A

Practical Training Seminar Report

On
COMMUNICATION
NAVIGATIONAL
SURVILLANCE
Guided By Submitted By:
Mr. subas !andra Syed Meer "asnain Ri#$i
%&ncarge communication'(((((((((((((.. %)& yr' *! dept+
Airport autority o, india+
Amousi' -uc.no/
0epartment O, *lectronics 1 !ommunication *ngineering
DECLARATION
Tis is to certi,y tat all te researc and pro2 ect
/or. described belo/ is a part o, one mont
industrial training is done by Syed Meer "asnain
Ri#$i' )& year *lectronics and !ommunication
*ngineering' "industan college o, science 1 Tecnology'
Matura' under te proper gui dance , r om t e
company o, , i ci al s and no con, i dent i al dat a
related to te company as been disclosed in te report.
Syed Meer "asnain Ri#$i
%)& yr' *! 0ept+
%"industan !ollege o, Science 1 Tecnology+
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
& t s a g r e a t p l e a s u r e t o p r e s e n t t i s r e p o r t
o , s u mme r t r a i n i n g i n A&RPORTS A3T"OR&T4
O5 &60&A %-3!76O8+ in partial ,ul,illment o, B9T*!"
Programme under "industan !ollege o, Science and
tecnology' Matura' a,,iliated to Gautam Buda
Tecnical 3ni$ersity' -uc.no/. At te outset' &
/ould li.e to e:press my immense gratitude to my
training guide Mr. Subas !andra %&ncarge
communication' Airports Autority O, &ndia+ ,or guiding
me rigt ,rom te inception till te success,ul completion
o, te training. & am , al l i ng s or t o, /or ds , or
e:pr es s i ng my , eel i ngs o, gr at i t ude to/ards
im ,or e:tendi ng is $al uable guidance about
tecnology' e;uipment and support ,or literature' critical
re$ie/s o, pro2ect and te r epor t and abo$e al l t e
mor al s uppor t e ad pr o$i ded me /i t al l
stages o, tis training. & /ould also li.e to tan. my ,riends
and all my group members ,or teir elp and cooperation
trougout te training
Syed Meer "asnain Ri#$i
%)& yr' *!* 0ept+
% "industan !ollege o, Science and tecnology' Matura'+

Contents
<. &ntroduction(((((((((((.((((...(=>
<.< 5unctions o, AA&
<.? &nternational Pro2ects
<.@ Organi#ational Structure
?.Security System(((((((((((((((..<=
?.< Security *;uipment
?.<.< A9B&S
?.<.? 8TM0
?.<.@ ""M0
?.<.B *T0
?.? >5&0S
?.? PA System
@. !ommunication *;uipment...((((((((...(.<C
@.< Air to Ground !ommunication
@.<.< Air Tra,,ic !ontrol
@.<.? Te 0R<== multimode )"5 recei$er
@.? Ground9to9Ground !ommunication
@.?.< 8ac.y9Tal.y
@.@ Oter &mportant *;uipment
@.@.< 0)TR
@.@.? 0AT&S
@.B !on$ersions
B. &T 3nit(((((((((((((((((..(.?D
B.< 5unctions o, &T.
B.? Basics
B.?.< "ub
B.?.? S/itc
B.?.@ Router
B.@ 6et/or.ing
B.@.< -A6
B.@.? 8A6
B.@.@ &nternet
B.B 6et/or. Topologies
B.B.< Bus
B.B.? Star
B.B.@ Ring
B.B.B Mes
>. 6a$igation...((((((((((((((((((.B=
>.< 6a$igational aids
>.<.< &-S
>.<.? 0M*
>.<.@ 0)OR
E. Re,erences(((((((((((..(((((.((>@
1.Introduction
Te Airports Autority o, &ndia %AA&+ is an
organi#ation /or.ing under te Ministry o, !i$il
A$iation tat manages all te airports in &ndia. Te
AA& manages and operates <?E airports including <?
international airports' FC domestic airports and ?Eci$il
encla$es. Te corporate ead;uarters %!"G+ are at Ra2i$
Gandi Ba/an' Sa,dar2ung Airpor t 'and 6e/ 0eli .
). P Agra/al is te current cairman o, te AA&.
Te Airports Autority o, &ndia %AA&+ /as
,ormed on <st April <CC> by merging te &nternational
Airports Autority o, &ndia and te 6ational Airports
Autority /it a $ie/ to accelerate te integrated
de$elopment' e:pansion and moderni#ation o, te
operational' terminal and cargo ,acilities at te airports
in te country con,orming to international standards.
AA& pro$ides air na$igation ser$ices o$er ?.F million
s;uare nautical miles o, airspace.
Te ne/ domestic terminal building at -u.no/
Airport /as inaugurated on ? Hune ?=<?. Te ne/
terminal as an area o, ?=' ===spm' is made o,
glass and steel structure a$ing modern passenger
,riendly ,acilities suc ascentral eating system' central air
conditioning' in line:9ray baggage inspection system
integrated /it te departure con$eyor system' inclined
arri$al baggage claim carousals' escalators' public
address system' 5ligt in,ormation display system%5&0S+'
!!T) ,or sur$eillance' Airport cec.9 in counters /it
!ommon 3se Terminal *;uipment %!3T*+' car
par.ing' etc. Te &nt ernati onal Terminal Bui ldi ng
as pea. our passenger andling capacity o,
E>=passengers and annual andling capacity o, ?.? million.
Besides ,i$e custom counters' te ne/ terminal also
as <? immigration counters.
Te ne/ terminal as departure and arri$al ports on
te ground le$el. Te ,irst ,loor as a s/an.y lounge
connected to t/o aerobridges' enabling passengers to /al.
straigt into te /aiting aircra,t on te tarmac.
Built at an estimated cost o, Rs. <?= crore' te ne/
terminal as duty9,ree sops' cyber ca,es' and snac. bars'
sopping arcade and boo. sops. &ndigo' Het -ite' &ndian
Airlines and Air &ndia operate ,rom -uc.no/ to $arious
destinations in &ndia and abroad.
1.1 Functions of AAI
ITo control and manage te entire &ndian airspace
%e:cluding te special user airspace+ e:tending beyond
te territorial limits o, te country' as accepted by &!AO.
ITo 0esign' !onstruct' Operate and Maintain
&nternational Airports' 0omestic Airports' and !i$il
*ncla$es at 0e,ense Airports.
