Simulated view of a black hole (center) in front of

the Large Magellanic Cloud. Note the gravitational

lensing effect, which produces two enlarged but
highl distorted views of the Cloud. !cross the top,
the Milk "a disk appears distorted into an arc.
Black hole
#rom "ikipedia, the free encclopedia
! black hole is a region of spacetime where gravit
prevents anthing, including light, from escaping.
$%&
'he
theor of general relativit predicts that a sufficientl
compact mass will deform spacetime to form a black
hole. !round a black hole there is a mathematicall
defined surface called an event hori(on that marks the
point of no return. )t is called *black* because it absorbs
all the light that hits the hori(on, reflecting nothing, +ust
like a perfect black bod in thermodnamics.
$,&$-&
.uantum mechanics predicts that black holes emit
radiation like a black bod with a finite temperature.
'his temperature is inversel proportional to the mass of
the black hole, making it difficult to observe this
radiation for black holes of stellar mass or greater.
/b+ects whose gravit field is too strong for light to
escape were first considered in the %0th centur b 1ohn
Michell and 2ierre3Simon Laplace. 'he first modern
solution of general relativit that would characteri(e a
black hole was found b 4arl Schwar(schild in %5%6,
although its interpretation as a region of space from which nothing can escape was not full appreciated for
another four decades. Long considered a mathematical curiosit, it was during the %567s that theoretical work
showed black holes were a generic prediction of general relativit. 'he discover of neutron stars sparked
interest in gravitationall collapsed compact ob+ects as a possible astrophsical realit.
8lack holes of stellar mass are e9pected to form when ver massive stars collapse at the end of their life ccle.
!fter a black hole has formed it can continue to grow b absorbing mass from its surroundings. 8 absorbing
other stars and merging with other black holes, supermassive black holes of millions of solar masses ma form.
'here is general consensus that supermassive black holes e9ist in the centers of most gala9ies.
:espite its invisible interior, the presence of a black hole can be inferred through its interaction with other matter
and with light and other electromagnetic radiation. Matter falling onto a black hole can form an accretion disk
heated b friction, forming some of the brightest ob+ects in the universe. )f there are other stars orbiting a black
hole, their orbit can be used to determine its mass and location. 'hese data can be used to e9clude possible
alternatives (such as neutron stars). )n this wa, astronomers have identified numerous stellar black hole
candidates in binar sstems, and established that the core of our Milk "a gala9 contains a supermassive
black hole of about ;.- million solar masses.
Contents
% <istor
%.% =eneral relativit
%., =olden age
, 2roperties and structure
,.% 2hsical properties
,., >vent hori(on
Simulation of gravitational lensing b a
black hole, which distorts the image of a
gala9 in the background (larger
animation)
,.- Singularit
,.; 2hoton sphere
,.? >rgosphere
- #ormation and evolution
-.% =ravitational collapse
-., <igh3energ collisions
-.- =rowth
-.; >vaporation
; /bservational evidence
;.% !ccretion of matter
;., @3ra binaries
;.- =alactic nuclei
;.; >ffects of strong gravit
;.? !lternatives
? /pen Auestions
?.% >ntrop and thermodnamics
?., )nformation loss parado9
6 See also
B Notes
0 Ceferences
5 #urther reading
%7 >9ternal links
History
'he idea of a bod so massive that even light could not escape
was first put forward b geologist 1ohn Michell in a letter written
to <enr Cavendish in %B0- of the Coal SocietD
)f the semi3diameter of a sphere of the same densit as the
Sun were to e9ceed that of the Sun in the proportion of ?77
to %, a bod falling from an infinite height towards it would
have acAuired at its surface greater velocit than that of
light, and conseAuentl supposing light to be attracted b
the same force in proportion to its vis inertiae, with other
bodies, all light emitted from such a bod would be made to
return towards it b its own proper gravit.
E1ohn Michell
$;&
)n %B56, mathematician 2ierre3Simon Laplace promoted the same
idea in the first and second editions of his book Exposition du
systme du Monde (it was removed from later editions).
$?&$6&
Such *dark stars* were largel ignored in the
nineteenth centur, since it was not understood how a massless wave such as light could be influenced b
gravit.
$B&
General relativity
)n %5%?, !lbert >instein developed his theor of general relativit, having earlier shown that gravit does
influence lightFs motion. /nl a few months later, 4arl Schwar(schild found a solution to >instein field eAuations,
which describes the gravitational field of a point mass and a spherical mass.
$0&
! few months after
Schwar(schild, 1ohannes :roste, a student of <endrik Lorent(, independentl gave the same solution for the
point mass and wrote more e9tensivel about its properties.
$5&$%7&
'his solution had a peculiar behaviour at what
is now called the Schwar(schild radius, where it became singular, meaning that some of the terms in the >instein
eAuations became infinite. 'he nature of this surface was not Auite understood at the time. )n %5,;, !rthur
>ddington showed that the singularit disappeared after a change of coordinates (see >ddingtonG#inkelstein
coordinates), although it took until %5-- for =eorges LemaHtre to reali(e that this meant the singularit at the
Schwar(schild radius was an unphsical coordinate singularit.
$%%&
)n %5-%, Subrahmanan Chandrasekhar calculated, using special relativit, that a non3rotating bod of electron3
degenerate matter above a certain limiting mass (now called the Chandrasekhar limit at %.; solar masses) has no
stable solutions.
$%,&
<is arguments were opposed b man of his contemporaries like >ddington and Lev
Landau, who argued that some et unknown mechanism would stop the collapse.
$%-&
'he were partl correctD
a white dwarf slightl more massive than the Chandrasekhar limit will collapse into a neutron star,
$%;&
which is
itself stable because of the 2auli e9clusion principle. 8ut in %5-5, Cobert /ppenheimer and others predicted
that neutron stars above appro9imatel three solar masses (the 'olmanG/ppenheimerGIolkoff limit) would
collapse into black holes for the reasons presented b Chandrasekhar, and concluded that no law of phsics
was likel to intervene and stop at least some stars from collapsing to black holes.
$%?&
/ppenheimer and his co3authors interpreted the singularit at the boundar of the Schwar(schild radius as
indicating that this was the boundar of a bubble in which time stopped. 'his is a valid point of view for e9ternal
observers, but not for infalling observers. 8ecause of this propert, the collapsed stars were called *fro(en
stars,*
$%6&
because an outside observer would see the surface of the star fro(en in time at the instant where its
collapse takes it inside the Schwar(schild radius.
Golden age
See also: Golden age of general relativity
)n %5?0, :avid #inkelstein identified the Schwar(schild surface as an event hori(on, *a perfect unidirectional
membraneD causal influences can cross it in onl one direction*.
$%B&
'his did not strictl contradict /ppenheimerFs
results, but e9tended them to include the point of view of infalling observers. #inkelsteinFs solution e9tended the
Schwar(schild solution for the future of observers falling into a black hole. ! complete e9tension had alread
been found b Martin 4ruskal, who was urged to publish it.
$%0&
'hese results came at the beginning of the golden age of general relativit, which was marked b general
relativit and black holes becoming mainstream sub+ects of research. 'his process was helped b the discover
of pulsars in %56B,
$%5&$,7&
which, b %565, were shown to be rapidl rotating neutron stars.
$,%&
Jntil that time,
neutron stars, like black holes, were regarded as +ust theoretical curiositiesK but the discover of pulsars showed
their phsical relevance and spurred a further interest in all tpes of compact ob+ects that might be formed b
gravitational collapse.
)n this period more general black hole solutions were found. )n %56-, Co 4err found the e9act solution for a
rotating black hole. 'wo ears later, >(ra Newman found the a9ismmetric solution for a black hole that is both
rotating and electricall charged.
$,,&
'hrough the work of "erner )srael,
$,-&
8randon Carter,
$,;&$,?&
and :avid
Cobinson
$,6&
the no3hair theorem emerged, stating that a stationar black hole solution is completel described
b the three parameters of the 4errGNewman metricK mass, angular momentum, and electric charge.
$,B&
!t first, it was suspected that the strange features of the black hole solutions were pathological artifacts from the
smmetr conditions imposed, and that the singularities would not appear in generic situations. 'his view was
held in particular b Iladimir 8elinsk, )saak 4halatnikov, and >vgen Lifshit(, who tried to prove that no
singularities appear in generic solutions. <owever, in the late si9ties Coger 2enrose
$,0&
and Stephen <awking
used global techniAues to prove that singularities appear genericall.
$,5&
"ork b 1ames 8ardeen, 1acob 8ekenstein, Carter, and <awking in the earl %5B7s led to the formulation of
black hole thermodnamics.
$-7&
'hese laws describe the behaviour of a black hole in close analog to the laws
of thermodnamics b relating mass to energ, area to entrop, and surface gravit to temperature. 'he analog
was completed when <awking, in %5B;, showed that Auantum field theor predicts that black holes should
radiate like a black bod with a temperature proportional to the surface gravit of the black hole.
$-%&
'he term *black hole* was first publicl used b 1ohn "heeler during a lecture in %56B. !lthough he is usuall
credited with coining the phrase, he alwas insisted that it was suggested to him b somebod else. 'he first
recorded use of the term is in a %56; letter b !nne >wing to the !merican !ssociation for the !dvancement of
Science.
$-,&
!fter "heelerFs use of the term, it was Auickl adopted in general use.
Properties and structure
'he no3hair theorem states that, once it achieves a stable condition after formation, a black hole has onl three
independent phsical propertiesD mass, charge, and angular momentum.
$,B&
!n two black holes that share the
same values for these properties, or parameters, are indistinguishable according to classical (i.e. non3Auantum)
mechanics.
'hese properties are special because the are visible from outside a black hole. #or e9ample, a charged black
hole repels other like charges +ust like an other charged ob+ect. Similarl, the total mass inside a sphere
containing a black hole can be found b using the gravitational analog of =aussFs law, the !:M mass, far awa
from the black hole.
$--&
Likewise, the angular momentum can be measured from far awa using frame dragging
b the gravitomagnetic field.
"hen an ob+ect falls into a black hole, an information about the shape of the ob+ect or distribution of charge on
it is evenl distributed along the hori(on of the black hole, and is lost to outside observers. 'he behavior of the
hori(on in this situation is a dissipative sstem that is closel analogous to that of a conductive stretch
membrane with friction and electrical resistanceEthe membrane paradigm.
$-;&
'his is different from other field
theories like electromagnetism, which do not have an friction or resistivit at the microscopic level, because
the are time3reversible. 8ecause a black hole eventuall achieves a stable state with onl three parameters,
there is no wa to avoid losing information about the initial conditionsD the gravitational and electric fields of a
black hole give ver little information about what went in. 'he information that is lost includes ever Auantit that
cannot be measured far awa from the black hole hori(on, including appro9imatel conserved Auantum numbers
such as the total baron number and lepton number. 'his behavior is so pu((ling that it has been called the black
hole information loss parado9.
$-?&$-6&
Physical properties
'he simplest black holes have mass but neither electric charge nor angular momentum. 'hese black holes are
often referred to as Schwar(schild black holes after 4arl Schwar(schild who discovered this solution in %5%6.
$0&
!ccording to 8irkhoffFs theorem, it is the onl vacuum solution that is sphericall smmetric.
$-B&
'his means that
there is no observable difference between the gravitational field of such a black hole and that of an other
spherical ob+ect of the same mass. 'he popular notion of a black hole *sucking in everthing* in its surroundings
is therefore onl correct near a black holeFs hori(onK far awa, the e9ternal gravitational field is identical to that
Black hole classifications
Class Mass Size
Supermassive black hole L%7
?
G%7
5
M
Sun
L7.77%G%7 !J
)ntermediate3mass black hole L%7
-
M
Sun
L%7
-
km M R
>arth
Stellar black hole L%7 M
Sun
L-7 km
Micro black hole up to LM
Moon
up to L7.% mm
#ar awa from the black hole a particle can move in an direction, as
illustrated b the set of arrows. )t is onl restricted b the speed of
light.
of an other bod of the same mass.
$-0&
Solutions describing more general black holes also e9ist. Charged black holes are described b the CeissnerG
NordstrNm metric, while the 4err metric describes a rotating black hole. 'he most general stationar black hole
solution known is the 4errGNewman metric, which describes a black hole with both charge and angular
momentum.
$-5&
"hile the mass of a black hole can take an positive value, the charge and angular momentum are constrained
b the mass. )n 2lanck units, the total electric charge Q and the total angular momentum J are e9pected to
satisf
for a black hole of mass M. 8lack holes saturating this ineAualit are called e9tremal. Solutions of >insteinFs
eAuations that violate this ineAualit e9ist, but the do not possess an event hori(on. 'hese solutions have so3
called naked singularities that can be observed from the outside, and hence are deemed unphysical. 'he cosmic
censorship hpothesis rules out the formation of such singularities, when the are created through the
gravitational collapse of realistic matter.
$;7&
'his is supported b numerical simulations.
$;%&
:ue to the relativel large strength of the electromagnetic force, black holes forming from the collapse of stars
are e9pected to retain the nearl neutral charge of the star. Cotation, however, is e9pected to be a common
feature of compact ob+ects. 'he black3hole candidate binar @3ra source =CS %5%?O%7?
$;,&
appears to have
an angular momentum near the ma9imum allowed value.
8lack holes are commonl classified
according to their mass, independent of
angular momentum J or electric charge
Q. 'he si(e of a black hole, as
determined b the radius of the event
hori(on, or Schwar(schild radius, is
roughl proportional to the mass M
through
where r
sh
is the Schwar(schild radius and M
Sun
is the mass of the Sun.
$;-&
'his relation is e9act onl for black
holes with (ero charge and angular momentumK for more general black holes it can differ up to a factor of ,.
Event horizon
Main article: Event horizon
'he defining feature of a black hole is
the appearance of an event hori(onEa
boundar in spacetime through which
matter and light can onl pass inward
towards the mass of the black hole.
Nothing, not even light, can escape from
inside the event hori(on. 'he event
hori(on is referred to as such because if
light.
Closer to the black hole spacetime starts to deform. 'here are more
paths going towards the black hole than paths moving awa.
$Not e %&
)nside of the event hori(on all paths bring the particle closer to the
center of the black hole. )t is no longer possible for the particle to
escape.
hori(on is referred to as such because if
an event occurs within the boundar,
information from that event cannot reach
an outside observer, making it
impossible to determine if such an event
occurred.
$;?&
!s predicted b general relativit, the
presence of a mass deforms spacetime
in such a wa that the paths taken b
particles bend towards the mass.
$;6&
!t
the event hori(on of a black hole, this
deformation becomes so strong that
there are no paths that lead awa from
the black hole.
'o a distant observer, clocks near a
black hole appear to tick more slowl
than those further awa from the black
hole.
$;B&
:ue to this effect, known as
gravitational time dilation, an ob+ect
falling into a black hole appears to slow down as it approaches the event hori(on, taking an infinite time to reach
it.
$;0&
!t the same time, all processes on this ob+ect slow down causing emitted light to appear redder and
dimmer, an effect known as gravitational redshift.
$;5&
>ventuall, at a point +ust before it reaches the event
hori(on, the falling ob+ect becomes so dim that it can no longer be seen.
/n the other hand, an observer falling into a black hole does not notice an of these effects as he crosses the
event hori(on. !ccording to his own clock, he crosses the event hori(on after a finite time, although he is unable
to determine e9actl when he crosses it, as it is impossible to determine the location of the event hori(on from
local observations.
$?7&
'he shape of the event hori(on of a black hole is alwas appro9imatel spherical.
$Note ,&$?-&
#or non3rotating
(static) black holes the geometr is precisel spherical, while for rotating black holes the sphere is somewhat
oblate.
Singularity
Main article: Gravitational singularity
!t the center of a black hole as described b general relativit lies a gravitational singularit, a region where the
spacetime curvature becomes infinite.
$?;&
#or a non3rotating black hole, this region takes the shape of a single
point and for a rotating black hole, it is smeared out to form a ring singularit ling in the plane of rotation.
$??&
)n
both cases, the singular region has (ero volume. )t can also be shown that the singular region contains all the
mass of the black hole solution.
$?6&
'he singular region can thus be thought of as having infinite densit.
/bservers falling into a Schwar(schild black hole (i.e. non3rotating and no charges) cannot avoid being carried
into the singularit, once the cross the event hori(on. 'he can prolong the e9perience b accelerating awa to
slow their descent, but onl up to a pointK after attaining a certain ideal velocit, it is best to free fall the rest of
the wa.
$?B&
"hen the reach the singularit, the are crushed to infinite densit and their mass is added to the
total of the black hole. 8efore that happens, the will have been torn apart b the growing tidal forces in a
process sometimes referred to as spaghettification or the *noodle effect*.
$?0&
'he ergosphere is an oblate spheroid
)n the case of a charged (CeissnerGNordstrNm) or rotating (4err) black hole, it is possible to avoid the
singularit. >9tending these solutions as far as possible reveals the hpothetical possibilit of e9iting the black
hole into a different spacetime with the black hole acting as a wormhole.
$?5&
'he possibilit of traveling to
another universe is however onl theoretical, since an perturbation will destro this possibilit.
$67&
)t also
appears to be possible to follow closed timelike curves (going back to oneFs own past) around the 4err
singularit, which lead to problems with causalit like the grandfather parado9.
$6%&
)t is e9pected that none of
these peculiar effects would survive in a proper Auantum mechanical treatment of rotating and charged black
holes.
$6,&
'he appearance of singularities in general relativit is commonl perceived as signaling the breakdown of the
theor.
$6-&
'his breakdown, however, is e9pectedK it occurs in a situation where Auantum mechanical effects
should describe these actions due to the e9tremel high densit and therefore particle interactions. 'o date, it
has not been possible to combine Auantum and gravitational effects into a single theor. )t is generall e9pected
that a theor of Auantum gravit will feature black holes without singularities.
$6;&$6?&
Photon sphere
Main article: hoton sphere
'he photon sphere is a spherical boundar of (ero thickness such that photons moving along tangents to the
sphere will be trapped in a circular orbit. #or non3rotating black holes, the photon sphere has a radius %.? times
the Schwar(schild radius. 'he orbits are dnamicall unstable, hence an small perturbation (such as a particle
of infalling matter) will grow over time, either setting it on an outward tra+ector escaping the black hole or on an
inward spiral eventuall crossing the event hori(on.
$66&
"hile light can still escape from inside the photon sphere, an light that crosses the photon sphere on an inbound
tra+ector will be captured b the black hole. <ence an light reaching an outside observer from inside the
photon sphere must have been emitted b ob+ects inside the photon sphere but still outside of the event
hori(on.
$66&
/ther compact ob+ects, such as neutron stars, can also have photon spheres.
$6B&
'his follows from the fact that
the gravitational field of an ob+ect does not depend on its actual si(e, hence an ob+ect that is smaller than %.?
times the Schwar(schild radius corresponding to its mass will indeed have a photon sphere.
Ergosphere
Main article: Ergosphere
Cotating black holes are surrounded b a region of spacetime in
which it is impossible to stand still, called the ergosphere. 'his is the
result of a process known as frame3draggingK general relativit
predicts that an rotating mass will tend to slightl *drag* along the
spacetime immediatel surrounding it. !n ob+ect near the rotating
mass will tend to start moving in the direction of rotation. #or a
rotating black hole, this effect becomes so strong near the event
hori(on that an ob+ect would have to move faster than the speed of
light in the opposite direction to +ust stand still.
$60&
'he ergosphere of a black hole is bounded b the (outer) event
hori(on on the inside and an oblate spheroid, which coincides with the
event hori(on at the poles and is noticeabl wider around the eAuator.
'he ergosphere is an oblate spheroid
region outside of the event hori(on,
where ob+ects cannot remain
stationar.
event hori(on at the poles and is noticeabl wider around the eAuator.
'he outer boundar is sometimes called the ergosurface.
/b+ects and radiation can escape normall from the ergosphere.
'hrough the 2enrose process, ob+ects can emerge from the
ergosphere with more energ than the entered. 'his energ is taken
from the rotational energ of the black hole causing it to slow down.
$65&
Foration and evolution
Considering the e9otic nature of black holes, it ma be natural to Auestion if such bi(arre ob+ects could e9ist in
nature or to suggest that the are merel pathological solutions to >insteinFs eAuations. >instein himself wrongl
thought that black holes would not form, because he held that the angular momentum of collapsing particles
would stabili(e their motion at some radius.
$B7&
'his led the general relativit communit to dismiss all results to
the contrar for man ears. <owever, a minorit of relativists continued to contend that black holes were
phsical ob+ects,
$B%&
and b the end of the %567s, the had persuaded the ma+orit of researchers in the field
that there is no obstacle to forming an event hori(on.
/nce an event hori(on forms, 2enrose proved that a singularit will form somewhere inside it.
$,0&
Shortl
afterwards, <awking showed that man cosmological solutions describing the 8ig 8ang have singularities
without scalar fields or other e9otic matter (see 2enrose3<awking singularit theorems). 'he 4err solution, the
no3hair theorem and the laws of black hole thermodnamics showed that the phsical properties of black holes
were simple and comprehensible, making them respectable sub+ects for research.
$B,&
'he primar formation
process for black holes is e9pected to be the gravitational collapse of heav ob+ects such as stars, but there are
also more e9otic processes that can lead to the production of black holes.
Gravitational collapse
Main article: Gravitational collapse
=ravitational collapse occurs when an ob+ectFs internal pressure is insufficient to resist the ob+ectFs own gravit.
#or stars this usuall occurs either because a star has too little *fuel* left to maintain its temperature through
stellar nucleosnthesis, or because a star that would have been stable receives e9tra matter in a wa that does
not raise its core temperature. )n either case the starFs temperature is no longer high enough to prevent it from
collapsing under its own weight.
$B-&
'he ideal gas law e9plains the connection between pressure, temperature,
and volume.
'he collapse ma be stopped b the degenerac pressure of the starFs constituents, condensing the matter in an
e9otic denser state. 'he result is one of the various tpes of compact star. 'he tpe of compact star formed
depends on the mass of the remnantEthe matter left over after the outer laers have been blown awa, such
from a supernova e9plosion or b pulsations leading to a planetar nebula. Note that this mass can be
substantiall less than the original starEremnants e9ceeding ? solar masses are produced b stars that were
over ,7 solar masses before the collapse.
$B-&
)f the mass of the remnant e9ceeds about -G; solar masses (the 'olmanG/ppenheimerGIolkoff limit
$%?&
)E
either because the original star was ver heav or because the remnant collected additional mass through
accretion of matterEeven the degenerac pressure of neutrons is insufficient to stop the collapse. No known
mechanism (e9cept possibl Auark degenerac pressure, see Auark star) is powerful enough to stop the
implosion and the ob+ect will inevitabl collapse to form a black hole.
$B-&
'he gravitational collapse of heav stars is assumed to be responsible for the formation of stellar mass black
holes. Star formation in the earl universe ma have resulted in ver massive stars, which upon their collapse
! simulated event in the CMS
detector, a collision in which a micro
black hole ma be created.
holes. Star formation in the earl universe ma have resulted in ver massive stars, which upon their collapse
would have produced black holes of up to %7
-
solar masses. 'hese black holes could be the seeds of the
supermassive black holes found in the centers of most gala9ies.
$B;&
"hile most of the energ released during gravitational collapse is emitted ver Auickl, an outside observer does
not actuall see the end of this process. >ven though the collapse takes a finite amount of time from the
reference frame of infalling matter, a distant observer sees the infalling material slow and halt +ust above the
event hori(on, due to gravitational time dilation. Light from the collapsing material takes longer and longer to
reach the observer, with the light emitted +ust before the event hori(on forms is delaed an infinite amount of
time. 'hus the e9ternal observer never sees the formation of the event hori(onK instead, the collapsing material
seems to become dimmer and increasingl red3shifted, eventuall fading awa.
$B?&
Priordial black holes in the Big Bang
=ravitational collapse reAuires great densit. )n the current epoch of the universe these high densities are onl
found in stars, but in the earl universe shortl after the big bang densities were much greater, possibl allowing
for the creation of black holes. 'he high densit alone is not enough to allow the formation of black holes since a
uniform mass distribution will not allow the mass to bunch up. )n order for primordial black holes to form in such
a dense medium, there must be initial densit perturbations that can then grow under their own gravit. :ifferent
models for the earl universe var widel in their predictions of the si(e of these perturbations. Iarious models
predict the creation of black holes, ranging from a 2lanck mass to hundreds of thousands of solar masses.
$B6&
2rimordial black holes could thus account for the creation of an tpe of black hole.
High!energy collisions
=ravitational collapse is not the onl process that could create black
holes. )n principle, black holes could be formed in high3energ
collisions that achieve sufficient densit. !s of ,77,, no such events
have been detected, either directl or indirectl as a deficienc of the
mass balance in particle accelerator e9periments.
$BB&
'his suggests
that there must be a lower limit for the mass of black holes.
'heoreticall, this boundar is e9pected to lie around the 2lanck mass
(m
2
M P!cQG R %., S%7
%5
=eIQc
,
R ,., S%7
T0
kg), where Auantum
effects are e9pected to invalidate the predictions of general
relativit.
$B0&
'his would put the creation of black holes firml out of
reach of an high energ process occurring on or near the >arth.
<owever, certain developments in Auantum gravit suggest that the
2lanck mass could be much lowerD some braneworld scenarios for
e9ample put the boundar as low as % 'eIQc
,
.
$B5&
'his would make it
conceivable for micro black holes to be created in the high energ
collisions occurring when cosmic ras hit the >arthFs atmosphere, or
possibl in the new Large <adron Collider at C>CN. Uet these theories are ver speculative, and the creation
of black holes in these processes is deemed unlikel b man specialists.
$07&
>ven if micro black holes should be
formed in these collisions, it is e9pected that the would evaporate in about %7
T,?
seconds, posing no threat to
the >arth.
$0%&
Gro"th
/nce a black hole has formed, it can continue to grow b absorbing additional matter. !n black hole will
continuall absorb gas and interstellar dust from its direct surroundings and omnipresent cosmic background
radiation. 'his is the primar process through which supermassive black holes seem to have grown.
$B;&
! similar
process has been suggested for the formation of intermediate3mass black holes in globular clusters.
$0,&
!nother possibilit is for a black hole to merge with other ob+ects such as stars or even other black holes. 'his
is thought to have been important especiall for the earl development of supermassive black holes, which could
have formed from the coagulation of man smaller ob+ects.
$B;&
'he process has also been proposed as the origin
of some intermediate3mass black holes.
$0-&$0;&
Evaporation
Main article: "a#$ing radiation
)n %5B;, <awking showed that black holes are not entirel black but emit small amounts of thermal
radiationK
$-%&
an effect that has become known as <awking radiation. 8 appling Auantum field theor to a
static black hole background, he determined that a black hole should emit particles in a perfect black bod
spectrum. Since <awkingFs publication, man others have verified the result through various approaches.
$0?&
)f
<awkingFs theor of black hole radiation is correct, then black holes are e9pected to shrink and evaporate over
time because the lose mass b the emission of photons and other particles.
$-%&
'he temperature of this thermal
spectrum (<awking temperature) is proportional to the surface gravit of the black hole, which, for a
Schwar(schild black hole, is inversel proportional to the mass. <ence, large black holes emit less radiation than
small black holes.
$06&
! stellar black hole of one solar mass has a <awking temperature of about %77 nanokelvins. 'his is far less than
the ,.B 4 temperature of the cosmic microwave background radiation. Stellar mass or larger black holes
receive more mass from the cosmic microwave background than the emit through <awking radiation and thus
will grow instead of shrink. 'o have a <awking temperature larger than ,.B 4 (and be able to evaporate), a
black hole needs to have less mass than the Moon. Such a black hole would have a diameter of less than a tenth
of a millimeter.
$0B&
)f a black hole is ver small the radiation effects are e9pected to become ver strong. >ven a black hole that is
heav compared to a human would evaporate in an instant. ! black hole the weight of a car would have a
diameter of about %7
T,;
m and take a nanosecond to evaporate, during which time it would briefl have a
luminosit more than ,77 times that of the sun. Lower mass black holes are e9pected to evaporate even fasterK
for e9ample, a black hole of mass % 'eIQc
,
would take less than %7
T00
seconds to evaporate completel. #or
such a small black hole, Auantum gravitation effects are e9pected to pla an important role and could evenE
although current developments in Auantum gravit do not indicate so
$00&
Ehpotheticall make such a small
black hole stable.
$05&
#bservational evidence
8 their ver nature, black holes do not directl emit an signals other than the hpothetical <awking radiationK
since the <awking radiation for an astrophsical black hole is predicted to be ver weak, this makes it
impossible to directl detect astrophsical black holes from the >arth. ! possible e9ception to the <awking
radiation being weak is the last stage of the evaporation of light (primordial) black holesK searches for such
flashes in the past have proven unsuccessful and provide stringent limits on the possibilit of e9istence of light
primordial black holes.
$57&
N!S!Fs #ermi =amma3ra Space 'elescope launched in ,770 will continue the
search for these flashes.
$5%&
!strophsicists searching for black holes thus have to rel on indirect observations. ! black holeFs e9istence can
sometimes be inferred b observing its gravitational interactions with its surroundings. ! pro+ect run b M)'Fs
! computer simulation of a star being
consumed b a black hole. 'he blue dot
indicates the location of the black hole.
!rtist impression of a binar sstem with an
sometimes be inferred b observing its gravitational interactions with its surroundings. ! pro+ect run b M)'Fs
<astack /bservator is attempting to observe the event hori(on of a black hole directl. )nitial results are
encouraging.
$5,&
$ccretion of atter
See also: %ccretion disc
:ue to conservation of angular momentum, gas falling into the
gravitational well created b a massive ob+ect will tpicall
form a disc3like structure around the ob+ect. #riction within the
disc causes angular momentum to be transported outward,
allowing matter to fall further inward, releasing potential energ
and increasing the temperature of the gas.
$5-&
)n the case of
compact ob+ects such as white dwarfs, neutron stars, and
black holes, the gas in the inner regions becomes so hot that it
will emit vast amounts of radiation (mainl @3ras), which ma
be detected b telescopes. 'his process of accretion is one of
the most efficient energ3producing processes knownK up to
;7V of the rest mass of the accreted material can be emitted in
radiation.
$5-&
()n nuclear fusion onl about 7.BV of the rest
mass will be emitted as energ.) )n man cases, accretion discs
are accompanied b relativistic +ets emitted along the poles, which carr awa much of the energ. 'he
mechanism for the creation of these +ets is currentl not well understood.
!s such man of the universeFs more energetic phenomena have been attributed to the accretion of matter on
black holes. )n particular, active galactic nuclei and Auasars are believed to be the accretion discs of
supermassive black holes.
$5;&
Similarl, @3ra binaries are generall accepted to be binar star sstems in which
one of the two stars is a compact ob+ect accreting matter from its companion.
$5;&
)t has also been suggested that
some ultraluminous @3ra sources ma be the accretion disks of intermediate3mass black holes.
$5?&
%!ray binaries
See also: &'ray (inary
@3ra binaries are binar star sstems that are luminous in the @3ra part of the spectrum. 'hese @3ra
emissions are generall thought to be caused b one of the component stars being a compact ob+ect accreting
matter from the other (regular) star. 'he presence of an ordinar star in such a sstem provides a uniAue
opportunit for studing the central ob+ect and determining if it might be a black hole.
)f such a sstem emits signals that can be directl traced back
to the compact ob+ect, it cannot be a black hole. 'he absence
of such a signal does, however, not e9clude the possibilit that
the compact ob+ect is a neutron star. 8 studing the
companion star it is often possible to obtain the orbital
parameters of the sstem and obtain an estimate for the mass
of the compact ob+ect. )f this is much larger than the 'olmanG
/ppenheimerGIolkoff limit (that is, the ma9imum mass a
neutron star can have before collapsing) then the ob+ect cannot
be a neutron star and is generall e9pected to be a black
hole.
$5;&
!rtist impression of a binar sstem with an
accretion disk around a black hole being fed
b material from the companion star.
'his animation compares the @3ra
FheartbeatsF of =CS %5%? and )=C
1%B75%, two black holes that ingest
gas from companion stars.
'he first strong
candidate for a black
hole, Cgnus @3%,
was discovered in this wa b Charles 'homas 8olton,
$56&
Louise
"ebster and 2aul Murdin
$5B&
in %5B,.
$50&$55&
Some doubt, however,
remained due to the uncertainties resultant from the companion star
being much heavier than the candidate black hole.
$5;&
Currentl,
better candidates for black holes are found in a class of @3ra
binaries called soft @3ra transients.
$5;&
)n this class of sstem the
companion star is relativel low mass allowing for more accurate
estimates in the black hole mass. Moreover, these sstems are onl
active in @3ra for several months once ever %7G?7 ears. :uring
the period of low @3ra emission (called Auiescence), the accretion
disc is e9tremel faint allowing for detailed observation of the
companion star during this period. /ne of the best such candidates is I;7; Cg.
&uiescence and advection!doinated accretion flo"
'he faintness of the accretion disc during Auiescence is suspected to be caused b the flow entering a mode
called an advection3dominated accretion flow (!:!#). )n this mode, almost all the energ generated b friction
in the disc is swept along with the flow instead of radiated awa. )f this model is correct, then it forms strong
Aualitative evidence for the presence of an event hori(on.
$%77&
8ecause, if the ob+ect at the center of the disc had
a solid surface, it would emit large amounts of radiation as the highl energetic gas hits the surface, an effect that
is observed for neutron stars in a similar state.
$5-&
&uasi!periodic oscillations
Main article: Quasi'periodic oscillations
'he @3ra emission from accretion disks sometimes flickers at certain freAuencies. 'hese signals are called
Auasi3periodic oscillations and are thought to be caused b material moving along the inner edge of the accretion
disk (the innermost stable circular orbit). !s such their freAuenc is linked to the mass of the compact ob+ect.
'he can thus be used as an alternative wa to determine the mass of potential black holes.
$%7%&
Galactic nuclei
See also: %ctive galactic nucleus
!stronomers use the term *active gala9* to describe gala9ies with unusual characteristics, such as unusual
spectral line emission and ver strong radio emission. 'heoretical and observational studies have shown that the
activit in these active galactic nuclei (!=N) ma be e9plained b the presence of supermassive black holes.
'he models of these !=N consist of a central black hole that ma be millions or billions of times more massive
than the SunK a disk of gas and dust called an accretion diskK and two +ets that are perpendicular to the accretion
disk.
$%7,&$%7-&
!lthough supermassive black holes are e9pected to be found in most !=N, onl some gala9iesF nuclei have
been more carefull studied in attempts to both identif and measure the actual masses of the central
supermassive black hole candidates. Some of the most notable gala9ies with supermassive black hole
candidates include the !ndromeda =ala9, M-,, M0B, N=C -%%?, N=C --BB, N=C ;,?0, and the
Sombrero =ala9.
$%7;&
Simulation of gas cloud after close
approach to the black hole at the
centre of the Milk "a.
$%7B&
Sombrero =ala9.
)t is now widel accepted that the center of (nearl) ever gala9 (not +ust active ones) contains a supermassive
black hole.
$%7?&
'he close observational correlation between the mass of this hole and the velocit dispersion of
the host gala9Fs bulge, known as the M3sigma relation, strongl suggests a connection between the formation of
the black hole and the gala9 itself.
$%76&
Currentl, the best evidence for a supermassive black hole comes
from studing the proper motion of stars near the center of our own
Milk "a.
$%70&
Since %55? astronomers have tracked the motion of
57 stars in a region called Sagittarius !W. 8 fitting their motion to
4eplerian orbits the were able to infer in %550 that ,.6 million solar
masses must be contained in a volume with a radius of 7.7,
lightears.
$%75&
Since then one of the starsEcalled S,Ehas
completed a full orbit. #rom the orbital data the were able to place
better constraints on the mass and si(e of the ob+ect causing the
orbital motion of stars in the Sagittarius !W region, finding that there is
a spherical mass of ;.- million solar masses contained within a radius
of less than 7.77, lightears.
$%70&
"hile this is more than -777 times
the Schwar(schild radius corresponding to that mass, it is at least consistent with the central ob+ect being a
supermassive black hole, and no *realistic cluster $of stars& is phsicall tenable.*
$%75&
Effects of strong gravity
!nother wa that the black hole nature of an ob+ect ma be tested in the future is through observation of effects
caused b strong gravit in their vicinit. /ne such effect is gravitational lensingD 'he deformation of spacetime
around a massive ob+ect causes light ras to be deflected much like light passing through an optic lens.
/bservations have been made of weak gravitational lensing, in which light ras are deflected b onl a few
arcseconds. <owever, it has never been directl observed for a black hole.
$%%7&
/ne possibilit for observing
gravitational lensing b a black hole would be to observe stars in orbit around the black hole. 'here are several
candidates for such an observation in orbit around Sagittarius !W.
$%%7&
!nother option would be the direct observation of gravitational waves produced b an ob+ect falling into a black
hole, for e9ample a compact ob+ect falling into a supermassive black hole through an >9treme mass ratio
inspiral. Matching the observed waveform to the predictions of general relativit would allow precision
measurements of the mass and angular momentum of the central ob+ect, while at the same time testing general
relativit.
$%%%&
'hese tpes of events are a primar target for the proposed Laser )nterferometer Space !ntenna.
$lternatives
'he evidence for stellar black holes strongl relies on the e9istence of an upper limit for the mass of a neutron
star. 'he si(e of this limit heavil depends on the assumptions made about the properties of dense matter. New
e9otic phases of matter could push up this bound.
$5;&
! phase of free Auarks at high densit might allow the
e9istence of dense Auark stars,
$%%,&
and some supersmmetric models predict the e9istence of . stars.
$%%-&
Some e9tensions of the standard model posit the e9istence of preons as fundamental building blocks of Auarks
and leptons, which could hpotheticall form preon stars.
$%%;&
'hese hpothetical models could potentiall
e9plain a number of observations of stellar black hole candidates. <owever, it can be shown from general
arguments in general relativit that an such ob+ect will have a ma9imum mass.
$5;&
Since the average densit of a black hole inside its Schwar(schild radius is inversel proportional to the sAuare
of its mass, supermassive black holes are much less dense than stellar black holes (the average densit of a %7
0
solar mass black hole is comparable to that of water).
$5;&
ConseAuentl, the phsics of matter forming a
'he formula for the 8ekensteinG
<awking entrop (S) of a black hole,
which depends on the area of the
black hole (!). 'he constants are the
speed of light (c), the 8olt(mann
constant (k), NewtonFs constant (=),
and the reduced 2lanck constant (X).
solar mass black hole is comparable to that of water). ConseAuentl, the phsics of matter forming a
supermassive black hole is much better understood and the possible alternative e9planations for supermassive
black hole observations are much more mundane. #or e9ample, a supermassive black hole could be modelled
b a large cluster of ver dark ob+ects. <owever, tpicall such alternatives are not stable enough to e9plain the
supermassive black hole candidates.
$5;&
'he evidence for stellar and supermassive black holes implies that in order for black holes not to form, general
relativit must fail as a theor of gravit, perhaps due to the onset of Auantum mechanical corrections. ! much
anticipated feature of a theor of Auantum gravit is that it will not feature singularities or event hori(ons (and
thus no black holes).
$%%?&
)n recent ears, much attention has been drawn b the fu((ball model in string theor.
8ased on calculations in specific situations in string theor, the proposal suggest that genericall the individual
states of a black hole solution do not have an event hori(on or singularit, but that for a classicalQsemi3classical
observer the statistical average of such states does appear +ust like an ordinar black hole in general
relativit.
$%%6&
#pen 'uestions
Entropy and therodynaics
)urther information: *lac$ hole thermodynamics
)n %5B%, <awking showed under general conditions
$Note -&
that the
total area of the event hori(ons of an collection of classical black
holes can never decrease, even if the collide and merge.
$%%B&
'his
result, now known as the second law of black hole mechanics, is
remarkabl similar to the second law of thermodnamics, which states
that the total entrop of a sstem can never decrease. !s with
classical ob+ects at absolute (ero temperature, it was assumed that
black holes had (ero entrop. )f this were the case, the second law of
thermodnamics would be violated b entrop3laden matter entering a
black hole, resulting in a decrease of the total entrop of the universe.
'herefore, 8ekenstein proposed that a black hole should have an
entrop, and that it should be proportional to its hori(on area.
$%%0&
'he link with the laws of thermodnamics was further strengthened b
<awkingFs discover that Auantum field theor predicts that a black hole radiates blackbod radiation at a
constant temperature. 'his seemingl causes a violation of the second law of black hole mechanics, since the
radiation will carr awa energ from the black hole causing it to shrink. 'he radiation, however also carries
awa entrop, and it can be proven under general assumptions that the sum of the entrop of the matter
surrounding a black hole and one Auarter of the area of the hori(on as measured in 2lanck units is in fact alwas
increasing. 'his allows the formulation of the first law of black hole mechanics as an analogue of the first law of
thermodnamics, with the mass acting as energ, the surface gravit as temperature and the area as entrop.
$%%0&
/ne pu((ling feature is that the entrop of a black hole scales with its area rather than with its volume, since
entrop is normall an e9tensive Auantit that scales linearl with the volume of the sstem. 'his odd propert
led =erard Ft <ooft and Leonard Susskind to propose the holographic principle, which suggests that anthing
that happens in a volume of spacetime can be described b data on the boundar of that volume.
$%%5&
!lthough general relativit can be used to perform a semi3classical calculation of black hole entrop, this
situation is theoreticall unsatisfing. )n statistical mechanics, entrop is understood as counting the number of
microscopic configurations of a sstem that have the same macroscopic Aualities (such as mass, charge,
(ist of unsolved probles in
physics
+s physical information lost in
(lac$ holes,
pressure, etc.). "ithout a satisfactor theor of Auantum gravit, one cannot perform such a computation for
black holes. Some progress has been made in various approaches to Auantum gravit. )n %55?, !ndrew
Strominger and Cumrun Iafa showed that counting the microstates of a specific supersmmetric black hole in
string theor reproduced the 8ekensteinG<awking entrop.
$%,7&
Since then, similar results have been reported
for different black holes both in string theor and in other approaches to Auantum gravit like loop Auantum
gravit.
$%,%&
)nforation loss parado*
Main article: *lac$ hole information paradox
8ecause a black hole has onl a few internal parameters, most of the
information about the matter that went into forming the black hole is lost.
)t does not matter if it is formed from television sets or chairs, in the end
the black hole onl remembers the total mass, charge, and angular
momentum. !s long as black holes were thought to persist forever this
information loss is not that problematic, as the information can be thought
of as e9isting inside the black hole, unaccessible from the outside. <owever, black holes slowl evaporate b
emitting <awking radiation. 'his radiation does not appear to carr an detailed information about the stuff that
formed the black hole, meaning that this information appears to be gone forever.
$%,,&
#or a long time, the Auestion whether information is trul lost in black holes (the black hole information parado9)
has divided the theoretical phsics communit (see 'horneG<awkingG2reskill bet). )n Auantum mechanics, loss
of information corresponds to the violation of vital propert called unitarit, which has to do with the
conservation of probabilit. )t has been argued that loss of unitarit would also impl violation of conservation of
energ.
$%,-&
/ver recent ears evidence has been building that indeed information and unitarit are preserved in
a full Auantum gravitational treatment of the problem.
$%,;&
See also
8lack brane
8lack hole complementarit
8lack holes in fiction
8lack string
8'Y black hole
:umb hole
4ugelblit( (astrophsics)
List of black holes
Susskind3<awking battle
'imeline of black hole phsics
"hite hole
"ormhole
+otes
%. , 'he set of possible paths, or more accuratel the future light cone containing all possible world lines (in this
diagram represented b the ellowQblue grid), is tilted in this wa in >ddingtonG#inkelstein coordinates (the
diagram is a *cartoon* version of an >ddingtonG#inkelstein coordinate diagram), but in other coordinates the
light cones are not tilted in this wa, for e9ample in Schwar(schild coordinates the simpl narrow without
tilting as one approaches the event hori(on, and in 4ruskalGS(ekeres coordinates the light cones donFt change
tilting as one approaches the event hori(on, and in 4ruskalGS(ekeres coordinates the light cones donFt change
shape or orientation at all.
$;;&
,. , 'his is true onl for ;3dimensional spacetimes. )n higher dimensions more complicated hori(on topologies
like a black ring are possible.
$?%&$?,&
-. , )n particular, he assumed that all matter satisfies the weak energ condition.
-eferences
%. , "ald %50;, pp. ,55G-77
,. , Schut(, 8ernard #. (,77-). Gravity from the ground up (httpDQQbooks.google.comQbooksZidM2['799h:cs)C)
. Cambridge Jniversit 2ress. p. %%7. )S8N 73?,%3;??763?. httpDQQbooks.google.comQbooksZ
idM2['799h:cs)C.
-. , :avies, 2. C. ". (%5B0). *'hermodnamics of 8lack <oles*
(httpDQQcosmos.asu.eduQpublicationsQpapersQ'hermodnamic'heorof8lack<olesV,7-;.pdf) . Reports on
rogress in hysics ./ (0)D %-%-G%-??. 8ibcode %5B0C22h...;%.%-%-:
(httpDQQadsabs.harvard.eduQabsQ%5B0C22h...;%.%-%-:) . doiD%7.%700Q77-;3;00?Q;%Q0Q77;
(httpDQQd9.doi.orgQ%7.%700V,#77-;3;00?V,#;%V,#0V,#77;) .
httpDQQcosmos.asu.eduQpublicationsQpapersQ'hermodnamic'heorof8lack<olesV,7-;.pdf.
;. , Michell, 1. (%B0;). */n the Means of :iscovering the :istance, Magnitude, \c. of the #i9ed Stars, in
ConseAuence of the :iminution of the Ielocit of 'heir Light, in Case Such a :iminution Should be #ound to
'ake 2lace in an of 'hem, and Such /ther :ata Should be 2rocured from /bservations, as "ould be #arther
Necessar for 'hat 2urpose*. hilosophical -ransactions of the Royal Society 0. (7)D -?G?B. 8ibcode
%B0;CS2'...B;...-?M (httpDQQadsabs.harvard.eduQabsQ%B0;CS2'...B;...-?M) . doiD%7.%750Qrstl.%B0;.7770
(httpDQQd9.doi.orgQ%7.%750V,#rstl.%B0;.7770) . 1S'/C %76?B6 (httpDQQwww.+stor.orgQstableQ%76?B6) .
?. , =illispie, C. C. (,777). ierre'Simon .aplace/ 012340561: a lif e in exact science
(httpDQQbooks.google.comQbooksZidMioh1om@7)"gC\pgM2!%B?) . 2rinceton paperbacks. 2rinceton Jniversit
2ress. p. %B?. )S8N 7365%37?7,B35. httpDQQbooks.google.comQbooksZidMioh1om@7)"gC\pgM2!%B?.
6. , )srael, ". (%505). *:ark starsD the evolution of an idea* (httpDQQbooks.google.comQbooksZ
idMIAB0BAC?2".C\lpgM22%\pgM2!%55]vMonepage\A\fMfalse) . )n <awking, S. ".K )srael, ".. 788
9ears of Gravitation. Cambridge Jniversit 2ress. )S8N 5B0373?,%3-B5B63,. httpDQQbooks.google.comQbooksZ
idMIAB0BAC?2".C\lpgM22%\pgM2!%55]vMonepage\A\fMfalse.
B. , 'horne %55;, pp. %,-G%,;
0. ^
a

b
Schwar(schild, 4. (%5%6). *_ber das =ravitationsfeld eines Massenpunktes nach der >insteinschen
'heorie* (httpDQQwww.archive.orgQstreamQsit(ungsberichte%5%6deutsch]pageQ%00QmodeQ,up) . Sitzungs(erichte
der :;niglich reussischen %$ademie der <issenschaften 0D %05G%56.
httpDQQwww.archive.orgQstreamQsit(ungsberichte%5%6deutsch]pageQ%00QmodeQ,up. and Schwar(schild, 4.
(%5%6). *_ber das =ravitationsfeld eines 4ugel aus inkompressibler #l`ssigkeit nach der >insteinschen 'heorie*
(httpDQQwww.archive.orgQstreamQsit(ungsberichte%5%6deutsch]pageQ;,;QmodeQ,up) . Sitzungs(erichte der
:;niglich reussischen %$ademie der <issenschaften /1D ;,;G;-;.
httpDQQwww.archive.orgQstreamQsit(ungsberichte%5%6deutsch]pageQ;,;QmodeQ,up.
5. , :roste, 1. (%5%B). */n the field of a single centre in >insteinFs theor of gravitation, and the motion of a
particle in that field* (httpDQQwww.dwc.knaw.nlQ:LQpublicationsQ2J777%,-,?.pdf) . roceedings Royal
%cademy %msterdam =:>%<? /2 (%)D %5BG,%?. httpDQQwww.dwc.knaw.nlQ:LQpublicationsQ2J777%,-,?.pdf.
%7. , 4o9, !.1. (%55,). *=eneral Celativit in the NetherlandsD%5%?3%5,7* (httpDQQbooks.google.nlQbooksZ
idMv:<C#[-v)hJC\pgM2!;%) . )n >isenstaedt, 1.K 4o9, !.1.. Studies in the history of general relativity.
8irkhauser. p. ;%. )S8N 5B03730%B63-;B53B. httpDQQbooks.google.nlQbooksZidMv:<C#[-v)hJC\pgM2!;%.
%%. , Ft <ooft, =. (,775). +ntroduction to the -heory of *lac$ "oles
(httpDQQwww.phs.uu.nlQLthooftQlecturesQblackholesQ8<[lecturenotes.pdf) . )nstitute for 'heoretical 2hsics Q
Spino(a )nstitute. pp. ;BG;0. httpDQQwww.phs.uu.nlQLthooftQlecturesQblackholesQ8<[lecturenotes.pdf.
%,. , Ienkataraman, =. (%55,). @handrase$har and his limit (httpDQQbooks.google.comQbooksZ
idM<NSd:#/1;wkC\pgM2!05) . Jniversities 2ress. p. 05. )S8N 0%3B-B%37-?3@.
httpDQQbooks.google.comQbooksZidM<NSd:#/1;wkC\pgM2!05.
%-. , :etweiler, S. (%50%). *Cesource letter 8<3%D 8lack holes*. %merican Journal of hysics .2 (?)D -5;G;77.
8ibcode %50%!m12h..;5..-5;: (httpDQQadsabs.harvard.eduQabsQ%50%!m12h..;5..-5;:) . doiD%7.%%%5Q%.%,606
(httpDQQd9.doi.orgQ%7.%%%5V,#%.%,606) .
%;. , <arpa(, !. (%55;). Stellar evolution (httpDQQbooks.google.comQbooksZidMkd;I>Yv0oo7C\pgM2!%7?) . ! 4
%;. , <arpa(, !. (%55;). Stellar evolution (httpDQQbooks.google.comQbooksZidMkd;I>Yv0oo7C\pgM2!%7?) . ! 4
2eters. p. %7?. )S8N %3?600%37%,3%. httpDQQbooks.google.comQbooksZidMkd;I>Yv0oo7C\pgM2!%7?.
%?. ^
a

b
/ppenheimer, 1. C.K Iolkoff, =. M. (%5-5). */n Massive Neutron Cores*. hysical Revie# 33 (;)D -B;G
-0%. 8ibcode %5-52hCv...??..-B;/ (httpDQQadsabs.harvard.eduQabsQ%5-52hCv...??..-B;/) .
doiD%7.%%7-Q2hsCev.??.-B; (httpDQQd9.doi.orgQ%7.%%7-V,#2hsCev.??.-B;) .
%6. , Cuffini, C.K "heeler, 1. !. (%5B%). *)ntroducing the black hole*
(httpDQQauthors.librar.caltech.eduQ%;5B,Q%QCuffini,775p%6;?2hs['oda.pdf) . hysics -oday (%)D -7G;%.
httpDQQauthors.librar.caltech.eduQ%;5B,Q%QCuffini,775p%6;?2hs['oda.pdf.
%B. , #inkelstein, :. (%5?0). *2ast3#uture !smmetr of the =ravitational #ield of a 2oint 2article*. hysical
Revie# //4 (;)D 56?G56B. 8ibcode %5?02hCv..%%7..56?#
(httpDQQadsabs.harvard.eduQabsQ%5?02hCv..%%7..56?#) . doiD%7.%%7-Q2hsCev.%%7.56?
(httpDQQd9.doi.orgQ%7.%%7-V,#2hsCev.%%7.56?) .
%0. , 4ruskal, M. (%567). *Ma9imal >9tension of Schwar(schild Metric*. hysical Revie# //2 (?)D %B;-. 8ibcode
%5672hCv..%%5.%B;-4 (httpDQQadsabs.harvard.eduQabsQ%5672hCv..%%5.%B;-4) . doiD%7.%%7-Q2hsCev.%%5.%B;-
(httpDQQd9.doi.orgQ%7.%%7-V,#2hsCev.%%5.%B;-) .
%5. , <ewish, !. et al. (%560), */bservation of a Capidl 2ulsating Cadio Source*, >ature 5/0 (?%-7)D B75GB%-,
8ibcode %560Natur.,%B..B75< (httpDQQadsabs.harvard.eduQabsQ%560Natur.,%B..B75<) , doiD%7.%7-0Q,%BB75a7
(httpDQQd9.doi.orgQ%7.%7-0V,#,%BB75a7)
,7. , 2ilkington, 1. :. <. et al. (%560), */bservations of some further 2ulsed Cadio Sources*, >ature 5/1 (?%-B)D
%,6G%,5, 8ibcode %560Natur.,%0..%,62 (httpDQQadsabs.harvard.eduQabsQ%560Natur.,%0..%,62) ,
doiD%7.%7-0Q,%0%,6a7 (httpDQQd9.doi.orgQ%7.%7-0V,#,%0%,6a7)
,%. , <ewish, !. (%5B7). *2ulsars*. %nnual Revie# of %stronomy and %strophysics 1 (%)D ,6?G,56. 8ibcode
%5B7!C!\!...0..,6?< (httpDQQadsabs.harvard.eduQabsQ%5B7!C!\!...0..,6?<) .
doiD%7.%%;6Qannurev.aa.70.757%B7.77%;7? (httpDQQd9.doi.orgQ%7.%%;6V,#annurev.aa.70.757%B7.77%;7?) .
,,. , Newman, >. '. et al. (%56?), *Metric of a Cotating, Charged Mass*, Journal of Mathematical hysics 6 (6)D
5%0, 8ibcode %56?1M2.....6..5%0N (httpDQQadsabs.harvard.eduQabsQ%56?1M2.....6..5%0N) ,
doiD%7.%76-Q%.%B7;-?% (httpDQQd9.doi.orgQ%7.%76-V,#%.%B7;-?%)
,-. , )srael, ". (%56B). *>vent <ori(ons in Static Iacuum Space3'imes*. hysical Revie# /6. (?)D %BB6. 8ibcode
%56B2hCv..%6;.%BB6) (httpDQQadsabs.harvard.eduQabsQ%56B2hCv..%6;.%BB6)) . doiD%7.%%7-Q2hsCev.%6;.%BB6
(httpDQQd9.doi.orgQ%7.%%7-V,#2hsCev.%6;.%BB6) .
,;. , Carter, 8. (%5B%). *!9ismmetric 8lack <ole <as /nl 'wo :egrees of #reedom*. hysical Revie# .etters
56 (6)D --%. 8ibcode %5B%2hCvL..,6..--%C (httpDQQadsabs.harvard.eduQabsQ%5B%2hCvL..,6..--%C) .
doiD%7.%%7-Q2hsCevLett.,6.--% (httpDQQd9.doi.orgQ%7.%%7-V,#2hsCevLett.,6.--%) .
,?. , Carter, 8. (%5BB). *'he vacuum black hole uniAueness theorem and its conceivable generalisations*.
roceedings of the 0st Marcel Grossmann meeting on general relativity. pp. ,;-G,?;.
,6. , Cobinson, :. (%5B?). *JniAueness of the 4err 8lack <ole*. hysical Revie# .etters 7. (%;)D 57?. 8ibcode
%5B?2hCvL..-;..57?C (httpDQQadsabs.harvard.eduQabsQ%5B?2hCvL..-;..57?C) .
doiD%7.%%7-Q2hsCevLett.-;.57? (httpDQQd9.doi.orgQ%7.%%7-V,#2hsCevLett.-;.57?) .
,B. ^
a

b
<eusler, M. (%550). *Stationar 8lack <olesD JniAueness and 8eond*
(httpDQQwww.livingreviews.orgQ!rticlesQIolume%Q%55036heuslerQ) . .iving Revie#s in Relativity / (6).
httpDQQwww.livingreviews.orgQ!rticlesQIolume%Q%55036heuslerQ. Cetrieved ,7%%37,370.
,0. ^
a

b
2enrose, C. (%56?). *=ravitational Collapse and Space3'ime Singularities*. hysical Revie# .etters /. (-)D
?B. 8ibcode %56?2hCvL..%;...?B2 (httpDQQadsabs.harvard.eduQabsQ%56?2hCvL..%;...?B2) .
doiD%7.%%7-Q2hsCevLett.%;.?B (httpDQQd9.doi.orgQ%7.%%7-V,#2hsCevLett.%;.?B) .
,5. , #ord, L. <. (,77-). *'he Classical Singularit 'heorems and 'heir .uantum Loopholes*. +nternational
Journal of -heoretical hysics .5 (6)D %,%5. doiD%7.%7,-Q!D%7,?B?;?%?%5B
(httpDQQd9.doi.orgQ%7.%7,-V,#!V-!%7,?B?;?%?%5B) .
-7. , 8ardeen, 1. M.K Carter, 8.K <awking, S. ". (%5B-). *'he four laws of black hole mechanics*.
@ommunications in Mathematical hysics 7/ (,)D %6%G%B7. 8ibcode %5B-CMa2h..-%..%6%8
(httpDQQadsabs.harvard.eduQabsQ%5B-CMa2h..-%..%6%8) . doiD%7.%77BQ8#7%6;?B;,
(httpDQQd9.doi.orgQ%7.%77BV,#8#7%6;?B;,) . MC MC7--;B50 (httpDQQwww.ams.orgQmathscinet3getitemZ
mrMMC7--;B50) . Ybl %%,?.0--75 (httpDQQwww.(entralblatt3math.orgQ(mathQenQsearchQZ
AManD%%,?.0--75\formatMcomplete) .
-%. ^
a

b

c
<awking, S. ". (%5B;). *8lack hole e9plosionsZ*. >ature 5.1 (?;;-)D -7G-%. 8ibcode
%5B;Natur.,;0...-7< (httpDQQadsabs.harvard.eduQabsQ%5B;Natur.,;0...-7<) . doiD%7.%7-0Q,;07-7a7
(httpDQQd9.doi.orgQ%7.%7-0V,#,;07-7a7) .
,
-,. , .uinion, M. (,6 !pril ,770). *8lack <ole* (httpDQQwww.worldwidewords.orgQtopicalwordsQtw3bla%.htm) .
<orld <ide <ords. httpDQQwww.worldwidewords.orgQtopicalwordsQtw3bla%.htm. Cetrieved ,7703763%B.
--. , Carroll ,77;, p. ,?-
-;. , 'horne, 4. S.K 2rice, C. <. (%506). *lac$ holes: the mem(rane paradigm. Uale Jniversit 2ress. )S8N 5B03
73-7737-BB730.
-?. , !nderson, "arren =. (%556). *'he 8lack <ole )nformation Loss 2roblem*
(httpDQQmath.ucr.eduQhomeQbae(QphsicsQCelativitQ8lack<olesQinfo[loss.html) . Asenet hysics )%Q.
httpDQQmath.ucr.eduQhomeQbae(QphsicsQCelativitQ8lack<olesQinfo[loss.html. Cetrieved ,77537-3,;.
-6. , 2reskill, 1. (%55;3%73,%). *8lack holes and informationD ! crisis in Auantum phsics*
(httpDQQwww.theor.caltech.eduQLpreskillQtalksQblackholes.pdf) . Caltech 'heor Seminar.
httpDQQwww.theor.caltech.eduQLpreskillQtalksQblackholes.pdf.
-B. , <awking \ >llis %5B-, !ppendi9 8
-0. , Seeds, Michael !.K 8ackman, :ana >. (,77B), erspectives on %stronomy (httpDQQbooks.google.comQbooksZ
idMC@om7;4=)L0C\pgM2!%6B) , Cengage Learning, p. %6B, )S8N 73;5?3%%-?,3,,
httpDQQbooks.google.comQbooksZidMC@om7;4=)L0C\pgM2!%6B
-5. , Shapiro, S. L.K 'eukolsk, S. !. (%50-). *lac$ holes/ #hite d#arfs/ and neutron stars: the physics of
compact o(Bects. 1ohn "ile and Sons. p. -?B. )S8N 73;B%30B-%637.
;7. , "ald, C. M. (%55B). *=ravitational Collapse and Cosmic Censorship*. ar@ivDgr3AcQ5B%7760
(httpDQQar9iv.orgQabsQgr3AcQ5B%7760) $gr3Ac (httpDQQar9iv.orgQarchiveQgr3Ac) &.
;%. , 8erger, 8. 4. (,77,). *Numerical !pproaches to Spacetime Singularities* (httpDQQwww.livingreviews.orgQlrr3
,77,3%) . .iving Revie#s in Relativity 3. httpDQQwww.livingreviews.orgQlrr3,77,3%. Cetrieved ,77B37037;.
;,. , McClintock, 1. >.K Shafee, C.K Naraan, C.K Cemillard, C. !.K :avis, S. ".K Li, L.3@. (,776). *'he Spin of
the Near3>9treme 4err 8lack <ole =CS %5%?O%7?*. %strophysical Journal 635 (%)D ?%0G?-5. ar@ivDastro3
phQ76767B6 (httpDQQar9iv.orgQabsQastro3phQ76767B6) . 8ibcode ,776!p1...6?,..?%0M
(httpDQQadsabs.harvard.eduQabsQ,776!p1...6?,..?%0M) . doiD%7.%706Q?70;?B
(httpDQQd9.doi.orgQ%7.%706V,#?70;?B) .
;-. , "ald %50;, pp. %,;G%,?
;;. , 'horne, Misner \ "heeler %5B-, p. 0;0
;?. , "heeler ,77B, p. %B5
;6. , Carroll ,77;, Ch. ?.; and B.-
;B. , Carroll ,77;, p. ,%B
;0. , Carroll ,77;, p. ,%0
;5. , *)nside a black hole* (httpDQQnrumiano.free.frQ>starsQint[bh.html) . :no#ing the universe and its secrets.
httpDQQnrumiano.free.frQ>starsQint[bh.html. Cetrieved ,77537-3,6.
?7. , Carroll ,77;, p. ,,,
?%. , >mparan, C.K Ceall, <. S. (,770). *8lack <oles in <igher :imensions*
(httpDQQrelativit.livingreviews.orgQ!rticlesQlrr3,77036Q) . .iving Revie#s in Relativity // (6). ar@ivD707%.-;B%
(httpDQQar9iv.orgQabsQ707%.-;B%) . 8ibcode ,770LCC....%%....6>
(httpDQQadsabs.harvard.eduQabsQ,770LCC....%%....6>) . httpDQQrelativit.livingreviews.orgQ!rticlesQlrr3,77036Q.
Cetrieved ,7%%37,3%7.
?,. , /bers, N. !. (,775). 2apantonopoulos, >leftherios. ed. *8lack <oles in <igher3:imensional =ravit*. .ecture
>otes in hysics 062D ,%%G,?0. ar@ivD707,.7?%5 (httpDQQar9iv.orgQabsQ707,.7?%5) . doiD%7.%77BQ5B03-3?;73
00;6736 (httpDQQd9.doi.orgQ%7.%77BV,#5B03-3?;7300;6736) .
?-. , hawking \ ellis %5B-, Ch. 5.-
?;. , Carroll ,77;, p. ,7?
??. , Carroll ,77;, pp. ,6;G,6?
?6. , Carroll ,77;, p. ,?,
?B. , Lewis, =. #.K 4wan, 1. (,77B). *No "a 8ackD Ma9imi(ing Survival 'ime 8elow the Schwar(schild >vent
<ori(on*. u(lications of the %stronomical Society of %ustralia 5. (,)D ;6G?,. ar@ivD7B7?.%7,5
(httpDQQar9iv.orgQabsQ7B7?.%7,5) . 8ibcode ,77B2!S!...,;...;6L
(httpDQQadsabs.harvard.eduQabsQ,77B2!S!...,;...;6L) . doiD%7.%7B%Q!S7B7%,
(httpDQQd9.doi.orgQ%7.%7B%V,#!S7B7%,) .
?0. , "heeler ,77B, p. %0,
?5. , Carroll ,77;, pp. ,?BG,?5 and ,6?G,66
67. , :ro(, S.K )srael, ".K Morsink, S. M. (%556). *8lack holesD the inside stor*
(httpDQQphsicsworldarchive.iop.orgQinde9.cfmZactionMsummar\docM5V,#%V,#phwv5i%a,6V;7pwa3
(httpDQQphsicsworldarchive.iop.orgQinde9.cfmZactionMsummar\docM5V,#%V,#phwv5i%a,6V;7pwa3
9ml\AtMV,08lackV,7holesbV-!V,7theV,7insideV,7storV,7V-CinV->V,7V,0chtitleV,5V,5) .
hysics <orld 2 (%)D -;G-B. 8ibcode %5562h"....5...-;:
(httpDQQadsabs.harvard.eduQabsQ%5562h"....5...-;:) . httpDQQphsicsworldarchive.iop.orgQinde9.cfmZ
actionMsummar\docM5V,#%V,#phwv5i%a,6V;7pwa3
9ml\AtMV,08lackV,7holesbV-!V,7theV,7insideV,7storV,7V-CinV->V,7V,0chtitleV,5V,5.
6%. , Carroll ,77;, p. ,66
6,. , 2oisson, >.K )srael, ". (%557). *)nternal structure of black holes*. hysical Revie# C ./ (6)D %B56. 8ibcode
%5572hCv:..;%.%B562 (httpDQQadsabs.harvard.eduQabsQ%5572hCv:..;%.%B562) .
doiD%7.%%7-Q2hsCev:.;%.%B56 (httpDQQd9.doi.orgQ%7.%%7-V,#2hsCev:.;%.%B56) .
6-. , "ald %50;, p. ,%,
6;. , <amade, C. (%556). *8lack <oles and .uantum =ravit*
(httpDQQwww.damtp.cam.ac.ukQuserQgrQpublicQbh[hawk.html) . @am(ridge Relativity and @osmology.
Jniversit of Cambridge. httpDQQwww.damtp.cam.ac.ukQuserQgrQpublicQbh[hawk.html. Cetrieved ,77537-3,6.
6?. , 2almer, :.. *!sk an !strophsicistD .uantum =ravit and 8lack <oles*
(httpDQQimagine.gsfc.nasa.govQdocsQask[astroQanswersQ507;,7b.html) . N!S!.
httpDQQimagine.gsfc.nasa.govQdocsQask[astroQanswersQ507;,7b.html. Cetrieved ,77537-3,6.
66. ^
a

