1 Merged

Convective Heat and Mass Transfer
Prof. A. W. Date.
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay

Module No.# 01
Lecture No. # 01
Introduction to Connective Heat and Mass Transfer

Today, we will begin the first introductory lecture on our course, Convective Heat and
Mass Transfer.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:27)

In this lecture,I will cover and recall your knowledge of modes of heat and mass transfer,
recall some important definitions and give you some examples of convective heat and
mass transfer, and then mention syllabus and references.

As you all know, whenever there is a temperature difference,heat transfer Q Joules per
second or Watts takes place spontaneously by 3 modes:the first of it is the conduction
mode and it takes place in solids, liquids and gases;it is essentially a molecular
phenomenon.The second mode is radiation;it requires existence of a transparent medium
including vacuum.It is anelectromagnetic phenomenon.Convection on the other hand
takes place in liquids and gases.In this, the transfer of energy is both by bulk motion as
well as by conduction.

Likewise, whenever concentration difference exist, mass transfer m dotkilograms per
second takes place spontaneously, by firstly diffusion which takes place in solid, liquid
and gas.It is a phenomenon very akin to heat conduction; it is also a molecular
phenomenon.Likewise convective mass transfer takes place only in liquid and gases in
which there is a transfer of mass by bulk motion and diffusion. There is no radiation-like
counterpart in mass transfer.

Very briefly, the scope of this course is as follows:The course content is designed for
Masters and PhD students who wish to pursue careers in research and development.
Our concern is with convective phenomena.To the extent that fluid motion is involved,
the neighbors of convective heat transfer are fluid mechanics, thermodynamics, and
under graduate heat transfer.I shall be assumingthat you have familiarity with these 3
courses. For example, you have already determined heat and mass transfer coefficients
from experimental correlation such as Nusselt number is equal to constant multiplied by
Reynolds number to the power of m multiplied by Prandtlnumber to the power of n and
C m n are specific to a particular situation in which you are considering the heat transfer.
The aim of this course is to determine the heat and mass transfer coefficients from theory
of mass, momentum, and energy transfer in moving fluids.Many a times we shall obtain
results in close form that will look like experimental correlations.On many other
occasions, you will find that we can only give results in tabulated forms which can then
be correlated in this experimental like form.

The most important quantityin convective heat transfer is the heat flux at the wall; itis
shown here.For example, consider a solid surface past which a fluid is flowing.Then, due
to action of viscosity close to the wall, the fluid will develop a velocity profile with
0velocity at the wall.This is called the no slip condition; meaning thereby, the fluid does
not slip at the surface, but is brought absolutely to rest at the surface.If there was a heat
transfer, then the most commonly developed temperature profile will be as shown in this,
where there will be some reference temperature far away from the wall and the wall
temperature would be greater than fluid temperature.So, the heat transfer would take
place that way.
Heat transfer however could also take place in another way.In the sense, although T w
here is also greater thanT ref, we shall encounter situations in which the fluid
temperature close to the wall is greater than that of the wall, in which case the heat
transfer would take place to the wall although the wall temperature is bigger than the free
stream temperature. So,I have shown here both the cases of positive heat transfer as well
as negative heat transfer.
We define heat transfer flux: suffix q w across interface area A as q suffix w equal to the
total heat transfer Q w inJoules per second divided by area.Therefore, it has units of
Watts per meter square. Because the fluid is brought to rest at the wall, the heat transfer
is actually by conduction.Therefore, we represent it as: By Fouriers law of heat
conduction minus k f d T d y at y equal to 0,where k f is the conductivity of the fluid.So,
in this case, d T d y is negative.Therefore, the heat flux is positive.In this case, however
d T d y is positive.Therefore, the heat transfer is negative or into the surface.

We define heat transfer coefficient in the following ways: h is equal to q w divided by T
w minus T ref.Since q w is equal to minus k f d T d y at y equal to 0, h can also be
defined in this manner.Experimentaliststypically use this definition because q w and T w
are easy to measure.
In theory, however we shall be using this definition (Refer Slide Time:
06:37).Theoretical results are compared with experiments.It is very important to
remember the difference between the two.Usually, we expect agreement of the order of
plus, minus 10 percent in single phase heat transfer. (Refer Slide Time: 06:55) Here I
have shown the velocity profile - the most commonly occurring temperature profile for
positive heat flux, but we could alsoget situations in which T w is less than T
reference.But still, the heat transfer is positive; that is because the temperature profile
here has a negative gradient at the wall, and T w is less than T ref.
So, in general, then h can be both positive or negative because, in this case, q w is
positive andT w is greater than T ref.Therefore, h would be positive;that is shown here
(Refer Slide Time 07:32), but in this case T w is less than T ref, q w is positive, and
therefore, h would be less than 0.
I emphasize this because in most of your under graduate courses, you have not
encountered situations in which h can be negative, but as onemovetowards research one
must be prepared and alert to the fact thath could also be negative. T ref is an important
quantity because it is defined in different flow situations differently, but for the time
being,we will say that T ref is known or is knowable somehow.k f is the conductivity of
the fluid.So, in order to define h completely, we need to know q w,T w, and T ref.

When defining heat transfer, we referred only to theinterface state and the reference
state.Butin mass transfer, we need to consider 3 states:The reference state which is far
away from the interface into which mass transfer is taking place,the interface state w,
and a third state deep inside that is called the transferred substance phase.
Imagine,for example, that water in a plate is evaporating into the atmosphere.Then we
would need to know - what are the conditions deep inside the water, at the surface of the
water, and far away from the water, in the ambient air,in order to be able to calculate the
rate of evaporation of water from the pond - the mass transfer flux.Here I use the symbol
N suffix w is again a mass transfer rate m dot per unit area.Therefore, ithas units of
kilograms per meters square second.
It will be defined as N w equal to g multiplied by B where B is a ratio, is a dimensionless
quantity, comprisingany quantity phi at the reference state minus phi at the interface state
divided by the phi at theinterface state minus phi in the transfer substance state.Since B
is dimensionless, notice that g and N w have the same units - kilograms per meter square
second; whereas, in heat transfer, the heat flux and heat transfer coefficient have
different units. Phi - for the time being, note that it is a conserved property.What is it?We
will see as we go along.

In general, there are 3 types of mass transfer: The first is mass transfer without heat
transfer and chemical reaction, which meansthe water deep inside in the pond, at the
surface, and in the considered phase far away from thepond surface - all have same
temperature.Therefore, there is no possibility of any heat transfer nonetheless mass
transfer would take place; should relative humidity in the ambient air is less than 100
percent then mass transfer would still take place.
Mass transfer with heat transfer butwithout chemical reaction:Now, imagine that the
ambient air is hotter than the interface temperature and it is still hotter than
thetemperature deep inside the pond.Obviously, there would be heat transfer into the
water,but there would be mass transfer accompanied by heat transfer. Of course,
evaporation is aninert process.There are no chemical reactions taking place in any of the
phases.Therefore,we call it as mass transfer with heat transfer, butwithout chemical
reaction.
Finally, the mass transfer with heat transfer and chemical reaction:A very good example
of this is the combustion of fuels - solid, liquid or gas, in which for example, when a coal
particle burns, mass transfer takes place from the particle into thesurrounding air; heat is
transferred from surrounding air to the coal particle continuously,to keep its surface
temperature high.There is a chemical reaction at the surface of the coal particle as well as
there is a reactionof the released gases in the ambient air.So, in each case, conserved
property phi must be appropriately defined and we shall be considering these aspects as
we go along.

