Indigenization of Psychology in The Philippines

Requests for reprints should be addressed to A.
Timothy Church, PhD, Department of Educational Leadership and Counseling Psychology,

Cleveland Hall, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164-2136, USA (Tel: (509) 335-0927; Fax: (509) 335-7977;
E-mail: church@mail.wsu.edu).
A version of this paper was presented as a contribution to the symposium Indigenous psychologies: Assessment of progress and development,
John G. Adair (chair), conducted at the 27th International Congress of Psychology, Stockholm, Sweden, July 2000. Manuscript preparation was
supported by National Institute of Mental Health grant R01-MH59941.
2002 International Union of Psychological Science
http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals/pp/00207594.html DOI: 10.1080/0020759014300031 5
Indigenization of psychology in the Philippines
A. Timothy Church and Marcia S. Katigbak
Washington State University, Pullman, WA, USA
T
he status of efforts to indigenize psychology in the Philippines is reviewed. We address
progress in four aspects of indigenization: theoretical/conceptual, methodological, topical,
and institutional. Much, but not all, of this progress is the result of efforts associated with the
indigenous Sikolohiyang Pilipino (Filipino psychology) movement, which emphasizes (a) the
development of a Filipino psychology that reects the unique experiences and orientations of
Filipinos, (b) Filipino identity and national consciousness, (c) explicit socio-political con-
siderations, (d) application of psychology to societal problems, (e) the study of less elite
Filipinos, (f) interdisciplinary efforts, and (g) the use of indigenous languages in the
development and dissemination of indigenous psychology. We note considerable progress, but
also controversy, in the selection and interpretation of indigenous concepts and less progress in
the formulation of indigenous theories. Existing theories are narrow in scope, only partially
specied, and have uncertain heuristic value in generating veriable predictions. Filipino
psychologists have also adapted or further specied Western theoretical frameworks to make
them more sensitive to Philippine contextual factors. Many indigenous measures have been
developed, but more information is needed on their psychometric properties. Several indigenous
research methods have been described and these methods typically emphasize the importance of
the researcher-participant relationship. There remain questions about the objectivity and
cultural uniqueness of these methods, however, many of which involve (a) unstructured
conversations and discussions in lieu of structured interviews, (b) varying degrees of participant
observation, or (c) qualitative phenomenological methods. Extensive topical indigenization is
evident in studies that focus on everyday Filipinos and Philippine societal concerns.
Institutional indigenization is reected in courses, theses and dissertations, journals, books,
conferences, and professional organizations with an indigenous focus. Potential limitations or
risks to the indigenous movement include insularity and the limited research culture.
Implications of the Philippine case for indigenization efforts in other cultures are discussed.
L
tat des efforts pour indigniser la psychologie aux Philippines a t tudi. Nous avons
enregistr des progrs dans quatre aspects de lindignisation: thorique/conceptuel,
mthodologique, thmatique et institutionnel. Ce progrs est en grande partie, mais pas
totalement, le rsultat des efforts associs avec le mouvement indigne Sikolohiyang Pilipino
(psychologie philippine), qui mettent laccent sur le dveloppement de la psychologie philippine
(a) retant les expriences et orientations uniques de Philippins, (b) lidentit philippine et la
conscience nationale, (c) mettant en vidence des considrations sociopolitiques, (d) sur
lapplication de la psychologie aux problmes de socit, (e) ltude de Philippins qui
nappartiennent pas une lite, (f) sur des efforts interdisciplinaires et (g) lutilisation des
langues indignes dans le dveloppement et la vulgarisation de la psychologie indigne. Nous
notons un progrs considrable, mais aussi des controverses dans le choix et linterprtation des
concepts indignes et moins de progrs dans la formulation des thories indignes. Les thories
existantes offre une courte perspective, elles ne sont que partiellement spcies et possdent une
valeur heuristique incertaine dans la ralisation de prdictions vriables. Les psychologues
philippins ont galement adapt ou spci davantage les cadres thoriques occidentaux an de
les rendre plus sensibles aux facteurs contextuels philippins. Beaucoup de mesures indignes ont
t dveloppes, mais plus dinformations sur leurs proprits psychomtriques sont ncessaires.
Plusieurs mthodes de recherche indigne ont t dcrites et en gnral ces mthodes mettent en
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2002, 37, (3) 129148
Of the countries in Asia, the trend to indigenizing psy-
chology is strongest and most articulate in the Philippines.
(Sinha, 1997, p. 153)
Sikolohiyang Pilipino seeks to explain Philippine realities
from the Filipino perspective, taking into account the
peculiarities and distinct values and characteristics of the
Filipino which the Western models invariably fail to
explain or consider.
(Enriquez, 1994a, p. 27).
Sinha (1997) noted the scepticismor outright opposition in
many countries to Western psychology. In the Philippines,
Western theories, concepts, and methods still permeate
psychological science and practice, but Filipino scholars
have long questioned their applicabilit y
1
. Criticisms have
ranged from calls for local adaptation to charges of
intellectual dependence and academic and political
imperialism (David, 1977; Enriquez, 1976b, 1977, 1994a,
b; Espiritu, 1982; A.V. Lagmay, 1984; Salazar, 1991). In
the 1970s, dissatisfaction with Western psychology, an
emergence of cultural pride and identity, cogent scientic
reasons, and parallel movements elsewhere contributed to
the emergence of an indigenous Sikolohiyang Pilipino
movement (SP; Filipino Psychology; Enriquez, 1976b;
Mataragnon, 1979; Salazar, 1982b). SP proponents advo-
cate a Filipino psychology rooted in its Malayo-Polynesian
and Asian heritage and the experience, ideas, and orienta-
tion of Filipinos (Enriquez, 1994a). In the writings of
prominent advocates such as Virgilio G. Enriquez, one
nds ideas that parallel and helped mould the terminology
and thinking of indigenous psychologists elsewhere.
130 CHURCH AND KATIGBAK
1
For a historical overview of the Western roots of psychology in the Philippines, see Enriquez (1994a, Chapter 2) and A.V. Lagmay (1984).
For a historical discussion of Western inuences on the Filipino intellectual elites, see Salazar (1991).
relief limportance de la relation chercheur participant. Cependant, il reste encore des
questions ouvertes propos de lobjectivit et lunicit culturelle de ces mthodes. Beaucoup
dentre elles sont composes de (a) conversations et discussions dstructures au lieu
dentretiens structurs, (b) des diffrents niveaux dobservation des participants ou (c) de
mthodes phnomnologiques qualitatives. Une large indignisation thmatique est vidente
dans des tudes focalises sur les affaires relatives au quotidien des Philippins et la socit
philippine. Lindignisation constitutionnelle se reflte dans les cours, les thses et les
dissertations, les journaux, les livres, les confrences, et les organisations professionnelles
centres sur les thmes indignes. Les dciences ou risques ventuels du mouvement indigne
rsident sur son isolation et ltat actuel de la culture de recherche. Les implications de lexemple
philippin sur les efforts dindignisation dans dautres cultures sont discutes.
S
e examin el estado de los esfuerzos para indigenizar a la psicologa en las Filipinas.
Tratamos del progreso en cuatro aspectos de la indigenizacin: teortico/conceptual,
metodolgico, temtico, e institucional. En gran parte, pero no del todo, el progreso es el
resultado de los esfuerzos asociados con el movimiento indgena Sikolohiyang Pilipino
(Psicologa lipina), el cual enfatiza (a) el desarrollo de una psicologa lipina que reeje las
experiencias y orientaciones nicas de los lipinos, (b) la identidad lipina y la conciencia
nacional; (c) las consideraciones socio-polticas explcitas, (d) la aplicacin de la psicologa a los
problemas de la sociedad, (e) el estudio de los lipinos que no pertenecen a una elite, (f) los
esfuerzos interdisciplinarios, y (g) el uso del lenguaje indgena en el desarrollo y la divulgacin
de la psicologa indgena. Observamos un progreso considerable, as como controversia, en la
seleccin e interpretacin de los conceptos indgenas y menos progreso en la formulacin de las
teoras indgenas. Las teoras existentes son de alcance limitado, y especicadas solamente de
manera incompleta. Y tienen un valor heurstico incierto para generar predicciones
comprobables. Los psiclogos lipinos tambin han adaptado o especicado aun ms los
marcos tericos occidentales para convertirlos en algo ms sensible hacia los factores
contextuales lipinos. Se han construido muchas medidas indgenas, pero se necesita ms
informacin acerca de sus propiedades psicomtricas. Se han descrito varios mtodos de
investigacin indgena y estos mtodos, por lo general, enfatizan la importancia de la relacin
entre el investigador y el sujeto participante. Sin embargo, hay cuestiones que continan sin
respuesta acerca de la objetividad y la unicidad cultural de estos mtodos. Muchos de stos
estn compuestos por (a) conversaciones y discusiones sin estructura en lugar de las entrevistas
estructuradas, (b) varios niveles de observacin participante, o (c) los mtodos fenomenolgicos
cuantitativos. Se maniesta en forma evidente una indigenizacin temtica en los estudios que
se enfocan en los asuntos cotidianos de los lipinos y su sociedad lipina. La indigenizacin
institucional se reeja en materias acadmicas, proyectos de tesis, revistas cientcas, libros,
conferencias, y organizaciones profesionales con un enfoque indgena. Las posibles deciencias
o riesgos del movimiento indgena incluyen el aislamiento y el estado actual de la limitada
cultura de investigacin. Se discuten las consecuencias del caso lipino sobre los esfuerzos de la
indigenizacin para otras culturas.
For example, Enriquez (1979) coined the terms indige-
nization from within (culture-as-source) versus indigeniza-
tion from without (culture-as-target) in referring to the
distinction between indigenous psychologynative psy-
chology that is not transplanted from other culturesand
indigenizationadaptation of psychology originating in
other cultures (Adair, 1992). Enriquez (1994a) distin-
guished between cultural validation of imported concepts
and methods to determine their relevance for the
Philippines and cultural revalidation of indigenous con-
cepts and methods. In lieu of the combined emic-etic
approach, which seeks a comprehensive psychology
through a blending of the indigenous and imported
(Adair, 1992; Sinha, 1997, p. 133), Enriquez (1979)
advocated a cross-indigenous approach in which multiple
indigenous psychologies are developed independently
prior to cross-cultural comparisons.
In reviewing the status of efforts to indigenize psychol-
ogy in the Philippines it is useful to distinguish four
aspects of indigenization (Kumar, 1979; Sinha, 1997): (1)
theoretical and conceptual indigenizationdevelopment of
indigenous concepts and theoretical frameworks; (2)
methodological indigenizationadaptation or develop-
ment of instruments and methods that are culturally
appropriate; (3) topical indigenizationthe extent to which
the topics under study are relevant to the concerns of the
society and people; and (4) institutional indigenization
the extent to which institutional and organizational struc-
tures and processes support the creation and diffusion of
indigenous psychological knowledge
2
. In the Philippines
substantial progress has been made in all four aspects of
indigenization.
Although the SP movement has been at the forefront
in efforts to develop indigenous psychology in the
Philippines, contributions to indigenization were also
made prior to the full emergence of the SP movement and
by researchers who are not clearly associated with the SP
movement. In assessing progress toward the development
of an indigenous or indigenized Philippine psychology,
it seems unwise to ignore these other efforts, although the
extent to which they are consistent with the philosophy
and methods of the SP movement has sometimes been
controversial . Thus, we also refer to contributions that are
not purely emic or indigenous in nature, reecting the fact
that the distinction between emic and etic, or indigenous
and imported, is often not a clear dichotomy, but rather a
continuum representing different levels of indigenization
(Church, 2001). A number of authors have noted that
indigenous elements can come from both internal sources
(indigenization from within; internal indigenization) and
the adaptation of elements from external sources (indige-
nization from without; indigenization of the exogenous)
(Adair, 1992; Enriquez, 1979; Sinha, 1997). In short, our
review might best be viewed as an analysis of the broader
progress toward the indigenization of various aspects of
Philippine psychology, which clearly includes but is not
limited to the contributions of SP proponents. Nonethe-
less, we begin with an overview of general characteristics
of the SP movement because of its centrality in the devel-
opment of indigenous elements in Philippine psychology.
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF
SIKOLOHIYANG PILIPINO (SP)
Enriquez (1994b, p. 3) dened Sikolohiyang Pilipino (SP;
Filipino psychology) as a psychology based on the expe-
rience, ideas and orientation of the Filipino. Enriquez
(1994a) outlined major characteristics of SP, which
included: (1) principal emphases on identity and national
consciousness, social awareness and involvement, psychol-
ogy of language and culture, and applications and bases in
such elds as health practices, agriculture, art, mass media,
and religion; (2) principal methods of investigation that
include the cross-indigenous method; indigenous eld
methods; and multi-method, multi-language application
of traditional experimental and psychometric methods; (3)
primary areas of protest against a psychology that perpet-
uates the colonial status of the Filipino mind, the exploita-
tion of the masses, and the imposition of psychologies
developed in industrialized countries; and (4) a focus on
psychological practice as applicable in the Philippine con-
text (for additional characteristics, see Enriquez, 1994a,
Table 2). Others who have discussed the historical or
philosophical bases and goals of the indigenous SP move-
ment include Salazar (1982b; 1985a), San Buenaventura
(1985), Enriquez (1976b), and Pe-Pua and Protacio-
Marcelino (2000).
As these characteristics suggest, there is a strong and
explicit sociopolitical thrust in many SP writings (e.g.,
Enriquez, 1994a, b; L. Samson, 1985). This thrust is seen,
for example, in Enriquezs (1994b) description of six
phases of cultural domination to which he believes
Filipino psychology and culture have been subjected, fol-
lowed by his discussion of how decolonization, counter-
domination, and empowerment of Filipino psychology
can be achieved through (1) indigenous theorizing, (2) the
development of indigenous methods, and (3) resistance to
sociopolitical , class, and gender oppression and academic
dependency. Enriquez (1994a, p. 2) called for a psychology
that is both liberated (malaya) and liberating (mapag-
palaya), that is, both free of American inuence and
responsive to Philippine social problems that are rooted in
the inequitable distribution of wealth between Westernized
Filipinos and the masses.
Not surprisingly, then, another characteristic of SP has
been its preferential focus on less elite Filipinos. Salazar
(1991) referred to the Great Cultural Divide in Philippine
society between educated, Westernized Filipinos and the
Filipino masses, and Enriquez (1994a) argued that
Western-oriented psychology in the Philippines caters to
the upper classes. This is particularly true, he opined, in
INDIGENIZATION OF PSYCHOLOGY IN THE PHILIPPINES 131
2
Our labels for these four types of indigenization are modica-
tions of those used by Kumar (1979) and Sinha (1997)theoretical,
methodological, substantive, and structural, respectivelybut our
denitions of the four types are comparable.
industrial psychologyfor example, in the use of selection
tests that favour those who are more uent in
Englishand he proposed focusing instead on livelihood
psychology among the Filipino masses (Enriquez, 1994b,
pp. 6667). The real psychology of Filipinos, he argued,
will be found not in academic psychology, which is largely
Western, but on street corners, in public markets, in rural
barrios, and so forth.
Historically, there has also been a strong interdiscipli -
nary thrust in SP, with SP nding applications in, and
being enriched by, art and literature (Antonio, 1999;
Rivera-Mirano, 1999), religion and philosophy (Bautista,
1999; Mercado, 1977; Obusan & Enriquez, 1994a; Sevilla,
1982a), history (Salazar, 1985a, 1991), linguistics
(Enriquez, 1976a), law and politics (M.E. Samson, 1999),
education (Mendez, 1982; Morales, 1999), and agriculture
and rural sociology (Bonifacio, 1999; Velasco, 1982). For
example, researchers have drawn on indigenous music,
folklore, literature, and linguistic features in the language
in a search for clues about Filipino worldviews, values, and
personality (Antonio, 1999; Timbreza, 1999). Illustrative
of this interdisciplinary focus is a recently edited book on
SP, which contains several chapters on applications in edu-
cation, religion, politics, and the arts (Protacio-Marcelino
& Pe-Pua, 1999)
3
.
From the beginning, a dening characteristic of SP has
been the use and development of the Filipino language for
psychological research and writing. Proponents noted that
(1) use of native languages is consistent with an indige-
nization-from-within approach; (2) native languages are an
important source of indigenous constructs; (3) the devel-
opment and communication of an indigenous psychologi -
cal science may benet from the use of native languages;
and (4) reports written in native languages can reach a
wider audience and contribute toward the development of
national identity (Enriquez, 1994b; Enriquez & Marcelino,
1984; Javier, 1996; Rood, 1985; Salazar, 1982b, 1991;
Sibayan, 1994). In addition, research indicates that the
nature and quality of the data obtained with Filipinos may
depend on the language of data collection (Church,
Katigbak, & Castaeda, 1988; see Church, 1986, pp.
106113, for a review). In the view of Enriquez (1977,
1994a), reliance on the English language (a language of
instruction) and token use of Filipino can result in a dis-
tortion of Philippine social realities, the miseducation of
the Filipino, and an irrelevant Anglocentric psychology
which fails to answer the needs of the Filipino people
(Enriquez, 1994b, p. 10)
4
. We turn now to a discussion of
the status of theoretical and conceptual, methodological ,
topical, and institutional indigenization efforts in
Philippine psychology.
THEORETICAL AND CONCEPTUAL
INDIGENIZATION
Indigenous concepts
Considerable progress has been made in the identication
and elaboration of indigenous concepts, particularly in the
area of personality and values. Prior to the emergence of
the SP movement, many researchers had already elicited
traits and values using free-response descriptions of vari-
ous persons or roles (e.g., a real friend, the best priest,
the ideal boss, a healthy Filipino); analyses of Filipino
proverbs, folklore, and other literature; responses to pro-
jective stories; and ethnographic and survey methods with
children and their parents (see Church, 1986, for a review).
Others have identied indigenous personality concepts
while developing indigenous tests (e.g., Carlota, 1985;
Church et al., 1988; Enriquez & Guanzon, 1985) or tax-
onomies of person-descriptive terms (Church, Katigbak,
& Reyes, 1996). In student papers and theses conducted
from an SP perspective, descriptive studies of single
indigenous concepts have been extremely popular. In these
studies, respondents typically are asked to dene the
concept, associate to related terms, and describe the
antecedents, manifestations, or consequences of the con-
cept, with responses being summarized qualitatively or
with frequency counts (Cipres-Ortega, 1985)
5
.
Detailed anthropological , linguistic, philosophical , or
conceptual analyses have been conducted on a number of
Filipino concepts, including utang na loob (Hollnsteiner,
1973; Kaut, 1961; Kiefer, 1968; Lawless, 1966), hiya
(Bulatao, 1964, 1966; Salazar, 1985b), bahala na (Bostrom,
1968; Jocano, 1974; A.V. Lagmay, 1993), pakikiramdam
(Enriquez, 1994a; Mataragnon, 1987), sumpong
(Mataragnon, 1977), kapwa (Enriquez, 1978), kaluluwa
(Salazar, 1982a), pakikisama (Lynch, 1973), and amor pro-
pio (Bonifacio, 1977; Lynch, 1973). Many purported
Filipino traits and values have been critiqued in the
context of discussions of national identity and develop-
ment (e.g., Andres, 1989; Domingo-Tapales & Aller,
1991; Morales, Talisayon, & Roxas, 1991).
Although such analyses are consistent with the SP focus
on the elaboration of native language constructs, SP
3
Sta. Maria (1996) recently commented, however, that this tradi-
tional interdisciplinary focus began to diminish somewhat in the
1990s as social scientists in other elds began to focus on develop-
ment of their own disciplines, albeit inuenced by the SP movement.
4
Ironically, however, Torres (1997) has criticized SPs heavy
emphasis on Tagalog, the primary dialect comprising the Filipino
national language; Tagalog is the language primarily of lowland
Christian Filipinos and Torres notes the unfortunate scarcity of
research on other Filipino ethnolinguistic groups.
5
For example, Cipres-Ortega (1985) reviewed 64 such studies
conducted at the University of the Philippines addressing such single
concepts as inggit (envy), pangangantiyaw (bantering), abuso (abuse),
malambing (affection), and pambobola (attering). Inspection of a list
of undergraduate theses conducted from 19901997 at De La Salle
University in Manila revealed studies of such concepts as pagtutulun-
gan (helping each other), pagkababae (femininity), kalusugan (health),
malandi (sensuous), maginoo (gentlemanly), pagtataray (bad temper),
pagkamakabayan (patriotism), kilig (thrill), and sipag at tiyaga
(industry and perseverance).
proponent s have expressed ambivalent or negative attitudes
towards some of these studies. They argue that concept
interpretations have sometimes reected colonial perspec-
tives and that discussions of the role of purported traits and
values in national development can draw attention away
from compelling social realities such as poverty and
social injustice (Bartolome, 1985, p. 534) or serve to blame
the victim for these social realities (Enriquez, 1994a, p. 58).
In addition, the importance and interpretation of some
concepts continues to be controversial. For example, the
frequent mention of the concept pakikisama (getting along
with or making concessions to others) in a number of
studies was cited by Lynch (1973) as supportive of his
theory of smooth interpersonal relations (SIR) among
Filipinos. The theory was inuential during the 1960s and
1970s, but not without its critics (Enriquez, 1977; Jocano,
1966; Sechrest, 1969). Pakikisama was viewed by Lynch as
an important means, along with euphemism and the use of
go-betweens, by which Filipinos achieve smooth interper-
sonal relations, which in turn is an important means of
maintaining social acceptance, a basic aim of lowland
Filipinos according to Lynch (1973).
Enriquez (1977, 1978) criticized the singling out of
pakikisama and other Filipino language terms, however.
Enriquez attributed the focus on pakikisama to the token
use of Filipino by Western-oriented social scientists, who
were not immersed in the culture or language.
Nonetheless, numerous Filipino writers continue to cite
pakikisama as a salient value or trait of Filipinos (e.g.,
Andres, 1989; Bulatao, 1992; Domingo-Tapales & Aller,
1991).
Enriquez (1977, 1978, 1994a) has championed instead
kapwa as the core concept underlying Filipino interper-
sonal behaviour. Kapwa, he argued, refers to the recogni-
tion of shared identity with others, a deeper concept than
SIR, which refers to merely avoiding conict. Further,
Enriquez argued that pakikisama refers to only one of
many levels of interaction in Philippine culture, ranging
from the uninvolved civility of pakikitungo to the total
identication of pakikiisa. In contrast, pakikipagkapwa,
Enriquez argued, is a superordinate concept that embraces
all levels of interaction. Pakikipagkapwa means accepting
and dealing with others as equals, treating them as fellow
human beings (kapwa tao), and having regard for the dig-
nity and being of others (Enriquez, 1977, 1978).
Here too, however, different authors have presented dif-
ferent interpretations of kapwa. For example, Enriquez
(1994a) viewed kapwa as encompassing interactions with
both ingroup and outgroup members. Ramirez (1997),
however, associated kapwa with behaviours towards
ingroup members only, although she advocated a broaden-
ing of kapwa to include the outgroup. Uncertainties
regarding the interpretation of kapwa and other indige-
nous concepts may be due to limited empirical data. As
Sta. Maria (1996) has noted, conceptions of kapwa have
relied heavily on speculations and unsystematic inter-
pretations of the concept rather than on research regard-
ing how the concept is used in everyday language and
observed in everyday experience (p. 110).
Controversy has also surrounded the interpretation of
other salient concepts. For example, does bahala na refer to
submissive fatalism or to determination in the face of
uncertainty? Does utang na loob refer to contract-like
debts of gratitude or to a commitment to human solidar-
ity? Does hiya refer to social shame and embarrassment or
to moral propriety and dignity? Does amor propio refer to
oversensitivity or personal dignity and honour?
Of some concern is the apparent role of sociopolitical
inuences on the interpretation and selection of concepts.
Many of the values and traits attributed to Filipinos have
been criticized as presenting colonial images of Filipinos,
which reect ideological considerations and implicit com-
parisons against Western values and behaviour (David,
1977; Enriquez, 1994a; Salazar, 1991). In attempting to
move from a colonial psychology to a liberation psy-
chology, Enriquez (1994a) countered purported colonial
or accommodative values such as utang na loob, pakik-
isama, and hiya, with more confrontative values such as
lakas ng loob (inner strength) and pakikibaka (cooperative
resistance), and a more assertive interpretation of bahala
na (determination) . At the societal level, the values of
karangalan (dignity), katarungan (justice), and kalayaan
(freedom) are now emphasized in Enriquezs (1994a) value
model. However, these values seem to be emphasized as
much for sociopolitical reasonsthat is, their role and
salience during such sociopolitical events as the People
Power Revolution of 1986as for scientic or empirical
reasons (e.g., see Enriquez, 1994a, p. 79).
Tan (1997b) has noted that recent reinterpretations of
indigenous concepts such as pakikisama, bahala na, utang
na loob, and hiya may be equally vulnerable to the criticism
made of earlier value researchan overreliance on ideo-
logical impressions and intuitions. He notes that while ear-
lier writers seemed to emphasize What is wrong with us?
(e.g., Why are we an underdeveloped country?), SP
seems to take the position that nothing can be wrong with
us (pp. 564567). Sta. Maria (1996) has also questioned
the empirical basis of those concepts that comprise
Enriquezs (1994a) structure of values. She portrays
Enriquezs efforts as symptomatic of pangkaming (Salazar,
1991) or reactive syndrome, in which selected concepts are
elevated to the status of key values because they contrast
with those highlighted by foreign social scientists. As Sta.
Maria (1996, p. 102) noted:
what [Enriquez] essentially did was to scan the entire
range of indigenous terms and to pluck out the ones that
contrast with foreign interpretations and to elevate these
concepts to the level of values. With this approach, any
term in Filipino becomes a potential value as long as it sat-
ises the contrast criterion and his idea about the con-
frontative Filipino.
Pertierra (1992, p. 41) has also raised concerns about a
politically motivated indigenous social science, in which
the task becomes one of discovering or inventing national
characteristics which forward the national interest.
A nal limitation of these concepts is that they have gen-
erally been considered in isolation, with little consideration
of their structure or organization (i.e., how they interrelate
theoretically or empirically). A few efforts have been made
to structure the value domain, using rational considera-
tions rather than empirical data (Enriquez, 1994a; Hennig,
1983; Talisayon, 1997). Montiel (1991) used factor analy-
sis to derive higher-order value dimensions, but the values
analyzed were those assessed by Rokeachs Value Survey,
not indigenous values. The limited data available on the
structure of Filipino personality concepts motivated
Church et al. (1996) to develop a comprehensive taxonomy
of Filipino trait and emotion terms and to investigate the
dimensional structure of these domains in self-report data
(Church, Katigbak, & Reyes, 1998a; Church, Katigbak,
Reyes, & Jensen, 1998b, 1999; Church, Reyes, Katigbak,
& Grimm, 1997; Katigbak, Church, Guanzon-Lapea,
Carlota, & Del Pilar, 2002).
Indigenous theories
Filipino psychologists have made much more progress in
elaborating indigenous concepts than in formulating
indigenous theories. We can dene a theory as including
(1) a set of assumptions and constructs that are systemat-
ically related to each other; (2) operational denitions of
the constructs that enable them to be related to empirical
data; and (3) an evolving set of empirical propositions
(e.g., hypotheses and predictions), which follow from the
theory and facilitate understanding, explanation, and pre-
diction of phenomena in the domain of interest (Hall &
Lindzey, 1978, pp. 915). A theory could be viewed as an
indigenous theory to the extent that the assumptions,
constructs, operational denitions (e.g., measures), and
predicted phenomena of the theory are themselves indige-
nous, or have a culturally relevant conceptual and empiri-
cal basis. By this denition, we would have to conclude
that theory development in Philippine psychology has
been minimal. Existing theories are narrow in scope,
only partially specied, and their heuristic value in gener-
ating veriable predictions is unclear. Theoretical develop-
ment has proceeded only to the point of specifying
constructs and their interrelationships, and these efforts
have been largely conceptual rather than linked to empirical
data.
For example, Enriquez (1994a) provided a conceptual
structure of indigenous values made up of three tiers: (1) a
top tier comprised of surface values, both colonial /accom-
modative (hiya, utang na loob, pakikisama) and confronta-
tive (bahala na, sama/lakas ng loob, pakikibaka); (2) a
middle tier comprised of the pivotal interpersonal value of
pakiramdam (shared inner perception), which underlies the
surface values; the core value of kapwa (shared identity);
and a socio-cultural value of kagandahang-loob (shared
humanity) linking the core value of kapwa to the bottom
tier; and (3) a bottom tier comprised of the associated
societal values of karangalan (dignity), katarungan (jus-
tice), and kalayaan (freedom). Enriquez (1994a) argued
that the conceptual relations depicted in this model were
recognized links. It is not clear, however, how universally
recognized or obvious these links are, and most of the
indigenous values discussed in the literature are not
encompassed by the hypothesized structure.
Enriquez (1994b, pp. 5154) described the levels and
modes of social interaction delineated by Santiago and
Enriquez (1982) as an indigenous social interaction
theory. Santiago and Enriquez (1982) described eight
levels of social interaction ranging from more supercial
levels applied with outgroup members to the deeper levels
obtained with ingroup members. One of the most thor-
oughly specied and empirically tested theories was
Lynchs (1973) theory of SIR (smooth interpersonal rela-
tions). However, proponents of SP and others have tended
to reject the theory as based on stereotypes, colonial inter-
pretations, limited understanding of the Filipino language,
and limited data (see Church, 1986, pp. 2935, for a
review). More recently, Sta. Maria (1999) proposed an
indigenous person typology for Filipinos, which was
derived from content analyses of relatively open-ended
descriptions of self and others.
Carandang (1981) described a conceptual framework,
termed the Rubics Cube approach, which is less a formal
theory than a framework for holistic and multidimensional
analyses in studies with Filipino children. The four dimen-
sions of analysis included: (1) the child as a total person,
including intellectual, emotional, physical, social, and
moral/spiritual development; (2) the childs developmental
level; (3) the context of family, community, and culture;
and (4) the childs inner world or subjective perceptions.
The approach has been cited as the conceptual framework
for a number of phenomenological studies of children
(Araneta-de Leon, 2000; Gonzalez-Fernando, 2000; Lee-
Chua, 1999; Puente, 2000).
When theoretical frameworks have been referred to they
have often been Western frameworks. However, a number
of Filipino psychologists have adapted or further specied
these frameworks to make them more sensitive to
Philippine contextual factors. For example, Montiel (1997,
2000a) and Briones (2000) applied ideas from an imported
model of personality and politics in constructing con-
ceptual models for Filipino political and peace psychol-
ogy; the authors provided indigenous specication by
incorporating context-specic elements such as the history
of colonization, the Marcos dictatorship, and the role of
the Catholic Church. In a series of political psychology
studies, Montiel has questioned the assumptions underly-
ing Western theory and research on political trauma and
recovery (Montiel, 2000b), discussed Filipino cultural
characteristics that may need to be incorporated in
imported models of conict resolution (Montiel, 1995),
and suggested that political psychology theories in the
Philippines may need to incorporate stronger affective,
religious, and collective processes than is typical of politi-
cal psychology in the United States, where the focus, she
argues, tends to be more cognitive, secular, and individual -
istic (Montiel & Macapagal , 2000).
In other examples of adaptation or indigenization of
imported theory, Protacio-Marcelino adapted a Western
stress and coping framework in her studies of children of
political detainees and children experiencing torture dur-
ing armed conicts (e.g., see Protacio-Marcelino, De la
Cruz, Camacho, & Balanon, 2000); Bernardo (1999)
drew on imported theories of number representation in
bilinguals, but further specied these models to more
fully reect the bilingual context in the Philippines; and
Tan (1997a) combined Western theory on explanatory
style with indigenous conceptual analyses of the bahala
na concept (A.V. Lagmay, 1993) to interpret his ndings
on the contentment versus discontentment of poor
Filipinos.
Western counselling theories continue to dominate in
counselling research, training, and practice in the
Philippines, despite concerns about their applicabilit y. In
a review of Western counselling approaches in the
Philippines, Villar (1997) considered the compatibility of
each approach to Filipino traits and culture. There have
been a few attempts to develop indigenous counselling
theories or frameworks. Salazar-Clemea (1991, 1995) drew
on Filipino worldviews and conceptions of peace to con-
struct a counselling for peace model for Filipinos (e.g., she
noted the need to include peace with God as a central
component because of the theocentric worldview of most
Filipinos); however, the counselling methods advocated to
help clients attain peace are standard Western techniques.
Bulatao (1978) presented a Filipino-relevant therapy,
labelled transpersonal counselling, which he described as
compatible with the group-centredness of Filipinos, their
tendency to prefer paternalistic counsellors over non-
directive ones, and their readiness to enter into altered
states of consciousness. Decenteceo (1999) described a
Pagdadala (burden-bearing) model in counselling and
therapy in which the normal burden-bearing experienced
by Filipinos serves as a metaphor or model for counselling
with Filipinos; although Western techniques are seen as
compatible with the model, Decenteceo anticipates that
the model will also lead to more indigenous therapeutic
approaches. Responding to the strong economic needs of
many Filipinos, Velazco (1987) described a model of eco-
nomics counselling that integrates economic principles
with traditional counselling techniques.
The costs of limited theoretical development may be
considerable. For example, Sta. Maria (1996, p. 118)
argued that the indigenization crisis in Philippine social
science has not been resolved by SP because SP has not
determined how to systematize indigenous knowledge.
This systematization of knowledge would probably be
greatly facilitated by the development of overarching
theoretical frameworks.
Finally, it can be noted that at least some of the contro-
versies surrounding the selection and interpretation of
indigenous constructs, and their theoretical relationships,
result from disagreements about methodology (e.g., the
procedures or instruments used to identify and elaborate
indigenous concepts and their relationships). That is,
theoretical and conceptual indigenization are inherently
tied to methodological indigenization.
METHODOLOGICAL INDIGENIZATION
Indigenous instruments
The Philippines has been a leader in the development of
indigenous instruments and research methods. Enriquez
(1994b) credits Sinforoso Padilla with the development of
the rst local test, the Philippine Mental Abilities Test,
which was developed in the 1950s (Carlota, 1999). Ortega
and Guanzon-Lapea (cited in Guanzon-Lapea, Church,
Carlota, & Katigbak, 1998) noted that more than 200 local
measures have now been developed. Unfortunately, as
Bernardo (1997b) has noted, many of these measures have
not been described in published sources, so they are not
readily available and the extent to which they are valid and
culture-specic is unclear.
Early and continuing efforts have been made to develop
local tests of educational and occupational aptitude,
achievement, and interest, such as the College Scholastic
Aptitude Test (CSAT), Philippine Aptitude Classication
Test (PACT), and Philippine Occupational Interest Survey
(POIS) developed by the Center for Education
Measurement, a testing and research centre serving the
private educational sector (Buen, 1994). These tests resem-
ble, in both content and format, comparable tests in the
United States. More indigenous in content, but also rely-
ing on Western item formats, are the Philippine
Indigenized Preschool and Primary Intelligence Test
(Taylor, 1993) and the content-indigenized subtests for
rural children developed by Katigbak and Church (Church
& Katigbak, 1987; Church, Katigbak, & Almario-Velazco,
1985; see also Guthrie, Tayag, & Jacobs, 1977). Velazco
(1985) and Church et al. (1985) described the development
of indigenous rating scales that can be used to assess adap-
tive competencies of rural preschoolers based on parents
conceptions of intelligence. Ledesma, Diputado, Orteza,
and Santillan (1993) developed a de-Westernized
dementia screening scale.
In the personality domain, indigenous projective tests
have been developed, beginning with the efforts of A.V.
Lagmay, who constructed the Philippine Thematic
Apperception Test (PTAT; A.V. Lagmay, 1965) and the
Philippine Childrens Apperception Test (PCAT; A.V.
Lagmay, 1975a, b). The PTAT and PCAT have sometimes
been used to elicit values or concerns of particular groups,
rather than to measure individual differences in personal-
ity (e.g., Carandang, 1996; L.A. Lagmay, 1993). Other
indigenous projective tests include Jurillas (1986) Family
Welfare Cards and the Crime Picture Interpretation Test
(see Lamug, 1987). Other researchers have also used
indigenous thematic content or sentence completion stems
(e.g., Gonzalez-Fernando, 2000; Laguisma-Sison, 2000;
Puente, 2000).
The two most prominent multidimensional personality
inventories are the Panukat ng Pagkataong Pilipino (PPP;
Carlota, 1985) and the Panukat ng Ugali at Pagkatao
(PUP; Enriquez & Guanzon, 1985; see also Guanzon-
Lapea et al., 1998), whose authors selected the traits to in-
clude by drawing on the literature on Filipino personality,
person descriptions, and cultural informants. Church,
Katigbak, Reyes, and colleagues developed indigenous
measures of personality and mood dimensions using a
comprehensive lexical approach (Church et al., 1996, 1997,
1998a, 1998b, 1999). Katigbak, Church, and colleagues
developed a multidimensional measure based on Filipino
college students conceptions of healthy and unhealthy
personality (Church & Katigbak, 1989; Katigbak, Church,
& Akamine, 1996). Indigenous self-concept measures have
been constructed by Pasao (1987) and Agbing (1988).
Some information on the structure, reliability, and valid-
ity of selected personality measures can be found in the
original sources and in reviews by Carlota (1985),
Guanzon-Lapea et al. (1998), and Church and Katigbak
(2000a, b). However, as Carlota (1999) noted, there is a
strong need for further research on the psychometric prop-
erties of the indigenous measures. Although many of the
trait dimensions assessed by these inventories seem similar
to those in Western inventories, others seem especially
salient for Filipinos. There has been very little research on
how the dimensions of these measures relate to those in
other cultures. Recently, however, Katigbak et al. (2002)
found considerable overlap between the dimensions of
three indigenous inventories and the dimensions of the
ve-factor model (McCrae & Costa, 1997). Such studies
are consistent with a cross-indigenous approach to evolv-
ing a universal psychology.
Indigenous research methods
Many Filipino psychologists have advocated the develop-
ment of indigenous research methods thought to be more
compatible with the cultural characteristics of Filipinos. In
1975 Santiago proposed the rst indigenous method called
pakapa-kapa (groping) (Santiago, 1982). Torres (1982)
described the method as a suppositionless approach to
social scientic investigations ... characterized by groping,
searching, and probing into an unsystematized mass of
social and cultural data to be able to obtain order, mean-
ing, and directions for research (p. 171). In this method,
data were to be explored without the chains of overriding
theoretical frameworks borrowed from observations out-
side the focus of investigation, with the goal of generating
a broad database free from the biases and frameworks of
Western concepts and methods.
Subsequently, many indigenous research methods have
been explicated. Many of them are associated with the
research model of Santiago and Enriquez (1982), which is
comprised of two scales: Iskala ng Mananaliksi k
(researcher/method scale) and Iskala ng Pagtutunguhan ng
Mananaliksik at Kalahok (researcher-participant relation-
ship scale). The researcher/method scale represents a con-
tinuum varying from unobtrusive observational methods
at one end, to more obtrusive, researcher-participative
methods at the other. For example, pagmamasid (general
scanning or looking around) and pakikiramdam (sensing,
feeling what is happening) are relatively unobtrusive and
can be used initially to determine the feasibility of further
study, or in combination with other methods (Gonzales,
1982). In the middle of the continuum are somewhat more
obtrusive methods like pagtatanung-tanong (unstructured,
informal, interactive questioning; Gonzales, 1982; Pe-Pua,
1989, 199394). Methods at the bottom of the scale
involve increasing levels of researcher participation and
obtrusiveness. For example, whereas in padalaw-dalaw,
occasional visits are made to respondent homes, in
pakikisangkot a deeper involvement in barrio activities is
undertaken.
The researcher-participant relationship scale is based on
the Filipino view of the equality of this relationship and
the fact that it passes through different levels. For example,
the top of the scale describes a supercial level of rela-
tionship involving civility and good manners (pakiki-
tungo). Increasingly deeper levels of relationship are
illustrated by pakikibagay (adjusting to others), pakikipag-
palagayang-loob (mutual trust and security), and pakikiisa
(the deepest level; love, understanding, and acceptance of
the others aims as ones own).
Other indigenous research methods have been pre-
sented, including paali-aligid (casing; Enriquez, 1994b),
pakikipagkuwentuhan (story-telling; De Vera, 1982;
Orteza, 1997), pakikisama (frequent interaction with the
research participants; Nery, 1982; Pe-Pua, 199394),
pakikipanuluyan (residing in the research setting; Nicdao-
Henson, 1982; San Juan & Soriaga, 1985), nakikiugaling
pagmamasid (adopting the ways of a group one is observ-
ing; Bennagen, 1985; Pe-Pua, 199394); ginabayang
talakayan (guided discussion; Enriquez, 1994b; Pe-Pua,
Aguiling-Dalisay, & Sto. Domingo, 1993), the collective
indigenous method (community dialogue and small group
interviews; Enriquez, 1994b), personal encounter research
(subjective experiencing of the phenomenon by the
researcher; Enriquez, 1994b, p. 60), and pagninilay/paglil-
imi (introspection/reection; Obusan, 1994), among others
(e.g., see Elman & Pioquinto, 1997; Obusan, 1994).
Most of these methods involve (1) unstructured (though
guided) conversations and discussions, often in a small
group context, in lieu of more structured interviews; or (2)
various degrees of participant observation. Several princi-
ples or assumptions underly these methods (Pe-Pua &
Protacio-Marcelino, 2000). A foremost assumption is that
the quality and genuineness of the data obtained will
depend on the level of researcher-participant relationship
achieved prior to data gathering. There is apparently some
disagreement, however, regarding the level of relationship
that needs to be achieved. For example, Obusan and
Enriquez (1994b, p. ix, foreword) seem to suggest that the
deepest level of pakikiisa must be reached, whereas most
SP proponents suggest that the level of pakikipagpala-
gayang-loob will be sufcient to obtain the kind of infor-
mation for which psychologists generally aim.
Another goal of these methods is to reduce the power
differential between researcher and participant , with par-
ticipants being treated at least as equals. Indeed, in SPs
focus on indigenous facilitation research, the participant
wields greater power in determining the research ques-
tions, methods, and interpretations, and the researcher
serves mainly as a facilitator, motivator, and consultant.
Other principles emphasise the welfare and ethical treat-
ment of the participants, method appropriateness over
methodological sophistication, and use of the partici-
pants native language at all times.
A number of authors have questioned aspects of these
methods. Church (1986) noted that pakapa-kapa (groping)
may be sensible during an initial bootstrapping or data
generation phase of research, but it could also serve as a
rationalization for avoiding literature search and careful
specication of method, and thus of repeating previous
research mistakes. The rationale of the method implies
that it is not possible to be informed on previous (particu-
larly Western) research and still design a research method
that will allow the local data to surface free of bias. Use of
the collective indigenous method or pagtatanung-tanong
(informal questioning) in groups may be more appropriate
for obtaining group-level data than individual-level data
and prolonged informal interviews introduce problems of
inaccuracy and selective recall if recording is not
immediate.
Sevilla (1982b) noted that further investigation and
explication is needed regarding (1) the relationship
between the research method and researcher-participant
relationship scales of Santiago and Enriquez (1982) and
(2) the nuances or gradations between the different scale
levels. In addition, research is needed to verify the assump-
tion that more genuine and accurate data will be obtained
with deeper levels of relationship and under what condi-
tions this will be the case (e.g., with which samples and
topics). Margallo (1981) saw subjectivity and a higher
probability of data contamination as the most basic dif-
culties with the methods, noting that the absence of objec-
tive instrumentation increases the likelihood of researcher
bias. Data contamination may also be a concern when con-
sciousness raising is a simultaneous goal of the research
(Enriquez, 1994b, p. 56; Strobel, 1998).
A few authors have questioned the cultural uniqueness
of these methods, because they resemble standard ethno-
graphic methods such as naturalistic and participant
observation (e.g., Church, 1986; Sevilla, 1982b). Enriquez
(1994b, p. 58) acknowledged resemblances, but contended
that the levels along the Santiago and Enriquez (1982)
method continuum provide more precise specication of
different levels of participant observation. Similarly, Sta.
Maria (1996, p. 109) argued that while the methods may be
similar to existing ethnographic methods, their indigenous
character is reected in behavioural and attitudinal
nuances of interaction that are characteristic of Filipino
culture.
In recent years, the use of qualitative phenomenological
methods has increased substantially (Sta. Maria, 2000b;
Torres, 1997). In particular, in studies of children in dif-
cult circumstancesfor example, children experiencing
abuse, torture, prostitution, or extreme poverty
researchers have emphasized the value of in-depth inter-
views and case studies in understanding the childrens
subjective experience or inner world (Araneta-de Leon,
2000; Bautista, 2000; Gonzalez-Fernando, 2000;
Laguisma-Sison, 2000; Puente, 2000; Trivio, 2000). The
importance of the researcher-participant relationship in
eliciting the childs phenomenological world is again high-
lighted and Arellano-Carandang (2000) noted that the
clinical psychologist or therapist-researcher, by virtue of
his or her clinical training, is particularly suited for this
type of research. Although phenomenological methods
are not indigenous to the Philippines, they may be partic-
ularly applicable in the development of indigenous psy-
chologies because of the local and contextual nature of the
information obtained.
In summary, we would like to see more systematic com-
parisons of the nature and quality of the data obtained
with (1) traditional methods (e.g., survey questionnaires,
psychological scales) versus indigenous methods; (2) dif-
ferent indigenous methods; and (3) different levels of
researcher-participant relationshi p. The indigenous meth-
ods have been applied most often, and are perhaps most
crucial, when investigating less educated samples, who
have limited familiarity with traditional surveys and inven-
tories, or when investigating particularly sensitive topics.
TOPICAL INDIGENIZATION
Topical indigenization in the Philippines has generally
taken two forms: (1) calls for studies of non-elite or every-
day Filipinos and their behaviours and ideas; and (2) calls
for research on applied topics that address societal needs
and problems. Examples of the former type of study
include those on haggling behaviour (Du & Paysu, 1979),
the Kristo (bet-taker) of the cockpit (Alabanza,
Gonzaga, & Obligacion, 1979), garbage scavengers in slum
areas (Gepigon & Francisco, 1982), and studies of
Filipino conceptions of time (Nicdao-Henson, 1982),
justice (Avila, Diaz, & Rodriguez, 1988), old age
(Domingo, 1991), manhood (Santiago, 1982), and privacy
(Pangilinan, 1986), all of which applied the indigenous
methods referred to earlier.
Examples of studies that have adddressed applied socie-
tal needs include studies of treatment compliance (Orteza,
1996; Ventura, Abella-Matto, & Cipres-Ortega, 1993),
adjustment of Filipino overseas workers and their families
(Du-Lagrosa, 1986; Samonte, 1998), adaptation of rural
migrants in an urbanizing barrio (L.A. Lagmay, 1993),
political conict and peace-making (Briones, 2000;
Gonzalez-Intal, 1991; Montiel, 198485, 1991, 1995, 1997,
2000b; Sta. Maria, 2000a), pre-election attitudes
(Guanzon-Lapea, 1996), torture of children in situations
of armed conict (Protacio-Marcelino et al., 2000b), child
labour (Torres, 1998), and children experiencing sexual
abuse, prostitution, or trouble with the law (Araneta-de
Leon, 2000; Arellano-Carandang, Fernando, & Sison,
1999; Bautista, 2000; Carandang, 1996; Carlota, 198283;
Gonzales-Fernando, 2000; Laguisma-Sison, 2000; Nery,
1982; Protacio-Marcelino, De la Cruz, Balanon, Camacho,
& Yacat, 2000a; Trivio, 2000).
Other popular applied topics include families, married
life, and children (e.g., Aguiling-Dalisay, Mendoza,
Santos, & Echevaria, 1995; Philippine Social Science
Council Secretariat, 1995; Ventura, 1985), gender psychol-
ogy (Torres, 1988), stress and coping in various groups
(e.g., Relucio, 1995; Vergara, 1999), and applied cognitive
and educational topics related to learning, thinking, prob-
lem-solving, and bilingualis m (Bernardo, 1993, 1996,
1997a, 1999; Liwag, 1999; Ventura, 1994). Filipino political
psychology provides a particularly good example of topical
indigenization, as the nature of the topics addressed has
shown considerabl e sensitivity to the evolving Philippine
political situation in recent decades, for example, from
pre-martial law through the martial law period and the
transition to democracy (Montiel & Macapagal , 2000).
In sum, there is extensive evidence of topical indigeniza-
tion in Filipino psychology. Topical indigenization has
often been accompanied by either theoretical or method-
ological indigenization. However, a number of the studies
cited here were conceived outside the indigenous SP per-
spective and have addressed societally relevant topics using
Western theoretical models. For example, Gonzales-Intal
(1991) found an imported relative deprivation theory to be
useful in understanding collective political violence in the
Philippine s. Araneta-de Leon (2000), in a study of children
in conict with the law, interpreted the results largely in
terms of Western attachment theories. Clamor (1997)
found Western conict management frameworks to be use-
ful in understanding conict management practices in
semiconductor companies in the Philippines. Nonetheless,
such studies are relevant here because the extent to which
researchers address applied problems of local concern has
been described as one criterion for judging the extent of
indigenization in given cultures (Sinha, 1997).
INSTITUTIONAL INDIGENIZATION
Considerable progress has been made in the development
of institutional structures and processes in the Philippines
that support the creation and diffusion of indigenous
psychological knowledge. This progress takes the form
of courses, materials, degree programmes, and theses/
dissertations; journals and other publications ; and psycho-
logical organizations with an indigenous focus.
Courses and curricula
Pe-Pua and Protacio-Marcelino (2000) and Enriquez
(1994a) have reviewed the evolution of course offerings
dealing with indigenous Filipino psychology and the
teaching of psychology using the Filipino language. At the
University of the Philippines, efforts to teach psychology
courses in Filipino began around 1970. Other landmark
events and dates include the following: the rst psychology
masters theses at the University of the Philippines written
in Filipino (1972); the rst elective undergraduate course
and the rst permanent graduate level course on Filipino
psychology at the University of the Philippines (1978); the
rst compilation of papers on Filipino psychology made
available for student use (1982); the rst psychology text-
book using the Filipino language and Philippine materials,
published at Centro Escolar University (1983); the rst
course in Filipino Psychology as an integral part of an
undergraduate curricula, at the University of Santo Tomas
(1987); the rst two psychology doctoral dissertations
written in Filipino at the University of the Philippines
(1990); and the rst graduate of the doctoral concentra-
tion in Philippine Psychology at the University of the
Philippines (1994). Other Philippine universities offer
courses in indigenous Filipino psychology and since at
least 1975 students have been encouraged to write papers,
theses, and dissertations in Filipino.
Despite these efforts, Enriquez (1994a, p. 36) conceded
that English still predominates in the classroom.
According to Gaerlan (1996), by 19941995 Filipino was
still used to teach sikolohiyang Pilipino and a few other
courses, [but] English was predominantly used for teaching
other areas of psychology which were dominated by
Western concepts (pp. 148149)
6
. Sta. Maria (1996) also
noted that Western psychology continues to predominate
in Philippine universities and that indigenous methods are
given less emphasis than are traditional experimental and
survey methods. The limited integration of Western and
Filipino perspectives is suggested by the following obser-
vations: (1) Filipino psychology tends to be taught as a
separate course alongside standard (Western) courses in
general psychology, personality psychology, experimental
psychology, and so forth; (2) although Filipino psychology
courses are taught in the Filipino language, most other
psychology courses are not; and (3) Filipino psychology
seems to be treated as a distinct topic area (e.g., like the
Filipiniana section in book stores and libraries) in other
ways, for example, in departmental compilations of
student research that list Filipino psychology projects in
a separate category from those on personality, psycho-
metrics, and so forth.
Efforts to teach indigenous Filipino psychology have
been inhibited by the limited availability of indigenous
texts and reading materials. It was not until the early 1980s
that introductory textbooks written by Filipinos included
substantial references to Filipino psychological studies
and concepts (Del Pilar, 1985). Recently, the psychology
department of Ateneo de Manila University was tasked by
the Commission on Higher Education to develop General
Psychology course materials for use in colleges and uni-
versities; the resulting product includes indigenous materi-
als (Teh & Macapagal, 1999). SP proponents have also
compiled several collections of readings to address the
need for indigenous materials (e.g., Aganon & David,
6
Indeed, Gaerlan (1996) concluded that the Multilingual
Language Policy of 1989, which mandated the use of Filipino for all
undergraduate instruction at the University of the Philippines within
5 years, led to language disarray. Not only was the goal of substantial
instruction in Filipino never achieved, but the perceived decline in
prociency in English, viewed as important for economic develop-
ment and global competitiveness, prompted the university to empha-
size English once again.
1985; Bautista & Pe-Pua, 1991; Pe-Pua, 1982; Protacio-
Marcelino & Pe-Pua, 1999).
Efforts to create instructional and scientic materials in
Filipino might be facilitated by some agreement on scien-
tic terms in Filipino or to provide criteria for selecting
such terms (e.g., Enriquez, 1994a, p. 23; Enriquez &
Marcelino, 1984). However, there are apparently several
schools of thought regarding proper writing in Filipino,
for example, regarding vocabulary selection, extent and
type of language borrowing, and level of formality
(Gaerlan, 1996). Although an advocate of the use of
Filipino in teaching scientic disciplines, Sibayan (1994)
expressed the view that Filipino is not yet an intellectual-
ized language that can be used without difculty for this
purpose. Meanwhile, Gaerlan (1996) reports a widespread
lack of interest in translations of English materials into
Filipino, and, in any case, some SP proponents would have
strong philosophical objections to doing this.
Journals and organizations
There are ample presentation and publication outlets for
disseminating indigenous Filipino psychology. The organ-
ization most closely linked to the SP movement is the
Pambansang Samahan sa Sikolohiyang Pilipino (PSSP;
National Association for Filipino Psychology) , which has
held annual conferences since 1975. The Filipino lan-
guage is used in conference presentations and published
proceedings. The other major general psychological
organization, the Psychological Association of the
Philippine s (PAP), also holds annual conferences and the
presentations are in English. The Philippine Journal of
Psychology, the journal of the PAP, is also published in
English, and although some articles address indigenous
topics with indigenous methods, the articles more fre-
quently resemble traditional Western psychology. Two
counselling organizations with strong Filipino involve-
mentthe Philippine Association for Counselor
Education, Research and Supervision (PACERS) and the
Association of Psychological and Educational
Counsellors of Asia (APECA)also consider the devel-
opment of indigenous or indigenized counselling tech-
niques as part of their mission (Salazar-Clemea, 1991,
2000). Many university psychology departments publish
their own journals. The Philippine Psychology Research
and Training House (PPRTH), founded in 1971, is a base
for research and training activities and a repository for SP
materials with more than 10,000 references (Pe-Pua &
Protacio-Marcelino, 2000).
POTENTIAL PITFALLS AND
LIMITATIONS
Sinha (1997), Ho (1998), and Adair (1992), among others,
have noted potential pitfalls or limitations of indigenous
psychologies, and we ask to what extent they characterize
indigenization efforts in the Philippines.
Polemics and cosmetic indigenization
Adair (1992) has noted a bandwagon tendency in devel-
oping countries, in which local psychologists adopt the
language or slogans of indigenization, but with limited
attempts to make their own research indigenous and
limited awareness of how to do so. Related to the pitfall of
more talk than action is cosmetic indigenization,
which Sinha (1993) characterizes as casual reference to
indigenous concepts in studies that are basically Western
in nature.
In the Philippines, many psychologists, though not all,
have jumped on the indigenization bandwagon and Sta.
Maria (1996, p. 104), for one, has noted a continuing ten-
dency to dwell on slogans. There are also clear examples
of polemic language and uncritical rejection of Western
models and concepts. However, there has also been signif-
icant action to back up the talk, for example, in the elabo-
ration of indigenous concepts and methods. In addition,
several authors have warned against cosmetic indigeniza-
tion, noting, for example, that token use of the Filipino
language (Enriquez, 1994a, p. 62), verbal Filipinization
(Bennagen, 1985), and Filipino labelling activities
(Bennagen, 1985; Church, 1986) may not result in truly
indigenous perspectives and indeed may lead to miscon-
ceptions about Filipino psychology.
Anti-scientic tendencies
Sinha (1997, p. 158) criticized the uncritical eulogizing and
speculative views about indigenous psychological knowl-
edge derived from traditional religions, philosophies, and
folklore, whose only claim to validity is their ancient ori-
gin. One sees some of this in the Philippines, for example,
in the frequent references to the native psychological
knowledge associated with indigenous religions and heal-
ers (e.g., Enriquez, 1994b, p. 26-27). On the other hand,
Enriquez (1994a) has been explicit about the need to
revalidate such indigenous knowledge.
Pe-Pua and Protacio-Marcelino (2000) noted that some
Filipino scholars have questioned the scientic nature of
SP because of its phenomenological orientation and the
uncertain objectivity, reliability, and validity of its indige-
nous methods, but argued that SP has mechanisms in
place to ensure that the tenets of scientic endeavor are
upheld (p. 65). One serious threat to the scientic objec-
tivity of SP may be the substantial inuence of sociopolit-
ical factors in the selection and interpretation of
indigenous concepts and methods. Indeed, one can ques-
tion the compatibility or necessity of the explicit socio-
political thrust of SP in developing a scientic and
objective indigenous psychology, at least in the long-term.
To concerns about lack of objectivity, Enriquez (1994b, p.
49) countered that the SP philosophy of science is actually
more demanding than its Western counterpart, because it
not only requires empirical demonstration of katatagan
(replicability and reliability) and katapatan (multiple oper-
ationism and validity) but also requires that the results be
authentic (patunay; e.g., experientially valid), afrmed by
participants, and attested to by concerned nonparticipant s
(i.e., patotoo). Experiential validity has been applied in a
few studies in which Filipino researchers sought to experi-
ence rst-hand various spiritual, psychic, or paranormal
phenomena under investigation (Talisayon, 1994). In addi-
tion, researchers have occasionally arranged for their nd-
ings to be afrmed by research participants or attested to
by concerned nonparticipants (e.g., Elman & Pioquinto,
1997). However, the multiple validation criteria advocated
by Enriquez (1994b) have probably never been applied in a
single study.
Insularity
Sinha (1997, p. 159) reminds us that the goal of indige-
nization is not parochialism in psychology, but the devel-
opment of appropriate psychology. Parochialism or
insularity can take the form of extreme cultural relativism,
indiscriminate rejection of Western psychology, the prolif-
eration of indigenous psychologies at the expense of
efforts to develop a universal psychology, and resistance to
external stimulation and perspectives (Ho, 1998; Sinha,
1997).
Insularity can be seen in the views of some SP propo-
nents. A milder form of insularity, and perhaps legitimate
at some point in the research process, is the suggestion by
some that previous (mostly Western) literature and models
be ignored when studying an indigenous phenomena, at
least until after the data have been collected and inter-
preted, so as not to be biased by Western perspectives
(Torres, 1982).
A more consequential form of insularity is the insistence
by some authors that only native languages be used to dis-
seminate SP ideas and research (e.g., Javier, 1996; Salazar,
1991). We have noted the importance of the native lan-
guages for indigenous psychology. However, proponents of
the Filipino-only view go further by criticizing those who
publish their research in the English language.
Salazar (1991) has raised an important point in empha-
sizing the need for Filipinos to evolve their own internal or
insider perspective (pantayong pananaw), which is
achieved, in part, by (1) communicating in the Filipino
language; and (2) avoiding the goal or tendency to explain
Filipino behaviour or psychology to those outside the cul-
ture (e.g., to Western social scientists) using the English
language. Accordingly, Javier (1996) noted with dismay the
increasing tendencies in the 1990s to get away from the
exclusive use of Filipino in SP writings and to publish SP
works in English, in part, for a foreign audience. One of
Javiers concerns is apparently that SP proponents are now
communicating results outside the Filipino psychological
community without rst obtaining greater understanding
of Filipino psychology within the community. He is also
critical of Filipino social scientists who have gone
abroadand are thus no longer insidersbut now pub-
lish articles in an outsiders language such as English to be
read by those inside the Philippines.
A major dilemma, of course, for indigenous psychology
movements is how to evolve an independent psychology
without the risks and costs of insularity. Both De Raedt
(1982) and Rood (1985), for example, noted that exclusive
use of Filipino will probably be harmful in the long run
because it will exclude the perspectives of social scientists
who are more distant from the culture. They argued that a
combination of insider and outsider perspectives is opti-
mal in avoiding metatheoretical biases. An insular SP may
also become scientically inefcient, if not misleading, by
(1) ignoring or rejecting aspects of imported psychologies
that might be applicable in the Philippines; (2) reinvent-
ing theories or repeating mistakes already made else-
where; or (3) overstating the cultural specicity of
concepts or methods that may be universal.
To these risks to SP itself, we can add the costs to the
international community of an insular SP. Filipino psy-
chologists have been among the leaders in the development
of indigenous concepts and methods and psychologists
elsewhere can benet if they are easily able to remain
informed about Philippine developments. It also seems
contrary to the nature of science, where developments are
never nal, to postpone dissemination of SP ideas and
ndings until some undened level of understanding
about Filipino psychology is achieved among SP insiders.
Another example of insularity is the view that SP should
encompass only native Filipinos residing in the
Philippines, excluding, for example, Filipino-Americans
(Javier, 1996; Salazar, 1991; Sta. Maria, 1996, p. 104). The
SP advocacy of research on the Filipino masses also risks
being exclusionary by treating more educated or elite
Filipinos as less worthy of study and as insufcient bearers
of the indigenous culture. Although the focus on the
Filipino masses may be an important corrective to the
oversampling of more educated (and indeed more
Westernized) Filipinos, Filipinos on both sides of the
great cultural divide are representative of Filipinos.
Indeed, some cross-cultural psychologists argue that
comparisons of individuals with different levels of accul-
turation (e.g., Filipino-Americans in America, or elite
Filipinos versus the masses) can be a powerful methodol-
ogy for isolating the cultural variable and learning about
indigenous cultures.
The more insular perspective in SP may be the minority
perspective, however. For example, Enriquez (1994b, p. 44)
rejected the nativistic pantayong pananaw and the exclu-
sion of Filipino-Americans as inward looking and isola-
tionist. Pe-Pua and Protacio-Marcelino (2000) also
expressed a more open view toward inclusion of Filipinos
outside the Philippines archipelago, who do, in fact, share
Filipino culture and identity to varying degrees. In fact,
Enriquez (1994b, p. 4) argued that one purpose of SP is to
strengthen and develop awareness of Filipino cultural
heritage and indigenous identity among expatriate
Filipinos.
7
Enriquezs (1979) cross-indigenous approach
7
For a review of Sikolohiyang Pilipino developments in the
United States, see Strobel (1998).
is also explicitly noninsular, as are attempts to relate
indigenous and imported personality and intellectual
dimensions in the Philippines (Church et al., 1985;
Katigbak et al., 2002).
Limitations of the research culture
Some of the factors that inhibit the development of
indigenous Filipino psychology are not specic to indige-
nous approaches, but involve the research culture more
generally. Structural constraints include the limited
resources for research, although Bernardo (1997b)
describes the funding situation as improving. Bernardo
(1997b) also referred to the limited research culture in
Philippine psychology.
For example, only a limited number of Filipino psy-
chologists are active researchers, in part because of heavy
teaching or administrative duties and limited demands and
rewards for research, although this, too, is changing at
some universities. Many SP proponents have gone abroad
as migrants or students, reducing the critical mass of SP
researchers, and constituting a kind of SP brain drain of
uncertain long-term impact. In Bernardos (1997b) view,
this small critical mass of researchers, along with some
hesitancy to criticize others work, has limited academic
criticism and exchange and the development of a peer-
review system, both of which could contribute to the reso-
lution of indigenous psychology issues (Sta. Maria, 1996).
Several reviewers have noted that most of the empirical
research is done by students for papers, theses, and disser-
tations, and that little of this research is continued or pub-
lished (Bernardo, 1997b; Sta. Maria, 1996; Ventura, 1985).
Protacio-Marcelino et al. (2000a) noted that the results of
many funded research projects are also not widely dissem-
inated beyond the funding agencies. As a result, Bernardo
(1997b) concluded that publication is not a very good indi-
cator of research activity in the Philippines. Sta. Maria
(1996) expressed the opinion that SP progress has been too
closely tied to organizational activities rather than the
research programmes of individual psychologists or the
psychological community as a whole.
Regarding the research itself, Bernardo (1997b) and Sta.
Maria (1996) both criticized the descriptive, atheoretical,
and nonprogrammatic nature of most studies and
Bernardo concluded that this was equally the case for both
the more traditionally Western and indigenous studies.
Bernardo noted that when theoretical frameworks were
used they were most often imported frameworks, but that
SP researchers were somewhat more likely than other
Filipino psychologists to elaborate on the rationale of
their research methods.
FINAL COMMENTS
Despite the limitations and controversies noted here, we
believe it is reasonable to conclude that Filipino psycholo-
gists are among the leaders in the development of indige-
nous psychologies. Pe-Pua and Protacio-Marcelino (2000)
also concluded that SP is alive and well several years
after the death of its foremost intellectual leader, Virgilio
G. Enriquez. Loubser (1985) argued that to indigenize a
social science the following must be accomplished: (1) der-
ivation of indigenous theories, concepts, and methods; (2)
research based on local needs; (3) development of own
teaching and training materials; (4) recruitment and train-
ing of own nationals as members; (5) incentives for schol-
ars to stay in the country and to publish in national
journals; and (6) provision of indigenous sources of sup-
port. Our review indicates considerable progress in most of
these areas, with greatest progress being made in the elab-
oration of indigenous concepts and methods and in topi-
cal and institutional indigenization.
Among the most pressing needs that remain are the fol-
lowing: (1) formulation of indigenous theory, allowing
greater integration of the growing database; (2) objective
consideration, informed by empirical data, of the central-
ity and meaning of indigenous constructs; (3) continuing
development and validation of indigenous measures; (4)
systematic investigation of the comparative and conver-
gent validity of various indigenous and imported research
methods; (5) institutional /structural improvements leading
to growth and stability of the indigenous research culture;
(6) maintenance of an appropriate balance between the
pursuit of an independent psychology and the avoidance
of insularity; and, eventually, (7) increased efforts to relate
indigenous elements to those in other cultures, as part of a
cross-indigenous approach toward a universal psychology.
These recommendations, and other issues discussed in
this article, might serve as a useful guide for indigenization
efforts in other cultures as well. In particular, we would
like to conclude by highlighting what we believe to be some
of the most important implications for indigenization
efforts that follow from the Philippine experience.
First, the Philippine experience, which is corroborated
by reports on indigenization efforts in other Asian cultures
(Kim & Berry, 1993; Sinha, 1997), suggests that indige-
nization will most readily be achieved with respect to psy-
chological concepts and the topics studied (i.e., conceptual
and topical indigenization) . The development of indige-
nous theory has proven more difcult and may await
further elaboration of the conceptual and empirical rela-
tionships among indigenous constructs. The development
of culture-relevant research methods is a unique contribu-
tion of the SP movement to indigenous and mainstream
psychology and it would be quite valuable for indigenous
psychologists elsewhere to examine the applicability of
these methods in their cultures.
Second, the Philippine case may provide an example of
a more general process or stage-like sequence in the devel-
opment of indigenous psychologies. Enriquez (1994b) pro-
posed a phase model depicting the process by which
indigenous Philippine psychology could liberate itself
from the domination of Western psychology. It would be
worthwhile for psychologists elsewhere to search for
commonalities in the emergence of indigenous psycholo-
gies to determine whether a general stage model can be
formulated. At least in general outline, current models of
racial/ethnic identity development may have heuristic
value in formulating such models. Indeed, it might not be
surprising if there were parallels between the process of
developing a self-actualized racial/ethnic identity in the
face of majority culture domination and the process of
developing an indigenous psychological identity in the face
of Western scientic domination.
For example, Crosss (1971) stage model of racial iden-
tity development, when adapted for this purpose, might
suggest stages such as the following: (1) pre-encounter: A
stage in which Western psychology is uncritically accepted
and practised, and potential indigenous elements are
denied or marginalized; this stage would probably encom-
pass the Denial and Withdrawal , Destruction and
Desecration, and Denigration and Marginalization phase
of cultural domination outlined by Enriquez (1994b); (2)
encounter: A state in which dissonant experiences with
Western psychological elements lead to the realization that
Western elements may not be entirely appropriate,
followed by an initial search for more indigenous elements
through limited adaptation of imported models, concepts,
and measures; this stage might overlap with the Re-
denition and Token Utilization, Transformation and
Mainstreaming, and Commercialization and Com-
modication phases described by Enriquez (1994b); (3)
immersion-emersion: A stage characterized by energetic
efforts to construct truly indigenous psychological ele-
ments, concomitant with an uncritical rejection of Western
psychological elements; within this stage there might be a
typical order in which indigenous concepts, methods, and
theories emerge; this stage would encompass much of what
Enriquez (1994b) described as phases of Decolonization,
Counterdomination, and Empowerment; and (4) internal-
ization: A stage characterized by condence, security,
and nondefensiveness regarding established indigenous
elements, plus an increased or renewed openness to the
blending of Western elements that may be culturally rele-
vant; Enriquez (1994b) does not describe a corresponding
phase, but he has warned against the dangers of uncritical
rejection of imported psychological elements. Such stages
might be useful in describing (1) the predominant stage of
indigenous psychology within a culture as a whole, and (2)
the varied stages or statuses of individual psychologists
within these cultures.
Third, the Philippine experience has implications for the
relative potential of culture-as-source (indigenous) versus
culture-as-target (i.e., adaptation of imported elements)
approaches in the development of an indigenized and
culturally appropriate psychology. Although both
approaches have value, it is unlikely that the full range of
indigenous concepts, methods, and measures that have
been formulated in Filipino psychology would have
emerged without the direct indigenous approaches advo-
cated by SP proponents. We expect that this will be the
case in other cultures as well. In addition, the combined
emic-etic approach always risks being overdetermined by
imported elementsperhaps because they are further
along than indigenous elements in development and
replication. In the cross-indigenous approach advocated
by Enriquez (1979), however, cross-cultural integration
can be delayed until indigenous elements are on a more
equal footing.
Finally, the Philippine experience highlights one of the
central dilemmas that must be addressed in the develop-
ment of indigenous psychologies in all cultures: How does
one evolve an independent and appropriate psychology
while avoiding the risks of parochialism or insularity?
Although this is a serious issue for consideration, we sus-
pect that this dilemma may solve itself in each culture as
researchers with an indigenous focus continue to identify
and apply indigenous concepts and methods, while others,
including culture-comparative psychologists, simultane-
ously pursue the challenging task of integrating indige-
nous and imported elements. This implies that a diversity
of approaches along the emic-etic continuum is to be val-
ued, rather than discouraged or denigrated. Indeed, the
eventual integration of well-established indigenous ele-
ments and well-adapted imported elements can be viewed
as the ultimate goal of indigenous psychologies.
Manuscript received August 2000
Revised manuscript received October 2001
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