Off-design performance of gas turbines

1) Equilibrium
2) Equilibrium running line (ERL)
3) Off-design efficiency
4) Surge
5) Specific fuel consumption at part load
6) Effect of ambient conditions
Matching compressor-turbine: compatibiliy of
mass flow, rotational speed, power.
All figures are taken from the reference book Gas Turbine
Theory, Cohen et al., Pearson ed.
Simple units
Compressor and turbine characteristics
Off-design operation of the single-shaft gas turbine
Choose a compressor operating point:

01 01
p T m
01 02
p p
01
T N
Assume losses in the combustion chamber:
02 03
p p
Compute the turbine pressure ratio:
( ) ( )
01 02 02 03 04 03
p p p p p p =
Compute from equation 8.2
03
T
Compute from equation 8.1
03
T N
Obtain the turbine efficiency from the characteristic (fig. 8.3):
t
q
( )
a
T T =
01
assuming
Off-design operation of the single-shaft gas turbine
Compute the turbine temperature drop

( )
(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
= A

q
/ 1
04 03
03 034
1
1
p p
T T
t
Compute the compressor temperature rise:
Compute the net power output:
( )
(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
= A

1
/ 1
01
02 03
012

q p
p T
T
c
012 034
1
T c m T c m P
pa
m
pg
A A =
q
Assume:
( ) ( )
a a
p p T T = =
01 01
, Compute the mass flow m
(8.3)
(8.4)
(8.5)
Equilibrium running lines for a single-shaft gas turbine
Using the previous procedure, we have found one possible point of the equilibrium
running line with output power P. To determine a particular ERL, we need to specify
the characteristics of the load.
Different kinds of loads
1) Hydraulic or electrical dynamometer (any admissible load)
2) Propeller (To find the ERL, take a point on the
load characteristic and match N and P on the
compressor characteristic by trial and error)
3) Electric generator (N = constant)
Propeller: the ERL is generally in the high efficiency region.
The ERL may intersect the surge line (a blow-off valve
may be needed at the rear of the compressor for
initial acceleration).

Generator: low efficiency region (the no-load line is away from
the surge line; the generator may be accelerated to full
speed before applying the load)
( )
3
N P
SFC for a single-shaft gas turbine
From T012 and T01 read the fuel/air
ratio f.
Compute the fuel mass flow as mf
and the specific fuel consumption
SFC=mf/P.
The performance depend on ambient
conditions pa and Ta.
Equilibrium running lines for a single-shaft gas turbine
Equilibrium running lines for a single-shaft gas turbine
Equilibrium running lines for a single-shaft gas turbine
Off-design operation of the gas generator
Equilibrium of power:
=
t c
P P
m pg
pa
c
c
T
T
T
T
T
T
q
03
01
01
012
03
034
A
=
A
(8.6)
where is the product of the mechanical efficiencies of the
compressor and the turbine.
Equations (8.1), (8.2), and (8.6) are linked by a unique value of
the ratio which must be determined by trial and error.
01 03
T T
The gas generator provides a continuous flow of gas at high
pressure and temperature which can be expanded to a lower
pressure either to produce shaft work or a high velocity
propulsive jet.
m
q
Iterative procedure for off-
design operation of the gas
generator
Off-design operation of the free turbine engine
The mass flow leaving the gas generator must equal the
mass flow through the power turbine:
03 034
/ T T A
03
04
04
03
03
03
04
04
T
T
p
p
p
T m
p
T m
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
A
=
03
034
03
04
1
T
T
T
T
(8.7)
where and is given by (8.3)
Moreover,
03
04
02
03
01
02 04
p
p
p
p
p
p
p
p
a
=
(8.8)
( )
(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
= A

q
/ 1
04 03
03 034
1
1
p p
T T
t
Iterative procedure for off-
design operation of the free
turbine engine