It is very important torecall the main task of an engineer.The engineer is concerned with
design and performance evaluation of practical heat transfer equipments.
Design means sizing.For a given heat transfer rate Q w, how much area should I provide
so that the surface never attains a temperature T w and always remains less than some
safe metallurgical temperature determined from metallurgical considerations. So, safety
is also a very important aspect.Finally, the economy;the capital cost and the compactness
of the heat transfer surface is related to surface area A, required to transfer heat Q w, but
the running cost is related to pressure drop because the fluids are being moved past a
surface. Therefore, area A must be chosen or so structured that the pressure drop is as
small as possible and the pumping power is so small reducing therunning cost.
Fluid mechanics determines delta p as well as the velocity profile; the profile in turn
determines the gradients of temperature and phi profiles at the wall which enables you to
calculateh.Note that thermodynamics cannot help design simply because
thermodynamics deals with the change of state and not with the rate of change of
state.Therefore, if you want to design any practical equipment, what you need to know is
the rate of heat transfer per unit area per unit time.That can only be determined with the
knowledge of h or g, as the case may be, whether one is considering heat transfer or one
is considering mass transfer. Thermodynamics however can help in performance
evaluation.

We shall see the importance of thermodynamics andits relation to convective heat
transfer in the examples that follow.
Here,I consider the very simple example of a hot metal sphere which is suddenly
dropped into cold water and the water is held in a perfectly insulated vessel. Obviously,
as the time progresses, the metal sphere will cool down and the water will heat
up.Ultimately, both of them will attain the same temperature.Let us call this temperature
TfinalT f.Thermodynamics will readily tell you what this final temperature will be
because the heat lost by the sphere would equal the heat gained by the water.If you know
the mass and specific heat of the sphere and water, you could readily determine the final
temperature T f.
Thermodynamics however cannot answer the question - what will be the cooling rate of
the sphere?In other words, what will be the rate of change of temperature with time of
the sphere?Nor can it readily determine - what will be howor rather how long it will take
to reach T f the final temperature?
If you want to determine the time required for the sphere to read the final temperature,
you would need to know heat transfer coefficient between the surfaceof this sphere and
the water that surrounds.In this case, the heat transfer would be by natural convection
because we assume that the water is stagnant and motion in it is induced simply by the
density gradient setup by the temperature differences.

We take another example of sizing a condenser.So, considera condenser in which a low
pressure steam is coming in on the shell side,whereas the cold water or the cooling water
is passed into the tubes inside the condenser.The cooling water will enter at a low
temperature T in and would come out at the temperature T out.The steam would
condense and the condensate would be collected at the bottom of the condenser.
So, in a steam condenser, knowing the mass flow rate of steam and the condenser
pressure, thermodynamics can determine the mass flow rate of cooling water required
when the allowable temperature difference T out minus T in is specified.The difference T
out minus T in is specified simply because often temperature of water coming out of the
condenser is let off into a pond or a creek.
In order to save the marine life,for example, one would specify that T out should not
exceed32 to 33 degree centigradebecause it isif hotter than that, then it is harmful to
marine life. So, thermodynamics will tell you what the mass flow rate of water should
be, for a given mass flow rate of steam.However, what thermodynamics cannot tell you
is - how many tubes will be required or in other words what would be the surface area
required at the interface between the tube and the steam? For example, its diameter,
length, number of tubes etcetera.
The actual pressure drops are less than the allowable pressure drops on both shell and the
tube side that can only be determined by knowledge of h on the steam side and on the
water side in the tubes.Pressure drops must then be determined from fluid mechanics,
knowing the fluid flow rates on either side.

Here is another example of gas turbine blade cooling. Of course, thermodynamics tells us
that the temperature leavingthe combustion chamber of a gas turbine must be as high as
possible so as to achieve high thermal efficiency of the turbine. Today temperatures of
the order of 1500 to 1900 k are expected in practical gas turbines.These hot gases,
however flow over turbine blades.
The designer must ensure that the blade temperature anywhere in the blade will be
always less than a safe temperature defined by metallurgical limit in order to prevent
melting. But also because some temperature gradients are inevitable inside the turbine
blade, the gradients must not be high so as to cause warping or twisting of the blade.That
will destroy its hydrodynamic performance.Therefore, in designer has to
provideextremely complicated cooling systems in thisfigure.
So, the cooling air from the compressor is brought in from within the blade and made to
pass through serpentine passages or blade passages as shown near the leading edge and
also pin thin passages near the trailing edge which is extremely thin and the pin thins
provide the strength to the trailing edge.
The amount of air that you draw from the compressor to bring about cooling of the blade
must be small because you have pressurized the air.It is no point losing some of that air
for the cooling purposes because when it comes out of cooling, the amount of air passing
over the blade for generating the power would be reduced.Therefore, the amount of
thrust produced by the engine is also reduced. Therefore, a designer has to make several
compromises.He must obtain high heat transfer coefficients inside the blade so that its
temperature is low and he must make sure that the amount of cooling aid required to do
this is also very small.
So, the question then arises - how should internal passages be shaped?What I have
shown is a very typical arrangement inside a blade (Refer Slide Time: 21:24);for
example, in order to increase heat transfer coefficient rib, roughness is employed.These
are the ribs.You will see some are at right angles to the flow, some are angle to the flow;
it also employs bends.Fluid is made deliberately to go through bends because bends
obtain a good heat transfer and there is also jet impingement.As you can see here, near
the leading edge from this passage, there is a perforated wall so that the air actually
impinges on the leading edge of the blade and cools the blade (Refer Slide Time: 21: 49).
Likewise, at the trailing edge, there arepin fins as to provide strength to the trailing edge
as well as impingement heat transfer.In order to make sure that there is no concentration
of stress due to temperature gradients in this regionof the blade, these techniques
improve the heat transfer coefficient, roughness, bends, jet impingement, etcetera.

Let us take another example from a thermal power plant.So, here is a thermal power
plant with this condenser.The power plant is taking cool water from the pond and
releasing back hot water into the pond again, but the pond is exposed to ambient -solar
radiation as well as wind velocity.Therefore, there is evaporation - loss of water and
therefore, the pond needs to be topped up with water brought from elsewhere.It is very
important to determinethe topping of water requirement for such a pond.To determine
such requirement, one would need to know the mass transfer coefficient between the
water surface and ambient. The driving force B in this case would depend on water
vapor, mass fractions in the ambient at the surface and deep inside the pond, as well
astemperatures in the ambient surface and deep inside the pond.
So, we have a situation of simultaneous heat and mass transfer, butwithout chemical
reaction because both the air and water do not participate in any chemical reaction in this
evaporation process.

I now take another examplefrom the thermal power plant that of a pulverized fuel
furnace.So, in pulverized fuel furnaces of the type shown or the boilers are shown whole
particles typically less than 250 microns are injected along with airin the form of jets
from the burners which are located somewhere near the bottom of the furnace.
If I take a cross section aa at this point, it would be something like this and the burners
are situated in the corners of the cross section. Thecoal particle and air are injected in this
manner (Refer Slide Time: 24:23) so as to provide good mixing inside the furnace.The
particles burn inside and release heat. The heat is then transferred to water tubes which
are lined along the walls of the furnace and the heat transfer to the water tubes is by
convection as well as by radiation because the gas inside the furnace is a transparent
medium.The gases then flow over super-heated tubes and then flow through the
economizer and air preheater toelectrostatic precipitator.
What is of interest in such a situation is the heat and mass transfer orthe heat transfer by
radiation and convection to the water tubes.But more importantly, the particle burn
rate.What is the rate at which these particles are going to burn so as to make sure that the
height of the furnace is sufficient andall particles are completely burnt before the flue
gases go out through their exit?
Nowadays,secondary air is also added somewhere above where the nozzles are or the
burners are in order to lower the temperature of the hot gases and thereby reduce NO x
emissions.All these environmental considerations would require, nowalong with the
power production considerations would require, simultaneous heat and mass transfer
with chemical reaction at the coal particle surface as well as in the released gases.
So, we have a situation of simultaneous heat and mass transfer with chemical reaction in
a pulverized fuel furnace.In fact, the entire field of convection is called upon in a
pulverized fuel furnace because boiling takes place in the water tube that is a heat
transfer with phase change.Radiation takes place, convection takes place, mass transfer
takes place because there is burning involved and chemical reaction involved. So, we
have the most complex situation of convection in a pulverized fuel furnace.

