LFC Using SMES and EDLC

Adaptive control for improved LFC in an interconnected power system incorporating energy storage devices
Department Of Electrical Engineering Page 1

ABSTRACT

This project presents a method of automatic generation control of power system by including
energy storage devices (SMES & EDL!" This techni#ue is applied to a control system that includes two
areas having reheat and non$reheat steam turbines and connected through power$line" % discrete &time
model of this system is developed and simulated by using M%TL%' (rograming" %s a conse#uence of
continually load variation) the fre#uency of the power system changes over time" *n conventional) studies)
fre#uency transients are minimi+ed by using conventional integral and proportional controllers aiming of
secondary control of %, and +ero steady$state error is obtained after sufficient delay time" *n this study)
the conventional (* controller is retained and storage device unit incorporated in both areas" The effect of a
small capacity energy storage system is studied in relation to supplying sudden power re#uirements of real
power load" %ccording to the deviation of the power system energy demand) the storage device releases
the needed energy or absorbs residue energy from power system" The results obtained by using SMES &
EDL devices outperform than those of the conventional control method as settling time and overshoot as"
shown at simulation
The SMES device is controlled by a two #uadrant chopper (lass D! arrangement) by controlling
duty cycle of the choppers" The EDL device is also controlled by two #uadrant chopper (lass !
arrangement) by controlling the desired value of the current"

(ower system parameters are a function of the operating point" To -eep the system performance near its
optimum) it is desirable to trac- the operating point and use the updated parameters to compute the control
signal"*t may be possible to represent such a system by a linear low order discrete time model with time
varying parameters" % recursive least s#uares(.LS! parameter estimation techni#ue) which has a fast
convergence rate is used in this wor- to estimate these time varying parameters" 'ased on this model
which is trac-s the operating conditions of the system) control is computed using a minimum variance
strategy" Thus) the process is the e#uivalent of a controller with dynamically changing coefficients and is
referred to as the self tuning regulator (ST.!"



Chapter 1______________________________

Modeling And Control Of
Electric Power Systems



1. INTRODUCTION________________________________________________
% power system must be able to meet reasonable power demands by large and small customers of
domestic) commercial and industrial type" *t must withstand with reasonable security the capricious forces
of nature" *n an age of high energy costs it is called upon to transform the prime energy resources into
electric form with an optimum overall efficiency" The control functions are obviously many and varied"

Some control and decision processes) e/emplified by the optimal utili+ation of the controlled flow of
river systems involve dynamics with month$long time constants" 0ther phenomena) li-e the transients on
the transmission lines following lightning stri-es) run their course in a few milliseconds"

The slower control processes are normally handled by computer$assisted human operators" The
faster control functions are trusted to fully automatic control systems of either open or closed$ loop nature"

% power system involves various control strategies of varying degrees at different stages" %t the
initial stage of a power system (generating unit!) there is a direct control over generation while the load1
demand is unpredictable" Thus there should e/ist a control system) the purpose of which is to continuously
monitor the mismatch between the generation and demand and to adjust the new operating point
accordingly" Such a generation control is performed automatically and is referred to as %utomatic
,eneration ontrol (AGC!"The first attempt in the area of AGC has been to control the fre#uency of a power
system via the flywheel governor of the synchronous machine" This techni#ue was subse#uently found to be
insufficient) and a supplementary control was included to the governor with the help of a signal directly
proportional to the fre#uency deviation plus its integral" This scheme constitutes the classical approach to the
AGC of power systems" 2ery early wor-s in this important area of AGC have been by 3ohn4" These wor-s
were based on tie$line bias control strategy" 35ua++a4 illustrated non interactive control considering

i! non interaction between fre#uency and tie$line powers controls and
ii! each control area ta-ing care of its own load variations"
The investigations with large signal dynamics of load 6re#uency onrol (LFC! systems were reported by
3%ggarwal4 and 3'ergseth4" The revolutionary optimal control concept for AGC regulator designs of
interconnected power systems was initialed by 3Elgerd4" % techni#ue based on coordinated system$wide
correction of time error and inadvertent interchange was incorporated in an AGC study by 3ohn4"


Supplementary controllers were designed to regulate the ACEs to +ero effectively" Later on) energy source
dynamics were incorporated in %, regulator design"

2. AGC INCORPORATING BES, SMES AND EDLC STORAGE DEVICES____
onventional AGC system is followed by fre#uency and tie$line power deviations) which are
characteri+ed by larger settling times) higher overshoots etc" Such oscillations can be effectively reduced
and1 or damped by incorporating storage devices" *n this project report) the controllers for such storage
devices have been devised and then the improvement in AGC with such devices have been studied) both
for reheat and non$reheat types of steam turbines in parallel with the bac-lash non$linearity"

Most of the solutions proposed so far for AGC have not been implemented practically due to system
operational constraints associated with thermal power plants" The main reason is the non availability of
re#uired power other than the stored energy in the generator rotors) which can improve the performance of
the system) in the wa-e of sudden increased load demands" % fast$acting BES can effectively dampen
electromechanical oscillations in a power system) because they provide storage capacity in addition to the
-inetic energy of the generator rotor) which can share the sudden changes in the power re#uirement"

The problems li-e low discharge rate) increased time re#uired for power$flow reversal) and the
maintenance re#uirement have led to the evolution of SMESs for their application as load fre#uency
stabili+ers" The use of ACE for the control of SMES units substantially reduces the tie$line power deviation)
and the action of SMES is locali+ed with diminished contribution for load disturbances in the other
interconnected area) as compared to using fre#uency deviation as the control signal" *t has been observed that
when the SMES control is adaptive) the performance is almost insensitive to controller gain parameter variation"



DYNAMIC INCREAMENTAL STATE VARIABLES____ _ ___________
*n static operation the angular nominal fre#uency

o
= 2 f
o

is constant throughout the system) and the individual bus voltages have the form
v
i
= 2 |V
i
o
| sin(
o
t+
i
o
) (1)

7e identify |Vi| and i as our static state variables" 7hen the system is subject to small dynamic
perturbations) these state variables will undergo small changes8 i"e") we can write

i
=
i
o
+
i

(2)

|V
i
| = |V
i
o
| + |V
i
|

and the bus voltages will therefore be of the form
V
i
= 2 (|V
i
o
| + |V
i
|) sin(
o
t +
i
o
+
i
) (3)

The angular velocity
i
of the ith bus e#uals

i
= d(
o
t +
i
o
+
i
) =
o
+d
i
(4)
dt dt

%nd is no longer constant) since it evidently is characteri+ed by a non$+ero perturbation

i
= d
i
r/s
Dt

or) if e/pressed in cycles1sec)
f
i
= 1 d
i
Hz (5)
2 dt



3. THE MEGAWATT FREQUENCY CONTROL PROBLEM___ _________ __
7e shall first consider the problem of controlling the real power output of electric generators within
a prescribed area in response to changes in system fre#uency and tie$line loading or the relation of these to
each other) so as to maintain the scheduled system fre#uency and the established interchange with other
areas within predetermined limits" The term automatic load fre#uency control (ALFC! is also often used to
identify this problem area"

The real power in a power system is being controlled by controlling the driving tor#ues of the
individual turbines (steam of hydro! of the system" 'y controlling the position) measured by the coordinate
x
E
) of the governor$controlled valves (or gates) in the case of a hydroturbine!) we can e/ert control over the
flow of high$pressure steam (or water! through the turbine) and thus the turbine tor#ue"

4. THE PRIMARY ALFC LOOP MATHEMATICAL MODELLING__ _______
The purpose of this loop is to achieve the fastest possible adjustment of the turbine power in
response to a change in fre#uency" To this end the speed governor measures continuously the fre#uency
(or speed! and produces a power command) P
c"

THE SPEED GOVERNING SYSTEM
Fig 1.1 shows in a highly schematical fashion the operating features of a speed governing system.
The main components of the speed governing system are9

! SPEED GOVERNOR
This forms the heart of the speed governing system" *t:s a moving part coupled to the main shaft) it
measures continuously the fre#uency (or speed!" *t is provided with two flyballs as shown in Fig 1.1" %ny
change in the speed will result in motion of these flyballs) on account of centrifugal force) towards each
other & decreased speed or away from each other & increased speed" ;ltimately the coordinate x
B
will be
affected which will result in change in main valve position through lin-age mechanism"



Fig 1.1 Functional Diagram Of Governor Control Loop.

