.
It exhibits little fear and defensiveness and learns what goes wrong.
It takes risks but avoids endangering the basic security of the organization.
It supports people and teams who wish to pursue action-learning projects.
It depoliticizes learning but not penalizing individuals for sharing information.
(Calvert et al, 1994, cited in Lundy and Cowling, 1996)
According to Armstrong (1992), the main characteristics of a learning organization
are that it:

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Encourages people to identify and satisfy their own learning needs.
Provides individuals with regular reviews on performance and learning needs.
Provides feedback on performance and achieved learning.
Provides new experiences from which people can learn.
Facilitates the use of training on the job.


2.7.II Self-directed learning

The concept of self-directed learning involves encouraging individuals to take
responsibility for their own learning needs, either to improve performance in their
present job or to satisfy their career aspirations. It can be based on a process of
recording achievement and action planning which involves individuals reviewing
what they have learnt, what they have achieved, what their goals are, how they are
going to achieve those goals and what new learning they need to acquire. Mumford
(1994) suggests that self-directed learning can be carried out as follows:
Identify the individuals learning style.
Review how far their learning is encouraged or restricted by their learning style.
Review their core learning skills of observation and reflection, analysis, creativity,
decision-making and evaluation, and consider how to use them more effectively.
Review the work and other experiences in which they are involved in terms of
the kind of learning opportunity they offer.
Look for potential helpers in the self-development process.
Draw up learning objectives and a plan of action.
Set aside some time each day to answer the question What did you learn
today?

Self-directed learning is based on the principle that people learn and retain more if
they find things out for themselves. Harrison (1992) emphasizes the need to create a
climate of awareness about the opportunities for learning and development and to
design training events to develop training styles and skills.

In particular, the organization can encourage self-directed learning by ensuring that
learners:
Define for themselves, with whatever guidance they may require, what they
need to know to perform their job effectively.
Are given guidance on where they can get the material or information which will
help them learn.
Prepare a learning plan and programme as part of a learning contract.
Prepare a personal development plan setting out what they need to learn, how
they should develop and the actions they need to take to achieve learning and
development goals.


2.7.III Knowledge Management


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There has been a rise, in recent years, of the interest in intellectual capital or human
capital. This interest led to the development of knowledge management.

For Mayo (1998), knowledge management means the management of the
information, knowledge and experience available to an organization its creation,
capture, storage, availability and utilization in order that organizational activities
build on what is already known and extend it further.
A knowledge management system includes:
Managing the generation of new knowledge through learning.
Capturing knowledge and experience.
Sharing collaborating and communicating.
Organizing information for easy access.
Using and building on what is known.
2.8 Cost of training
The decision for the implementation of a training programme must be carried out
only after careful consideration of the organizations training needs. When a training
programme is properly organized and meets the training needs, the organization
must not hesitate to undertake the cost.

According to Torrington and Hall (1998), the cost of a training process can be
compared against performance improvement to give a cost-benefit analysis. Costs
amount to far more than the money equivalent of the participants time off the job.

The cost of these programmes includes cost of materials, facilities, support staff and
employee time off the job where appropriate. These programmes are mostly
provided free of charge, although there may be some small charges in relation to the
use of fitness centres.
Cascio (1991) lists a range of potential outcomes of the use of such programmes
which may be costed, which include absence costs, turnover costs, productive costs,
and costs of hospital visits. These outcomes look attractive to the organizations, but
clearly identifying the impact of wellness programmes on these, as opposed to other
factors, is no easy matter.


2.9 Training in Health and Care Units

It is an undeniable fact that health care services constitute peculiar organizations.
Their peculiarity is based not only on the nature of the product produced (health),
but also on these organizations need to be staffed with a variety of specialized
employees and the need for continuous training of these employees, due to
accelerating change in this high-technology sector.

The continuous training of health and care units personnel is required for the
following reasons:
The hard competition for the offer of qualitative health and care services.
The use of advanced technology in the services provided.

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The managers of these organizations have increased requirements in relation to
their employees skills.

The training of the personnel of health and care units has the following two aspects:
The atypical training, which is shaped every working day through the
professional experience obtained by the individual employee in his/her working
environment.
The typical (programmed) training, which is offered by the top management
team to the employees of the health and care unit, and involves either specific
specialties of the personnel or the personnel as a whole. The typical training
includes:
A simple informing.
A speech from a specialized scientist.
A seminar.
A coaching.
Practice out of the organization.