I0e$elopment and Management o, !argo Terminals at
Airports.
IPro$ision o, Passenger 5acilities and &n,ormation
System at te Passenger Terminals at airports.
I*:pansion and strengtening o, operation area $i#.
Run/ays' Aprons' Ta:i /ay' etc.
IPro$ision o, $isual aids.
IPro$ision o, !ommunication and 6a$igational aids
$i#. &-S' 0)OR' 0M*' Radar' etc.
1.2 Internationa !ro"ects
T e AA& a s b e e n i n $ o l $ e d i n $ a r i o u s
c o n s u l t a n c y p r o 2 e c t s /it -ibya' Algeria' 4emen'
Maldi$es' 6auru and A,ganistan. Te AA& also pro$ides
trained personnel ,or operation' maintenance and
management o, airports in tese countries
1.# Or$ani%ationa &tructure
2. &ecurit' &'ste(
Te main ob2ecti$es o, te Security system are as ,ollo/s:
IPre$ent attac.s on airports or aircra,tJs.
IPre$ents accidents 1 ,atalities due to transport o,
a#ardous materials.
ITo ensure sa,ety 1 security o, passengers.
2.1 &ecurit' E)ui*(ent
Te main security e;uipment are9
< . A9 B& S
? . 8TM0
@ . ""M0
B . * T 0
> . !!T)
2.1.1 +,-I&
Te luggage carried by te passengers is cec.ed by using
te A9Ray Baggage &nspection System.
Generation of +,Ra's

A9Ray is generated /en a $ery ig $oltage 0! supply is
applied bet/een catode and anode in a $acuum tube.
8en !atode eats up ' electrons are emitted. Tese
electron mo$es ,rom catode to anode. 8en tere is
cange in energy o, electron A9Ray generates and passes
troug a <mm ole in te ,orm o, narro/ beam. Beam
direction is set at te angle o, B> degree diagonally so as to
co$er te total area as /ell as to ma.e @90 pro2ection.
5igure < %A9B&S+
&*ecifications
Tunnel 0imensions E?=%/+KB<F%+LmmM
Ma: ob2ect si#e E<>%/+KB<=%+LmmM
!on$eyor Speed =.?mNsec
Ma:. !on$eyor load <E=.g
*$en distributed
O*eration
8 e n t e s t a r t . e y i s p r e s s e d , r o m t e
. e y b o a r d t e n t e c o mma n d g o e s t o t e
microprocessor' ten to te inter,ace board. Te
inter,ace board starts te motor ence con$eyor belt
starts running. But at tis time A9Rays doesnJt
generate. Te speed o, con$eyor belt is normally
=.?mNsec. 8en baggage is run on te con$eyor belt and
passes troug te ligt barriers ten interruption occurs.
Te microprocessor reads te interrupt troug inter,ace
board. Microprocessor again gi$es te command to te A9
Ray generator to generate A9Rays troug te inter,ace
board. A9Rays ,alls on te baggage some absorb and rest
passes troug it. Te A9Rays no/ con$erts into te
$oltage by a transducer. 6o/ a )GA %)oltage Grapic
Adopter+ con$erts te input $oltage signal into te output
grapic image on te monitor. At te monitor slice9by9
slice screening is acie$ed. Te A9B&S so/s te
di,,erent color patterns according to te material inside te
baggage' suc as:
Organic Orange color
&norganic green
Metal blue
Te A9ray9B&S contain an emergency stop s/itc ,rom
te sa,ety point o, $ie/.
2.1.2 WTMD
Te metal ob2ects /ic passengers a carrying /it
tem is detected during passenger screening by 8TM0.
Te system is used ,or /eapons detection as /ell as
passenger screening.
Main components are9
<. Transmitter panel %TA+
?. Recei$er panel %RA+
@. !ross piece.
B. Remote control unit.
>. *lectronics unit.
Te operation o, 8TM0 is based on electromagnetic
pulsed9,ield tecnology. Transmitter pulses causes
decaying eddy currents in metal ob2ects inside te sensing
area o, te 8TM0. Te signal induced to te recei$er by
te eddy currents is sampled and processed in te electronic
unit. Mo$ing metal ob2ects are detected /en te signal
e:ceeds te alarm tresold. Te indi$idual detection #ones
producing superior discrimination detect metal ob2ects at
di,,erent eigts separately.
5igure ? %8TM0+
2.1.# ..MD
"and "eld Metal 0etector is based on te
principle o, *lectromagnetic induction. A "and "eld
Metal 0etector is also used to detect metal and ob2ects
passengers are carrying /it tem. Basic principle is
/ene$er tere is cange in magnetic lin.s o,
,orce associated /it a conductor an *M5 is generated. &t
consists o, t/o coils' primary and secondary or transmitter
and recei$er coil. Transmitter and recei$er coils are
isolated to eac oter. 8en te s/itc is O6
""M0 starts /or.ing' as soon as it set to cec. te
metal or non metal due to cange in magnetic ,ield eddy
currents are being traced ,rom te metal. A tresold is set
,or te ""M0 belo/ tis no alarm ring but /en te
magnetic ,ield crosses te tresold ten audio and $isual
alarming.
5igure @ %""M0+
2 . 1 . / ETD
An *:plosi$e Trace 0etector is used to detect te
e:plosi$es and narcotics. &t consists normal ly a
$acuum tube. Te operator on s/ap ta.es a sample
,rom te luggage. &n te *T0 macine te sample is
melted and ten $apori#ed' by applying ig $oltage.
Tus tere is displacement occurs in te atomic /eigt o,
te substance. By te -3T %-oo. up Table+ te
displacement can be measured' and tus substance can
be detected. Te screen o, *T0 so/s te in,ormation
about te sample /it necessary grap etc.
5igure B %5&0S+
A 5ligt &n,ormation 0isplay system %5&0S+ is a
computer system used in airports to display ,ligt
in,ormation to passengers' in /ic a computer system
controls mecanical or electronic display boards or T)
screens in order to display arri$als and departures ,ligt
in,ormation in real9time. Te displays are located inside or
around an airport terminal. A $irtual $ersion o, 5&0S can
also be ,ound on most airport /eb sites and telete:t
systems. &n large airports' tere are di,,erent sets o,
5&0S ,or eac terminal or e$en eac ma2or airline. 5&0
systems are used to assist passengers during air tra$el and
people /o /ant to pic.9up passengers a,ter te ,ligt.