"! LIN#AGE MECHANISM
*t consist of two rigid lin-s %' and DE) hinged at points ' and D" The lin- L< provides the
feedbac-" Lin-age arms L= and L> are stiffly coupled) and so are arms L? and L<" %ll four lin-age points are
free"

$! HYDRAULIC AMPLIFIER
2ery large mechanical forces are needed to position the main valve (or gate! against the high
steam (or hydro! pressure and these forces are obtained via several stages of hydraulic amplifiers" *n out
simplified version we show only one stage" *t consists of two valves) a pilot valve and a main valve" *t
converts the low power signal (pilot valve movement! to the high power signal (main valve movement!" The
input to this amplifier is the position x
D
of the pilot valve" The output is the position x
E
of main piston"
'ecause of the high$pressure hydraulic fluid e/erts only a slight differential force on the pilot valve) the
force amplification is very great" The piston of the pilot valve can be affected via the lin-age system in three
ways9



1" Directly) by moving the lin-age point % by 3raise4 or 3lower4 commands of the speed changer"
2" Indirectly) via feedbac-) due to position change of the main piston"
3" Indirectly) via feedbac-) due to position changes of lin-age point ' resulting from speed changes"

%! SPEED CHANGER
The speed changer provides the steady state operating point for the speed governing system" *n
order to change the reference setting (steady state operating point! we give @.aise and lower: commands to
speed changer and this command is translated into opening and closing steam valve (gate! through lin-age
mechanism and hydraulic amplifier"

&. MATHEMATICAL MODEL OF SPEED GOVERNING SYSTEM ___________
The model that we develop applies to small deviations around a nominal steady state" 7e
conse#uently assume the following chain of events9

1" The system is initially in a constant steady state) characteri+ed by a constant nominal speed of
fre#uency fo) a constant prime mover valve setting x
E
o
) and a constant generator output power P
G
o
"
2" 'y means of the speed changer) we command a power increase P
c
" %s a result of this command) the
lin-age point % moves downward a small distance x
A
proportional to P
c
"
3" The movement of lin-age point % causes small position changes x
C
and x
D
of the lin-age points
and D" as oil flows into the hydraulic motor) the steam valve will move the small distance x
E
) resulting in
increased turbine tor#ue and) conse#uently ) a power increase P
G
"
4" The increased power output causes a momentary surplus) or accelerating power in the system" *f the
system is very large (@infinite:!) the increased generator power will not noticeably affect the speed or
fre#uency will e/perience a slight increase f that will cause the speed and point ' to move downward a
small distance x
B
proportional to f" The speed governor being fast) we neglect any time delay in it"
onse#uently) we set x
B
proportional to f"
%ll incremental movements x
A. . . x
E
are assumed positive in directions indicated"

Since all lin-age movements are small) we have the linear relationships
x
C
= k
1
f k
2
P
c



(6)
x
D
= k
3
x
C
+ k
4
x
E

The positive constants k
1
and k
2
depend upon the lengths of the lin-age arms 1 and 2 and upon the
proportional constants of the speed changer and the speed governor" The positive constants k
3
and k
4

depend upon the lengths of the lin-age arms 3 and 4"

*f we assume that the oil flow into the hydraulic motor is proportional to position x
D
of the pilot
valve) we obtain the following relationship for the position of the main piston9
x
E
= k
5
(-x
D
) dt (7)

The positive constant k
5
depends upon orifice and cylinder geometries and fluid pressure"
'y ta-ing the Laplace transform of E#ns" (A! and (B!) and eliminating the variables x
C
and x
D
,
we obtain the following e#uation9
x
E
(s) = k
2
k
3
P
c
(s) k
1
k
3
F(s) (8)
k
4
+ s / k
5

7e rewrite E#n" (C! as follows9
X
E
(s) = K
G
/(1+sT
G
) [ P
c
(s) F(s) / R ] = G
G
(s) [ P
c
(s) F(s) / R ] (9)

where

R = k
2
/k
1
= speed regulationdue to governor action
K
G
= k
2
k
3
/ k
4
= static gain of speed-governing mechanism
T
G
= 1 / k
4
k
5
= time constant of speed-governing mechanism
G
G
(s) = K
G
/ (1 + sT
G
) = transfer function of speed-governing mechanism
T
G
is a measure o the reaction speed of the mechanism" Dormal values are less than =EE ms"



'. TURBINE MODEL_____ ________________________________________
7e are not primarily interested in turbine valve position per se) but rather the resulting generator
power increase P
G
. The change in valve position) x
E
, causes an incremental increase in turbine power)
P
T
, which) via the electromechanical interactions within the generator) will result in an increased
generator power P
G
.

This overall mechanism is relatively complicated) particularly if the generator voltage
simultaneously undergoes wild swings due to major networ- disturbances"

*f) as in the present case) we can assume that the voltage level is constant and the tor#ue
variations are of small si+e) then an incremental analysis of the type we performed for the speed governor)
above) will give a relatively simple dynamic relationship between x
E
and P
G
. Such an analysis reveals
considerable differences) not only between steam turbines and hydro turbines) but also between various
types (reheat and non reheat! of steam turbines" *n the crudest model representation we can characteri+e a
non reheat turbine generator with a single gain factor K
T
and a single time constant T
T
, and thus write
G
T
(s) = P
G
(s) = K
T
__ (10)
X
E
(s) 1 + sT
T

Typically) the time constant T
T
lies in the range E"> to > s" *n standard bloc-$diagram symbols we
can represent E#ns" (7) and (10)) as shown in Fig 1.2, which diagram therefore represents the lineari+ed
model of a nonreheat turbine controller) including the speed governor mechanism"
KT
1+STT
KG
1+STG
1
R
X
_
dPG(s) dXE(s) dPC(S)
dF(S)
+

Fig 1.2 Transfer function representation of power control mechanism of generator



1. NETWOR# DYNAMIC REPRESENTATION_____ ____________________
The turbine power, P
T
) will be used for four different purposes9
1" To supply the demanded @new: load P
L
"
2" To accelerate the turbine$generator) thus increasing the -inetic energy) W
kin
) of the unit"
3" To increase the powers in outgoing lines) i"e") P
l
"
4" To meet the increase in the @old: load"
7e discuss briefly the three last power components"

! #INETIC POWER INCREMENT, (Pkin
The kinetic energy serves as buffer storage" 6or e/ample when a customer suddenly connects a
=EE -7 motor to the system it obviously cannot be met by a corresponding increase in the slow changing
turbine power" *nstead) the generator will supply it by 3borrowing4 from the -inetic energy"
Since the latter varies as the s#uare of the speed this power component can be e/pressed as
follows
P
kin
= d/dt (W
kin
) =d/dt [W
kin
o
(f / f
o
)
2
]
= d/dt [W
kin
o
(fo+f / f
o
)
2
]
2W
kin
o
/ f
o
d/dt (f) (11)

7here) W
kin
o
represents the -inetic energy as measured at normal speed"

"!. LINE POWER INCREMENT, (P)*+.

P
tie, i
= P
tie, iv

6or simplicity we assume there is only one outgoing line connecting our generator bus F i) with
another generator bus F j"
P
i
= |V
i
| |V
j
| sin(
i
-
j
)
x
ij

P
tie,ij
|V
i
| |V
j
|/ X
ij
cos (
i
-
j
) (
I
-
j
) (12)



6rom E#n" (G!) we have
= 2 f dt

we can write
P
tie,ij
2 T
ij
o
( f
i
dt - f
j
dt ) (13)

7here the parameter) T
ij
) the synchronizing coefficient of the line) is defined by
T
ij
o
= |V
i
| |V
j
| cos (
i
o
-
j
o
) (14)
x
ij

= T
ij,max
cos (
i
o
-
j
o
)

The total incremental tie$line power out of area i, thus ta-es on the final form
P
tie,j
= 2 T
jv
o
( f
i
dt - f
v
dt ) )summation over v (15)

$! FREQUENCY DEPENDENCY OF ,OLD- LOAD
%s the fre#uency increases) so will the speed of all the motors fed from the bus" %dded speed
means added tor#ue and power" 0ne may e/press this fre#uency dependency of e/isting load by an
empiric parameter) D) having the unit M71 H+" Thus the increase in the 3old4 load e#uals Df"

'y Laplace transforming all the above power components by adding them the dynamic power
balance at the bus reads9

P
Gi
= P
Di
+ (2W
kin
o
/ f
o
) (sf) + 2 T
ij
o
(f - f
j
) / s + Df (16)

Dividing by P
ri
) the total megawatt rating of area i) and noting that
H
i
= W
o
kin,i
/ P
ri
)above E#n" will become


P
Gi
= P
Di
+ (2H
i
/f
o
) sf + (2 T
ij
o
/ s) (f - f
j
) + Df (17)

7e can rearrange this e#uation as follows9

f = [P
G

- P
D
(2 T
ij
o
/ s) (f - f
j
)] K
G
/ (1+sT
G
) (18)
7here

K
P
= 1 / D
(19)
T
P
= 2H
i
/ Df
o

G
pi
(s) = K
pi
/ (1 + sT
pi
) (20)
(2 T
ij
o
/ s) (f - f
j
) = P
tie,i

The dynamic fre#uency behavior f(t) can be obtained by state variable modeling of the a bloc-
diagram shown in Fig 1.2 "
X = AX + BP ( I )
Y = CX ( II )
7here)

A = -1 / T
p
K
p
/ T
p
0 , B = -Kp / Tp
0 -1 / T
T
1 / T
T
0
-1 / RT
H
0 -1 / T
H
0

C = 1 0 0



KT
1+STT
KG
1+STG
X
1
R
X
b
-1
S
+
_
_
+
KP
1+STP
dPD(s)
dPG(s) dXE(s) dPC(S) dF(S)
dF(S)
1
S
X
2
p
i
T
1
2piT1
X
X
dPtie
+
+
d
F
j
(
S
)
d
F
v
(
S
)
+
+
_
+
_

Fig 1.3 Complete block diagram representation of control area i


Fig 1.4 shows the response of the single$area system" 6or comparison) we also simulated the
loop response with the inclusion of the time constants T
G
and T
T. 7e ma-e the following observations in
regard to our results9
1" The overall closed loop system time constant e#uals only 0.393 sec) which is a considerable reduction
from the value Tp = 20 sec) characteri+ing the plant itself" This speedup is a result of the feedbac-
arrangement of the speed governor" Dote that the system can be made still faster by reducing R, that is) by
increasing the static loop gain"
2" .eduction of R also reduces the static fre#uency error"
3" *f we performed the above analysis by not disregarding the time constants T
T
and T
G
, then the response
would not be purely e/ponential as above" *n Fig 1. 4 we show the difference" Dote that the added delays
cause a larger transient fre#uency dip"
4" The speed governor operated in the above non controlled mode (i"e") without manipulation of the speed
changer! gives a reasonable performance with a static fre#uency drop of only >"< H+ between +ero and full

Fig 1.4 Dynamic frequency deviation following a step load change.
Speed changer position fixed.


load and settling times of the order of G sec (as depicted in Fig 1. 4!" However) with the e/tremely severe
restrictions we in reality impose on fre#uency constancy) the results are) in fact) entirely unacceptable) we
must do much better"