The running line of a free turbine
engine is independent of the load
and is determined by the
swallowing capacity of the
power turbine. This is opposite to
the behavior of a single shaft
engine whose running line is
determine by the load.
Equilibrium running line for a free turbine
Better efficiency at off-design with respect to single-shaft.
At part load, mass flow is reduced whereas, for a single-shaft unit, it barely increases.
The compressor power decreases.
The lines of constant temperature represents the equilibrium points of the gas generator.
Matching of two turbines in series (simplified procedure)
In practice the variation with N of the turbine efficiency can be neglected and
for simplicity it can be assumed that the efficiency is only function of the
pressure ratio, so that the turbine characteristic reduces to a single curve (see
figure 8.8). Therefore, from equations 8.7 and 8.3, the output mass flow curve
for the gas generator (dashed line in figure 8.8) can be obtained knowing the
curve of the turbine efficiency . ) / (
04 03
p p
t t
q q =
Matching of two turbines in series (simplified procedure)
Using the characteristic of the power turbine (see figure 8.8), the mass flow
coefficient at the exit of the gas generator (state 4) can be obtained (by the
mass flow conservation). In particular, the maximum pressure ratio across
the gas generator turbine (p03/p04) is determined by the chocking
conditions of the power turbine (point (a) in figure 8.8).
Furthermore, it is possible to plot the gas generator pressure ratio p03/p04
versus the compressor pressure ratio p02/p01:
Matching of two turbines in series (simplified procedure)
In fact:
Matching of the free turbine (simplified procedure):
Choose a compressor operating point: ( , )

p02/p01 ( fig 8.9) p03/p04 (fig 8.8) m T03/p03
(eq 8.3) T034/T03
Eq 8.2 T03/T01
Eq 8.6 verify that the gas-generator power equilibrium gives the same
value of T03/T01 (if not repeat for a different p02/p01).
01 01
p T m
01 02
p p
01
T N
Power output vs output speed
Power output vs output speed (fixed ambient conditions)
SFC vs output speed for a free power turbine
The fuel consumption is computed as in the case of the single shaft system. The
SFC depends also on the power turbine and on its speed (Np). For each
equilibrium running point and Np, the SFC is computed and plotted as in figure
8.11.
The SFC increases as the power output is reduced since the reduction of the fuel
flow leads to a reduction of the compressor speed and, therefore, to a reduction of
the turbine inlet temperature. This poor part load efficiency is one of the major
disadvantages of the simple gas turbine.
Key variables vs gas generator speed
Single-shaft vs free turbine
Driving a generator (constant speed).
Reducing the power (fuel flow reduction):
Single shaft: mass flow slightly increases (fig. 8.5); efficiency reduces (fig.
8.5); pressure ratio reduces (fig. 8.5); temperature rise remains unchanged
compressor power is unchanged.
Free turbine: compressor speed reduces (fig. 8.7); mass-flow and pressure
ratio reduce (fig. 8.7); efficiency is almost unchanged (fig. 8.7); temperature
rise reduces compressor power reduces.
Cogeneration plant (mechanical power plus thermal power).
Reducing the power (fuel flow reduction):
Single shaft: since mass flow and compressor power are almost constant (fig. 8.5
and comments above) large decrease in exhaust temperature.
Free turbine: smaller decrease in exhaust temperature due to the decrese of
compressor power.
The choice depends on the characteristics of the load. With constant speed load,
as an electric generator, a single shaft unit is usually chosen. An alternative is an
aeroderivative unit with a free power turbine in the place of the propelling nozzle.
Torque characteristics: single-shaft vs free turbine
Reducing the load rotational speed:
Single shaft: the compressor speed reduces since it is coupled (by a fixed ratio)
to the load speed; mass flow reduces (from the compressor characteristic)
the output torque reduces (see curve (a) in fig. 8.13.
Free turbine: output power (P) remains almost constant over a wide load
speed range at constant compressor speed (fig. 8.10) (this because the mass flow
of the compressor is almost constant at constant speed); if the load speed
reduces the output torque must increase (P=C), see curve (b) in fig. 8.13.
The torque characteristics are very different. It is important for some kinds of
applications, for example, for traction purposes a high starting torque is needed.
The dashed line is the torque curve
of a reciprocating internal
combustion engine.
p02/p01, T03, T01, p01 are known.

p02 = (p02/p01)*p01
p03 = p02 - p0b

mT03/p03 can be computed.
( )
(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
= A

1
/ 1
01
02 01
012

q p
p T
T
c
( )
(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
= A

q
/ 1
04 03
03 034
1
1
p p
T T
t
m pg
pa
c
c
T
T
T
T
T
T
q
03
01
01
012
03
034
A
=
A
T04 = T03 - T034
Compute p04 from
mT04/p04 can be computed.
( )
(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
= A

q
/ 1
01 04
04 045
1
1
p p
T T
tp
Influence of ambient conditions
This example shows the influence of the ambient conditions on the performance.