b
Nitta, :aisukeK Chiba, 'akeshiK Sugiama, Naoshi (September ,7%%), *Shadows of colliding black holes*,
hysical Revie# C 1. (6), ar@ivD%%76.,;, (httpDQQar9iv.orgQabsQ%%76.,;,) , 8ibcode ,7%%2hCv:..0;f-770N
(httpDQQadsabs.harvard.eduQabsQ,7%%2hCv:..0;f-770N) , doiD%7.%%7-Q2hsCev:.0;.76-770
(httpDQQd9.doi.orgQ%7.%%7-V,#2hsCev:.0;.76-770)
6B. , Nemiroff, C. 1. (%55-). *Iisual distortions near a neutron star and black hole*. %merican Journal of hysics
6/ (B)D 6%5. ar@ivDastro3phQ5-%,77- (httpDQQar9iv.orgQabsQastro3phQ5-%,77-) . 8ibcode %55-!m12h..6%..6%5N
(httpDQQadsabs.harvard.eduQabsQ%55-!m12h..6%..6%5N) . doiD%7.%%%5Q%.%B,,;
(httpDQQd9.doi.orgQ%7.%%%5V,#%.%B,,;) .
60. , Carroll ,77;, Ch. 6.6
65. , Carroll ,77;, Ch. 6.B
B7. , >instein, !. (%5-5). */n ! Stationar Sstem "ith Spherical Smmetr Consisting of Man =ravitating
Masses*. %nnals of Mathematics .4 (;)D 5,,G5-6. doiD%7.,-7BQ%56057,
(httpDQQd9.doi.orgQ%7.,-7BV,#%56057,) .
B%. , 4err, C. 2. (,775). *'he 4err and 4err3Schild metrics*. )n "iltshire, :. L.K Iisser, M.K Scott, S. M.. -he
:err Spacetime. Cambridge Jniversit 2ress. ar@ivD7B76.%%75 (httpDQQar9iv.orgQabsQ7B76.%%75) . )S8N 5B0373
?,%300?%,36.
B,. , <awking, S. ".K 2enrose, C. (1anuar %5B7). *'he Singularities of =ravitational Collapse and Cosmolog*.
roceedings of the Royal Society % 7/. (%?%5)D ?,5G?;0. 8ibcode %5B7CS2S!.-%;..?,5<
(httpDQQadsabs.harvard.eduQabsQ%5B7CS2S!.-%;..?,5<) . doiD%7.%750Qrspa.%5B7.77,%
(httpDQQd9.doi.orgQ%7.%750V,#rspa.%5B7.77,%) . 1S'/C ,;%6;6B (httpDQQwww.+stor.orgQstableQ,;%6;6B) .
B-. ^
a

b

c
Carroll ,77;, Section ?.0
B;. ^
a

b

c
Cees, M. 1.K Iolonteri, M. (,77B). *Massive black holesD formation and evolution*. )n 4aras, I.K Matt,
=.. *lac$ "oles from Stars to GalaxiesD%cross the Range of Masses. Cambridge Jniversit 2ress. pp. ?%G?0.
ar@ivDastro3phQ7B7%?%, (httpDQQar9iv.orgQabsQastro3phQ7B7%?%,) . )S8N 5B0373?,%306-;B36.
B?. , 2enrose, C. (,77,). *=ravitational CollapseD 'he Cole of =eneral Celativit*
(httpDQQwww.imamu.edu.saQScientific[selectionsQabstractsQ2hsicsQ=ravitationalV,7CollapseV,7'heV,7Cole
V,7ofV,7=eneral.pdf) . General Relativity and Gravitation 7. (B)D %%;%. 8ibcode ,77,=Ce=r..-;.%%;%2
(httpDQQadsabs.harvard.eduQabsQ,77,=Ce=r..-;.%%;%2) . doiD%7.%7,-Q!D%7%6?B0;70,7;
(httpDQQd9.doi.orgQ%7.%7,-V,#!V-!%7%6?B0;70,7;) .
httpDQQwww.imamu.edu.saQScientific[selectionsQabstractsQ2hsicsQ=ravitationalV,7CollapseV,7'heV,7ColeV
,7ofV,7=eneral.pdf.
B6. , Carr, 8. 1. (,77?). *2rimordial 8lack <olesD :o 'he >9ist and !re 'he JsefulZ*. )n Su(uki, <.K Uokoama,
1.K Suto, U. et al.. +nflating "orizon of article %strophysics and @osmology. Jniversal !cadem 2ress.
ar@ivDastro3phQ7?%%B;- (httpDQQar9iv.orgQabsQastro3phQ7?%%B;-) . )S8N ;35;6;;-35;37.
BB. , =iddings, S. 8.K 'homas, S. (,77,). *<igh energ colliders as black hole factoriesD 'he end of short distance
phsics*. hysical Revie# C 63 (?)D 7?67%7. ar@ivDhep3phQ7%76,%5 (httpDQQar9iv.orgQabsQhep3phQ7%76,%5) .
8ibcode ,77,2hCv:..6?e67%7= (httpDQQadsabs.harvard.eduQabsQ,77,2hCv:..6?e67%7=) .
doiD%7.%%7-Q2hsCev:.6?.7?67%7 (httpDQQd9.doi.orgQ%7.%%7-V,#2hsCev:.6?.7?67%7) .
B0. , <arada, '. (,776). *)s there a black hole minimum massZ*. hysical Revie# C 0. (0)D 70;77;. ar@ivDgr3
AcQ76757?? (httpDQQar9iv.orgQabsQgr3AcQ76757??) . 8ibcode ,7762hCv:..B;h;77;<
AcQ76757?? (httpDQQar9iv.orgQabsQgr3AcQ76757??) . 8ibcode ,7762hCv:..B;h;77;<
(httpDQQadsabs.harvard.eduQabsQ,7762hCv:..B;h;77;<) . doiD%7.%%7-Q2hsCev:.B;.70;77;
(httpDQQd9.doi.orgQ%7.%%7-V,#2hsCev:.B;.70;77;) .
B5. , !rkaniG<amed, N.K :imopoulos, S.K :vali, =. (%550). *'he hierarch problem and new dimensions at a
millimeter*. hysics .etters * .52 (-G;)D ,6-. ar@ivDhep3phQ507--%? (httpDQQar9iv.orgQabsQhep3phQ507--%?) .
8ibcode %5502hL8..;,5..,6-! (httpDQQadsabs.harvard.eduQabsQ%5502hL8..;,5..,6-!) . doiD%7.%7%6QS7-B73
,65-(50)77;663- (httpDQQd9.doi.orgQ%7.%7%6V,#S7-B73,65-V,050V,577;663-) .
07. , L<C Safet !ssessment =roup. *Ceview of the Safet of L<C Collisions*
(httpDQQlsag.web.cern.chQlsagQLS!=3Ceport.pdf) . C>CN. httpDQQlsag.web.cern.chQlsagQLS!=3Ceport.pdf.
0%. , Cavaglic, M. (,7%7). *2article accelerators as black hole factoriesZ* (httpDQQwww.einstein3
online.infoQenQspotlightsQaccelerators[bhQinde9.html) . Einstein'Enline (Ma9 2lanck )nstitute for =ravitational
2hsics (!lbert >instein )nstitute)) .D %7%7. httpDQQwww.einstein3
online.infoQenQspotlightsQaccelerators[bhQinde9.html.
0,. , Iesperini, >.K McMillan, S. L. ".K :F>rcole, !. et al. (,7%7). *)ntermediate3Mass 8lack <oles in >arl
=lobular Clusters*. -he %strophysical Journal .etters 0/7 (%)D L;%GL;;. ar@ivD%77-.-;B7
(httpDQQar9iv.orgQabsQ%77-.-;B7) . 8ibcode ,7%7!p1...B%-L..;%I
(httpDQQadsabs.harvard.eduQabsQ,7%7!p1...B%-L..;%I) . doiD%7.%700Q,7;%30,7?QB%-Q%QL;%
(httpDQQd9.doi.orgQ%7.%700V,#,7;%30,7?V,#B%-V,#%V,#L;%) .
0-. , Ywart, S. #. 2.K 8aumgardt, <.K <ut, 2. et al. (,77;). *#ormation of massive black holes through runawa
collisions in dense oung star clusters*. >ature .51 (650;)D B,;. ar@ivDastro3phQ7;7,6,,
(httpDQQar9iv.orgQabsQastro3phQ7;7,6,,) . 8ibcode ,77;Natur.;,0..B,;2
(httpDQQadsabs.harvard.eduQabsQ,77;Natur.;,0..B,;2) . doiD%7.%7-0Qnature7,;;0
(httpDQQd9.doi.orgQ%7.%7-0V,#nature7,;;0) . 2M): %?70?%,; (QQwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.govQpubmedQ%?70?%,;) .
0;. , /dlear, C. M.K Casio, #. !.K #regeau, 1. M. et al. (,776). *8inar Mergers and =rowth of 8lack <oles in
:ense Star Clusters*. -he %strophysical Journal 670 (,)D 5-B. ar@ivDastro3phQ7?70,,;
(httpDQQar9iv.orgQabsQastro3phQ7?70,,;) . 8ibcode ,776!p1...6-B..5-B/
(httpDQQadsabs.harvard.eduQabsQ,776!p1...6-B..5-B/) . doiD%7.%706Q;50;;6
(httpDQQd9.doi.orgQ%7.%706V,#;50;;6) .
0?. , 2age, :. N. (,77?). *<awking radiation and black hole thermodnamics*. >e# Journal of hysics 0D ,7-.
ar@ivDhep3thQ7;757,; (httpDQQar9iv.orgQabsQhep3thQ7;757,;) . 8ibcode ,77?N12h....B..,7-2
(httpDQQadsabs.harvard.eduQabsQ,77?N12h....B..,7-2) . doiD%7.%700Q%-6B3,6-7QBQ%Q,7-
(httpDQQd9.doi.orgQ%7.%700V,#%-6B3,6-7V,#BV,#%V,#,7-) .
06. , Carroll ,77;, Ch. 5.6
0B. , *>vaporating black holesZ* (httpDQQwww.einstein3online.infoQelementarQAuantumQevaporating[bhQZ
set[languageMen) . Einstein online. Ma9 2lanck )nstitute for =ravitational 2hsics. ,7%7. httpDQQwww.einstein3
online.infoQelementarQAuantumQevaporating[bhQZset[languageMen. Cetrieved ,7%73%,3%,.
00. , =iddings, S. 8.K Mangano, M. L. (,770). *!strophsical implications of hpothetical stable 'eI3scale black
holes*. hysical Revie# C 01 (-)D 7-?775. ar@ivD7076.--0% (httpDQQar9iv.orgQabsQ7076.--0%) . 8ibcode
,7702hCv:..B0c?775= (httpDQQadsabs.harvard.eduQabsQ,7702hCv:..B0c?775=) .
doiD%7.%%7-Q2hsCev:.B0.7-?775 (httpDQQd9.doi.orgQ%7.%%7-V,#2hsCev:.B0.7-?775) .
05. , 2eskin, M. >. (,770). *'he end of the world at the Large <adron ColliderZ*. hysics /D %;. 8ibcode
,7702h/1...%...%;2 (httpDQQadsabs.harvard.eduQabsQ,7702h/1...%...%;2) . doiD%7.%%7-Q2hsics.%.%;
(httpDQQd9.doi.orgQ%7.%%7-V,#2hsics.%.%;) .
57. , #ichtel, C. >.K 8ertsch, :. L.K :ingus, 8. L. et al. (%55;). *Search of the energetic gamma3ra e9periment
telescope (>=C>') data for high3energ gamma3ra microsecond bursts*. %strophysical Journal .7. (,)D ??BG
??5. 8ibcode %55;!p1...;-;..??B# (httpDQQadsabs.harvard.eduQabsQ%55;!p1...;-;..??B#) . doiD%7.%706Q%B;B?0
(httpDQQd9.doi.orgQ%7.%706V,#%B;B?0) .
5%. , Naee, C.. *'esting #undamental 2hsics*
(httpDQQwww.nasa.govQmission[pagesQ=L!S'QscienceQtesting[fundamental[phsics.html) . N!S!.
httpDQQwww.nasa.govQmission[pagesQ=L!S'QscienceQtesting[fundamental[phsics.html. Cetrieved ,7703753%6.
5,. , *>vent <ori(on 'elescope* (httpDQQwww.hastack.mit.eduQastQuvlbiQmmQeht.html) . M)' <astack
/bservator. httpDQQwww.hastack.mit.eduQastQuvlbiQmmQeht.html. Cetrieved 6 !pril ,7%,.
5-. ^
a