2. INTEGRAL CONTROLLER_________________ ______________________
*t is necessary to achieve much better fre#uency constancy than is obtained by the speed governor
system itself) as demonstrated above" To accomplish this we must manipulate the speed changer in
accordance with some suitable control strategy. 'efore we do so) it is necessary to settle for a set of control
specifications.
ere follo! some realistic specifications9
1" The control loop must be characteri+ed by a sufficient degree of stability"
2" 6ollowing a step load change) the fre#uency error should return to zero.
3" The integral of the fre#uency error (this integral has dimension of cycles! should not e/ceed a certain
ma/imum value"
4" The individual generators of the control area should divide the total load for optimum economy"
'y using the control strategy shown in Fig 1.5) we obtain an overall$system that will meet performance
specifications = and > above"
7e let the speed changer be commanded by a signal obtained by first amplifying and then integrating) the
fre#uency error"
P
c
= -K
I
f dt (21)

Dote the negative polarity of the integral controller" This polarity must be chosen so as to cause a
positive fre#uency error to give rise to a negative) or @decrease:) command" The signal fed into the
integrator is referred to as area control error (%E!) i"e")
ACE = f (22)


KT
1+STT
KG
1+STG
X
1
R
X
b
-1
S
+
_
_
+
KP
1+STP
dPD(s)
dPG(s) dXE(s) dPC(S) dF(S)
dF(S)

*ntegral control will give rise to +ero static fre#uency error following a step load change) for the
following physical reason9
%s long as an error remains) the integrator output will increase) causing the speed changer to
move" The integrator output, and thus the speed changer position, attains a constant value only !hen the
fre"uency error has been reduced to zero.
The gain constant K
I
controls the rate of integration) and thus the speed of response of the loop"
The integration is actually performed in electronic integrators of the same type as found in analog
computers"

Fig 1.5 Integral control of single-area system
(a) (b)

Fig 1.6 Dynamic frequency response with integral control, following a step load disturbance. The response
is shown for different integral gains. (a) T
G
= T
T
= 0, (b) T
G
=0.08 s, T
T
= 0.3 s.


3. E.TENSION TO ,MULTI/AREA- SYSTEMS_______ _________________
The loop model in Fig 1.5 is in strictest sense valid for a single generator only" 7e have noted
that the fre#uency dynamics is relatively slow" This tends to ma-e a whole group of generators in
unison) or coherently) thus permitting us to represent them all with the same f" 6or this reason it is
common to let the model in Fig 1.5 represent a whole 3area4 which in practice typically can embrace a
whole power system" *f this 3area4 via tie$lines is connected to neighboring 3areas4 then we tal- about
multi$area dynamics" *n such among all generators that are under control" If each generator in the area
has the same percentage #regulation$ then each generator !ill participate in proportion to its rating.

The secondary ALFC loops in multi$area systems contain control signals) now referred to as 3area
control errors4 (ACE!) which in addition to fre#uency error) f, also contains the errors in the contracted
tie$line powers" % typical such %6 would be of the form
ACE =P
tie
+ Bf (23)

4. THE TWO/AREA SYSTEM________________________________________
Let us turn our attention to a system consisting of two control areas of the type indicated in Fig
1.7) interconnected via a relatively wea- tie$line" The areas are generally of different si+e and
characteristics"

BLOC# DIAGRAM OF TWO/AREA SYSTEM
Each area is characteri+ed by the bloc- diagram shown in Fig 1.3 in terms of its incremental Pf
dynamics" 'y connecting two of these bloc- diagrams together8 we therefore obtain the two$area model
shown in Fig 1.7.

%n e/planation must be given about the bloc- having the transfer function a
12
. 7e remember that
in E#n" (17) the term P
tie,i
represented the tie line power out from area i, e/pressed in per%unit
mega!atts of the area capacity P
ri
. 6or the two$area system the tie line power P
tie,1
must e#ual the
negative of P
tie,2
if both are e/pressed in mega!atts. E/pressed mathematically) this means that
P
r1
P
tie,1
= -P
r2
P
tie,2
(24)
or P
tie,2
= a
12
P
tie,1



where a
12
= -P
r1
/ P
r2
(25)

&. STATIC RESPONSE OF UNCONTROLLED TWO/AREA SYSTEM________
7e shall first investigate the response of the two$area system under uncontrolled conditions) i"e")
fi/ed speed changer positions9
P
c1
= P
c2
= 0

7e assume that the loads in each area are suddenly increased by the incremental steps PD& and
PD'. 7e shall limit our analysis to finding the static changes that result in fre#uency and tie line power" Let
us call those changes f
stat
and P
tie1,stat
.

Since the incremental increase in generation in this static case is determined by the static loop
gains only) we obtain from Fig 1.7"

P
G1,stat
= (-1 / R
1
) f
stat
(26)
P
G2,stat
= (-1 / R
2
) f
stat


Fig 1.7 Load frequency control of two-area system



Since the incremental increase in generation in this static case is determined by the static loop gains only)
we

6rom E#n" (17) we get) upon setting d(f
i
)dt = 0 and ma-ing use of E#ns" (24) and (26))
-1/ R
1
f
stat
- P
D1
= D
1
f
stat
+ P
tie1,stat

-1/ R
2
f
stat
- P
D2
= D
2
f
stat
+ a
12
P
tie2,stat

7e solve for f
stat
and P
tie1,stat
and obtain
f
stat
= - P
D2
a
12
P
D1
Hz
b
2
- a
12
b
1
(27)
P
tie1,stat
= b
1
P
D2
b
2
P
D1
pu MW
b
2
- a
12
b
1

where) we have defined the %6.s of each area9
Fig 1.8 Frequency deviation in each area and tie line power swings following a step
load increase of 1 percent in area 1


b
1
=D
1
+1/R
1

(28)
b
2
=d
2
+1/ R
2

E#ns" (27) become particularly simple if we assume identical area parameters8 i"e" )
D
1
=D
2
=D
R
1
=R
2
=R
b
1
=b
2
= b
and
a
12
=-1
we then get
f
stat
= - P
D2
+ P
D1
Hz
2b
P
tie1,stat
= - P
tie1,stat
= P
D2
P
D1
pu MW
2

6or e/ample) if a step load change occurs in area >) we get
f
stat
= - P
D2
Hz
2b

P
tie1,stat
= - P
tie1,stat
= P
D2
pu MW
2

These two last e#uations tell us) in a nutshell) the advantages of pool operation9
1" 6ifty percent of the added load in area > will be supplied by area = via the tie line"
2" The fre#uency drop will be only half that which would be e/perienced if the areas were operating alone"



'. THE CONTROLLED TWO AREA SYSTEMS__________________________
The response curves of Fig 1.8 indicate that) as in the single area case) we must add integral
control to our system" Let us state) first) the minimum re#uirements the system should meet"
(uggested control%system specifications9 $ 7e shall re#uire that our system meet the four$point
specifications that we stipulated for the single area system" *n addition) we shall re#uire that the steady$
state tie$line power variation) following a step load change) must be +ero" This re#uirement guarantees that
each area) in steady state) absorbs its own load $$$ the guiding principle in pool operation"

The tie%line bias control strategy9$ Since we must now use a strategy that will cause both the
fre#uency and tie$line deviations to vanish) we shall) as in the single$area case) adopt integral control) but
with the tie$line deviation added to our area control error 8 i"e") we attempt
ACE
1
= P
tie1
+b
1
f
1

ACE
2
= P
tie2
+b
2
f
2

The speed changer commands will thus be of the form
P
c1
= - K
I1
(P
tie1
+ b
1
f
1
) dt (29)
P
c2
= - K
I2
(P
tie2
+ b
2
f
2
) dt (30)

The constants K
l1
and K
I2
are integrator gains) and the constants b
1
and b
2
are the fre"uency bias
parameters" The minus signs must be included since each area should increase its generation if either its
fre#uency error f
i
or its tie line power increment P
tie,i
is negative"

STATIC SYSTEM RESPONSE
The chosen strategy will eliminate the steady state fre#uency and tie line deviations for the
following reason9
6ollowing a step load change in either area) a new static e#uilibrium) if such e"uilibrium e)ists, can
be achieved only after the speed changer commands P
c1
and P
c2
have reached constant values" 'ut
this evidently re#uires that both integrands in E#n" (29) be +ero8 i"e")
P
tie1,stat
+ b
1
f
stat
= 0 (31)



P
tie2,stat
+ b
2
f
stat
= 0 (32)

*n view of E#n" (24)) these conditions can be met only if
f
stat
= P
tie1,stat
= P
tie2,stat
= 0 (33)

DYNAMIC SYSTEM RESPONSE
The added integrators have) contributed to the oscillatory nature of the system" The situation is
depicted in the simulated response graphs in Fig 1.9" These recordings were obtained for the same
system data as in Fig 1.7"

The graphs of Fig 1.9 depict the transient response for a step load change (in area =!" %ll graphs
correspond to stable parameter combinations) but we have demonstrated the effect of varying the bias
parameter b. 'oth areas are characteri+ed by identical parameters" The graphs of Fig 1.9a correspond to
b = 0" The system now properly controls the tie line power) but the fre#uency will have a static error"

The graphs of Fig 1.9b relate to the other e/treme case) with b = " (Dote that the product K
I
b is
finite) which means that K
I
= 0!" The control actions are now insensitive to tie line power errors) and as a
result we left with a static power error) but the fre#uency is properly controlled"

The graphs of Fig 1.9c show an intermediate case" Deither the fre#uency nor the tie$line power
will have any static error" This is the practically important case"



Fig 1.9 Frequency and tie-line power deviations in a controlled two-area system
following a step load disturbance of 1 percent in area 1 (only area 1 frequency is
shown)
The three cases correspond to the following widely different bias settings:
(a) b = 0, K
I
= 1 (b) b = , K
I
b =0.425, (c) b=0.425, K
I
=1.



