3.1 Measurement of Precipitation Data 3.2 Precipitation Gauges 3.2.1 Rain Gauges 3.2.2 Autographic rain gauge 3.2.3 Tipping Bucket Rain Gauge 3.2.4 Precipitation Measurement by Weather Radar 3.3 Measurements Related to Snow 3.3.1 Measurement of Snow Cover and Properties by Remote-Sensing 3.4 Processing of Rainfall Data 3.4.1 Internal consistency check 3.4.2 Scrutiny of Precipitation Data by Multiple Time Series Graphs 3.4.3 Correction and completion of rainfall data 3.4.4 Spatial Consistency Check 3.5 Spatial Averaging of Rainfall Data 3.5.1 Arithmetic Average 3.5.2 Thiessen Polygon 3.5.3 Isohyetal Method 3.6 Estimation of Missing Data 3.6.1 Normal Ratio Method 3.6.2 Distance power method 3.7 Disaggregation of Rainfall Data 3.8 Estimation of mean areal precipitation in mountainous areas 3.9 Storage of precipitation data in data bank 3.10 Rain Storm Analysis
The objectives of this module are: To explain the methods of measurement of precipitation data, To discuss techniques of validation and processing of precipitation. To explain the distribution of daily precipitation data into shorter duration. Methods of mean areal precipitation estimation in plain and mountainous areas are explained with illustrative example to enable participants to achieve the capability of carrying out the analysis themselves.
3.1 MEASUREMENT OF PRECIPITATION DATA The amount, intensity and spatial distribution of precipitation are important inputs in most hydrological studies. The total amount of precipitation which reaches the ground in a stated period is expressed as the depth to which it would cover a horizontal projection of the earth's surface. If any part of the precipitation is snow or ice, its depth when melted is included (WMO, 1994). The unit of precipitation is length and daily amounts should be read to the nearest 0.1 mm. Weekly, fortnightly, and monthly amounts should, however, be read to the nearest 1 mm at least. In India, daily observations of precipitation along with other meteorological variables are made at 08:30 am.
3.2 Precipitation Gauges Precipitation (which includes solid and liquid part) is measured using a gauge which consists of a collector to delineate the area of the sample and collect it and a funnel which leads to a sample storage device. The precipitation, after it is collected, is measured by transferring the contents to a graduated measuring jar. Different types of gauges are used to measure liquid and solid (snow) precipitation.
Since the size, shape and exposure affect the precipitation caught by a gauge, standard gauges are used so that the observations can be compared and there is consistent use of data. The Symon's rain gauge has been adopted as the standard rain gauge In India. To install the gauge, a masonry or concrete platform is sunk into the ground and the gauge is placed on it such that the rim of the gauge is perfectly levelled and is approximately 30 cm above the ground. In a non- recording instrument, the precipitation measured at 8:30 am on any particular date is entered against that date and it is understood that this precipitation has been received in 24 hours preceding the time and day of observation.
3.2.1 Rain Gauges Basically, there are three types of rain gauges:
Standard or ordinary rain gauges (ORG) are manually read, commonly once a day. Self-recording rain gauges (SRRG) record the rainfall depth in the form of a continuous plot. Automatic rain gauges with data logger. Data are stored in digital form either as rainfall at fixed interval or as timings for each event of rainfall of fixed depth.
An ordinary rain gauge or ORG (see Fig. 3.1) is a simple device consisting of a collector and a funnel. A standard rain gauge consists of a circular collector funnel with a brass or gun metal rim and the rainfall collection area of either 200 cm 2 (diameter 159.5 mm) or 100 cm 2
(diameter 112.8 mm). The funnel leads to a base unit, partly embedded in the ground and containing, a polythene or glass collector bottle. The gauge is read once (usually) or twice daily and any rain gathered in the collector is poured into a measuring graduated measuring glass cylinder to determine rainfall depth in millimetres. Since rainfall received by the ORG is measured and recorded manually, errors may be introduced by the observer in many ways. Observer may read the measuring cylinder incorrectly or may i wrong tim measurin Hence pr also arise the funne (partly) l that erro records a values. E from a re
Fig. 3.1
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Fig. 3.3
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e. n the funnel i different tha after non-s may fail to r fault or ligh ORG) due to be distinguis t and the tim ll will not b chart. of recording different ex a is consider ctor funnel w h sit on a kni ount (say, 0.0 s recorded t the second s with the time l input is no ment can be e ector funnel. is (partially an the rate o standard rain register tips htning strike o of differen shed. Furthe mings will be be recorded station and xposure con red to be mo with a brass ife edge (Fig 025cm) of ra to provide d side of buck e of tip and ot used in da easily calibra blocked) so of rainfall. I nfall or the or may doub etc. Differen nt exposure c er, the clock e incorrect. I correctly. O the daily ra nditions, diff ore correct w or gunmeta g. 3.3). After ain, the asse data of rain f ket, and so o the data ma ata observati ated and che that water e If the bucket tipping ma ble register t nces may ar conditions. k may If the On his ainfall ferent where al rim r rain embly fallen on. A ay be on or ecked enters ts are ay be them. ise in 3.2.4 Precipitation Measurement by Weather Radar Although rain gauges are in use for a very long time, they suffer from a limitation: a rain gauge gives the point value of rainfall but in almost all hydrologic studies, spatially averaged values are required. Weather radars have been developed to overcome this limitation.
The word radar stands for radio detection and ranging. Weather radar sends electromagnetic waves in all directions. When these waves collide with raindrops, an echo of the waves is produced which is caught back by the radar. The strength of echo or returning signal depends on the intensity of the falling rain and the time taken by the echo to reach the radar depends upon the distance of the rainfall field from the radar.
A radar is calibrated using the data of rain gauges and relationship between the radar reflectivity Z (mm 6 /m 3 or the sixth power of the diameter of raindrops in mm per cubic meter of the atmosphere) and rainfall intensity R (mm/h), known as Z-R relationship is established. A commonly used empirical equation is:
Z =200 R 1.6 (3.1)
The main advantage of the weather radar is that it can give the estimates of rainfall over wide areas along with location and movement of storms. Weather radars can also measure localized storms which may be missed by rain gauges. The range of radar depends on the hardware; radars with range up to hundreds of km are common these days. The factors that control the measurement of precipitation are its type, size of raindrops, width of the radar beam, refraction of beam and atmospheric attenuation. Combined use of rain gauges and radars provides much more improved rainfall estimates than what any single of them could provide.
A radar can measure precipitation over areas that are difficult to access and gives areal coverage of rainfall distribution, it is possible to detect the movement of rainfall and most systems are capable of automatic data processing. The spatial distribution of rainfall is simultaneously displayed on a monitor. Due to these reasons, the use of weather radars in precipitation measurement and warning is increasing. These have been found to be particularly useful in flood forecasting and warning. On the negative side, the measurements from weather radar are affected by echoes from the ground or ground clutter. In some cases, these radars have been found to underestimate light rainfall and overestimate heavy rainfall.
Satellites are also being used to estimate precipitation over large areas and in near real- time. Images from geostationary and polar orbiting satellites along with cloud top temperature, shape, texture, and cloud history are used for estimation of precipitation. Another possibility is to combine satellite images with radar data to obtain improved estimates.