Let me run through very briefly, the syllabus.The numbers in the brackets indicate
roughly the number of lectures I will take on each of these topics.
The first topic would be definitions and the flow classifications.The second lecture
would consider the flow classification.Then,I shall derive the equations
ofmass,momentum energy which are also called the transport equations.I will then
consider a very special class of flows called laminar boundary layers and in 2
dimensionsbecause in a classroom one can only consider 2 dimensional problems.
I would then considerducted flows because they are most commonly occur,inhibit
changes and firstly I would develop laminar duct flow and heat transfer solutions.I would
then turn to turbulent flows because they are most commonly occurring in almost all our
heat transfer equipments.Then,I will develop like in laminar case,solutions to 2D
velocity and temperature to boundary layers as well as to ducted flows; then I will spend
a couple of lectures on what is called turbulence modeling which requiresdrawing up of
energy budgets inflows; here, by energy,I mean kinetic energy of turbulence.So, the first
set of lectures would be concerned with fluid flow and heat transfer.Then,I would turn to
mass transfer.
I would be spending 6 lectures on formulating the total mass transfer problem:mass
transferwithout heat transfer and chemical reaction, mass transfer with heat transfer but
without chemical reactions, and mass transfer with heat transfer and with chemical
reactions.
So,I will develop that problem as a whole and I will be developing sub models which
would enable us to determine the value of the mass transfer coefficient from knowing the
value of the heat transfer coefficient in the corresponding situations.These sub models
essentially depend on postulate of analogy between heat transferand mass transfer. But it
is very important to understand the nuances that are involved in this formulation of sub
models.Out of these, I will pick one model called the Reynolds flow model and show
how well it applies to practical problems involving mass transfer by way of references.

I have listed here 6 references, but there are many others.
To my liking, the first reference -Kays and Crawford convective Heat and Mass
Transfer; thisMcGraw-Hill Asian, third edition is available and published in 1993is
probably the closest to what I shall be doingin my lectures.
In this book, the mass transfer aspect is largely based on a veryexhaustive book called
Introduction to Convective Mass Transfer by D BSpalding.It was written in1963, but
Kays and Crawford have brought inthe modern notations and has made the entire
formulationsmuch easier to access and grasp. A very useful book largely used by
chemical engineers is called the Transport phenomena by Bird Stewart and Lightfoot.It is
an excellent treatyon fundamentals of aFluid Flow Heat and Mass Transfer.It derives
equationsin 3 dimensions which are very valuable and also has very small problems,
solved problems in the book, which are also very illustrative; perhaps, the most definitive
work on boundary layers from the engineering stand point is the work of
Schlichtingpublish the sixth edition of which was published in 1968;the title of the book
is Boundary Layer Theory.
A much more modern booklargely used for undergraduate and introductory post graduate
courses covering all aspects of heat and mass transferat this levelis by Incropera and
Dewitt, as the fourth edition of it isby John-Wiley and Sons is very much available and it
was published in 1996.
Finally, for those of you who wish to take this subject forward and understand where its
present status lies, the book by Cebeci and Cousteix is published by Springer and it is
called Modeling and Computation ofBoundary Layer Flows.Now, this book really
contains material which I shall only elude to because I will not be dealing here with
numerical methods of solvingconvective heat transfer problem, but largely be concerned
with simpler analytical methods for solving.But more complex situations do require
modeling, extensive usercomputers.The book by Cebeci and Cousteix gives you a very
good update on the latest developments in this field.
In the next lecture,I shall consider the flow classificationsof interest in convective heat
transfer;in particular,those that I shall beconsidering in this course.
Thank you.
Prof. A. W. Date

Module No. # 01
Lecture No. # 02
Flow Classifications


In this second lecture, called flow classification, I will first explain the purpose of the
lecture, then tell you something about the vast scope of convective heat transfer through
the flow types and how we are going to select from this vast canvas only a few situations
that are of still practical interest.

So, in convective heat and mass transfer, we recall that we are concerned with Bulk
Fluid Motion. As such, everything that affects bulk flow influences heat transfer
coefficient - h and the mass transfer coefficient - g.
All flows are governed by three-dimensional, time-dependent Partial Differential
Equations of Mass, Momentum and Energy transfer. But not all flows can be elegantly
treated by analytical methods.
Hence, we require numerical methods to solve these equations. The complete equations,
under all types of boundary conditions and complexities of flow domains, can only be
solved by the technique called Computational Fluid Dynamics. It will solve the entire
three-dimensional, time-dependent Partial Differential Equations.
Therefore, the scope of the subject is very vast in terms of its physics, in terms of
applications and in terms of mathematical complexity.
We need to reduce this complexity so as to make it tractable through about 40 lectures in
a classroom situation. Therefore, what I am going to do is to classify the kind of flow
situations that are of interest, and from this, I will give you the selection made for this
particular course.

The first step of flow classification is well known to you - called the forced and free
convection. So, consider a hot cylinder, say a tube or anything like that, across which the
cold fluid is flowing.
If the fluid motion is caused by external means, such as pump, blower, etcetera, we call it
forced convection heat transfer. In this case, the temperature differences are such that
density differences due to temperature differences induce very little or no motion at all.
The entire motion is really driven only by the power provided by the pump or a blower,
as a case may be. Such a situation we call heat transfer by forced convection. On the
other hand, if this cylinder was kept in stagnant air, you would see the fluid motion
would still because but it will be upwards, acting against gravity g, which is
downwards.
Since the cylinder is hot, the density near the cylinder is low and the temperature of the
stagnant air is very low; therefore, its density is high. As a result of the density
difference, the lighter fluid simply climbs up against the action of gravity. We call this
natural convection. In moving past the cylinder in this manner, it picks up heat and
transfers it to the ambient. So if the fluid motion is induced by density differences arising
from temperature differences, we say the situation is completely free or is a natural
convection situation. But many a times the external flow is not high enough to suppress
all motion due to density differences, and in such a case, we would have the two motions
which are comparable.
Such a situation would result in the net flow downstream of the cylinder going
somewhere to the northeast. It is a combination of northward flow in natural convection
and eastward flow in forced convection; therefore, it would claim somewhere northeast.
Such a situation we call mixed convection. Now, of course, you have come across
experimental correlations of this type, Nu from the cylinder- the Nusselt number from
the cylinder- would be constant into Reynolds number, raised to the power m, Prandtl
number to the power n. And this we say is a.
In this situation the Grashof number divided by Reynolds number square is very small.
In other words, all natural convection motions are suppressed and we have essentially
forced convection.
In this situation, we have Gr by Re square is very much greater than 1. In fact, the forced
convection does not even exist and therefore, when the Grashof number divided by
Reynolds square is very large we say it is a natural convection situation.
If Grashof by Reynolds square is of the order of 1 then we have a mixed convection
situation. In natural convection Reynolds number gets replaced by Grashof number;
whereas, in mixed convection both Grashof and Reynolds are present and Prandtl
number, of course, is present in all cases.

The Grashof number Gr is the ratio of the buoyancy forces and viscous forces. Most
often we are interested in forced convection heat transfer.
Reynolds number is an important criterion. Reynolds number is the ratio of Inertia forces
to Viscous forces. As you all know, when the Reynolds number is less than critical
Reynolds number, the flow in the tube will be laminar and the friction factor versus
Reynolds number relationship on a log log plot would be linear.
It is f equal to 16 divided by Reynolds number- a very well known solution to laminar
flow inside a tube.
If Reynolds number is greater than Reynolds critical, then we have turbulent flow- the
friction factor would be doing that.
For these two cases, the heat transfer would look something like this- the Nusselt number
would equal 4.36 if constant heat flux was applied at the wall; it would be 3.67 if wall
temperature was kept constant.
All this is known to you in laminar flow. Notice that the Nusselt number is independent
of Reynolds and Prandtl number, in an and it is essentially a constant. But as soon as the
Reynolds number exceeds the critical Reynolds number the Nusselt number becomes a
function, both of the Reynolds number as well as of the Prandtl number.
What about the in between region we call the critical region or the transitional region, in
which the laminar flow essentially is converted to a turbulent flow? For Ducted Flows as
you all know, Reynolds critical is about 2200. In the range, say, about 2200 to 3000
would be the critical Reynolds number range.
Like critical Reynolds number, there is also critical Grashof number in natural
convection. So in all kinds of situations that we will be studying, critical Reynolds and
Grashof numbers have been experimentally studied. Theories exist to estimate them, but
usually the theories fall far short of what is expected from experimental results.
It is extremely difficult to identify all causes of transition to turbulence and theories can
only capture some of the if a cause is or transition to turbulence
So laminar and turbulent flows, as well as the transitional flows, are important
classifications from the point of view of convective heat transfer. In fact, many of our
equipment is deliberately run in the transitional Reynolds number range. Simply because
it is in this range that there is a very sudden increase in heat transfer range.