In particular, at constant speed, a decrease of the ambient temperature T01
induces a reduction of the maximum cycle temperature (from 1200 K to 1163
K) even if T03/T01 increases due to the increase of N/T01.

The power output increases due to the increase of the mass flow and of the
pressure ratio p03/p01. Conversely, an increase of the ambient temperature
reduces the power output.

For peak power requirements during summer, it could be useful to cool the air
entering the gas turbine by evaporative coolers or by refrigerator chillers which
produce overnights large quantities of ice.
Displacing the equilibrium running line
With most modern compressors, surge is likely to be encountered at low values of
N/T01. Many axial compressors exhibit a kink in the surge line as shown in
figure 8.19 (see also fig. 5.42). To overcome this problem it is possible to:
1) Raise the surge line by using variable stators in the compressor (see figure
5.44) and decreasing 1.
2) Lower the equilibrium running line by using either variable area power-
turbine stators or a blow-off valve.
Variable area power-turbine stator (PTS)
Assume, for simplicity that we are in the high-speed region where constant speed
lines on the compressor map are almost vertical (mT01/p01=const.) and where
both the gas generator turbine (GGT) and the power turbine nozzles are chocked.
Figure 8.20 shows that increasing the area of the PTS an increase in the GGT
pressure ratio is obtained an increase of the non-dimensional temperature drop
T034/T03.
Variable area power-turbine stator (PTS)
From eq. 8.2 one has
01
03
1
03
03
01
03
03
02
01
01
01
02
T
T
K
T m
p
T
T
p
p
p
T m
p
p
= =
Where K1 is a constant due to the above assumptions. From the compatibility of
work, eq. 8.6
m pg
pa
c
c
T
T
T
T
T
T
q
034
03
01
012
01
03
A
A
=
We assume that T012/T01 is constant for constant N/T01. Therefore:
03 034
2
01
03
/ T T
K
T
T
A
=
and using the above equations one obtains:
2 1 3
03 034
3
01
02
/
K K K with
T T
K
p
p
=
A
=
Variable area power-turbine stator (PTS)
If the engine speed N/T01 is held constant and the stator area is increased,
T034/T03 increases and, from the previous equation, p02/p01 decreases:
therefore, the running line will move away from the surge line (remember that in
order to maintain the compressor speed constant it is necessary to reduce the fuel
flow).

On the other hand, decreasing the stator area displaces the running line towards
the surge line: T03/T01 increases (see fig. 8.7); the compressor efficiency
increases; part-load SFC increases.
Variable area power-turbine stator (PTS)
The area of the power turbine stators can be controlled so that the turbine inlet
temperature T03/T01 is maintained at its maximum value as shown in figure 9.5:
the area is decreased with the speed N/T01. If the running line at maximum
temperature moves to intersect the surge line at low speeds, it then becomes
necessary to reopen the stator for this part of the running range (see fig. 9.5).
Increasing the stator area is also advantageous with respect to starting and
accelerating the gas generator.
Blow-off
Using a blow-off valve, m1>m3, therefore
1
3
01
03
1
1
3
03 3
03
01
03
03
02
01
01 1
01
02
m
m
T
T
K
m
m
T m
p
T
T
p
p
p
T m
p
p
= =
With the power turbine remaining chocked, the GGT operating point
remains unchanged. From the compatibility of work, eq. 8.6, one has:
3
1
4
034
03
01
012
3
1
01
03
m
m
K
c
c
T
T
T
T
m
m
T
T
m pg
pa
=
A
A
=
q
Using the blow-off valve, m3 is smaller than m1 and the reduction of the
compressor pressure ratio will lower the running line. Since m3 decreases, the
second equation above shows that the turbine inlet temperature increases in
order to match the compressor power.
4 1 5
1
3
5
01
02
K K K with
m
m
K
p
p
= =
where K4 is a constant if we assume that T012/T01 is constant for a given
value of N/T01. Combining the equations above, one obtains: