1

ME 8343
Convection
T. W. Simon
INTERNAL FLOWS
Fully Developed Flow Inside a Circular Tube:
We begin by looking at the entry problem:





Flow entering a pipe may do so in many ways. The most repeatable one (and least sensitive to
external conditions) is a smooth bell-mouth entry where there are no separated flow regions. The
zone of influence of the wall grows while near-wall flow is decelerated and, by continuity, core
flow is accelerated. Eventually, the effect of the wall has spread throughout the tube and, later
yet, there is no further streamwise evolution of profiles of mean and (if turbulent) turbulence
quantities. At this point, we call the flow hydrodynamically fully developed.

Assuming invariant properties, the momentum equation written in cylindrical coordinates is

( ) 0
dx
dp 1
r
u
r
r r
1
r
u
v
x
u
u
M r

,
_

but for the fully developed flow

0
x
u

for all r which leads to

0
r
v
r

and
r
v = 0 if no flow through the tube wall
Since
0
x
u

, u( r, only ) and the momentum equation becomes

( ) 0
dx
dp 1
dr
du
r
dr
d
r
1
M

,
_

+

This has the characteristics of a Couette flow, like the boundary layer, but one where dP/dx is a
constant, negative quantity. In the boundary layer:




constant negative slope in the Couette flow region

y

but in the pipe, the Couette flow region extends to the centerline, where, by symmetry, the shear
stress must be zero

0
cl


r
o
r r=0
0
0

1
0
1
0

2

We can use the Prandtl mixing length relationship and find the law of the wall for a tube:
We can write the law of the wall to be
u
+
= 2.5 ln y
+
+ 5.5 where y = r
o
-r
Outside of the near-wall flow, the mixing length no longer scales on the distance from the wall.
Choices are: (1) Constant mixing length and (2) Constant eddy diffusivity. The second has been
empirically shown to be better. Hinze (p. 730 of 2
nd
ed.) reports the following dimensionless
mixing length distribution based on data from Laufer:


D u
2
M

0.07
cl


( )
D
r r 2
0


accepting that this dimensionless group is a constant in the core:
D u
2
M

= C,
2
C
Re
2
C
V
u
Re
2
C
2
D Cu
f
D D
M

, V= bulk mean velocity, we find that
C=0.07 fits the data well.
If we want to see values of

M
we can jump ahead a bit and use the relationship,

2 . 0
D
f
Re 023 . 0
2
C

, to get:
1 . 0
D D
M
Re 023 . 0 Re 035 . 0

9 . 0
D
M
Re 005 . 0

Solving
D
Re

M

2000 4.7
10,000 20
1x10
5 158

Derivation of the fully developed skin friction coefficient relationship:
First, computing the bulk mean velocity

o o
r
0
2
o
r
0
2
o
dr ur
r
2
dr
r
ru 2
V
the mass flow rate is given as
( ) V r m
2
o
&

We can assume the following shape for the mean velocity profile
u
+
= 8.6 y
+1/7
actually, this is best for Re
D
10
5

According to Hinze (p. 723 of 2nd ed.), Nunner found that n varies as:
f
C 4
n
1
jumping ahead and using an equation we are about to derive:
2 . 0
D
f
Re 023 . 0
2
C


yields: n Re
D

10
4
5.8
10
5
7
10
6
9
1
0
0

3
using the 1/7
th
profile; u
+
= 8.6 y
+1/7
, and applying it to the center u
c
+
= 8.6 y
c
+1/7

dividing
7
1
0 c
r
y
u
u

,
_

substitute into the bulk mean velocity

( )

0
r
0
7
1
0
7
1
o
2
0 c
dr r
r
r r
r
2
u
V
substitute r
o
-r = ; dr = -d and r
o
- = r

( )

0
r
0
7
1
0
7
1
2
0 c
0
d r
r
r
2
u
V


817 . 0
15
14
18
14


using the above u
+
, y
+
expression

7
1
0 c
u r
6 . 8
u
u

,
_

substituting
2
C
V u
f
0

7
1
f
0
f
c 2
C
V r
6 . 8
2
C
V
u

,
_

Solving for Cf/2

( )
14
8
f
7
1
7
1
1
2
C
VD
2
1
6 . 8
817 . 0

,
_

,
_

,
_

,
( ) ( )
4
1
D
8
14
f
Re 157 . 0
2
C

( )
4
1
D
f
Re 0392 . 0
2
C

5
D
10 Re

This equation is similar to several others in the literature:
Blasius
( )
4
1
D
f
Re 039 . 0
2
C

Karman-Nikuradse
( )
2 . 0
D
f
Re 023 . 0
2
C

Another approach is to derive the Karman - Nikuradse equation from the log law
u
+
= 2.5 ln y
+
+ 5.5
extending to the tube centerline u
c
+
= 2.5 ln y
c
+
+ 5.5

5 . 5
2
2
C
Re
n 5 . 2
2
C
V
u
f
D
f
c
+

,
_

l


2
2
C
Re
2
C
V r
y
f
D
f
0
c

+

2
C
V
u
u
u
u
f
c c
c

+


4
or
1
1
1
]
1

'

5 . 5
2
2
C
Re
n 5 . 2
u
V
2
C
1
f
D
c f
l
substitute the log profile into the definition of the bulk mean velocity (we want to get V/u
c
):
5 . 5
2
C
yV
n 5 . 2
2
C
V
u
f
f
+

'

l

5 . 5
2
2
C
Re
n 5 . 2
5 . 5
2
C
yV
n 5 . 2
u
u
f
D
f
c
+

'

'

l
l

5 . 5
2
2
C
Re
n 5 . 2
y 2
D
n 5 . 2
u
u u
f
D
c
c
+

'

'

l
l

( )

,
_

'

+
2
0 0
r
0
2
0
f
D
2
0
r
0
c
2
0 c
dr
r r 2
D
n
5 . 5
2
2
C
Re
n 5 . 2
1
r
2
5
1 dr r
u
u
r
2
u
V
l
l


( )
5 . 5
2
2
C
Re
n 5 . 2
5 . 2
2
3
1
u
V
f
D
c
+

'

l

substitute back in
15 . 0
2
2
C
Re
n 5 . 2
2
C
1
f
D
f
+

'

l

The Karmann - Nikuradse equation is a modest modification on this
30 . 0
2
2
C
Re
n 5 . 2
2
C
1
f
D
f
+

'

l
to fit data, Re
D
< several x10
6
.
An approximation fit to this is
2 . 0
D
f
Re 023 . 0
2
C

for 3x10
4
< Re
D
< 10
6
.
This is within 2% of the Karman - Nikuradse equation.


5
Heat Transfer -- Fully Developed Flow in a Circular Tube

The turbulent entry length is much shorter than for laminar flows-- approximately 15 diameters
(when the Prandtl number is about one, but extends as the Pr decreases).

The fully developed, uniform-heat-flux solution has Nu values which are only approximately 3%
higher than the uniform temperature solution values (except for low Pr fluids).

The turbulent Nu is not very sensitive to varying wall temperature boundary conditions. In
design work, the uniform wall temperature is often used for varying wall temperature problems
(except for low Pr fluids).

An approximate solution when Pr is about 1.0 is now developed:
For Couette flow:
0 0
r
r

assume the same for heat transfer:
0 0
r
r
q
q

&
&
(approximately)
for the external boundary layer, the relationship was found to be:

( ) 9 . 0 16 . 10 Pr 2 . 13
2
C
2
C
St
e
f
e
f
e
+

,
_

,
_

We will use this relationship to derive a similar one for a tube. Assume that the "e" location is
now the tube centerline. For the tube, we wish to base Cf/2 and St on the bulk velocity.

0
r
0
2
0
dr ur
r
2
V
; ( )

0
r
0
0 2
0
0 m
dr t t ur
Vr
2
t t

use the 1/7 th power relationship:

817 . 0
u
V
c

;
833 . 0
t t
t t
0 c
0 m

( )
2
2
0
2
c
0
e
f
817 . 0
V u
2
C

,
_

( )
( )( )
( ) Vc t t
817 . 0 833 . 0 q
c u t t
q
c u
h
St
0 m c 0 c c
e

& &
= ( )( ) 817 . 0 833 . 0 St
substitute into the boundary layer expression
( )( )
( )
( )( ) 9 . 0 16 . 10 Pr 2 . 13 817 . 0
2
C
817 . 0
2
C
817 . 0 833 . 0 St
f
2
f
+

or
( ) 92 . 0 46 . 8 Pr 9 . 10
2
C
2
C
St
f
f
+

insert
2 . 0
D
f
Re 023 . 0
2
C

6

( ) 92 . 0 46 . 8 Pr 9 . 10 Re 152 . 0
Re 023 . 0
St
1 . 0
D
2 . 0
D
+

Since Nu is usually used for internal flows and Nu = St Re Pr

( ) 92 . 0 46 . 8 Pr 9 . 10 Re 152 . 0
Pr Re 023 . 0
Nu
1 . 0
D
8 . 0
D
+

A good approximation to the denominator is (1.04 Pr
0.4
)

so the expression becomes (interpreting differently for uniform T and uniform
0
q &
boundary
conditions).


6 . 0 8 . 0
D
Pr Re 022 . 0 Nu most suitable for
uniform heat flux
(Laminar: Nu = 4.364)

6 . 0 8 . 0
D
Pr Re 021 . 0 Nu better for uniform
wall temperature
(Laminar: Nu = 3.658)

High-Prandtl Number Solutions (Oils)

The above analysis breaks down in the case of high-Prandtl-number fluids because eddy
diffusivity of heat becomes increasingly more important in the sublayer as Pr . Heat
transfer resistance becomes concentrated in the sublayer. Communication with the local
conditions becomes better;
Roughness becomes more important
Entry length becomes shorter
Solution becomes much less sensitive to varying wall temperature (uniform heat flux)
boundary condition.