b

c
McClintock, 1. >.K Cemillard, C. !. (,776). *8lack <ole 8inaries*. )n Lewin, ".K van der 4lis, M..
@ompact Stellar &'ray Sources. Cambridge Jniversit 2ress. ar@ivDastro3phQ7-76,%-
(httpDQQar9iv.orgQabsQastro3phQ7-76,%-) . )S8N 73?,%30,6?53;. section ;.%.?.
5;. ^
a

b

c

d

e

f

g

h

i
Celotti, !.K Miller, 1. C.K Sciama, :. ". (%555). *!strophsical evidence for the e9istence of
black holes*. @lassical and Quantum Gravity /6 (%,!)D !-G!,%. ar@ivDastro3phQ55%,%06
black holes*. @lassical and Quantum Gravity /6 (%,!)D !-G!,%. ar@ivDastro3phQ55%,%06
(httpDQQar9iv.orgQabsQastro3phQ55%,%06) . doiD%7.%700Q7,6;35-0%Q%6Q%,!Q-7%
(httpDQQd9.doi.orgQ%7.%700V,#7,6;35-0%V,#%6V,#%,!V,#-7%) .
5?. , "inter, L. M.K Mushot(k, C. #.K Cenolds, C. S. (,776). *@MMNewton !rchival Stud of the
Jltraluminous @Ca 2opulation in Nearb =ala9ies*. -he %strophysical Journal 6.2 (,)D B-7. ar@ivDastro3
phQ7?%,;07 (httpDQQar9iv.orgQabsQastro3phQ7?%,;07) . 8ibcode ,776!p1...6;5..B-7"
(httpDQQadsabs.harvard.eduQabsQ,776!p1...6;5..B-7") . doiD%7.%706Q?76?B5
(httpDQQd9.doi.orgQ%7.%706V,#?76?B5) .
56. , 8olton, C. '. (%5B,). *)dentification of Cgnus @3% with <:> ,,6060*. >ature 573 (?--6)D ,B%G,B-.
8ibcode %5B,Natur.,-?..,B%8 (httpDQQadsabs.harvard.eduQabsQ%5B,Natur.,-?..,B%8) . doiD%7.%7-0Q,-?,B%b7
(httpDQQd9.doi.orgQ%7.%7-0V,#,-?,B%b7) .
5B. , "ebster, 8. L.K Murdin, 2. (%5B,). *Cgnus @3%Ea Spectroscopic 8inar with a <eav Companion Z*.
>ature 573 (?--,)D -BG-0. 8ibcode %5B,Natur.,-?...-B"
(httpDQQadsabs.harvard.eduQabsQ%5B,Natur.,-?...-B") . doiD%7.%7-0Q,-?7-Ba7
(httpDQQd9.doi.orgQ%7.%7-0V,#,-?7-Ba7) .
50. , Colston, 8. (%7 November %55B). *'he #irst 8lack <ole*
(httpDQQweb.archive.orgQwebQ,7707?7,,-7,%;QhttpDQQnews.utoronto.caQbinQbulletinQnov%7[5BQart;.htm) . -he
(ulletin. Jniversit of 'oronto. !rchived from the original
(httpDQQnews.utoronto.caQbinQbulletinQnov%7[5BQart;.htm) on ,77037?37,.
httpDQQweb.archive.orgQwebQ,7707?7,,-7,%;QhttpDQQnews.utoronto.caQbinQbulletinQnov%7[5BQart;.htm. Cetrieved
,77037-3%%.
55. , Shipman, <. L. (% 1anuar %5B?). *'he implausible histor of triple star models for Cgnus @3% >vidence for
a black hole*. %strophysical .etters /6 (%)D 5G%,. 8ibcode %5B?!pL....%6....5S
(httpDQQadsabs.harvard.eduQabsQ%5B?!pL....%6....5S) . doiD%7.%7%6QS7-7;300?-(55)77-0;3;
(httpDQQd9.doi.orgQ%7.%7%6V,#S7-7;300?-V,055V,577-0;3;) .
%77. , Naraan, C.K McClintock, 1. (,770). *!dvection3dominated accretion and the black hole event hori(on*. >e#
%stronomy Revie#s 3/ (%7G%,)D B--. ar@ivD707-.7-,, (httpDQQar9iv.orgQabsQ707-.7-,,) . 8ibcode
,770New!C..?%..B--N (httpDQQadsabs.harvard.eduQabsQ,770New!C..?%..B--N) .
doiD%7.%7%6Q+.newar.,770.7-.77, (httpDQQd9.doi.orgQ%7.%7%6V,#+.newar.,770.7-.77,) .
%7%. , *N!S! scientists identif smallest known black hole* (httpDQQwww.eurekalert.orgQpub[releasesQ,77037;Qnsfc3
nsi7;7%70.php) (2ress release). =oddard Space #light Center. ,77037;37%.
httpDQQwww.eurekalert.orgQpub[releasesQ,77037;Qnsfc3nsi7;7%70.php. Cetrieved ,77537-3%;.
%7,. , 4rolik, 1. <. (%555). %ctive Galactic >uclei (httpDQQbooks.google.comQZ
idMoC40otMi")gC\printsecMfrontcover\dAM!ctiveO=alacticONuclei]vMonepage\A\fMfalse) . 2rinceton
Jniversit 2ress. Ch. %.,. )S8N 7365%37%%?%36. httpDQQbooks.google.comQZ
idMoC40otMi")gC\printsecMfrontcover\dAM!ctiveO=alacticONuclei]vMonepage\A\fMfalse.
%7-. , Sparke, L. S.K =allagher, 1. S. (,777). Galaxies in the Aniverse: %n +ntroduction (httpDQQbooks.google.comQZ
idMN0<ngab?li.C\printsecMfrontcover\dAM=ala9iesOinOtheOJniverseDO!nO)ntroduction]vMonepage\A\fMf
alse) . Cambridge Jniversit 2ress. Ch. 5.%. )S8N $$SpecialD8ookSourcesQ73?,%3?5B7;3;e73?,%3?5B7;3;&&.
httpDQQbooks.google.comQZ
idMN0<ngab?li.C\printsecMfrontcover\dAM=ala9iesOinOtheOJniverseDO!nO)ntroduction]vMonepage\A\fMf
alse.
%7;. , 4ormend, 1.K Cichstone, :. (%55?). *)nward 8oundE'he Search #or Supermassive 8lack <oles )n =alactic
Nuclei*. %nnual Revie#s of %stronomy and %strophysics 77 (%)D ?0%G6,;. 8ibcode %55?!C!\!..--..?0%4
(httpDQQadsabs.harvard.eduQabsQ%55?!C!\!..--..?0%4) . doiD%7.%%;6Qannurev.aa.--.757%5?.77-7?-
(httpDQQd9.doi.orgQ%7.%%;6V,#annurev.aa.--.757%5?.77-7?-) .
%7?. , 4ing, !. (,77-). *8lack <oles, =ala9 #ormation, and the M8<3f Celation*. -he %strophysical Journal
.etters 326 (%)D ,BG,5. ar@ivDastro3phQ7-70-;, (httpDQQar9iv.orgQabsQastro3phQ7-70-;,) . 8ibcode
,77-!p1...?56L..,B4 (httpDQQadsabs.harvard.eduQabsQ,77-!p1...?56L..,B4) . doiD%7.%706Q-B5%;-
(httpDQQd9.doi.orgQ%7.%706V,#-B5%;-) .
%76. , #errarese, L.K Merritt, :. (,777). *! #undamental Celation 8etween Supermassive 8lack <oles and their <ost
=ala9ies*. -he %strophysical Journal .etters 372 (%)D 5G%,. ar@ivDastro3phQ77767?- (httpDQQar9iv.orgQabsQastro3
phQ77767?-) . 8ibcode ,777!p1...?-5L...5# (httpDQQadsabs.harvard.eduQabsQ,777!p1...?-5L...5#) .
doiD%7.%706Q-%,0-0 (httpDQQd9.doi.orgQ%7.%706V,#-%,0-0) .
%7B. , *! 8lack <oleFs :inner is #ast !pproaching* (httpDQQwww.eso.orgQpublicQnewsQeso%%?%Q) . ESE ress
Release. httpDQQwww.eso.orgQpublicQnewsQeso%%?%Q. Cetrieved 6 #ebruar ,7%,.
%70. ^
a

b
=illessen, S.K >isenhauer, #.K 'rippe, S. et al. (,775). *Monitoring Stellar /rbits around the Massive 8lack
%70. ^ =illessen, S.K >isenhauer, #.K 'rippe, S. et al. (,775). *Monitoring Stellar /rbits around the Massive 8lack
<ole in the =alactic Center*. -he %strophysical Journal 625 (,)D %7B?. ar@ivD70%7.;6B;
(httpDQQar9iv.orgQabsQ70%7.;6B;) . 8ibcode ,775!p1...65,.%7B?=
(httpDQQadsabs.harvard.eduQabsQ,775!p1...65,.%7B?=) . doiD%7.%700Q777;36-B@Q65,Q,Q%7B?
(httpDQQd9.doi.orgQ%7.%700V,#777;36-B@V,#65,V,#,V,#%7B?) .
%75. ^
a

b
=he(, !. M.K 4lein, 8. L.K Morris, M. et al. (%550). *<igh 2roperMotion Stars in the Iicinit of
Sagittarius !WD >vidence for a Supermassive 8lack <ole at the Center of /ur =ala9*. -he %strophysical
Journal 342 (,)D 6B0. ar@ivDastro3phQ507B,%7 (httpDQQar9iv.orgQabsQastro3phQ507B,%7) . 8ibcode
%550!p1...?75..6B0= (httpDQQadsabs.harvard.eduQabsQ%550!p1...?75..6B0=) . doiD%7.%706Q-76?,0
(httpDQQd9.doi.orgQ%7.%706V,#-76?,0) .
%%7. ^
a