*ac line on 5&0S indicates a di,,erent ,ligt
number accompanied by:
Ite airline nameNlogo andNor its &ATA or &!AO airline
designator
Ite city o, origin or destination' and any intermediate
points
Ite e:pected arri$al or depart ure time andNor te
updated time %re,l ecting any delays+
Ite gate number
Ite cec.9in counter numbers or te name o, te airline
andling te cec.9in
Ite status o, te ,ligt' suc as O-andedO' O0elayedO'
OBoardingO' etc. 0ue to code saring ' one single ,ligt
may be represented by a series o, di,,erent ,ligt
numbers' tus lines %,or e:ample' -"BDB
andA!C=CC+' altoug one single aircra,t operates
tat route at tat gi$en time. -ines may be sorted by time'
airline name' or city.
2 . 2 ! A & ' s t e (
&t is called Public Address System. At te Airport
it is use to address te passengers. &n,ormation
about te arri$al and departure o, ,ligts' security cec.ing
etc is announced by tis system. "ere tree or more po/er
ampli,iers are used in series to ampli,y te audio po/er
,rom /ere te audio output is announced in di,,erent
sections troug loudspea.ers.
#. Co((unication E)ui*(ent
&t can be categori#ed into t/o parts :
#.1 Air to Ground Co((unication
&t /or.s on $ery ig ,re;uency range i.e.
@=M"#9@==M"#. Transmitter ,re;uency at -uc.no/
Airport is <?>.?>=M"#.An *;uipment Room contains te
)"5 e;uipment as /ell as te remote control o, oter
na$igational e;uipment. Staggered 0ipole Antenna is used
in Omni direction ,or tis purpose. Amplitude Modulation
is used ,or communication.
#.1.1 Air traffic contro
Air tra,,ic control %AT!+ is a ser$ice pro$ided by
ground9based controllers /o direct aircra,t on te
ground and in te air. Te primary purpose o, AT! systems
/orld/ide is to separate aircra,t to pre$ent collisions'
to organi#e and e:pedite te ,lo/ o, tra,,ic' and to
pro$ide in,ormation and oter support ,or pilots /en able.
&n some countries' AT! may also play a security or
de,ense role %as in te 3nited States+' or be run
entirely by te military %as in Bra#il+.Pre$enting
collisions is re,erred to as separation /ic is a term used
to pre$ent aircra,t ,rom coming too close to eac oter by
use o, lateral' $ertical and longitudinal separation minimaP
many aircra,t no/ a$e collision a$oidance systems
installed to act as a bac.up to AT! obser$ation and
instructions. &n addition to its primary ,unction' te AT!
can pro$ide additi onal ser$ices suc as pro$iding
in,ormation to pilots' /eater and na$igation
in,ormation and 6OTAMs %6otices to Air Men+.
0epending on te type o, ,ligt and te class o, airspace'
AT! may issue instructions tat pilots are re;uired to
,ollo/' or merely ,ligt in,ormation %in some
countries .no/n as ad$isories+ to assist pilots
operating in te airspace. &n all cases' o/e$er' te
pilot in command as ,inal responsibility ,or te
sa,ety o, te ,ligt' and may de$iate ,rom AT
instructions in an emergency.
#.1.2 T0e DR111 (uti(ode 2.F recei3er
&t is a communication unit speci,ically designed to
operate as radio core part o, Air Tra,,ic !ontrol ground
stations. &t supports a uge number o, operating modes'
ranging ,rom te traditional AM90SB mode ,or analog
speec communications' to te latest )0- @ and
Bmodes ,or $oice and data lin.s.
0ue to its 0SP %0igital Signal Processing+9based
arcitecture' so,t/are9radio approac' and modul ar
design' it allo/s easy update and re9con,iguration
in terms o, type o, modulation' cannel spacing and
inter,ace to e:ternal controllers. Te e;uipment as
outstanding per,ormances in terms o, noise radiation
and un/anted emissions togeter /it te ig grade o,
immunity to e:ternal inter,erence.
5igure > %0R <==+
Tis e;uipment as been designed to ,ul,ill operating
re;uirements in any possible system layout. Tis results in
an e:treme degree o, ,le:ibility and operability. &t can also
be used as direct replacement o, analog )"5 e;uipment in
traditional AT! systems.
Po/er consumption Transmitter B== 8 %0! main+
Po/er consumption recei$er B= 8 %0! main+
*,,iciency <=Q
Operating ,re;uency band <=F9<>E M"#
Tec0nica Descri*tion and Arc0itecture
Te 0R<== comprises independent modules' eac
o, tem accomplising a di,,erent and speci,ic
,unction. Te e;uipment can be pro$ided in di,,erent
con,igurations according to te type o, ,itted modules.
Te ,ollo/ing bloc. diagram igligts te
modularity o, 0R<==.Te ,ollo/ing are te di,,erent
modules o, 0R <== Multimode )"5 recei$er: 9
<. Recei$er module %RA+
?. Base Band module %BB+
@. Po/er Supply 3nit %PS3+
B. &M!NMS&! cards
>. !ontrol Panel %standard and enanced "M&+
E. -ine Barrier card %e.g. A-BRS' A-BRM+
5igure E %Bloc. diagram o, 0R <==+
I Te Recei$er module mainly per,orms te related
radio ,re;uency ,unctions. Te RA module is based
on a super9eterodyne layout tat pro$ides te ,ull
do/n9con$ersion o, recei$ed AM90SBN0FPS7NG5S7
modulated R5 signals' and ampli,ication to re;uired
le$el ,or te analogue to digital con$ersion. Te
RA module sends te digiti#ed &NG ,ormat data stream to
te Base band module $ia anRSB?? serial inter,ace
I Te BB module andles carrier digital processing. Te
Base band module is a ,ull digital module tat is
mainly carged o, carrier processing and te
associated control tas.s. Te type and amount o, BB
signal processing tas.s is dependent on te operating
mode %AM90SB or )0- mode
I Te PS3 module pro$ides all te re;uired internal
supply $oltages ,or 0R<==modules operation. &t also
pro$ides *M& ,iltering and o$er9$oltageNunder9$oltage
line protections. &t is ,ed by e:ternal 0! po/er source.
I Te A!N0! con$erter module pro$ides a 0!
output to ,eed te PS module by con$ersion o, te
<<= 9 ?@= )A! main supply.