Introduction

Among the many components that go into making a company competitive are the
skills of its employees. Other components like technology and capital are not crucial.
Technology can be copied and money can be borrowed. This being an information
era, whoever is able to use information properly will have an advantage over other
competitors in the same field. This is why Human Resource Development (HRD),
which transforms information into various skills of the personnel, has great
responsibility in any organization. We would call this transformation of information
into human skills as training.

Training needs arise from restructuring, expansion, replacing of employees who are
leaving, motivating of staff and, new technology.

The goal in training is to meet the organization objectives at shortest possible time,
efficiently and with minimum use of resources. To meet this objective, various
training models have been developed.

The training models can be classified as:

Classroom training.
On-the- job- training.
Electronic based training

Classroom based training


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Classroom based or instructor led training has been the traditional way of training
and accounts for over 60 % of training in leading firms. One advantage of this mode
of training is that it allows for immediate feedback. The instructor is able to assess
the students ability to follow and speed of understanding and adjust the delivery
method accordingly. Training is a form of communication and as with other forms of
communication, information is transmitted not only with words but by other cues
like body language, emotional expressions like shock, and surprise. Such kind of
communication is only possible in a classroom setting.

Learners and the instructor are able to share experiences which add to the students
understanding.

With classroom training a lot of information can be passed within a short time. The
instructor is able to make sure that what is necessary to be covered for the particular
skill required is included in the course. The instructor is therefore able to assess
when the student has acquired the required skills.

Classroom training can be said to offer full interaction which ensures maximum skills
transfer.

One disadvantages of classroom training is that it requires participants to be away
from there work places and during that time they are not productive . If there is
need to consult them for some urgent matters, it may not be possible. Also to move
to the training centres may be expensive because the employer has to pay for travel
and hotel accommodation.

Classroom training can be conducted within an institution owned by the organization
or carried out by another organization.

On the job training

On the job training requires that the employee work under an experienced person
from whom he has to learn the new skills. This model of training has the advantage
that the employee is learning in real life situation and hence retentive ability is
highest. Also there is immediate feedback as to the results. Whereas in classroom
training one has to wait to see how the employee applies the skills learned, on the
job training the employer is able to see immediately whether the employee has
acquired the skill or not. This mode of training is cheap as there are no extra
expenses to be paid.

There are however serious shortcoming with this model. It is only limited to skills
that organization already has. The rate of learning is also slow as the employee
learns only what is related to what is happening when he is at the place of work.
There is the danger that the employee will take what ever practice at the work place
(whether good or bad) as the standard. Bad practices sometimes take root in a
particular section. Also not all people are good teachers even if they may be

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excellent workers. The officer assigned to offer on the job training may deliberately
withhold valuable information fearing that the new employee may take over his job.

It must be noted that, since this training is conducted on live equipment, care must
be taken in allowing the trainee to have hands-on-experience until sufficient
competence has been gained. If not properly undertaken, it may be costly through
poor workmanship which may result in unnecessary faults.

Electronic based training

With the advances in information technology more and more training is now being
carried on electronically. This has taken many names such as Web-based training
(WBT), Computer Based Training (CBT), Distant learning, CD-ROM training, and
Internet Based Training (IBT).

This kind of learning range from live two-way interaction including video and audio
interaction. It may take the form of distribution of learning material via the
internet., Another way is searching the internet for information using powerful
search engines . Also specialized training centres offer training over the Internet.

This new model of training achieves cost and time savings. Employees learn at there
own pace and modules can be tailored to suit each individual employee.

This method assumes that computers are widely available and there is company-
wide computer literacy. This is far from being the case. There is also the acceptance
stage which employees must undergo. Also Web based training could cause many
distractions as the employees try to down load information from the Internet. To
sieve out materials that are relevant and those that are not relevant appears to be a
daunting task as well.

Conclusion

None of these models are sufficient on their own. Classroom training will continue to
dominate as the main training model. Where the employees already have the skills
but require only extra information, the electronic training will be appropriate. To
deliver bulk information in the shortest possible time instructor led training is the
best model. On the job training is appropriate as a follow up to these two models of
training. After classroom training or as employees undergo electronic based training,
they will need further training on the job.