A third classification is Incompressible and Compressible Flows. Now, of course,
Incompressible Flows routinely occur in liquids- we all know liquids are Incompressible.
The distinction is really applicable to gaseous flows. In gases, we say the gas flow is
Incompressible if the Mach number- defined as the velocity of the fluid divided by the
velocity of the sound in that fluid- is less than 0.3.
Since you know that in ambient temperatures the velocity of sound in air is about 300
meters per second, what we are saying is, under ambient conditions, if the velocity was
less than about 100 meters per second, the gas flows could be considered as being
Incompressible.
Now of course, it so turns out in majority of our heat exchangers and other equipment,
gaseous flows are indeed at low velocity- having velocities much lower than 100 meters
per second. Therefore, gaseous flows can also be considered as Incompressible as far as
practical convective heat and mass transfer equipment is concerned.
There are applications like in gas turbines, combustion chambers and in turbines. You do
have situations where Mach number could exceed 0.3, but then, we are not at the
moment concerned with such an extreme situation.
What is implied in an Incompressible flow is that, the density is either constant or it is a
function only of temperature. If it was a forced convection situation, of course, the
density variation with temperature would be very small.
But if it is a natural convection, then the density variations would be significant. In
Compressible Flows, which occur mainly in gases, usually Mach number is greater than
0.3. Mach number would be equal to 1 for sonic Compressible Flow; it would be greater
than for supersonic flows. Main distinguishing feature of a Compressible Flow is that the
density in this case is a function of pressure and temperature both. Not only temperature,
but both pressure and temperature. Remember, Compressible Flows occur only in gases.

Another important consideration is Wall Flows and Jet and Free Flows. Remember, we
are interested in determining h and g at the interface between a surface and a fluid
flowing past it.
The surface may be solid or liquid, and the fluid flowing past it may be liquid or a gas.
So, naturally we are only interested in flows which are bounded by walls because it is
only there where heat transfer coefficient is defined.
But in fluid mechanics one also is interested in what are called Free Flows- such as those
that are formed in the form of a jet, say, air issuing or a gas issuing from a nozzle or a
wake- that is, a flow behind a ship would be a wake flow.
These flows of course, are not bounded by walls but nonetheless, one can identify an
imaginary surface in which significant velocity variations occur. Therefore, it is of
interest in fluid mechanics but not so much in convective heat transfer simply because
there is no bounding wall, and our interest is in determining h and g which are defined
only at the bounding wall.
The flows with interfaces are termed as Wall Flows. Internal Duct Flows, External Flow
over a tube, Wind Flow over a lake etcetera are examples of Wall Flows. And our
interest is in Wall Flows, as I said, but not in Free Flows such as jets and wakes, because
there are no interfaces. The examples are jet discharge of hot water into water body and
flow behind a ship etcetera- these are not of interest.


Then there is the very important classification called the Boundary layer flow and a
Recirculating flow. Boundary layer flows are flows that are long and thin. That means, if
you consider a surface past which a fluid is flowing then the viscosity affected region
would be very thin- of the order of delta, and the dimension x would be far greater than
delta. So we call such flows- long and thin flows. The velocity - u also would be
considerably bigger than the velocity - v. Because of the predominantly unidirectional
flow, they are also sometimes called one-way influence flows. By this we mean, in the
predominant direction of the flow, the conditions at a cross section would be influenced
completely by the conditions upstream of that cross section.
Conditions downstream cannot influence the conditions at this cross section x. Therefore
we call them one-way influence flow. But, for example, consider now a case of a surface
on which a rib has been mounted; then, although the predominant direction of the flow is
this way- close to the surface where heat transfer is taking place, you would have the
recirculating regions. In these regions, of course, as you can see, the influences would
travel both from downstream as well as from upstream.
And therefore Recirculating Flows are often called two-way influence flows. As we go
along we shall note during mathematical treatment, that Boundary layer flows, because
of their one-way influence are governed by parabolic partial differential equations;
whereas, the Recirculating Flows are governed by elliptic partial differential equations
By and large it would be fair to say that it is extremely difficult to obtain exact analytical
solutions to elliptic equations; whereas, at least some progress can be made in obtaining
analytical solutions to parabolic equation. Therefore, we would largely concentrate on
situations that are governed by parabolic equations.


Then, of course, the single and Two Phase Flows; this is of course of great interest in
mechanical engineering- particularly in boilers. What happens in boilers is that you have,
say, single phase water entering at the bottom of a tube and heat transfer by radiation and
convection- as we saw in a p f furnace. Heat flux is falling on this surface.
As a result of this, first nucleation sites would be established when the temperature of the
wall increases and small bubbles of vapor would begin to form and they would penetrate
inwards into the core of the flow. Such a zone is called the bubbly flow regime.
As we go downstream, the temperature of the wall continues to rise and the number
density of bubbles also increases. So much so, that some of the bubbles actually coalesce
with each other and form large bubbles which are, sort of, confined and surrounded by
smaller bubbles.
The large bubbles move like slugs and therefore, such a region is called the slug flow
region. If you go further down the tube, you will see the slugs get elongated and bubbles
continue to be formed at the water surface.
So we have inner core of vapor- long inner core of vapor- and a thin outer core of liquid
interspersed with tiny bubbles. Such a flow is called annular flow without entrainment-
that means there is no fluid entrained in the core.
But if you go further down, you will find the interface between the liquid water and the
water vapor becomes very unstable and it causes rupture of the interface: sputtering out
water droplets into the core of the flow. So water vapor and water droplets, sort of,
coexist in the core of the flow, while the water still surrounds the inner surface of the
tube. Such a situation is called the annular flow with entrainment where the water
droplets are getting entrained into them.
If you continue to heat further, you will see a situation is reached where nowhere in the
cross section is any liquid water found, and you essentially have the tubes in contact with
water vapor only.
Now, as a rule, the heat transfer coefficient- the magnitude of the heat transfer
coefficient in gases and vapors- is much lower than the magnitude of heat transfer in
liquids.
As a result of this there is a sudden drop in heat transfer coefficient near what is called a
dry-out point. And, as a result of that, the temperature of the surface of the tube would
rise very suddenly to a very high value.
So much so, that sometimes even a tube might melt. So the objective is, of course, to
make sure that such a situation does not arise in practical equipment and that the
temperature is maintained well below the meltdown temperature of the surface.
So, post dry-out, you essentially have very tiny droplets which appear like a mist in an
essentially vapor flow. And still further downstream, you will see all these droplets
would be converted to water vapor and the dryness fraction of steam would be 1;
whereas, it was 0 at the bottom of the tube.
So essentially, then you have flow with phase transition from liquid water to complete
vapor. But in-between there are regions of two phases- water and water vapor. In the
bubbly flow- the dense phase, the water phase dominates the vapor phase; as you move
towards slug flow, the lighter phase- the vapor phase, begins to dominate the flow.
When you go to these annular flows, vapor flow vapor phase occupies a much bigger
volume than the liquid flow. Then, when you come to the mist flow region, of course, the
vapor phase almost completely dominates the liquid phase. And beyond x equal to 1, of
course, you have the purely water phase.
So, such Two Phase Flows are extremely complex in their physics because there is a
continuous change in the structure of the flow; there is a simultaneous heat and mass
transfer accompanied by phase change.
But then, there are also situations like fluidized bed dryers or pulverized fuel combustors
and so on and so forth in which phase change takes place. Particles from solid phase
move into gas phase coupled with chemical reaction.
You have situations of cyclone evaporators, you have situations of evaporators, cyclone
separators, situations of evaporators, boiling water reactors, fluidized bed dryers- all
these are situations involving simultaneous heat and mass transfer with or without
change. Extremely complex physics and mathematics are involved.

Whereas, in Single Phase Flows, the physics is relatively much more simple. Yet another
classification is Internal Flow and External. I said we are interested in Wall Flows, but
there are varieties of Wall Flows.
Internal Flows are those we call Ducted Flows. So, for example, here is a case of a twin
fin heat exchanger or a plate fin heat exchanger. In this: there is a plate at the top, plate
in the middle, plate at the bottom.
Between the bottom two plates the flow is from southeast; whereas, in the top two plates
the flow is from southwest. There are also the plates separated by means of fins which
are forming triangular cross sections here, whereas here they are squared cross section.
I show this because normally our understanding of a duct is that it is a circular tube. as
you go up in shell and tube heat exchanger But you can get ducts of a variety of shapes-
triangular, square, rectangular or elliptical and so and so forth.
Such flows are called Internal Flows because they are bound on all sides by a solid wall.
But as I said, if we consider Wind Flow over a lake then clearly that interface is between
water surface and the wind; we have a situation of a flow bound by wall on one side- that
is the water surface, but on the other side it is a completely free expanse. Such a flow we
consider External Flow. These two are very easy to understand, but in mathematical
modeling sometimes we actually treat a confined Ducted Flow if you like, also as an
external flow. Where does that happen?
For example, if you consider a gas turbine then the turbine blades are mounted on a disk
at prescribed pitch. Such a situation is called a cascade of blades and the oncoming flow
will flow through the passage created by the pitch.
The flow would enter so and would leave the turbine blade from near the trailing edge.
Of course, from heat transfer point of view, what we are interested in is the heat transfer
at the wall. It so turns out, that in such flows, in the core of the flow, the temperature
would almost be uniform and so the velocity would be more or less uniform.
Whereas, then, greater parts of variations of velocity and temperature would be confined
to an extremely thin region- close to the surface of the blade. The top surface of a blade
is called the suction surface, the bottom surface is called the pressure surface. Therefore,
this blade disc would move in that direction.
You will notice, because these regions where temperature gradients exist are very small
compared to the total distance between the suction side and the pressure side, so much
so, that for all practical purposes, we could treat this Boundary layer development on the
suction surface as an External Flow in which it is bound on one side by the solid surface-
the suction surface, but on the other side is a completely free expanse.
Likewise, we could treat the pressure surface in the similar manner where the Boundary
layer is growing on the pressure surface- the surface is the interface where the region
below the Boundary layer would be a free expanse.
Although, truly this is a confined flow, we can simplify and concentrate our attention on
a very thin region. Incidentally, it is in this thin region where velocity and temperature
variations take place, and as a result these variations essentially imply that there is a
resistance to heat transfer and momentum transfer, and is also confined to regions very
close to the wall.
Therefore, it is worth considering only those regions to obtain practical information,
which is also mathematically much more easy to track. So the classification of Internal
and External Flows is an important one, because, we often call certain External Flows,
which actually occur in ducted or confined situations.

Finally, the dimensionality of the flow; this is very important. The dimensionality of a
flow is concerned with a number of independent variables associated with the flow. That
means, the number of independent variables with which fluid properties such as,
pressure, velocity and temperature, vary.
So, in effect, there can only be the maximum number of dimensionality of a flow can be
three x y and z. So, you can only have maximum three-dimensional flows.
If I consider, for example, flow in the entrance length of a tube, then you will see
Boundary layer development will take place. But after a certain length, the Boundary
layers will merge and the velocity profile, which was in this case function of both x and
radius r, is no longer function of x at all; because, the flow has become fully developed
and the velocity is a function of radius r only.
You are all familiar with these terminologies- development length and fully developed
length. But notice that in this case, in the development length, flow variables such as
pressure, velocity and temperatures are functions of independent variables x and r;
whereas, in the fully developed region they are functions of x.
I emphasize this connection of dimensionality with independent variables because very
often people think of dimensionality of the flow as being concerned with the number of
velocity components, which is not true.
For example, if I had a swirling flow, an axisymmetric swirling flow, it will still be
called a two-dimensional flow because all the three velocity components, v x, v r and v
theta are functions of radius and actual distance.
The third dimension is not involved, because we are talking about an axisymmetric flow.
So, the development length flow is two-dimensional but the fully developed flow is only
one dimensional in the flow in a tube.
But if you now consider flow in a non-circular section tube, like, let us say, square
section tube, you will have development length in which Boundary layers will glow on
all four surfaces and the flow in this region would be three-dimensional.
But once you reach fully developed flow, then the flow velocity would be function only
of the cross sectional coordinates y and z and therefore the flow will be essentially two-
dimensional. So, dimensionality of the flow changes within this same tube or a duct and
it is very important that we appreciate the differences between flows in association with
the dimensionality. By and large, one and two-dimensional flows are relatively easy to
track than three-dimensional flows in classroom situations.

Scope of the present lectures the- all the things marked in blue are the ones that I shall be
concentrating on, while making very brief references to those which are marked in black.
The first classification is between forced and free convection; I will be largely dealing
with forced convection. There are Laminar and Turbulent Flows including transitional
flows, I will consider all those types. There are Incompressible Flows and Compressible
Flows. I will be largely confined to Incompressible Flows; because, as I said in most of
the equipment, particularly in mechanical engineering, the Boundary layers are, I mean,
the flow velocities are essentially less than about 100 meters per second.
We will all only be concerned with Boundary layer type flows. Essentially, flows with
predominantly one-way influences, simply because they are mathematically much easy
to track in a classroom situation.
Recirculating Flows require numerical methods and use of computer and I will therefore
not be dealing with Recirculating Flows in the classroom. Wall Flows- by definition,
since we are interested in heat and mass transfer coefficient- we will only be concerned
with Wall Flows and not with Free Flows.
And then, as I said, Two Phase Flows are very complex to handle analytically and
therefore I would deal essentially with Single Phase Flows. Finally, again one and two-
dimensional flows will be emphasized because they are simpler to handle analytically;
three-dimensional Flows will be ignored.
In the next lecture, I will continue with the laws of convection.
Prof. A. W. Date

Module No. # 01
Lecture No. # 03
Laws of Convection

I begin with the third lecture called laws of convection.

In a way, this is the most fundamental lecture along with the next one, because I will first
be stating the fundamental laws that govern our subject of convective heat and mass
transfer. Then I will go on essentially, to enunciate the laws governing fluid motion,
which are also the tractable forms of governing equations, are also called Navier-Stokes
equation.
I will end with complete derivation of the Navier-Stokes equations. In a way, this lecture
is very fundamental because fluid motion is so very important in convective heat
transfer.

What are the fundamental laws? The first is the law of conservation of mass, which is
responsible for transport of mass. Thus, Newtons second law of motion: force is equal
to mass into acceleration, is essentially responsible for transport of momentum. The first
law of thermodynamics is responsible for transport of energy. The first two laws, namely
the law of conservation of mass and Newtons second law of motion, define fluid motion
completely and the third one defines the transport of energy.
Today, I am going to consider only first two laws that define fluid motion completely by
applying these laws to infinitesimally small control volume located in a moving fluid.


The first question that arises is that, how should we look at fluid and its motion? Though
the fluid itself is viewed in two ways the first one is called the particle approach, and
the second one is called the continuum approach.
In the particle approach, the fluid is assumed to consist of particles molecules, atoms,
and the laws are applied to study motion of each particle. The fluid motion that we see
and feel is then described by statistically averaged motion of a group of particles.
In this approach, the motion of each particle is studied, but the fluid motion that we
speak of is described by statistically average motion of a group of particles.
For most engineering applications, and also environmental applications, this approach is
too cumbersome. Simply because the significant dimensions of our flows, say, radius of
a pipe, could be anywhere from, say, five millimeters to anything up to two meters
diameters is considerable, or a boundary layer thickness.
So, these are the significant dimensions of the flow and these tend to be considerably
bigger than the mean free path length between molecules. It means, in a given pipe, there
will be simply billions and billions and trillions of particles to track even in a simple one
centimeter diameter pipe.
To appreciate this, just consider something that you already know. For example, the
Avogadros number specifies that at normal temperature of twenty five degree centigrade
and pressure of one atmosphere, a gas will contain six into ten is[raise to the power] to
twenty six molecules per kilo mole.
For example, air, which has a molecular weight of say about twenty nine and a density of
about one, it can easily be deduced that there will be two into ten raise to sixteen
molecules per millimeter cube. You can very well imagine, therefore, that the mean free
path length between molecules must be very small. There will be simply far too many
molecules to track, even in a simple case of a flow in one centimeter diameter pipe.

Continuum approach was devised essentially to overcome this difficulty. In this
approach, we assume that the statistical averaging is already perform and we consider
elements of fluids to which fundamental laws are applied. The elements of fluid are also
sometimes called control volumes. These control volumes, although infinitesimally
small, actually contain a large number of particles. They are simply very tiny or
infinitesimally small. Since, we have already assumed that the fluid is viewed such that
averaging has took place, obviously, some information is always lost in any averaging,
and therefore, that information must be recovered. This information recovery is done by
invoking some additional auxiliary laws, along with the fundamental laws. The three
fundamental laws are normally invoked are firstly, the Stokess stress and rate of strain
law, which defines the fluid viscosity mu; the Fouriers law of heat conduction, which is
familiar to you, defines the thermal conductive k; and Ficks law of mass diffusion,
which defines the mass diffusivity. If you recall my first lecture, I have said all these are
molecular phenomena.

Essentially they are molecular, simply because they represent the last information as a
result of averaging at the molecular levels. The transport property is mu k and diffusivity
are typically determined from experiments. Although theory, such as kinetic theory of
gases, etc., are available to be able to determine their magnitudes, as we move our
applications involving very small dimensions, called microscale heat transfer or
nanoscale heat transfer, a quantity call Knudsen number is very important one. Knudsen
number is simply the ratio of mean free path length between molecules, divided by the
characteristic flow dimension l divided by L. We say that the continuum approach is
valid and is also experimentally verified, when Knudsen number is less than 10
-4
. Today,
we have micro channels whose dimensions could be of the order of microns, or tenth or
hundredth of microns, and clearly the dimension l itself would be comparable to the
mean free path length L. Therefore, in such a case, the particle approach would become
necessary.

In this course, of course, we are always going to assume continuum approach, by saying
that we would be considering situations in which L is much much greater than the mean
free path length.
As I said in the continuum approach, the fundamental laws are applied to a fluid element,
we call it control volume. Let us define the control volume. The control volume is a
region in space across the boundaries of which matter energy and momentum may flow,
and it is a region within which source or sink of the same quantities may prevail. Further,
it is a region on which external forces may act. So imagine, a fluid inside a flowing flow,
very tiny fluid element. Then, we are saying that in this fluid element energy will flow in
and flow out, mass will flow in and flow out, momentum will flow in and flow out, and it
is an element on which external forces may act.
In general, a CV can be large or infinitesimally small; however, consistent with the idea
of a differential in a continuum, an infinitesimally small CV is considered. Remember,
the idea of continuum is also invoked in mathematics.
In fact, when we define a derivative, we say, difference in the values of a variable at two
distinct points is written as d y by d x, when d x goes to zero. In other words, when d x
becomes very small or the two points are brought very close to each other, a derivative is
defined.
The notion here is very similar we want to represent our laws in terms of differential
equations. So, in order to be consistent with the idea of a differential in a continuum, we
we shall consider infinitesimally small control volume.

The CV is located within the moving fluid. Again, there are two approaches first of
them is called the Lagrangian approach and the second one is called the Eulerian
approach. In the Lagrangian approach, the CV is consider to be moving with the fluid as
a whole. In the Eulerian approach on the other hand, if I have a moving fluid, the
element that I consider is fixed in space.
In a way, the material of the element is changing continuously because some fluid is
coming in and going out, and fluid element contains different materials at different times.
But the location of the element is fixed in space.
In the Lagrangian approach, on the other hand, the material of the element does not
change but the element itself moves with the fluid. In the Eulerian approach, the CV is
assume to be fixed in space and the fluid is assumed to flow through and past the CV.
When is Lagrangian approach invoked? It is invoked in only such study of certain types
of unsteady flows, such as free surface waves, for example. But this is not something of
interest to us, and therefore, we shall be preferring Eulerian approach to application of
fundamental laws to control volumes.
There is also one more advantage when we consider Eulerian approach. As I have said,
on the Eulerian approach, the fluid element is fixed in space, although located inside the
moving fluid, it is fixed in space.
Now recall, that whenever we do experimental measurements using a pitot tube or hot
wire for velocity or laser doppler anemometer, and so on so forth, they are all fixed
instruments in space, and the fluid moves past them.

As a result, there is a great advantage in the sense that what is measured by the
instruments can now be compared directly with the solution of differential equations that
the Eulerian approach defines. As a result, we shall always preferred, throughout this
course, to look at the fluid as a continuum and apply fundamental laws to the control
volume within the Eulerian approach.
Now, there is still one more matter to be settled. The fundamental laws by themselves are
pretty useless, in many ways. Firstly, the fundamental laws apply only to total flows of
mass momentum and energy. They define total flows, both in magnitude as well as in
direction. So there are two properties involved magnitude of the total flow and the
direction of the total flow. To the extend direction is involved, all these flows are vectors
like this, say total vector.
Now, the trouble is that when the fluid flows through a duct or flows over a turbine blade
or something like that, at every point, the flow, I simply do not know the direction of the
total vector a priory. I am sure you are able to imagine this. In the entrance region of a
duct, where the boundary layers grow close to the wall, the direction of the flow will be
pointing towards the axis of the tube, inside the boundary layer. But as I move away
from the wall, it will be more or less aligned and parallel to the axis of flow. In fact, at
the access symmetry, the flow will be absolutely parallel to access symmetry.
But I simply do not know a priory the direction that the total vector will make with the
fixed coordinate system x y z, nor do I know the magnitude. So what is done then? In the
general problem of convection, since we do not know magnitude and direction a priory,
we settle the matter in this way. We say the problem of ignorance of direction is
circumvented by resolving the total vector in three directions x one, x two, and x three,
as I have shown here. The total velocity vector u would be resolved in terms of velocity
vector u one in the direction x one; u two in the direction x two; and u three in the
direction x three. Same thing would apply to forces. Same thing would apply to all other
fluxes like heat flux and mass flux. We shall always resolve all the vector quantities in
three directions that define the space. Of course, we have increased our work but at least
we have made the problem tractable in the sense that now we need to be worrying only
about how to determine their magnitudes in three direction, so that the total vector could
always be constructed, knowing the three vector, sub vectors in three different directions.

Let us consider the very first law of conservation of mass and here is a control volume.
The verbal statement of the law is very simple. It says the rate of accumulation of mass
within a control volume would equal the rate of mass in minus rate of mass out. Very
simple to understand. There is no difficulty at all.
How do we represent, mathematically, the accumulation of mass the rate of
accumulation of mass m dot a c? Remember the mass of the element would be simply
rho m multiplied by its volume. Rho m is the bulk fluid or mixture density multiplied by
the volume, which is delta x one delta x two delta x three, divided by d t. So, partial d by
d t rho m delta v would be the rate of accumulation, well, at surface x equal to x one, the
mass rate of mass flow in will be rho m into u one, which is the mass flux multiplied by
the area delta a one, which is delta x two multiplied by delta x three. So, that is what I
have written here. That could be the rate of mass in at surface x equal to x one.
Likewise, there will be rho m u two delta a two, which is the mass coming in from this
side, and there will be rho m u three delta a three, which is the mass coming in from the
back side at x three equal to constant surface.
M dot out would likewise be rho m u one delta a one going out at x one plus delta x one
surface, rho m u two delta a two at x two plus delta x two would be the mass going out of
the x two plus delta x two surface, and likewise mass will come out at the front surface in
the x two direction.
Incidentally, notice that the directions of x one x two x three satisfy the right-hand screw
rule, which means if I start with x one and move towards x two, a right-hand screw
would make take me forward in x three direction.
So that is what is implied here. If I turn x one to x two, I will move in x three direction.
This is very important to remember in all our subsequent slides that the coordinate
directions are so chosen that they obey the right-hand screw rule in cyclic manner.
So, having replace the verbal statement by in its mathematical form, we divide each term
here by volume delta v, which is nothing but delta x one delta x two and delta x three.
Remember that delta a one is delta x two delta x three delta a two is equal to delta x one
delta x three, and delta a three is delta x two delta one.

The the law of conversation of mass would read something like this rho m u one x one,
which is the mass flux in, minus rho m u one x one x mass flux out from in the x one
direction divided by delta x one. Similarly, in y direction, and similarly in z direction. If I
now let each of these delta x one delta x two delta x three go to zero, that means making
the control volume extremely small, and infinitesimally small. Then, each of these
expressions would simply get converted to a partial derivative. This expression for
example, would be minus d rho m u one by d x one, minus d rho m u two by d x two,
minus d rho m u three by d x three, which I have transformed on the left-hand side to
read as follows. So essentially then d rho m by d t equals plus d rho m by u one d x one
plus d rho m u two by d x two plus d rho m by and u three d x three equal to zero, is the
statement of the law of conservation of mass in differential form.
It will also call a conservative form of equation, simply because this is how it is derived,
and it has conserved all the fluxes in all directions. Non-conservative form can be
derived by mathematical manipulation. For example, I can treat this as differentiation of
a product, then you will see this will become u one d rho m by d x one and u one d rho m
by d x one, which I have written sorry u one rho m d u one by d x one which is written
here on the right hand side.
So, you will see, I will get d rho m by d t plus u one d rho m by d x one plus u two d rho
m by d x two plus u three d rho m by d x three equal to minus rho m into d u one by d x
one d u two by d x two d u two by d x three. This way of writing is called the non-
conservative form of writing the rho of conservation of mass.
You will readily recognize that this left-hand side is nothing but what we call the total
derivative d rho m by d t equal to minus rho m. What is this? This is simply divergence
of velocity vector v, and therefore, written as del dot v.

So, d rho m by d t equal to minus rho m del dot v is a non-conservative form of the law
of conservation of mass.
I now turn to the second law of motion, which as I said is concerned with the transport of
momentum. The statement goes something like this for a given direction x one x two or
x three, the rate of accumulation of momentum equals rate of momentum in minus rate
of momentum out, plus some of the forces acting on the c v, in the same direction.
Remember, Newtons second law of motion says that the force equal to mass into
acceleration, but implies that the force and acceleration are in the same direction. What
are the forces that act on a control volume? Firstly, there are shearing stresses shearing
forces tau two one is a shearing force acting in x one direction; and likewise tau two
one would be at x two equal to constant surface, would act in this direction; tau three one
likewise acts at x three plus delta x three surface; and tau three one also acts in the other
direction.
The difference in these stresses, provide the shear of the control volume. Sigma is the
normal stress, it is tensile, and therefore, points outwards from all surfaces sigma one
here, sigma two here, and sigma three in the back; and likewise sigma one here, sigma
three here and sigma two there at the other surfaces.
In addition, there could well be body forces due to buoyancy or coriolis force or a
centrifugal force or an electromagnetic force. A fluid can experience variety of forces,
body forces in particular.
These are all the forces but the important thing is we can consider the Newtons law of
motion in one direction at a time. Therefore, since there are three direction, we shall have
three equations, as I have mentioned here.

Let us write each term in mathematical form momentum accumulation. Well simply, the
mass of the control volume is rho m into delta v. And since I am considering direction
one, I must multiply that by u one to get mass into velocity is momentum, and the rate of
change of that is the accumulation, so d by d t of rho m delta v u one is the accumulation
of momentum.
What about momentum in? Rate of momentum in would be rho m u one into delta a one
is the mass coming in from surface x one x two equal to constant. That must be
multiplied by velocity u one to get momentum in x direction.
There is also mass coming in from x two equal to constant surface. That also must be
multiplied by velocity u one to get momentum in direction one. Likewise, there is also
mass is coming from the back at x three equal to constant surface, which must also
contribute to momentum in direction one.
I have three terms mass coming in at surface x one multiplied by u one, mass coming
in at surface x two multiplied by u one, mass coming in at surface x three multiplied by u
one. Going out fluxes would be mass coming in at u one multiplied by u one at x one
plus d x one, similarly, x two plus d x two and x three

These are the way mass momentum in and momentum out terms. What about the forces?
Remember, as I said sigmas are tensile forces, sigma one acts on the area delta a one,
sigma two acts on the area delta a two, and sigma three acts on the delta a three.
The first term is indirection x one, positive direction. I shall have minus sigma one at x
one minus sigma x one at delta x one multiplied by delta a one. This would be the force
in the positive direction one.

Likewise, tau two one x two plus delta x two surface is acting in positive direction,
whereas, the tau two one at x two surface is acting in the negative direction. Therefore, I
have tau two one x two plus delta x two minus tau two one x at x two multiplied by delta
a two. Likewise, in the surfaces in the z direction, tau three one at x three plus delta x
three minus tau three one at x three multiplied by delta x three. Plus, if there is a body
force b one in extend direction, which acts on the control volume as the whole, is written
as rho m into delta v, which is the mass of the control volume multiplied by b one,
meaning thereby that b one has units of Newtons per kilogram. And therefore, it has been
multiplied by rho m into delta v.

Stresses on the other hand have units of Newtons per meter square and therefore, I have
multiplied by area a one a two. So, in other words, the units of each term here is simply
Newtons the force.
If you substitute these mathematical terms into the statement of the Newtons second
law, and we divide each term by volume delta v, and let delta x one delta x two delta x
three go to zero, then it is not very difficult to show that d rho m u one by d t plus d rho
m u one u one by d x one plus d rho m u two u one by d x two plus d rho m u three u one
by d x three, would simply equal d sigma one by d x one plus tau two one by d x two
plus d tau t three one by d x three rho m b one.
This would be the momentum equation in direction x one. The left-hand side, as you will
readily appreciate, is the net rate of change of momentum in x one direction. The right-
hand side is the net forces in x one direction by fluid stresses and body forces.