As recommended in the text by Kays and Crawford (Eqns. 12-12 & 14-8)

( )

,
_

0 . 1 Pr
2
C
7 . 12 0 . 1
2
C
Pr 1000 Re
Nu
3
2
f
f

30 . 0
2
C
Re n 46 . 2
2
C
1
f
f
+

,
_

l

7
Very Low Prandtl Number Fluids (liquid metals)

Characteristics include:
Very low Nu numbers but high heat transfer coefficients (10 times those of water and 100
times those of air).
Axial conduction can become significant. In laminar or turbulent flow, axial conduction
becomes important when:
Pe = Re Pr < 100
Pe =
k
VDc
p

=
D
k
V c
conduction heat
convection heat
p

Temperature profile approaches laminar-like


parabolic-like

molecular transport is the predominant mechanism
for transporting heat;

>>
H
Pr
1



The Nusselt number is sensitive to wall temperature and
0
q &
variations, as in laminar
flow.
The thermal entry length is long, as in laminar flows.
The turbulent Prandtl number is large-- as previously discussed.
Heat transfer rates are sensitive to impurities, which affect wetting, and near-wall
conditions.

Note that for low Pr numbers, Nu vs Re curves for low Re cases approach Nu number values that
are higher than laminar values. This is because of the fuller, turbulent velocity profile.

An empirical equation for low-Pr fluids is (Ref.: Kays and Crawford, Eqn. 14-10):


93 . 0 85 . 0
Pr Re 0167 . 0 3 . 6 Nu +

cl r 0
0 c
0
c
t t
t t
u
u

t
u

8
A Review of "Turbulent Heat Transfer in the Thermal Entrance Region of a Pipe with Uniform
Heat Flux" by Sparrow, Hallman and Siegel, Appl. Sci. Res., Sec. A, Vol 7, pp37-52, 1957.

In this paper, a cylindrical geometry is assumed and the developing thermal problem in a flow
that is hydrodynamically fully developed is solved. One conclusion drawn is that the thermal
entry length for Pr = 0.7 fluid is 10 diameters, shrinking to one diameter for Pr = 100 fluid.

For fully-developed flow, constant properties, negligible viscous dissipation and negligible axial
diffusion (molecular and eddy), the energy equation becomes:



With boundary conditions:



This equation is first nondimensionalized by

(note, not scaled on wall
variables)



(scaled on wall variables)

Their feeling is that, for 0.7<Pr<100, their range of interest, they can impose Reynolds analogy:
They state that "current knowledge of
e
H
and e
M
is uncertain"

Next, the temperature profiles are decomposed into the fully-developed profile,
and the remainder, . The problem is now divided into two.

The Fully-developed Profile:

The equation to solve becomes:


where, by energy balance,




or a defining eqn. for


The magnitude of G is arbitraty, the shape is not, however.
is found by solving the o.d.e.


9
with the boundary conditions







which is consistent with is assumed to be given.

The solution requires a turbulence model. The distribution given is (where y
+
= r
o
+
-r
+
)











if




Compare with the van Driest model


and the core model from class


y
+
y/r
o
{g(y
+
) - 1/Pr} e
M
/n








Re
D
= 10
5


The o.d.e. for G( r
+
) was solved numerically to get G( r
+
). Begin integration with


10
dG = 0 d
2
G = from Eqn.
dr
+
dr
+2


integrate using the equation until r
+
= r
o
+
. The wall boundary condition:

dG = 1 will be met.
dr
+
r
o
+


Now solve the entry problem. The equation to be solved is:


with




The total, q, fully-developed, q
1
, and difference, q
2
, profiles look like those shown below:







Entry Near Fully-developed

First, use separation of variables


after separation, the X equation becomes a first order o.d.e. with the solution:

where b is the separation
variable.

The R equation is second-order and of the Sturm-Liouville form:




Solutions which meet the boundary conditions on R are found only for discrete values of b ( call
them b
n
-- the eigenvalues ). Each eigenvalue will give a different o.d.e., the solution of which
is R
n
( r
+
), (called the eigensolutions). Recombining the separate solutions




11
Next the Cns must be found to match the initial condition on q
2
. Using the mathematical
developments for the general Sturm-Liouville form:




which is evaluated numerically. The complete solution is then:



we wish to calculate the Nusselt number, however. Using





and

substituting




and



where

The authors tabulate A
n
and b
n
for various values of Pr and Re
D
. They also show plots for
selected Pr, Re
D
, sets. These tables and plots are below.