Chapter 2_________________________________

AGC Using Intelligent Control
Techniques In Power System
With EDLC.



1. INTRODUCTION

The automatic generation control (AGC! problem) being the instantaneous mismatch
between supply and demand of real power in power system) can also be effectively reduced by the
addition of Electric Double Layer apacitor (EDLC! unit" 6ast$acting energy storage systems can
effectively damp electrochemical oscillations in a power systems) because they provide storage capacity in
addition to the -inetic energy of the generator rotors which can sudden changes in power re#uirement" To
store the energy re#uired for AGC applications batteries are used) however) they have some
disadvantages"
;ltraaps & electrochemical double layer capacitors & are new energy storage devices that close
the gap between aluminum electrolytic capacitors and batteries in terms of power and energy density" They
have two outstanding features9 their energy density is appro/imately =EE times higher than that of
conventional capacitors and power density is appro/imately =E times higher than those of the batteries"
urrently ;ltraaps come with <) =E) ==E) >EE) AEE) =>EE) =CEE) >BEE) ?AEE and GEEE 6" They can be
combined to power modules by series or parallel connection) available either in open or closed design"
;ltraaps are typically preferred in industrial) automotive and drive system applications as well as in power
#uality or ;(S systems"
Supercapacitors are well suited to replace batteries" This is because at the moment their
scale is comparable to that of batteries) from small ones used in cellular phones to large ones that can
be found in cars" Even though supercapacitors have a lower energy density compared to batteries) they
avoid many of the batteryIs disadvantages"
'atteries have a limited number of charge1discharge cycles and ta-e time to charge and
discharge because the process involves chemical reactions with non$instantaneous rates" These chemical
reactions have parasitic thermal release that causes the battery to heat up" 'atteries have a limited life
cycle with a degrading performance and acidic batteries are ha+ardous to the environment"
Supercapacitors can be charged and discharged almost an unlimited number of times" They
can discharge in matters of milliseconds and are capable of producing enormous currents" Hence they are
very useful in load leveling applications and fields where a sudden boost of power is needed in a fraction of
a second" They do not release any thermal heat during discharge"


Supercapacitors have a very long lifetime) which reduces maintenance costs" They do
not release any ha+ardous substances that can damage the environment" Their performance does not
degrade with time" Supercapacitors are e/tremely safe for storage as they are easily discharged" They
have low internal resistances) even if many of them are coupled together"
Even though they have a lower energy density) are bul-ier and heavier than an
e#uivalent battery) they have already replaced batteries in many applications due to their readiness in
releasing power"
D%S% has a research project to use super$capacitors in an electric bus called 3The
Hybrid Electric Transit 'us4" The energy used to start the engine and accelerate the bus is regenerated from
bra-ing" During test runs) a bus loaded with ?E super$capacitors) each of them weighing ?>-g and releasing
energy of GE-J at >EE2 managed to run for < miles" T0K0T% has developed a diesel engine using the
same technology and is claimed to use just >"B liters of fuel per =EE-m"
Such devices if used with a Stand %lone 7ind (ower (lant) can effectively damp out the
electromechanical oscillations caused by varying wind speed and will thus improve the power #uality"



2. DOUBLE/LAYER ULTRACAPACITORS_____________________________
0rdinary capacitors store energy in the dielectric material at a value of 1/2 CV
2
, where 'C'
is its capacitance (farads! and V (volts! is the voltage across its terminals" The ma/imum voltage of
a regular capacitor is dependent on the brea-down characteristics of the dielectric material" The
charge Q (coulombs! stored in the capacitor is given by Q = CV. The capacitance of the dielectric
capacitor depends on the dielectric constant () and the thic-ness (d) of the dielectric material plus
its geometric area"
C= A/d
During the past few years) electric double$layer capacitors with very large capacitance values have
been developed" Those capacitors are fre#uently called Supercapacitors) Ultracapacitors, or
Electrochemical Capacitors"*t has two electrodes immersed in an electrolyte with a separator between
them" The electrodes are fabricated from porous high$surface$area material that has pores of diameter in
the nanometer range which gives the material a very large active internal surface) in the order of =EEE
m
>
"g
$=
" harge is stored in the micropores at or near the interface between the solid electrode material and
the electrolyte" The charge and energy stored are given by the same e/pressions as those for an ordinary
capacitor) but the capacitance depends on comple/ phenomena that occur in the micropores of the
electrode"
Fig shows the construction details of a double$layer ultracapacitor" The capacitor contains two
particulate$carbon electrodes formed on conductive$polymer films" %n ion$conductive membrane separates
the two electrodes) and a potassium hydro/ide electrolyte permeates the capacitor" The micropores in the
carbon particles result in an enormous surface area and yield e/tremely high capacitance values which
conventional capacitors cannot attain" Energy is stored in the double$layer capacitor as charge separation
in the double layer formed at the interface between the solid electrode material surface and the li#uid
electrolyte in the micropores of the electrodes" The ions displaced in forming the double layers in the
pores) are transferred between the electrodes by diffusion through the electrolyte" The separator
prevents electrical contact between the two electrodes" *t is very thin) with high electrical resistance) but
ion$permeable) which allows ionic charge transfer" (olymer or paper separators can be used with
organic electrolytes and ceramic or glass fiber separators are often used with a#ueous electrolytes


The energy and charge stored in the electrochemical capacitor are given by the same
e#uations as for ordinary capacitors" However) the capacitance is dependent primarily on the
characteristics of the electrode material (i" e" ) surface area and pore si+e distribution!" The specific
capacitance of an electrode material depends on the effective dielectric constant of the electrolyte and
the thic-ness of the double layer formed at the interface" These are very comple) phenomena that are
not fully understood" The thic-ness of the double layer is very small (a fraction of a nanometer in li#uid
electrolytes!) which results in a high value for the specific capacitance"
The performance of electrochemical capacitors depends on the specific capacitance (61g or
61cm
?
! of the electrode material and the ionic conductivity of the electrolyte used in the device" The
specific capacitance of a particular electrode material depends on whether the material is used in the
positive or negative electrode of the device and whether the electrolyte is a#ueous or organic" Most
carbon materials e/hibit higher specific capacitance9 in the range BG to =BG 61g for a#ueous electrolytes
and <E to =EE 61g for organic electrolytes) which allow much more ions" %lthough a lower specific
capacitance is achieved with organic electrolytes) they have the advantage of higher operating


voltage" 6or a#ueous electrolytes) cell voltage is about = 28 for organic electrolytes) cell voltage is ? to
?"G 2"

The following e/ample illustrates the principles of high$capacitance devices" Suppose that two
carbon rods are separated from each other and immersed in a thin sulfuric acid solution) which is
subjected to a voltage slowly increased from +ero" ;nder such conditions) almost nothing happens up
to = 2" Then) at about ="> 2" gas bubbles appear on the surface of both electrodes because of the
electrical decomposition of water" Just before decomposition occurs) where there is no current flow yet)
an electric double layer occurs at the boundary of electrode and electrolyte (i"e" electrons are charged
across the double layer and form a capacitor!" ,assing comes up at voltages above = 2" This indicates
that the capacitor is brea-ing down by overvoltage) which causes decomposition of the electrolyte" The
electrical double layer wor-s as an insulator only below the decomposing voltage because water$
soluble or a#ueous electrolytes constrain the application at a withstanding operating voltage of about =
2" 0rganic electrolytes are used to increase the operating voltage (currently at >"G 2! and provide overall
stability against electrolyte decomposition" *n organic electrolytes) there is a salt in the solvent that
determines the pea- capacity8 a#ueous electrolytes do not have this limitation"



?" EDLC SYSTEM____________ ____________________________________
The bloc- diagram for two$area system developed in chapter > can be put in the state variable model
as follows9
X ! AX " #$%
& ! CX
7ith EDLC unit included as shown in Fig this model will change to
X ! AX " #0$% ' $sc!
& ! CX
7here X) $% are state) disturbance vectors respectively) $sc is the EDLC power vector8 # and A are
constant matrices associated with the above vectors" A is the state matri/" Here)

-KI1
S
__Kp1__
1+STp1
__1_
1+STt1
-KI2
S
__1__
1+STt2
___1___
1+sTg1
_1_
R2
___1___
1+STg1
__Kp1__
1+STp1
X
X
X
2piT12
S
X
X
a12
1
R1
X
X
b2
b1
a12
Governer
Turbine
dPL1(s)
dPL2(s)
dP tie
+
+
+
+
+
+ +
+
_
_
_
_
_
_
dF1(s)
dF2(s)
+
_
x1(s)
x2(s)
x5(s)
x6(s)
x7(s)
x8(s)
x9(s)
x4(s)
x3(s)
EDLC
EDLC
X
X

Fig 3.2 Two- area interconnected power system with EDLC.


11T21 #211T21 3 3 3 3 3 3 /#211T21
0 -1/Tt1 1/Tt1 0 0 0 0 0 0
-1/(R1*Tg1) 0 -1/Tg1 1/Tg1 0 0 0 0 0
-b1*Ki1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -Ki1
0 0 0 0 -1/Tp2 Kp2/Tp2 0 0 -a12*Kp2/Tp2
A= 0 0 0 0 0 -1/Tt2 1/Tt2 0 0
0 0 0 0 -1/(R2*Tg2) 0 -1/Tg2 1/Tg2 0
0 0 0 0 -b2*Ki2 0 0 0 -a12*Ki2;
2*pi*T12 0 0 0 -2*pi*T12 0 0 0 0

-K
p1
/T
p1
0 P
d
= p
d1

x
1
0 0 p
d2

x
2
0 0
x
3
0 0
X = x
4 B=
0 -K
p2
/T
p2
and, Psc = p
sc1

x
5
0 0 p
sc2
x
6 0 0

x
7
0 0
x
8
0 0
x
9



1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
C = 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1

1. CONFIGURATION OF EDLC UNIT_______________________________
0nce the rated voltage in the super$capacitor is reached) the EDLC unit is ready for automatic
generation or load control" The change in ACE is sensed and used to control the power released or
absorbed by the EDLC unit"
The EDLC unit is connected with the ?$phase % supply by means of the circuit configuration shown in
System voltage is reduced by means of transformer which is then converted to constant D voltage using
Si/ (ulse (7M onverter involving *,'T:s"

Fig 3.3 Configuration of EDLC in Power System.