I Te &M! card' located on !P!& bac. plane' is te
simplest management card tat allo/s ,or 0R<== ,ull
O1M tas.s management' inter,acing /it Analogue
-ine Barrier cards' supporting o, )0- modes de,ault data
inter,ace to an e:ternal station controller troug an RS?@?
port.
I Te MS&! card alternati$e to &M! is still located on !P!&
bac. plane. &t is te ,ull9si#ed management card tat' in
addition to &M! ,eatures'
I Te !ontrol Panel' /ic is managed by te &M! or
MS&!' absol$es any local "M& ,unctions. T/o types o,
!ontrol Panels are a$ailable:
STe Standard9"M& !ontrol Panel
STe *nanced9"M& !ontrol Panel
I Analogue -ine Barrier %A-B+' are used in AM90SB
and AM90ATA mode' /en te e;uipment must process
analogue speec communication' and analogue inter,acing
/it e:ternal )oice !ommunication S/itcing
Systems' or e:ternal A!ARS modem.
#.2 Ground,to,Ground Co((unication
#.2.1 Wa4ie,Ta4ie
A /al.ie9tal.ie' or andie tal.ie' %more ,ormally .no/n
as a andeld transcei$er+ is a and9eld' portable' t/o9/ay
radio transcei$er . &ts de$elopment during te Second
8orld 8ar as been $ariously credited to 0onald -.
"ings' radio engineer Al,red H. Gross' and engineering
teams at Motorola. Similar designs /ere created ,or
oter armed ,orces' and a,ter te /ar' /al.ie9tal.ies
spread to public sa,ety and e$entually commercial and
2obsite/or.. Ma2or caracteristics include a al,9duple:
cannel %only one radio transmits at a t i me' t oug
any number can l i s t en+ and a O pus9to9tal. O
%P. T. T+ s/i tc tat starts transmission. Typical
/al.ie9tal.ies resemble a telepone andset' possibly
sligtly larger but still a single unit' /it antenna stic.ing
out o, te top. 8ere a poneTs earpiece is only loud
enoug to be eard by te user' a /al.ie9tal.ieTs built9in
spea.er can be eard by te user and tose in te userTs
immediate $icinity. "and9eld transcei$ers may be used to
communicate bet/een eac oter. &tJs ,re;uency at
-uc.no/ Airport is <EE.? M"#.
#.# Ot0er I(*ortant E)ui*(ent
#.#.1 Di$ita 2oice Ta*e Recorder
Te 0igital )oice Tape Recorder is used ,or audio
recording and it can record ?B cannels simultaneously.
Recording is done on magnetic tape and sa$ed about ?
monts.
#.#.2 Di$ita Air*ort Ter(ina Infor(ation &'ste(
A 0AT&S gi$es te in,ormation about /eater'
run/ay condition etc. to te aircra,t ,rom AT! %Air
Tra,,ic !ontrol+. &t repeats te same in,ormation again
/itin <> seconds.
#./ Con3ersions
I 0ecibel or dB is de,ined by logaritmic ratio o,
output by input %po/er and $oltages+.
0BU <=log%p
out
NP
in
+
P
out
U Output Po/er
P
in
U &nput Po/er
I A dBm is a decibel relati$e to < m/. &t is de,ined by te
decibel e;uation /it P
in
set at <K<=
9@
0Bm U <= log %P
out
N<K <=
9@
+
I A dB8 is a decibel /it respect to <8.
0B8 U <=log VP
out
N<8W
/. IT 5nit
&T or te in, ormation tecnology is used
basically ,or transmitting and recei$ing te
&n,ormation ,rom one place to anoter place' ,ast and in an
e,,icient /ay.
/.1 Functions of IT De*art(ent
I Planning 1 implementation o, suitable in,ormation
security 1 protection system /i t 5& R*8A-- t o
ens ur e s a, et y 1 s ecur i t y o, 0a t abas e 1
pr e$ent i on o, unautori#ed access to AA& ser$er.
I Planning 1 implementation o, AA& &nternet.
-A6 N8A6 planning connecting all AA&
establisments trougout te country on AA& &nternet.
I Standardi#ation o, &T systems' procurement'
implementation 1 integration. &ntegration o, all e:isting
systems /it AA& &nternet.
I 0e$elopment 1 osting o, AA& /eb site 1 /eb site
management. 3se o, 8eb based &n,ormation Tecnology
as strategic business tool to impro$e te business process1
e,,iciency o, te Organi#ation.
I &nternet 1 *9mail ser$ices to all te e:ecuti$es o,
AA& 1 sections on need basis' initially using dial9up 1
subse;uently using -eased -ine 1 AA& Pro:y Ser$er.
I "yper lin. connection ,or do/nloading o,
in,ormation on latest ,ligt scedules'
arri$alNdepartures o, ,ligts on registration basis to
tird parties suc as "otels' Tour 1 Tra$el Operators'
!ell Pone 1 !able Operators etc.
I Planning' de$elopment 1 commissioning o, !entrali#ed
So,t/are 1 oter application using !entrali#ed 0atabase
Ser$ers 1 8eb *nable Application So,t/are.
I Assessment 1 planning o, &T related Training 1 in9ouse
application de$elopment.
/.2 -asics
/.2.1.u6
&n general' a ub is te central part o, a /eel /ere
te spo.es come togeter. Te term is ,amiliar to
,re;uent ,liers /o tra$el troug airport OubsO to
ma.e connecting ,ligts ,rom one point to anoter. &n
data communications' a ub is a place o, con$ergence
/ere data arri$es ,rom one or more directions
and is ,or/arded out in one or more
oter directions. A ub usually includes a s/itc o,
some .ind. %And a product tat is called a Os/itcO
could usually be considered a ub as /ell.+ Te
distinction seems to be tat te ub is te place /ere
data comes togeter and te s/itc is /at determines
o/ and /ere dat a is ,or/arded ,rom te place
/ere data comes togeter. Regarded in its
s/itcing aspects' a ub can also include a router .
<+ &n describing net/or. topologies' a ub topology
consists o, a bac.bone%main circuit+to /ic a number o,
outgoing lines can be attaced %OdroppedO+' eac
pro$iding one or more connection port ,or de$ice to
attac to. 5or &nternet users not connected to a local
area net/or.' tis is te general topology used by
your access pro$ider. Oter common net/or.
topologies are te bus net/or. and te ring net/or..
%*iter o, tese could possibly ,eed into a ub
net/or.' using abridge.+
?+ As a net/or. product' a ub may include a group
o, modem cards ,or dial9in users' a gate/ay card ,or
connections to a local area net/or. %,or e:ample' an *ter
net or a To.en Ring+' and a connection to a line %te main
line in tis e:ample+.
/.2.2&7itc0
&n a telecommunications net/or.' a s/itc is a
de$ice tat cannels incoming data ,rom any o,
multiple input ports to te speci,ic output port tat
/ill ta.e te data to/ard its intended destination. &n
te traditional circuit9s/itced telepone net/or.' one
or more s/itces are used to set up a dedicated
toug temporary connection or circuit ,or an
e:cange bet/een t/o or more parties. On an *ter net
local area net/or. %-A6+' a s/itc determines ,rom te
pysical de$ice %Media Access !ontrol or MA!+
address in eac incoming message ,rame /ic output
port to ,or/ard it to and out o,. &n a /ide are a
pac.et9s/itced net/or. suc as te &nternet' a s/itc
determines ,rom te &P address in eac pac.et /ic output
port to use ,or te ne:t part o, its trip to te intended
destination
/.2.#Router
&n pac.et9s/itced net/or.s suc as te &nternet' a
router is a de$ice or' in some cases' so,t/are in a
computer' tat determines te ne:t net/or. point to /ic
a pac.et sould be ,or/arded to/ard its destination.
Te router is connected to at least t/o net/or.s and
decides /ic /ay to send eac in,ormation pac.et
based on its current understanding o, te state o, te
net/or.s it is connected to. A router is located at any
gate/ay%/ere one net/or. meets anoter+' including eac
point9o,9presence on te &nternet. A router is o,ten included
as part o, a net/or. s/itc.
/.#Net7or4in$
&n in,ormation tecnology' net/or.ing is te
construction' design' and use o, a net/or. 'including
te pysical %cabling' ub' bridge' s/itc' router ' and so
,ort+' te selection and use o, telecommunication
protocol and computer so,t/are ,or using and
managing te net/or.' and te establisment o, operation
policies and procedures related to te net/or..
/.#.1 Loca Area Net7or4 8LAN9.
A local area net/or. %-A6+ is a group o, computers
and associated de$ices tat sare a common
communications line or /ireless lin.. Typically' connected
de$ices sare te resources o, a single processor or ser$er
/itin a small geograpic area %,or e:ample' /itin an
o,,ice building+. 3sually' te ser$er as applications and
data storage tat are sared in common by multiple
computer users. A local area net/or. may ser$e as ,e/ as
t/o or tree users %,or e:ample' in a ome net/or.+ or as
many as tousands o, users
5igure D %-ocal area connection+
/.#.2 Wide Area net7or4 8WAN9
A /ide area net/or. %8A6+ is a geograpically
dispersed telecommunications net/or. .Te term
distinguises a broader telecommunication structure
,rom a local area net/or. %-A6+. A /ide area
net/or. may be pri$ately o/ned or rented' but
te term usually connotes te inclusion o, public
%sared user+ net/or.s. An intermediate ,orm o, net/or. in
terms o, geograpy is a metropolitan area net/or. %MA6+.
5igure F %8ide Area 6et/or.+
5igure F %8ide area net/or.+
/.#.#. Internet
Te &nternet' sometimes called simply Ote
6et' O is a /orld/ide system o, computer net/or.s
9 a net/or. o, net/or.s in /ic users at any one
computer can' i, tey a$e permission' get in,ormation
,rom any oter computer %and sometimes tal. directly to
users at oter computers+. &t /as concei$ed by te
Ad$anced Researc Pro2ects Agency %ARPA+o, te 3.S.
go$ernment in <CEC and /as ,irst .no/n as te
ARPA6*T. Te original aim /as to create a net/or.
tat /ould allo/ users o, a researc computer at one
uni$ersity to be able to Otal. toO researc computers at
oter uni$ersities. A side bene,it o, ARPA6*TTs design
/as tat' because messages could be routed or rerouted in
more tan one direction' te net/or. could continue to
,unction e$en i, parts o, it /ere destroyed in te e$ent o, a
military attac. or oter disaster. Today' te &nt ernet is
a public' cooperati$e' and sel ,9sust aining ,acili ty
accessible to undreds o, millions o, people
/orld/ide. Pysically' te &nternet uses a portion o,
te total resources o, te currently e:isting public
telecommunication net/or.s. Tecnically' /at
di s t i ngui s es t e & nt er net i s i t s us e o, a s e t o,
pr ot ocol s cal l ed T!PN&P%,or Transmission !ontrol
ProtocolN&nternet Protocol+.Te most /idely used part
o, te &nternet is te 8orld 8ide 8eb%o,ten
abbre$iated O888O or called Ote 8ebO+. &ts
outstanding ,eature is yperte:t' a metod o, instant
cross9re,erencing. &n most 8eb sites' certain /ords or
prases appear in te:t o, a di,,erent color tan te restP
o,ten tis te:t is also underlined. 8en you select one o,
tese /ords or prases' you /ill be trans,erred to te
site or page tat is rele$ant to tis /ord or prase.
Sometimes tere are buttons' images' or portions o,
images tat are Oclic. ableO. &, you mo$e te pointer
o$er a spot on a 8eb site and te pointer canges
into a and' tis indicates tat you can clic. and be
trans,erred to anoter site.
/./ Net7or4 To*oo$ies
/./.1 -us:
A bus net/or. is an arrangement in a local
area net/or. %-A6+ in /ic eac node
%/or.station or oter de$ice+ is connected to a
main cable or lin. called te bus. Te illustration
so/s a bus net/or. /it ,i$e nodes. *ac node is so/n
as a spere' te bus appears as a ea$y ori#ontal line' and
connections to te bus appear as $ertical lines.
A bus net/or. is simple and reliable. &, one node
,ails to operate' all te rest can still communicate /it
eac oter. 5or a ma2or disruption to ta.e place' te
bus itsel, must be bro.en some/ere. Bus
net/or.s are easy to e:pand. Additional nodes
can be added any/ere along te bus.
5igure C

Tere are se$eral limitations to te bus net/or.
topology. Te lengt o, te bus is limited by cable loss. A
bus net/or. may not /or. /ell i, te nodes are located at
scattered points tat do not lie near a common line. &n
situations li.e tis' a ring net/or.' mes net/or.' or star
net/or. may pro$e more ,le:ible and more cost e,,ecti$e.