b
8o((a, I. (,7%7). *=ravitational Lensing b 8lack <oles*. General Relativity and Gravitation (;,)D ,,65G
,-77. ar@ivD75%%.,%0B (httpDQQar9iv.orgQabsQ75%%.,%0B) . 8ibcode ,7%7=Ce=r..;,.,,658
(httpDQQadsabs.harvard.eduQabsQ,7%7=Ce=r..;,.,,658) . doiD%7.%77BQs%7B%;37%7375003,
(httpDQQd9.doi.orgQ%7.%77BV,#s%7B%;37%7375003,) .
%%%. , 8arack, L.K Cutler, C. (,77;). *L)S! capture sourcesD !ppro9imate waveforms, signal3to3noise ratios, and
parameter estimation accurac*. hysical Revie# C (65)D 70,77?. ar@ivDgr3AcQ7-%7%,?
(httpDQQar9iv.orgQabsQgr3AcQ7-%7%,?) . 8ibcode ,77;2hCv:..65h,77?8
(httpDQQadsabs.harvard.eduQabsQ,77;2hCv:..65h,77?8) . doiD%7.%%7-Q2hsCev:.65.70,77?
(httpDQQd9.doi.orgQ%7.%%7-V,#2hsCev:.65.70,77?) .
%%,. , 4ovacs, Y.K Cheng, 4. S.K <arko, '. (,775). *Can stellar mass black holes be Auark starsZ*. Monthly >otices
of the Royal %stronomical Society .44 (-)D %6-,G%6;,. ar@ivD7570.,6B, (httpDQQar9iv.orgQabsQ7570.,6B,) .
8ibcode ,775MNC!S.;77.%6-,4 (httpDQQadsabs.harvard.eduQabsQ,775MNC!S.;77.%6-,4) .
doiD%7.%%%%Q+.%-6?3,566.,775.%??B%.9 (httpDQQd9.doi.orgQ%7.%%%%V,#+.%-6?3,566.,775.%??B%.9) .
%%-. , 4usenko, !. (,776). *2roperties and signatures of supersmmetric .3balls*. ar@ivDhep3phQ76%,%?5
(httpDQQar9iv.orgQabsQhep3phQ76%,%?5) $hep3ph (httpDQQar9iv.orgQarchiveQhep3ph) &.
%%;. , <ansson, 1.K Sandin, #. (,77?). *2reon starsD a new class of cosmic compact ob+ects*. hysics .etters * 6/6
(%G,)D %. ar@ivDastro3phQ7;%7;%B (httpDQQar9iv.orgQabsQastro3phQ7;%7;%B) . 8ibcode ,77?2hL8..6%6....%<
(httpDQQadsabs.harvard.eduQabsQ,77?2hL8..6%6....%<) . doiD%7.%7%6Q+.phsletb.,77?.7;.7-;
(httpDQQd9.doi.orgQ%7.%7%6V,#+.phsletb.,77?.7;.7-;) .
%%?. , 4iefer, C. (,776). *.uantum gravitD general introduction and recent developments*. %nnalen der hysi$ /3
(%G,)D %,5. ar@ivDgr3AcQ7?70%,7 (httpDQQar9iv.orgQabsQgr3AcQ7?70%,7) . 8ibcode ,776!n2...?%0..%,54
(httpDQQadsabs.harvard.eduQabsQ,776!n2...?%0..%,54) . doiD%7.%77,Qandp.,77?%7%B?
(httpDQQd9.doi.orgQ%7.%77,V,#andp.,77?%7%B?) .
%%6. , Skenderis, 4.K 'alor, M. (,770). *'he fu((ball proposal for black holes*. hysics Reports .60 (;G?)D %%B.
ar@ivD707;.7??, (httpDQQar9iv.orgQabsQ707;.7??,) . 8ibcode ,7702hC...;6B..%%BS
(httpDQQadsabs.harvard.eduQabsQ,7702hC...;6B..%%BS) . doiD%7.%7%6Q+.phsrep.,770.70.77%
(httpDQQd9.doi.orgQ%7.%7%6V,#+.phsrep.,770.70.77%) .
%%B. , <awking, S. ". (%5B%). *=ravitational Cadiation from Colliding 8lack <oles*. hysical Revie# .etters 56
(,%)D %-;;G%-;6. 8ibcode %5B%2hCvL..,6.%-;;< (httpDQQadsabs.harvard.eduQabsQ%5B%2hCvL..,6.%-;;<) .
doiD%7.%%7-Q2hsCevLett.,6.%-;; (httpDQQd9.doi.orgQ%7.%%7-V,#2hsCevLett.,6.%-;;) .
%%0. ^
a

b
"ald, C. M. (,77%). *'he 'hermodnamics of 8lack <oles* (httpDQQwww.livingreviews.orgQlrr3,77%36) .
.iving Revie#s in Relativity . (6). ar@ivDgr3AcQ55%,%%5 (httpDQQar9iv.orgQabsQgr3AcQ55%,%%5) . 8ibcode
%555gr.Ac....%,%%5" (httpDQQadsabs.harvard.eduQabsQ%555gr.Ac....%,%%5") . httpDQQwww.livingreviews.orgQlrr3
,77%36. Cetrieved ,7%%37,3%7.
%%5. , Ft <ooft, =. (,77%). *'he <olographic 2rinciple*. )n Yichichi, !.. *asics and highlights in f undamental
physics. Subnuclear series. 70. "orld Scientific. ar@ivDhep3thQ777-77; (httpDQQar9iv.orgQabsQhep3thQ777-77;) .
)S8N 5B0350%37,3;?-630.
%,7. , Strominger, !.K Iafa, C. (%556). *Microscopic origin of the 8ekenstein3<awking entrop*. hysics .etters *
702 (%G;)D 55. ar@ivDhep3thQ567%7,5 (httpDQQar9iv.orgQabsQhep3thQ567%7,5) . 8ibcode %5562hL8..-B5...55S
(httpDQQadsabs.harvard.eduQabsQ%5562hL8..-B5...55S) . doiD%7.%7%6Q7-B73,65-(56)77-;?37
(httpDQQd9.doi.orgQ%7.%7%6V,#7-B73,65-V,056V,577-;?37) .
%,%. , Carlip, S. (,775). *8lack <ole 'hermodnamics and Statistical Mechanics*. .ecture >otes in hysics 062D 05.
ar@ivD707B.;?,7 (httpDQQar9iv.orgQabsQ707B.;?,7) . doiD%7.%77BQ5B03-3?;7300;6736[-
(httpDQQd9.doi.orgQ%7.%77BV,#5B03-3?;7300;6736[-) .
%,,. , <awking, S. ".. *:oes =od 2la :iceZ* (httpDQQwww.hawking.org.ukQdoes3god3pla3dice.html) .
###Fha#$ingForgFu$. httpDQQwww.hawking.org.ukQdoes3god3pla3dice.html. Cetrieved ,77537-3%;.
%,-. , =iddings, S. 8. (%55?). *'he black hole information parado9*. articles/ Strings and @osmology. 1ohns
%,-. =iddings, S. 8. (%55?). *'he black hole information parado9*. articles/ Strings and @osmology. 1ohns
<opkins "orkshop on Current 2roblems in 2article 'heor %5 and the 2!SC/S )nterdisciplinar Smposium
?. ar@ivDhep3thQ5?70%?% (httpDQQar9iv.orgQabsQhep3thQ5?70%?%) .
%,;. , Mathur, S. :. (,7%%). *'he information parado9D conflicts and resolutions*. @@I )nternational Smposium
on Lepton 2hoton )nteractions at <igh >nergies. ar@ivD%,7%.,7B5 (httpDQQar9iv.orgQabsQ%,7%.,7B5) .
Further reading
2opular reading
#erguson, 4itt (%55%). *lac$ "oles in Space'-ime. "atts #ranklin. )S8N 73?-%3%,?,;36.
<awking, Stephen (%500). % *rief "istory of -ime. 8antam 8ooks, )nc. )S8N 73??-3-07%630.
<awking, StephenK 2enrose, Coger (%556). -he >ature of Space and -ime (httpDQQbooks.google.comQZ
idMLsta.'@26?cC) . 2rinceton Jniversit 2ress. )S8N $$SpecialD8ookSourcesQ7365%37-B5%3,e73
65%37-B5%3,&&. httpDQQbooks.google.comQZidMLsta.'@26?cC.
Melia, #ulvio (,77-). -he *lac$ "ole at the @enter of Eur Galaxy. 2rinceton J 2ress. )S8N 5B0373
65%375?7?35.
Melia, #ulvio (,77-). -he Edge of +nfinityF Supermassive *lac$ "oles in the Aniverse. Cambridge J
2ress. )S8N 5B0373?,%30%;7?30.
2ickover, Clifford (%550). *lac$ "oles: % -ravelerGs Guide. "ile, 1ohn \ Sons, )nc. )S8N 73;B%3
%5B7;3%.
Stern, 8. (,770). *8lackhole* (httpDQQwww.wikilivres.caQwikiQ8lackhole[V,0SternV,5) .
httpDQQwww.wikilivres.caQwikiQ8lackhole[V,0SternV,5., poem.
'horne, 4ip S. (%55;). *lac$ "oles and -ime <arps. Norton, ". ". \ Compan, )nc. )S8N 73-5-3
-%,B63-.
"heeler, 1. Craig (,77B). @osmic @atastrophes (,nd ed.). Cambridge Jniversit 2ress. )S8N 73?,%3
0?B%;3B.
Jniversit te9tbooks and monographs
Carroll, Sean M. (,77;). Spacetime and Geometry. !ddison "esle. )S8N 7307?-30B-,3-., the
lecture notes on which the book was based are available for free from Sean CarrollFs website
(httpDQQpancake.uchicago.eduQLcarrollQnotesQ) .
Carter, 8. (%5B-). *8lack hole eAuilibrium states*. )n :e"itt, 8.S.K :e"itt, C.. *lac$ "oles.
Chandrasekhar, Subrahmanan (%555). Mathematical -heory of *lac$ "oles. /9ford Jniversit
2ress. )S8N 73%530?7-B735.
#rolov, I.2.K Novikov, ).:. (%550). *lac$ hole physics.
<awking, S.".K >llis, =.#.C. (%5B-). .arge Scale Structure of space time (httpDQQbooks.google.comQZ
idM.ag=[4)BLl0C) . Cambridge Jniversit 2ress. )S8N 73?,%3755763;. httpDQQbooks.google.comQZ
idM.ag=[4)BLl0C.
Melia, #ulvio (,77B). -he Galactic Supermassive *lac$ "ole. 2rinceton J 2ress. )S8N 5B037365%3
%-%,537.
'alor, >dwin #.K "heeler, 1ohn !rchibald (,777). Exploring *lac$ "oles. !ddison "esle Longman.
)S8N 73,7%3-0;,-3@.
'horne, 4ip S.K Misner, CharlesK "heeler, 1ohn (%5B-). Gravitation. ". <. #reeman and Compan.
)S8N 73B%6B37-;;37.
"ald, Cobert M. (%50;). General Relativity (httpDQQbooks.google.comQbooksZidM5S3h(g63moUC) .
Jniversit of Chicago 2ress. )S8N 5B0373,,630B7--3?. httpDQQbooks.google.comQbooksZidM5S3h(g63
moUC.
"ald, Cobert M. (%55,). Space/ -ime/ and Gravity: -he -heory of the *ig *ang and *lac$ "oles.
Jniversit of Chicago 2ress. )S8N 73,,630B7,53;.
Jniversit of Chicago 2ress. )S8N 73,,630B7,53;.
Ceview papers
=allo, >lenaK Marolf, :onald (,775). *Cesource Letter 8<3,D 8lack <oles*. %merican Journal of
hysics 00 (;)D ,5;. ar@ivD7076.,-%6 (httpDQQar9iv.orgQabsQ7076.,-%6) . 8ibcode
,775!m12h..BB..,5;= (httpDQQadsabs.harvard.eduQabsQ,775!m12h..BB..,5;=) .
doiD%7.%%%5Q%.-7?6?65 (httpDQQd9.doi.orgQ%7.%%%5V,#%.-7?6?65) .
<ughes, Scott !. (,77?). *'rust but verifD 'he case for astrophsical black holes*. ar@ivDhep3
phQ7?%%,%B (httpDQQar9iv.orgQabsQhep3phQ7?%%,%B) $hep3ph (httpDQQar9iv.orgQarchiveQhep3ph) &. Lecture
notes from ,77? SL!C Summer )nstitute.
E*ternal links
8lack <oles (httpDQQwww.bbc.co.ukQprogrammesQp77?;Bf;) on +n Eur -ime at the 88C. (listen now
(httpDQQwww.bbc.co.ukQiplaerQconsoleQp77?;Bf;Q)n[/ur['ime[8lack[<oles) )
Stanford >ncclopedia of 2hilosophD *Singularities and 8lack <oles
(httpDQQplato.stanford.eduQentriesQspacetime3singularitiesQ) * b >rik Curiel and 2eter 8okulich.
*8lack hole (httpDQQwww.scholarpedia.orgQarticleQ8lack[hole) * on Scholarpedia.
8lack <olesD =ravitFs Celentless 2ull (httpDQQhubblesite.orgQe9plore[astronomQblack[holesQ) E
)nteractive multimedia "eb site about the phsics and astronom of black holes from the Space
'elescope Science )nstitute
#!. on black holes (httpDQQantwrp.gsfc.nasa.govQhtmltestQgifcitQbh[pub[faA.html)
*Schwar(schild =eometr (httpDQQcasa.colorado.eduQLa+shQschwp.html) *
!dvanced Mathematics of 8lack <ole >vaporation
(httpDQQlibrar.thinkAuest.orgQC77B?B%QenglishQadvanceQcore0.htm)
Iideos
%63ear long stud tracks stars orbiting Milk "a black hole
(httpDQQwww.eso.orgQpublicQvideosQeso70;6bQ)
Movie of 8lack <ole Candidate from Ma9 2lanck )nstitute (httpDQQwww.mpe.mpg.deQirQ=CQinde9.php)
Cetrieved from *httpDQQen.wikipedia.orgQwQinde9.phpZtitleM8lack[hole\oldidM?%?5655,?*
CategoriesD 8lack holes :ark matter =ala9ies 'heor of relativit
'his page was last modified on ; /ctober ,7%, at %;D;0.
'e9t is available under the Creative Commons !ttribution3Share!like LicenseK additional terms ma
appl. See 'erms of use for details.
"ikipediag is a registered trademark of the "ikimedia #oundation, )nc., a non3profit organi(ation.