Fig 3.4 Two Quadrant Chopper Arrangement for Control of EDLC Unit.

7hen there is surplus power in the system) S.= and D= will operate in order to store the surplus
energy in the super$capacitor" The waveforms pertaining to such a condition are shown in Fig 3.5" During
one period (T!) average power (Vd*I
des
avg! is stored in the super$capacitor" onse#uently when the
system is deficient of power) S.> and D> will operate and re#uired energy is released by the super$
capacitor" The waveforms pertaining to such a condition are shown in Fig 3.6" During one period (T!)
average power (Vd*I
des
avg! is released by the super$capacitor" ;nder normal conditions) when there is
e#uilibrium between the generation and demand) neither any S. nor any Diode will conduct" This will lead
the super$capacitor to remain in floating mode" To serve the purpose) the super$capacitor is employed with
the two #uadrant chopper arrangement as shown in Fig 3.4.



SCR1 D1 SCR1 SCR1 D1 D1
T
I
min
I
max
I
s
c
I
d
e
s
_
I
des
S
C

D
e
v
i
c
e
s

O
N
(a)
(b)
(c)

Fig 3.5 (a) Switching Sequence of Chopper (b) Super-Capacitor Current Waveform
(c) Current Waveform Supplied by the system.



SCR2 D2
T
I
min
I
max
I
s
c
I
d
e
s
_
I
des
D2 D2 D2 SCR2 SCR2
S
C

D
e
v
i
c
e
s

O
N
(a)
(b)
(c)

Fig 3.6 (a) Switching Sequence of Chopper (b) Super-Capacitor Current Waveform
(c) Current Waveform Supplied to the system.
The wor-ing of the said controller is based on the 6u++y Logic" The 6u++y Logic ta-es two inputs
(%rea ontrol Error @ACE: and the deviation in EDLC voltage!"6or proper functioning of the super$
capacitor8 it should neither be discharged below some minimum value nor should be charged above some
ma/imum value" %s such when there is surplus of power in the system and if super$capacitor is charged to
nominal value) the 6u++y Logic should fire the command to chopper to absorb ma/imum power from the
system else if when super$capacitor is charged to ma/imum value) it should fire the command so that
super$capacitor remains in floating mode"



Chapter (_________________________________

AGC Using Intelligent Control
Techniques In Power System
With SMES



INTRODUCTION

The automatic generation control (AGC) problem, which is the major requirement in parallel
operation of several interconnected systems, is one of very important subjects in power system studies
!n this study, power systems with two areas connected through tie"lines are considered The
perturbation of frequencies at the areas and resulting tie"line power flows arise due to unpredictable
load variations that cause mismatch between the generated and demanded powers The objective of
AGC is to minimi#e the transient deviations and to provide #ero steady state errors of these variables in
a very short time although unpredictable load variations present !n literature, for AGC, some control
strategies based on classical control theory have been proposed $nfortunately, because of operating
point continuously changes depending on demand of consumers, the selected fi%ed controller can be
unsuitable at other operating points Therefore, many of controllers with variable structure are
proposed in literature
!n the AGC problem, the instantaneous mismatch between supply and demand of real power in
power system can be reduced by the addition of fast acting superconducting magnetic energy storage
(&'(&) unit &'(& is a device for storing and instantaneously discharging large quantities of power !t
stores energy in the magnetic field created by the flow of direct current in a superconducting coil which
has been cryogenically cooled to a temperature below its superconducting critical temperature
%s an energy storage device) SMES is a relatively simple concept" *t stores electric
energy in the magnetic field generated by D current flowing through a coiled wire" *f
the coil were wound using a conventional wire such as copper) the magnetic energy
would be dissipated as heat due to the wireIs resistance to the flow of current" However)
if the wire is superconducting (no resistance!) then energy can be stored in a
LLpersistentII mode) virtually indefinitely) until re#uired" Superconductors have +ero
resistance to D electrical current at low temperatures so that ohmic heat dissipation is
eliminated) hence the refrigerator is needed in the SMES to cool the coil" *n %
applications) there are still electrical losses) but these can be minimised through
appropriate wire architecture and device design" 6or both D and % applications)
energy savings will be significant" The current carrying capacity of the wire is dependent
on temperature and the local magnetic field" The optimal operating temperature for


most of the devices will be GE$BB M"
% typical SMES system includes three parts9 superconducting coil) power conditioning
system and cryogenically cooled refrigerator" 0nce the superconducting coil is charged)
the current will not decay and the magnetic energy can be stored indefinitely"
The stored energy can be released bac- to the networ- by discharging the coil" The
SMES recharges within minutes and can repeat the charge1discharge se#uence
thousands of times without any degradation of the magnetic coil" .echarge time can be
accelerated to meet specific re#uirements) depending on system capacity"
SMES is devoted to improving power #uality due to the energy re#uirements of
refrigeration and the high cost of superconducting wire which causes it to be used for
short duration energy storage"*f SMES were to be used for utilities it would be a diurnal
storage device) charged from baseload power at night and meeting pea- loads during
the day"
O2+4)*56 57 6 SMES 86*)
The basic operation of a an SMES unit is very simple" The transmission voltage
(from the % networ-! is first stepped down from a few hundred -2 to several
hundred volts using a step$down transformer" This is then converted into D which is
fed into the superconducting coil" Hence when the power flows from the system to the
coil) the D voltage will charge up the superconducting coil and the energy is stored in
the coil" The ma/imum energy stored depends on the design of the device"
7hen the % networ-s re#uires a power boost) the coil discharges and acts as a
source of energy"The D voltage is converted bac- into % voltage through the
converter" Thus the power conditioning system uses an inverter1rectifier to
transform alternating current(%! power to direct current or convert D bac- to %
power" The inverter1rectifier accounts for about >&?N energy loss in each direction"
SMES loses the least amount of electricity in the energy storage process compared to
other methods of storing energy" SMES are highly efficient at storing electricity (greater
than OBN efficiency!) and provide both real and reactive power" Thus the addition of a
small capacity SMES unit to a power system significantly improves transients of
fre#uency and tie$line power deviations against to small load disturbances" 7hile there
is a sudden rise in the demand of load) the stored energy is almost released through the


power conversion system to the power system as alternative current" %s the governor
and other controllers start wor-ing to set condition) the coil changes bac- to its initial
value of current" Similar action ta-es place during sudden release of loads" *n this case)
the coil immediately gets charged towards its full value) thus absorbs some portions of
the e/cess energy in the system) and as the system returns to its steady state) the
e/cess energy absorbed is released and the coil current attains its normal value" During
normal operation) the stored energy is ta-en about >E$?E MJ because of factors of
superconductor stability) mechanical forces and fatigue" So) SMES unit is forced its
lower and upper current limits" Therefore SMES units are separated from the system if
the inductor current reaches its limits and SMES units are again connected only when
the control signal changes its sign" 7henever SMES unit is disconnected) it is noticed
that the power system is e#uivalent to the one without SMES unit"

Types of power system models
The AGC problem has been dealt with e%tensively for more than three decades The major past
of the wor) reported so far has been performed by considering lineari#ed models of two*multi area
power systems +ater on, the effect of GRC was included in these types of studies, considering both
continuous and discrete power system models !ncorporating the dynamics of the energy source in AGC
regulator design, ,-watny. have proposed an optimal trac)ing approach to AGC, considering load to be
the output of the dynamic system
The small signal analysis is justified for studying the system response for small perturbations /owever,
the implementation of AGC strategy based on a lineari#ed model on an essentially nonlinear system does
not necessarily ensure the stability of the system Considerable attention has been paid by researchers
to consider the system nonlinearities +ater, also the destabili#ing effect of governor dead"band non linearity
on conventional AGC system was demonstrated !t is shown that the governor dead band nonlinearity tends to
produce the oscillations in the area frequency and tie"line power transient response


Control Techniques
The pioneering wor) by a number of control engineers, namely 0ode and 1yquist has
established lin)s between the frequency response of a control system and its closed"loop transient
performance in the time domain The investigations carried out using classical control approaches reveal
that it will result in relatively large overshoots and transient frequency deviation 'oreover, the settling
time of the system frequency deviation is comparatively long and is of the order of 23"43 s
The AGC regulator design techniques using modern optimal control theory enable the power
engineers to design an optimal control system with respect to given performance criterion 5osha and
(lgerd were the first to present their pioneering wor) on optimal AGC regulator design using this concept
A two"area interconnected power system consisting of two identical power plants of non"reheat thermal
turbines was considered for investigations
The feasibility of an optimal AGC scheme requires the availability of all state variables for feedbac)
/owever, these efforts seem unrealistic, since it is difficult to achieve this Then, the problem is to
reconstruct the unavailable states from the available outputs and controls using an observer Considering
state reconstruction, many significant contributions have been made 6ue to practical limitations in the
implementation of regulators based on feedbac) of all stale variables, suboptimal AGC regulator designs
were considered

Discrete data model for AGC
The bloc) diagram for two"area system developed in chapter 2 can be put in the state
variable model as follows7
X` = AX + BP
d

Y = CX

8ith SMES unit included as shown in Fig 2.1 this model will change to
X` = AX + B (P
d +
P
sm
)
Y = CX

8here X, P
d
are state, disturbance vectors respectively, P
sm
is the SMES power vector9 B and A are


constant matrices associated with the above vectors A is the state matri% /ere,

Fig 2.1 Two- area i!er"oe"!ed #ower s$s!em wi!% SMES.

-1&T
#1
'
#1
&T
#1
( ( ( ( ( ( -'
#1
&T
#1

( -1&T
T1
1&T
T1
( ( ( ( ( (
-1&R
1
T
)1
( -1&T
)1
1&T
)1
( ( ( ( (
-*
1
'
+1
( ( ( ( ( ( ( -'
+1

A = ( ( ( ( -1&T
#2
'
#2
&T
#2
( ( -a
12
'
#2
&T
#2

( ( ( ( ( -1&T
T2
1&T
T2
( (
( ( ( ( -1&R
2
T
)2
( -1&T
)2
1&T
)2
(
( ( ( ( -*
2
'
+2
( ( ( -a
12
'
+2

2 T
o
( ( ( -2 T
o
( ( ( (


,
1
'
#1
&T
#1
( - P
d=
#
d1

,
2
( ( #
d2

,
.
( (
,
/
( (
X = ,
0
B = ( '
#2
&T
#2
ad- P
sm
= #
sm1

,
1
( ( #
sm2

,
2
( (
,
3
( (
,
4

( (

1 ( ( ( ( ( ( ( (
C = ( ( ( ( 1 ( ( ( (
( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( 1



SMES S9:)+;
The schematic diagram in Fig 2.2 shows the configuration of a thyristor
controlled SMES unit The SMES unit contains 6C superconducting coil and
converter which are connected by :"; * :": transformer The converter consists
of a si%"pulse P5M rectifier*inverter using insulated"gate"bipolar"transistors
(+GBT6s) interfacing with the AC power system and 6C"6C chopper interfacing
with the SMES coil The P5M converter and 6C"6C chopper are lin)ed by a 6C"
lin) capacitor The +GBT is a new power switching device, which is basically a
hybrid '<& gated turn on * off bipolar transistor +GBT6s offer low on"resistance
and require very little gate drive power !n the reverse direction, the +GBT does
not have a conduction body diode but provides bloc)ing (="23 >) due to a reverse
biased p
?
" n
"
junction Therefore, in voltage"fed converter in application an anti"
parallel diode is connected e%ternally

Configuration of &'(& in @ower &ystem

The energy stored in the &'(& coil in Fig 2.2 at any instant is
5
7
= 7 +
sm
2
& 2
where,
7 = inductance of SMES coil
+
sm
= direct current in SMES

<nce the rated current in the inductor is reached, the &'(& unit is ready for automatic
generation or load control The change in AC( is sensed and used to control the &'(& power, by altering
the duty cycle of the chopper 6uring sudden loading of the system, the generator cannot pic)up the
load due to its inertia so that AC( will be negative and the &'(& will discharge The &'(& voltage is to
be negative since the current through the inductor cannot change its direction


D2
D1
S1
S2
3 Phase
AC System
SMES Coil
+
_
Ism
Vsm
Fig 2.2 Co8ig9ra!io o8 SMES :i! + Power S$s!em.

The &'(& control strategy requires that7
1 5or a positive AC( ie, decrease in load, the &'(& device should absorb the surplus power from the
system, thus )eeping the frequency constant
2 5or a negative AC(, ie, increase in load, the &'(& device should deliver power to the system, thus
)eeping the frequency constant
3 5or #ero AC(, ie, normal system operation, the &'(& should not e%change any power !n other
words it should isolate itself from the system
These three conditions are e%actly met by using a two quadrant chopper arrangement to control
the &'(& device
i
cs
V
dc
S
1
D
2
+
D
1
S
2

Fig 2.3 Chopper arrangement for control of SMES unit


Fig 2.. shows the control scheme S
1
and S
2
are two chopper switches ;
1
and ;
2
are two diodes
The duty cycle of the two choppers is )ept same Therefore, if T is the chopper period and T
o
is the time
for which the chopper remains in on state, then

6uty cycle, ;
"%o#
= T
o
& T
and ( < ;
"%o#
< 1

6epending upon the value of ;
"%o#
, three regions of operation can be identified for the chopper
arrangement in Fig 2.. vi#

a) ( < ;
"%o#
< (.0
5or this condition, there is net power flow into the system This situation is suited for increase in
load demand

b) ;
"%o#
= (.0
5or this condition, there is no net power e%change with the system This situation is suited when
there is no change in load

c) (.0 < ;
"%o#
< 1
5or this condition, there will be a net power flow into the &'(& device and &'(& will be charged
This situation is suitable when there is surplus power in the system and it is required to dissipate this
power

The charging, floating or discharging mode of &'(& is decided by the )ind of disturbance and will
thus operate in (a), (b) or (c) region of operation respectively 5urther since the load changes are not
fi%ed in practical power systems, thus we can vary the value of ;
"%o#
in a particular given region in order
to meet the desired requirement



Advantages over other energy storage methods
There are several reasons for using superconducting magnetic energy storage instead
of other energy storage methods The most important advantage of &'(& is that the
time delay during charge and discharge is quite short @ower is available almost
instantaneously and very high power output can be provided for a brief period of time
<ther energy storage methods, such as pumped hydro or compressed air have a
substantial time delay associated with the energy conversion of stored mechanical
energy bac) into electricity Thus if a customerAs demand is immediate, &'(& is a
viable option Another advantage is that the loss of power is less than other
storage methods because electric currents encounter almost no resistance Additionally
the main parts in a &'(& are motionless, which results in high reliability



Chapter )_____________________________

Adaptive Control



*n recent years) interest in adaptive control systems has increased rapidly along with interest and progress
in robotics and other control fields" The term adaptive system has a variety of specific meanings) but it
usually implies that the system is capable of accommodating un$predictable environmental changes)
whether these changes arise within the system or e/ternal to it" This concept has a great deal of appeal to
the system:s designer since a highly adaptive system) besides accommodating environmental changes)
would also accommodate moderate engineering design errors or uncertainties and would compensate for
the failure of minor system components) thereby increasing system reliability"
INTRODUCTION
*n everyday language) Pto adaptP means to change a behavior to conform to new circumstances" *ntuitively
an adaptive controller is thus a controller that can modify its behavior in response to changes in the
dynamics of the process and the character of the disturbances" Since ordinary feedbac- also attempts to
reduce the effects of disturbances and plant uncertainty) the #uestion of the difference between the
feedbac- control and adaptive control immediately arises"
*n most feedbac- control systems) small deviation in parameter values from their design values will not
cause any problem in the normal operation of the system) provided these parameters are inside the loop" *f
plant parameters vary widely according to environmental changes) however) then the control system may
e/hibit satisfactory response for one environmental condition but may fail to provide satisfactory
performance under other conditions" *n certain cases) large variations of plant parameters may even cause
instability"
*n the simplest analysis) one may consider different sets of values of the plant parameters" *t is then
desirable to design a control system that wor-s well for all sets" %s soon as this demand is formulated) the
strict optimal control problem loses its importance" 'y as-ing for good performance over a range) we have
to abandon the best performance for one parameter set"
*f the plant transfer function or plant state e#uation can be identified continuously) then we can compensate
for variations in the transfer function or state e#uation of the plant simply by varying adjustable parameters
of the controller and thereby obtain satisfactory system performance continuously under various
environmental conditions" Such an adaptive approach is #uite useful to cope with a problem where the
plant is normally e/posed to varying environments so that plant parameters change from time to time"
DE6*D*T*0D


%n adaptive control system is one that continuously and automatically measures the dynamic
characteristics (such as the transfer function or state e#uation! of the plant) compares then with the desired
dynamic characteristics) and uses the difference to vary adjustable system parameters (usually controller
characteristics! or to generate an actuating signal so that the optimal performance can be maintained
regardless of the environmental changes8 alternatively) such a system may continuously measure its own
performance according to a given performance inde/ and modify) if necessary) its own parameters so as to
maintain optimal performance regardless of the environmental changes"
Thus an adaptive controller is a controller with adjustable parameters and a mechanism for adjusting the
parameters" The controller becomes non$linear because of the parameter adjustment mechanism" *t has)
however) a very special structure" Since general nonlinear systems are difficult to deal with) it ma-es sense
to consider special classes of nonlinear systems" %n adaptive control system can be thought of as having
two loops" 0ne loop is a normal feedbac- with the process and the controller" The other loop is the
parameter adjustment loop" % bloc- diagram of an adaptive system is shown in 6igure" The parameter
adjustment loop is often slower than the normal feedbac- loop"

6ig



%D%(T*2E 0DT.0L (.0ED;.E
%daptive controller may consist of the following three functions9
=" *dentification of dynamic characteristics of the plant"
>" Decision ma-ing based on the identification of the plant"
?" Modification or actuation based on the decision made"
% bloc- diagram representation of an %daptive control system is shown in the figure below" *n this system
after the identification of the plant) a decision is made based in the findings as to how to modify the
actuating signal "Since the plant is identified within the system itself) adjustment of the parameters is a
closed loop operation"

6ig

Q *DEDT*6*%T*0D 06 THE DKD%M* H%.TE.*ST*S 06 THE (L%DT
The dynamic characteristics of the plant must be measured and identified continuously or at least very
fre#uently" This should be accomplished without affecting the normal operation of the system" To identify
the characteristics of the system) we must perform a test and analy+e the results" (6or a control system)
this entails imposing a control signal on the plant and analy+ing system response!"*dentification may be
made from normal operating data of the plant or by use of test signals) such as sinusoidal ones of small
amplitude or various stochastic signals of small amplitude" *n practice) no direct application of step or
impulse inputs can be made" Dormal inputs and system noise should not disturb the test" However )
identification with normal inputs is only possible when they have ade#uate signal characteristics
('andwidth) amplitude) and so on! for proper identification"