/./.2 &tar:
A star net/or. is a local area net/or. % -A6+ in
/ic all nodes %/or.stations or oter de$i ces+ are
directly connected to a common central computer.
*$ery /or.st ati on is indirectly connected to e$ery
oter troug te central computer. &n some star
net/or.s' te central computer can also operate as a
/or.station. Te illustration so/s a star net/or. /it ,i$e
/or.stations %or si:' i, te central computer acts as a
/or.station+. *ac /or.station is so/n as a spere'
te central computer is so/n as a larger spere' and
connections are so/n as straigt lines. Te connections
can be /ired or /ireless lin.s.
5igure <=

Te star net/or. topology /or.s /ell /en
/or.stations are at scattered points. &t is easy to add or
remo$e /or. stations. &, te /or.stations are reasonably
close to te $ertices o, a con$e: polygon and te system
re;uirements are modest' te ring net/or. topology
may ser$e te intended purpose at lo/er cost tan te
star net/or. topology. &, te /or.stations lie nearly
along a straigt line' te bus net/or. topology may be
best. &n a star net/or.' a cable ,ailure /ill isolate te
/or.station tat it lin.s to te central computer' but
only tat /or.st ati on /il l be isolated. All te
oter /or.st ations /ill continue to ,unction
normally' e:cept tat tey /ill not be able to
communicate /it te isolated /or.station. &, any
/or.station goes do/n' none o, te oter /or.stations /ill
be a,,ected. But i, te central computer goes do/n'
te entire net/or. /ill su,,er degraded per,ormance
or complete ,ailure. &, redundancy is re;uired' te
mes net/or. topology may be pre,erable
/./.# Rin$:
A ring net/or. is a local area net/or. %-A6+ in
/ic te nodes %/or.stations or oter de$ices+ are
connected in a closed loop con,iguration. Ad2acent pairs o,
nodes are directly connected. Oter pairs o, nodes are
indirectly connected' te data passing troug one
or more intermediate nodes. Te illustration so/s a ring
net/or. /it ,i$e nodes. *ac node is so/n as a spere'
and connections are so/n as straigt lines. Te
connections can consist o, /ired or /ireless lin.s.
5igure <<
Te r i ng t opol ogy may pr o$e opt i mum
/en s ys t em r e;ui r ement s ar e modes t and
/or.stations are at scattered points. &, te /or.stations are
reasonably close to te $ertices o, a con$e: polygon %suc
as te pentagon so/n in te illustration+' te cost can be
lo/er tan tat o, any oter topology /en cable routes are
cosen to minimi#e te total lengt o, cable needed. A
brea. in te cable o, a ring net/or. may result in degraded
data speed bet/een pairs o, /or.stations ,or /ic te
data pat is increased as a result o, te brea.. &, t/o
brea.s occur and tey are not bot in te same section o,
cable' some /or.stations /ill be cut o,, ,rom some o, te
oters. 8en system reliability is a critical concern' a bus
net/or. or star net/or. may pro$e superi or to a ring
net /or.. &, redundancy is re;uir ed' te mes
net/or. topology may be pre,erable.
/././ Mes0:
A mes net/or. is a local area net/or. %-A6+ tat
employs one o, t/o connection arrangements' ,ull mes
topology or partial mes topology. &n te ,ull mes
topology' eac node%/or.station or oter de$ice+ is
connected directly to eac o, te oters. &n te partial
mes topology' some nodes are connected to all te
oters' but some o, te nodes are connected only to
tose oter nodes /it /ic tey e:cange te most
data. Te illustration so/s a ,ull mes net/or. /it
,i$e nodes. *ac node is so/n as a spere' and
connections are so/n as straigt lines. Te
connections can be /ired or /ireless.
5igure <?
A mes net/or. is reliable and o,,ers
redundancy. &, one node can no longer operate' all te
rest can still communicate /it eac oter' directly or
troug one or more intermediate nodes. Mes
net/or.s /or. /ell /en te nodes are located at
scattered points tat do not lie near a common line. Te
cie, dra/bac. o, te mes topology is e:pense'
because o, te large number o, cables and
connections re;uired. &n some scenarios' a ring
net/or. or star net/or. may pro$e more cost e,,ecti$e
tan a mes net/or.. &, all te nodes lie near a common
line' te bus net/or. topology is o,ten te best alternati$e
in terms o, cost.
;. Na3i$ation
6a$igation is te process o, reading' and
controlling te mo$ement o, a cra,t or $eicle ,rom
one place to anoter. &t is also te term o, art used ,or
te speciali#ed .no/ledge used by na$igators to
per,orm na$igation tas.s. Te /ord na$igate is
deri$ed ,rom te -atin Ona$igateO' /ic is te
command OsailO. Radio 6a$igation is based on te use
o, Radio Transmitter' Radio Recei$er and
propagati on o, electromagnet ic /a$es to ,ind
na$igational parameter suc as direction' distance' position
o, te aircra,t etc. According to ser$ice range te radio
na$igational aids are broadly classi,ied into tree categories
X
<. -ong Range
?. Medium Range
@. Sort range.
1.Lon$ Ran$e na3i$ationa aids
I Operate in $ery lo/ ,re;uency and lo/ ,re;uency'
i.e. <= 7"#' >=9<== 7"# and<==9?==7"# respecti$ely.
I Pro$ide $ery long ranges o, te order o, D===7ms and
D==7ms.
I Tey are based on te yperbolic system o, na$igation.
I -ORA6 and OM*GA ,alls in tis category.
2.Mediu( ran$e na3i$ationa aids
I &t operates in te -5 or M5 band o, ,re;uency .
I &t gi$es te range o, <>=9?>= nautical miles.
I 60B %6on 0irectional Beacons+ ,alls in tis category.
#.&0ort,ran$e na3i$ationa aids
I Tese aids operate in and abo$e )"5 bands.
I Te co$erage is dependent upon line o, sigt propagation.
I )"5' &-S' 0M*' )OR and RA0AR are some /idely
used sort9range aids.