*dentification must not ta-e too long since if it does) further variations of the plant parameter may occur"
*dentification time should be sufficiently short compared with the rate of environmental changes" 7ith time
for identification limited) it is usually impossible to identify the plant completely8 the best one can e/pect is
only partial identification"
The difficulty of ma-ing a realistic identification will depend on how much information about the plant is
re#uired and on the amount of prior -nowledge of plant"
DE*S*0D M%M*D, '%SED 0D THE *DEDT*6*%T*0D 06 THE (L%DT
Decision here refers to one made on the basis of plant characteristics that have identified"
0nce the plant has been identified it is compared with the optimal characteristics ( or optimal performance!)
and then the decision must be made as to how the adjustable parameters (controller characteristics! should
be varied to maintain optimal performance" The decision is accomplished by the computer"

M0D*6*%T*0D '%SED 0D THE DE*S*0D M%DE
Modification refers to the change of control signals according to the results of the identification and
decision" *n most schemes) the decision and modification are conceptually a single operation with the
modification consisting of a means of mechani+ing the transformation of a decision output signal into the
control signal (the input to the plant!"
The control signal) or the input signal to the plant) can be modified in two ways" The first approach is to
adjust the controller parameters to compensate for changes in the plant dynamics" This is called controller
parameter modification"The second approach is to synthesi+e the optimal control signal) based on plant
function or plant state e#uation) desired transient response" This is called control signal synthesis"
The choice between controller parameter modification and control$signal synthesis is primarily a hardware
decision since the two approaches are conceptually e#uivalent" 7here reliability is very important) as in
aerospace applications) the use of parameter change adaptation is often favored over the use of control$
signal synthesis" This is because the system can operate even after the failure of the adaptive loop if the
control signal is not entirely dependent on the adaptive portion of the system"
%D%(T* 2E SHEMES
*n the following section we describe three types of adaptive systems9 gain scheduling) model$reference
adaptive control and self$tuning regulators"



,%*D SHED;L*D,
*n many cases it is possible to find measurable variables that correlate well with changes in process
dynamics" These variables can then be used to change the controller parameters" This approach is called
gain scheduling because the scheme was originally used to measure the gain and the change) that is)
schedule) it controller to compensate for changes in the process gain" % bloc- diagram of a system with
gain scheduling is shown" The system can be viewed as having two loops" There is an inner loop
composed of the process and the controller and an outer loop that adjusts the controller parameters on the
basis of the operating conditions" ,ain scheduling can be regarded as a mapping from process parameters
to controller parameters it can be implemented as a function or a table loo-up"
The concept of gain scheduling originated in connection with the development of flight control systems" *n
this application the Mach number and the altitude are measured by air data sensors and used as
scheduling variables" *n the process control the production rate can often be chosen as a scheduling
variable) since time constants and time delays are often inversely proportional to production rate" ,ain
scheduling is thus a very useful techni#ue for reducing the of parameter variations" Historically) it has been
a matter of controversy weather gain scheduling should be considered an adaptive system or not" *f we use
the informal definition) that an adaptive system is a controller with adjustable parameters and an
adjustment mechanism) it is clearly adaptive"

6ig

M0DEL$.E6E.EDE %D%(T*2E SKSTEMS
The model$reference adaptive system was originally proposed to solve a problem in which the performance
specifications are given in terms of a reference model" This model tells how the process output ideally
should respond to the command signal" % bloc- diagram of the system is shown" The controller can be
thought of as consisting of two loops" The inner loop is an ordinary feedbac- loop composed of the


process and the controller" The outer loop adjusts the controller parameters in such a way that the error)
which is the difference between process output @y: and model output @ym: is small" The M.%S was originally
introduced for flight control" *n this case the reference model describes the desired response of the aircraft
to joystic- motions"
The -ey problem with M.%S is to determine the adjustment mechanism so that a stable system) which
brings the error to +ero) is obtained" This problem is non$trivial" The following parameter adjustment
mechanism) called the M*T rule) was used in the original M.%S9

=
e
e
dt
d

*n this e#uation) e R y$ym denotes the model error and is a controller parameter"
The #uantity

e
is the sensitivity derivative of the error with respect to " The parameter determines
the adaptation rate" *n practice it is necessary to ma-e appro/imations to obtain the sensitivity derivative"
The M*T rule has been regarded as gradient scheme to minimi+e the s#uared error e
>

SEL6$T;D*D, .E,;L%T0.S (ST.!
The adaptive scheme discussed so far are called direct methods) because the adjustment rules tell directly
how the controller parameters should be updated" % different scheme is obtained if the estimates of the
process parameters are updated and the controller parameters are obtained from the solution of a design
problem using the estimated parameters" % bloc- diagram of such a system is shown below" The adaptive


controller can be thought of as being composed of two loops" The inner loop consists of the process and an
ordinary feedbac- controller" The parameters of the controller are adjusted by the outer loop) which is
composed of a recursive parameter estimator and a design calculation" *t is sometimes not possible to
estimate the process parameters without introducing probing control signals or perturbations" Dotice that
the system may be viewed as an automation of process modeling and design) in which the process model
and the control design are updated at each sampling period" % controller of this construction is called a self$
tuning regulator (S*.! to emphasi+e that the controller automatically tunes its parameters to obtain the
desired properties of the closed loop system"
The bloc- labeled Pontroller designP in 6igure represents an on$line solution to a design problem for a
system with -nown parameters" This is the underlying design problem" Such a problem can be associated
with most adaptive control schemes) but it is often given indirectly" To evaluate adaptive schemes) it is
often useful to find the underlying design problem) because it will give the characteristics of the system
under the ideal conditions when the parameters are -nown e/actly"

The ST. scheme is very fle/ible with respect to the choice of the underlying design and estimation
methods" Many different combinations have been e/plored" The controller parameters are updated
indirectly via the design calculations in the self$tuner shown in 6igure" *t is sometimes possible to re$
parameteri+e the process so that the model can be e/pressed in$terms of the controller parameters" This


gives a significant simplification of the algorithm because the design calculations are eliminated" *n terms of
6igure) the bloc- labeled Pontroller designP disappears) and the controller parameters are updated
directly"
*n the ST. the controller parameters or the process parameters are estimated in real time" The estimates
are then used as if they are e#ual to the true parameters (i"e) the uncertainty of the estimates are not
considered!" This is called the certainty e#uivalence principle" *n many estimation schemes it is also
possible to get a measure of the #uality of the estimates" This uncertainty may then be used in the design
of the controller" 6or e/ample) if there is a large uncertainty) one may choose a conservative design"



Chapter *_____________________________

System
Identification & Control.



*n the fields of physical science and engineering we are often interested in the development of a
mathematical model of some physical phenomena in order to analytical predictions about the behavior of
the system" *n control application we are often interested in modeling a physical plant) which we wish to
control in order to predict the effect of control efforts and disturbances on that plant"
0ften) the system model can be obtained by application of physical principle to the region of space
designated as the system and obtaining the governing dynamic e#uations" 0ften these e#uations result
from force) mass" Energy) or momentum balances or the governing principles of electromechanical
systems(i"e) DewtonIs) MirchhoffIs) Len+Is and 6aradays laws!" Sometimes the model cannot be obtained
from physical arguments because of un-nown chemical reactions) un-nown boundary conditions on the
physical processes) or the e/treme comple/ity of the process" *n these cases we must resort to the
e/perimental method to develop a system model" This method is applied to the system where in
measurements of system stimuli and responses are made and the dynamic nature of the system is
deducted from the relations between responses and stimuli" This process) -nown as system identification
or characteri+ation) is the epitome of the scientific method" There are many techni#ues for accomplishing
this process and only two are given here8 however) it is interesting to note that the popular techni#ues are
(=! random or pseudorandom e/citation8 (>! impulse e/citation8 (?! step e/citation8 (<! sinusoidal e/citation
with a sweep through the fre#uencies"

LE%ST$S5;%.ES TEHD*5;E
7e will be interested in the identification of systems with constant parameters which will form the
parameter vector <) which will be related to the measurements by the linear vector relation
yi Rdi
T
< iR=)>Sn (?">"=!
where di is a p$vector of data corresponding to measurement yi) and < is a p$vector of parameters which
we wish to find based on the data yi) and di
T
"Let us define our estimate of the parameter vector as = which
may differ from the actual parameter values of < " The set of e#uations then are
yiRdi
T
= Tei iR=)>Sn (?">">!
where ei is the error induced because we have employed the estimate of <" The set of n$e#uations of
(?">">! can be written as the vector e#uation
9>D = ?+ (?">"?!