;.1 Na3i$ationa Aids
;.1.1 IL&
An instrument landing system%&-S+ is a ground9based
instrument approac system tat pro$ides precision
guidance to an aircra,t approacing and landing on a
run/ay ' using a combination o, radio signals and' in
many cases' ig9intensity ligting arrays to enable a sa,e
landing durin g instrument meteorological conditions
%&M!+ ' suc as lo/ ceilings or reduced $isibility due to
,og' rain' or blo/ing sno/. &nstrument approac
procedure carts %or approac plates + are publised
,or eac &-S approac' pro$iding pilots /it te
needed in,ormation to ,ly an &-S approac during
instrument ,ligt rules %&5R+ operations' including te
radio ,re;uencies used by te &-S components or
na$aids and te minimum $isibility re;uirements
prescribed ,or te speci,ic approac. Rad io9na$i gat ion
aids must .eep a certai n degree o, accuracy %set
by internati onal standards o, !ASTN&!AO+P to
assure tis is te case' ,ligt inspection organi#ation
periodically cec. critical parameters /it properly
e;uipped aircra,t to calibrate and certi,y &-S precision.
!rinci*e of o*eration
An &-S consists o, t/o independent sub9systems' one
pro$iding lateral guidance%locali#er +' te oter $ertical
guidance %glide slope or glide pat+ to aircra,t approacing
a run/ay. Aircra,t guidance is pro$ided by te &-S
recei$ers in te aircra,t by per,orming a modulation dept
comparison.
5igure <@
%Te emission patterns o, te locali#er and glideslope
signals. 6ote tat te glide slope beams are partly ,ormed
by te re,lection o, te glide slope aerial in te
ground plane.+
A locali#er %-O!' or --Y until &!AO designated -O!
as te o,,icial acronym+antenna array is normally located
beyond te departure end o, te run/ay and generally
consists o, se$eral pairs o, directional antennas. T/o
signals are transmitted on one out o, B= &-S
cannels bet/een te carrier ,re;uency range <=F. <=
M"# and <<<. C> M"# %/it te<== ."# digit
al/ays odd' so <=F.<=' <=F.<>' <=F.@=' and so on are
-O! ,re;uencies but<=F.?=' <=F.?>' <=F.B=' and so on
are not+. One is modulated at C= "#' te oter at <>= "#
and tese are transmitted ,rom separate but co9located
antennas. *ac antenna transmits a narro/ beam' one
sligtly to te le,t o, te run/ay centerline' te oter to te
rigt. Te locali#er recei$er on te aircra,t measures te
di,,erence in te dept o, modulation %00M+ o, te
C= "# and <>= "# signals. 5or te locali#er' te dept
o, modulation ,or eac o, te modulating ,re;uencies
is ?= percent. Te di,,erence bet/een te t/o signals
$aries depending on te position o, te approacing aircra,t
,rom te center line. &, tere is a predominance o, eiter
C= "# or <>= "# modulation' te aircra,t is o,, te
cent erl ine. &n te coc.pi t' te needle on te
ori#ontal situation indicator %"S&' te instrument part
o, te &-S+' or course de$iation indicator %!0&+' /ill so/
tat te aircra,t needs to ,ly le,t or rigt to correct te
error to ,ly do/n te center o, te run/ay. &, te
00M is #ero' te aircra,t is on te centerline o, te
locali#er coinciding /it te pysical run/ay centerline. A
glide slope %GS+ or glide pat %GP+ antenna array is
sited to one side o, te run/ay toucdo/n #one. Te
GP signal is transmitted on a carrier ,re;uency bet/een
@?C.<> and@@> M"# using a tecni;ue similar to tat o, te
locali#er. Te centerline o, te glide slope signal is
arranged to de,ine a glide slope o, appro:imately @Z
abo$e ori#ontal %ground le$el+. Te beam is <.BZ
deepP =.DZ belo/ te glideslope centerline and =.DZ
abo$e te glideslope centerline.
Tese signals are displayed on an indicator in te
instrument panel. Tis instrument is generally called
te omni9bearing indicator or na$ indicator. Te pilot
controls te aircra,t so tat te indications on te
instrument %i. e. ' te course de$i ati on indicator+
remain centered on te display. Tis ensures te
aircra,t is ,ollo/ing te &-S centre line %i.e.' it
pro$ides lateral guidance+. )ertical guidance' so/n
on te instrument by te glideslope indicator' aids
te pilot in reacing te run/ay at te proper
toucdo/n point. Most aircra,t possess te ability to
route signals into te autopilot' allo/ing te approac to be
,lo/n automatically by te autopilot. !omponents o, &-S
are as : X
;. 1. 1. 1. Loca i %er
A locali#er i s one component o, an &nstrument
-anding Syst em %&-S+. Te locali#er pro$ides run/ay
centerline guidance to aircra,t. &n some cases a locali#er is
at an angle to te run/ay usually due to obstructions
around te airport. &t is ten called a -ocali#er Type
0irectional Aid -ocali#ers also e:ist in stand9alone
instrument approac installations and are not al/ays part o,
an &-S. Te -ocali#er is placed about <'=== ,eet on te ,ar
end o, te approaced run/ay. &ts use,ul $olume e:tends to
<F 6M ,or te pat upto <= degrees eiter side o, te
course. 5or an angle o, @> degrees eiter side o, te course
te use,ul $olume o, te -ocali#er e:tends up to <=
6M. "ori#ontal guidance gets more accurate te closer
you ,ly to te -ocali#er station. -ocali#er approaces a$e
teir speci,ic /eater minimums ,ound on approac
plates. -ocali#er uses te ,re;uency range <=F9
<<?M"#. &tJs ,re;uency at luc.no/ Airport is <=C.CM"#.
;.1.1.2. Gide !at0
Te ,unction o, te Glide Pat unit is to pro$ide'
/itin its co$erage limits' an inclined plane aligned
/it te glide pat o, te run/ay ,or pro$iding ele$ation
guidance to landing aircra,t. Te Glide Pat gi$es te
in,ormation indicating te aircra,tJs position relati$e to te
re;uired angle o, descent. Te MARR4 antenna is
used ,or it. 5re;uency range ,or Glide pat is @?F9
@@EM"#. &tJs ,re;uency at -uc.no/ Airport is @@@.FM"#.
!o$ering range ,or Glide Pat is <=6M. Te Glide
Pat unit is made up o, a building' te
transmitter e;uipment' te radiating antennas and
monitor antennas mounted on to/ers. Te antennas and
te building are located about @== ,eet to one
side o, te run/ay center line at a distance o, about
<'=== ,eet ,rom te approac end o, te run/ay.
;.1.1.#. Inner Mar4er
A mar.er basically gi$es te distance ,rom te
run/ay' to te aircra,t. &t is about <=== ,eet ,rom te
run/ay tresold. At inner mar.er te aircra,t sould be
about >= ,eet abo$e ,rom te run/ay centerline.
;.1.1./. Midde Mar4er
&t is about @>== ,eet ,rom te run/ay tresold.
At middle mar.er te aircra,t sould be about ??> ,eet
abo$e ,rom te run/ay centerline.
;.1.1.;. Outer Mar4er
&t is about D=== ,eet ,rom te run/ay tresold.
At outer mar.er te aircra,t sould be about ?D== ,eet
abo$e ,rom te run/ay centerline.
5igure <B
;.1.2 DME
-asics
0istance measuring e;uipment%0M*+ pro$ides pilots
/it aslant range measurement o, distance to te run/ay
in nautical miles. 0M*s are augmenting or replacing
mar.ers in many installations. Te 0M* pro$ides more
accurate and continuous monitoring o, correct progress on
te &-S glideslope to te pilot' and does not re;uire an
installation outside te airport boundary. 8en used in
con2unction /it an &-S' te 0M* is o,ten sited
mid/ay bet/een te reciprocal run/ay tresolds /it te
internal delay modi,ied so tat one unit can pro$ide
distance in,ormation to eiter run/ay tresold. On
approaces /ere a 0M* is speci,ied in lieu o, mar.er
beacons' te aircra,t must a$e at least one operating
0M* unit to begin te approac' and a 0M* Re;uired
restriction /ill be noted on te &nstrument Approac
Procedure.
O*eration
Te operating principle o, 0M* system is based on
te RA0AR principle means te time re;uired ,or a radio
pulse signal to tra$el to a gi$en point and return.
0M* is Secondary RA0AR /it te location o, te
Transponder and &nterrogator re$ersed. Te airborne
transmitter repeatedly initiates a process o, sending
out $ery sort' $ery /idely spaced int errogation
pulses. Tese are pic.ed up by te ground
transponder recei$er /ose output triggers te associated
transmitter into sending out reply pulses on a di,,erent
cannel. Te airborne recei$er recei$es tese replies.
Timing circuit automatically measures te round9trip tra$el
time' or inter$al bet/een interrogation and reply pulses'
and con$erts tis time into electrical signal' /ic operate
te distance indicator.
Distance cacuation
A radio pulse ta.es around <?.@E microseconds to
tra$el one nautical miles to and ,rom' tis is also re,erred to
as a RA0AR9Mile. Te time di,,erence bet/een
interrogation and reply minus te >= microsecond
ground transponder delay is measured by te
interrogatorTs timing circuitry and translated into a distance
measurement in nautical miles /ic is ten displayed in
te coc.pit. 0M* ,re;uency range 9Allotted: CE=M"# to
<?<>M"#.!ritically used: CE? M"# to <?<@M"#.Te
band is di$ided into <?Ecannels,or interrogation and
<?E cannels ,or transponder replies. Te interrogation
and reply ,re;uencies al/ays di,,er by E@ M"#. An
airplaneJs 0M* interrogator uses ,re;uencies ,rom <=?>
to <<>= M"#. Te $ariation in time spacing o, te
pulse pairs o, te aircra,t interrogation is termed as
Pulse Hittering. Tus te $ariation in time spacing
o, te pulse pair is uni;ue to eac aircra,t' and
permits te aircra,t to select te replies to its particular
interrogations.
;.1.# D2OR
Te 0oppler )ery ig ,re;uency Omni Range is a
ground based' radio aircra,t na$igation aid' transmitting an
omni9directional signal tat enables an to determine its
bearing relati$e to te location o, te beacon.
-asics
I &t /or.s on te principle o, pase comparison o, t/o @=
"# signals.
I 5re;uency range ,or 0)OR is <<?9<<FM"#.
I Range o, co$ering is ?==6M %,or medium range aid+
Antenna
Antenna used ,or 0)OR is called modi,ied
Al,ord slot antenna. An antenna system' comprising
a ring o, BF sideband antennas and a central carrier
antenna' mounted on a suitable ground plane. Te
counter poise is uses as a ground plain. &t /or.s as a
per,ect conduct or. 0iamet er is set at a distance o,
BB. = ,eet or<@. B met er. Ti s arrangement produces
pea. ,re;uency de$iation. 0)OR is pase sensiti$e
e;uipment tus it uses te "ori#ontal Polari#ation' as to
minimi#e te e,,ect o, noise.
O*eration
Amplitude Modulating te carrier ,re;uency signal by
a @="#9modulating signal produces te 0)OR re,erence
signal. Te modulating carrier is radiated ,rom te
central omni9directional antenna. Te pase o, @="# AM
is tere,ore constant irrespecti$e o, direction' ence termed
@="# re,erence.
Te 0)OR $ariable signal is produced by te
space modulation o, carrier signal by te amplitude o,
te ,re;uency modulated sideband signals. Te sideband
signals %,c[CCE="#+and %,c9CCE="#+ are radiated
diametrically in a ring o, antennas and are
commutated around te ring at a @="# rate. Te distant
obser$er tere,ore' sees a 0oppler ,re;uency si,t o, tese
sideband ,re;uencies $arying at @= "# /it a ma:imum
de$iation determined by te diameter o, te ring. Te
0oppler )OR beacons also transmit )O&!* and
!O0* identi,ication in,ormation to te aircra,t. Tis
in,ormation amplitude modulates te R5 carrier and is
radiated omni Xdirectionally ,rom te central antenna'
along /it te @= "# AM re,erence signal. &n te aircra,t
recei$er te comple: )"5 signal is ,irst en$elope detected
to obtain te @= "# AM signal and te CCE= "# sub
carrier. Te sub carrier contains te $ariable signal.
Tis signal is ,ed to t/o sets o, ,ilters to separate te @="#
and CCE="# sub carrier. One o, te ,ilter produces a
@="# output te Re,erence signal /ereas te oter
produces te @="# )ariable signal. Te CCE= "# sub
carrier is 5M demodulated to obtain te 5M $ariable
signal. Te relati$e pase di,,erence bet/een te t/o @= "#
is ten measured. Te bearing in,ormation is con$erted into
a $isual indication ,or te pilot.
<. References
I Training material pro$ided by te Airports Autority O,
&ndia
I ///.aai.aero
I *lectronic !ommunication System by 7ennedy 1 0a$is.
I ttp:NNen./i.ipedia.orgN/i.iN&nstrumentRlandingRsystem