where D is the n / p data matri/ with an ith row of %*
T
and 9 is commonly called nU = measurement vector
and + is an n / = vector of errors" There are many practical problems that we can put into the form of
(?">"?!"
The techni#ue of least s#uares is not restricted to models that are linear in the independent variable) but
the models must be linear in the parameters" (olynomial curve fits are common) but note that these fits are
linear in the coefficients which are the parameters" Similarly) 6ourier series representations are linear in the
parameters) which in that case are the un-nown 6ourier coefficients"
Let us now go to our general discussion of least s#uares" The model of the estimator is
9>D< (?">"<!
while in reality
9 > D=? + (?">"G!
where the + vector represents the errors in the estimates of the points yi "7e want to minimi+e the sum of
the s#uares of the errors or minimi+e the scalar function
@> +
T
+ > A+*
2
(?">"A!
7e see that the error vector is the difference of 9 and the predicted value of 9 (namely D=!) or
J> 09/D=!
T
09/D=! (?">"B!
Dow to minimi+e J with respect to = we differentiate the function J with respect to the vector =
and we get

d
dJ
>09/D=!
T
0/D!?0/D!
T
09/D=!RE (?">"C!
These two terms are the same) and hence it is sufficient that one of them be +ero and hence
D
T
D=> D
T
9 (?">"O!
(?">"O!
This set of e#uations is often referred to as the normal e"uations) which must be solved for the parameter
estimate vector =" 0ne way would be to invert the D
T
D to give
=R 0D
T
D!
/1
D
T
9 (?">"=E!
(?">"=E!
The matri/ D
T
D is p / p and must be inverted" *f p Q n) then the ran- of D
T
D is less than p and it will be
singular and hence not invertible"
learly ) the number of data points (n! ta-en should be larger than the number of parameters to be
estimated (p!" 7hen dealing with a large number of data points possible that numerical problems will arise


in the inversion re#uired in (?">"=E!" *t might be easier to solve (?">"O! by an iterative techni#ue such as
rela/ation"
Transfer 6unction Estimation ;sing Least S#uares
7e sha*l assume that we have a discrete$data system and that we have measured stimulus and response
se#uences u(-! and y(-!) respectively" 7e must assume a priori a form of the +$domain transfer function" *t
is sometimes not an easy tas-) so one must assume several forms for the transfer function and see which
one gives the minimum aggregate error" %n e/ample will best illustrate this techni#ue) ithen can easily be
applied to other transfer functions"
%ssume that the process involved is governed by the transfer function
, (+! R
) (
) (
z U
z Y
R ( bn$= +
n$=
T""""T b= + T bE!1(+
n
$an$= +
n$=
$"""" $ a= + & aE! (?"?"=!
The e#uivalent difference e#uation is
y(-! Ran$= y(- $=! T" " " T aE y (- $ n! T bn$ u(- $=! TST bE u(- $ n! (?"?">!
7e shall assume that y(-! and u(-! are +ero for negative indices -"
Let us define the kth data vector to be
d(-!RVy(-$=! y(-$>!"""y(- $ n!u(-$=!"""u(-Wn$=!X
T
(?"?"?!
and the parameter vector to be
< >Van$=Sao bn$=SboX
T
(?"?"<!
Then the output at time k can be written as the inner product of the parameter vector and the data vector
y(-!R %
T
(-! < (?"?"G!
*f an estimate of < ) say =) is used) there will be an error in the prediction of y(-!) or)
y(-!R %
T
(-! = T e(-! (?"?"A!
*f we start k at n and end it at *) the resulting set of e#uations is
y(n!R%
T
(n! = Te(n!
y(D!R%
T
(D!= Te(D! (?"?"B!
Define the vector of output data 9(D! as
9(D! R Vy(n! " " " y(D!X
T
(?"?"C!
Define the data matri/ as
D(D! R V%
T
(n! " " " %
T
(D!X
T
(?"?"O!



%lso define the error vector
+(D! R Ve(n! " " " e(D!X
T
(?"?"=E!
*f we intend to estimate the parameter vector) the system of e#uations (?"?"B! can be written as
9(n! R D(n! = T +(D! (?"?"==!
*f we want to estimate the parameter vector at time *T) we want to minimi+e the sum of the s#uares of the
errors) or
J R Ye
>
(-! R +
T
(D!+(D! (?"?"=>!
*f we solve relation (?"?"==! for +(D! and substitute into the relation for J)
J R V9(D! $ D(D! = Z
T
09(D! $ D(D! =! (?"?"=?!
*f we differentiate this product with respect to the vector B) we get

^

J
R $ 9(D! $ D(D! T = D
T
(D! D(D! RE (?"?"=<!
0r)
D
T
(D!D(D! B R D
T
(D! 9(D! (?"?"=G!
This set of e#uations is lied the normal e#uations from least$s#uares theory) and much attention as been
given to the solution of them" 7e may write the solution symbolically as
= R VD
T
0N! D0N!C
/1
D
T
0D! 90D! (?"?"=A!
although it is not li-ely that we would actually invert the matri/ to get the parameter estimate"

7E*,HTED LE%ST S5;%.ES
0ften it is important to weigh the data nearest our current time more heavily than those in the past) so it is
sometimes wise to incorporate a weighting matri/ into the problem) or
JR +
T
(D!W(D!+
T
(D! (?"<"=!
% popular choice for the elements of the weighting matri/ is to ma-e it diagonal) such that

n N
a

E E
W(D!R V E " E X (?"<">!
E E a
So i
th
diagonal element is W*(D!R
l n N
a
+ 1

Minimi+ing J yields the following normal e#uations which involve the weighting
= (D! R VD
T
(D! W(D! D0D!X
$=
D
T
(D! W(D! 9(D! (?"<"?!
*f W(D !R= we have the ordinary unweighted least s#uares of relation (?"<"=A!"


.E;.S*2E LE%ST S5;%.ES
*n the above section we e/plored a batch mode identification techni#ue and in this section we e/plore a
techni#ue with which we may re$evaluate the parameter estimate with each newly obtained response
sample"
Let us loo- bac- at the weighted least$s#uares techni#ue) which we shall e/amine the (D T =!st estimate of
the parameter vector
= (DT =!R VD
T
(DT=! W(DT=! D(DT=!X
$=
D
T
(DT=! W(DT=! 9(DT=! (?"G"=!)
Let us now e/amine the matri/ product in tile s#uare brac-ets) which may be written out as
D
T
(DT=! W(DT=! D(DT=!RY-Rn
DT=
Vd
T
(-!W(DT=!d
T
(-!X
and if we choose e/ponential weighting)

D
T
(DT=!W(DT=!D(DT=! R Y-Rn
DT=
V%(-!
k N
a
+1
%
T
(-!X (?"G">!

This can be partitioned into two terms9
D
T
(DT=! W(DT=! D(DT=! R Y-Rn
DT=
Vd(-!
k N
a

d
T
(-! T d(DT=! ad
T
(DT=!Z
R y D
T
(D! 7(D! D(D!T d(DT=! a d
T
(DT=! (?"G"?!
Define a >n / >n matri/ ((D T =! as
P(DT =! R VD
T
(DT=!W(DT=!D(DT=!X
$=
(?"G"<!

6rom relation (?"G"?! we see that
P(DT =! RV P
$=
(D! T D(DT=! a D
T
(DT=!X
$=
Dow employ the matri/ inversion lemma) to yield
P(DT=!R

) ( ) ( N P N P
%(DT=!(
a
1
T%
T
(DT=!
) (N P
%(DT=!!
$=
%
T
(DT=!
) (N P
(?"G"A!

7e also need to e/amine the #uantity D
T
(DT=! W(DT=! 9(DT=!



which may also be partitioned as
D
T
(DT=! W(DT=! 9(DT=! R Y-Rn
DT=
V%(-!
k N
a
+1
9(-! T %(DT=! a9(DT=!X (?"G"B!
R D
T
(D!W(D! 9(D! T %(DT=! a 9(DT=! (?"G"C!
the weighted least$s#uares result (?"G"?!) we get
= RV

) ( ) ( N P N P
%(DT=!(
a
1
T%
T
(DT=!
) (N P
%(DT=!!
$=
%
T
(DT=!
) (N P
X (?"G"O!
[V D
T
(D!W(D! 9(D! T %(DT=! a 9(DT=!
7hen we multiply this out and note that
P(D!D
T
(D!W(D! 9(D!R =

7hen we multiply this out and note
B(DT=!R =(D!?
) (N P
%(DT=!! a 9(DT=!$
) (N P
(
a
1
T%

(DT=!
) (N P
%
T
(DT=!!
$=
%
T
(DT=! =(D!
$
) (N P
%(DT=!(
a
1
T%
T
(DT=!
) (N P
%(DT=!!
$=
%
T
(DT=!
) (N P
% DT=! a 9(DT=! (?"G"=E!

Dow insert the following identity between the d(D T =! and the a in the second term9
(
a
1
T %
T
(DT=!
) (N P
%(DT=!!
$=
(
a
1
T %
T
(DT=!
) (N P
%(DT=!! (?"G"==!
Dow e/panding we get the following estimate of the parameter vector at time (DT=!T9
B(DT=!R =(D!?D(DT=!Vy(DT=!$d
T
(DT=! =(D!X (?"G"=>!
7here the gain vector D(DT=! is defined as
D(DT=!R
) (N P
%(DT=! (
a
1
T %
T
(DT=!
) (N P
%(DT=!!
$=
(?"G"=?!

0ne can note the similarity between this and the structure of the Malman fitter"Dote that the parameter
estimator given by (?"G"=>! is recursive and that it is driven by the error in the predicted system output at
time (D T =!T"


This algorithm is useful for real$time identification and hence can be used to monitor systems for which the
parameters drift slowly in time" %n adaptive control strategy can thus be employed which not only updates
the values of the estimates of the system parameters but also updates the control law either in the form of a
conventional compensator or a state$space controller composed of a state estimator and estimated state
feedbac- control law" The algorithm can be started in many ways) and hence we ma-e the following
suggestions" Let
((n! R a l
where a is large and positive" *f we assume that the first n data points are noiseless) the e/act solution for =
(n! would be
= (n!R VVd
T
(=! d
T
(>!S"d
T
(n!X
T
X
$=
Vy(=! y(>! """""""" y(n !X
T

%nd this would be one way of starting the recursive process"
The algorithm for recursive identification is then summari+ed as9
=" hoose P(-!) a ) and = (-! to start the algorithm"
>" ompute D(- T =! from
-(DT =!R
) (N P
%(DT=! (
a
1
T %
T
(DT=!
) (N P
%(DT=!!
$=

?" Estimate the parameters at time D T = or
= (- T =! R =(-!?D(-T=!Vy(-T=!$d
T
(-T=! =(-!X
<" ompute P(-T=! from

P(-T=! R
1
Vl $ D(-T=! %
T
(-T =!X P(-!"
G" Let DR-T="
A" ,o to step >"



LFC Using SMES and EDLC

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LFC Using SMES and EDLC

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Adaptive control for improved LFC in an interconnected power system incorporating energy storage devices

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