Now, clearly an exercise similar to this can be carried out in direction two and direction
three. I leave that as an exercise for you. It is not very difficult at all. You will notice, if
you write down three equations together, then they can be represented in a tensor by
tensor notation.
For example, law of conservation of mass can be written as d rho m by d t d rho m u j by
d x j equal to zero, where j goes from one to three in cyclic order. Momentum equations
in direction x i can be written as d rho m u i by d t plus d by d x j of rho m u j u i plus d
by d x i of sigma i delta i j, where delta i j is the chronicle delta. It is equal to zero, when
i is not equal to j, and equals one, when i is equal to j. These terms will survive only
when i is equal to j. d by d x j tau j i one minus delta j i, these terms will survive only
when i is not equal to j plus rho m b i and in tensor notation. We write it in this fashion
for i equal to one to three and j equal to one to three cyclic. But now, we have a little
closure problems, as you can see. These represent three equations, this represents one.
So, the fluid motion has been described by four equations, but we have many more
unknowns. First of all, we have three velocity components, which are not known. In fact,
that is what we wish to determine. Sigma three tensile stresses, which we do not know,
and six shear stresses tau i j or tau j i. So, we have essentially six plus three, nine, and
plus three, twelve. Twelve unknowns and only four equations, so essentially this is a not
a solvable set. In the early days, say around 1960, Euler simply assumed that the tensile
stresses and tau j i, the shear stresses would be extremely small and simply ignore them.
That was the situation is 1960. But around eighteen twenty five, a man called Navier
found that no, those terms cannot be neglected. This fluid is indeed stressed, as fluid
flows through the tube, when it flows, and therefore, fluid stresses could be as big as the
body forces that it experiences, and therefore, decided to retain them, which gave rise to
these nine unknown stresses.

The way forward was found by Stokes, in England. He said that the shear stresses would
be related to velocity gradients or the rates of strain, through viscosity, tau i j is equal to
mu equal to d u i d x j plus d u j d x i. Remember, this is simply a definition or a model
of a stress, related to rate of strain, introducing an entirely new quantity, mu, into our set
of equations.
From at the form of the stress strain law, you can readily appreciate that tau i j will
indeed be equal to tau j i, because when you change the indices, the expression does not
change, when i is not equal to j. And this is precisely what we call complementary
stresses.
The tau two one is a stress in that direction, and the stress complimentary to that is tau
one two, acting on another face. Likewise, tau two one at x two has a complimentary
stress tau one two which acts on x one surface.
The six stresses, which were unknown are now reduced to three unknowns, due to
complementarity, and they are now reduced to the velocity components, if you know the
value of viscosity.
Normal stresses, which are tensile, are written as minus p plus two mu d u d x i, minus p,
because pressure is always compressive, and using Stokes notation, you will see two mu
d u i d x i is nothing but tau i i, where i is equal to j.

We had four equations and twelve unknowns, but sigma i and tau i j are now replaced by
velocity gradient and pressure. Now, we have four equations and four unknowns, three
velocity components u i and pressure p, and also one more additional constant called
fluid viscosity mu.
Now, this viscosity was simply a constant of proportionality between stress and strain. It
is our great fortune that viscosity has turned out to be the property of a fluid, rather than
the flow.
Imagine, if I had the stress and strain, which were connected in a such way that viscosity
of water, when it flows in a circular tube, is different from when it flows in a square
section tube, we would have much bigger problem on our hand. We are very lucky it is
an accident of history, if you like, or accident of nature, if you like, that viscosity has
turned out to be a property of the fluid.
And not surprisingly, because it is essentially trying to capture the information lost
during statistical averaging of molecular motions.

So, we must supply to the equations now, the value of viscosity. As you will see, our
equation will now read d rho m by d t plus d rho m u j by d x j. And the momentum
three momentum equations would read in this fashion d rho m by d y d t d rho m u j u i
d x j equal to d p d x i plus d by d x j mu d u i d x j plus rho m b i, which are the body
forces and this is the remaining part of the stress stoke stress.
These equations written in this form are known as Navier Stokes equations. Navier was a
french scientist engineer and Stokes was the English scientist engineer. Both are credited
with formulating these set of equations, whereby including the stress terms, which where
ignored by Euler in 1760.
When of course, these tensors are ignore essentially we are saying viscosity is assume to
be zero. And therefore, when these terms are zero, we say the momentum equations
applied to inviscid fluid; inviscid meaning fluid - having zero viscosity or an ideal fluid.
Such an ideal fluid can explain quite a few things in fluid mechanics but not others.
Principally, it cannot explain the drag offered by a body when fluid flows past it.
And as I said, this drag is a paramount importance to a convective heat transfer engineers
because he must design its surfaces such that the drag is reduced or the pressure drop
cause by the drag is reduced. And therefore, these terms are very important to a
convective heat and mass transfer analyst.

These equations then describe the fluid motion completely. Incidentally, I may mention
that when mu happens to be an absolute constant, which is only a property of the fluid,
then we say the fluid is Newtonian because stress and rate of strain are then linearly
related. But there are fluids like blood or polymers, and so on so forth, in which the
viscosity or the magnitude of viscosity itself depends on the rate of strain and sometimes
in the manner in which the fluid was strained through time. Therefore, viscosity also
happens to be function of time, function of the flow, in which the fluid is situated, and so
on so forth.

So, my remarks about viscosity apply only to Newtonian fluids, such as air and water at
pressures, that we are interested pressures and temperatures in which we are interested in
mechanical engineering.
We are leaving out exceptions over applications like blood flows and other things, where
the flows are non-Newtonian. In the next class, I will take up the fundamental law of
energy, which is the first law of thermodynamics.
Prof. A.W. Date

Module No. # 01
Lecture No. # 04
Scalar Transport Equations

In the last lecture, we saw equations of fluid motion namely the law of mass
conservation applied to the bulk fluid as well as the second law of motion also called the
Navier-Stokes equations.
Moving fluids also carry with them scalar quantities. Today, we are going to look at
equations that govern transport of scalar quantities.
.
The first scalar quantity is the specie in a mixture. For example, if you are dealing with a
combustion problem then the species carried are oxygen, carbon dioxide, fuel, carbon
monoxide and so on and so forth.
The law of mass conservation for a specie in a mixture is called the mass transfer
equation. We will also invoke the first law of thermodynamics which transports energy
in a moving fluid. Both energy and the concentration of the specie are scalar quantities.
.
What does the law say for a specie? For a specie k in a mixture, the rate of accumulation
of mass of the specie k that is given by M dot k accumulation equals rate of mass in
minus rate of mass out plus rate of generation of specie within the control volume.
As a result of chemical reaction, as you know some species are generated and while
others are destroyed. As such each specie will have either a generation or a destruction
rate associated with it. What is M dot k accumulation? That is simply the mass of the
specie k within the control volume delta v - d by dt of rho k delta v.
The mass of specie in will be the flux of specie k in direction 1 multiplied by the area d
A 1 which is this area plus N 2 k which is coming from the bottom multiplied by the area
delta A 2 plus N 3 k multiplied by delta A 3 at x 3 and likewise the same quantities at the
outgoing phases at x1 plus delta x 1, x 2 plus delta x 2 and x 3 plus delta x 3; rho k is the
specie density.
If we now substitute these expressions in this verbal statement and divide each term by
delta v which is the product of delta x 1, delta x 2 and delta x 3 and let each of these
increments tend to 0; this is a procedure we have gone through before.
.
Then you will see you will get an equation of this type d rho k by dt plus net transport of
specie k in direction 1, plus net transport in direction 2, plus net transport in direction 3
equal to rate of generation of specie k.
Now, the total mass flux N i k in direction i is the sum of the convective flux due to rho k
u i due to bulk fluid motion and diffusion flux m double prime i k due to density
difference. Thus N i k is represented as rho k u i plus m double dot i k.
Writing convective flux in this manner is indicative of the fact that we are assuming that
each specie is traveling or is being carried at the same velocity as the bulk fluid. The
diffusion flux on the other hand m double dot i k arises simply due to the differences in
density at neighbouring locations.
The expression for mass flux by diffusion is given as m double prime i k equal to minus
D rho k by d x i. This equation is analogous to the conduction heat transfer and is like a
Fouriers law of heat conduction.
In mass transfer, it is called the fix law of mass diffusion. So, just as in convective heat
transfer you know that the total flux of energy is given by the convecting flux plus
conduction flux. In mass transfer, we say it is the convective flux plus diffusion flux.
D is called the mass-diffusivity; it has units of meter square per second. So, if I have to
substitute for N i k for each of these terms then I can rewrite this equation in the
following manner.
.
It would read as d rho k by dt plus d rho k u 1 by d x 1 and so on and so forth is equal to
d by d x 1of d rho k by d x 1 and likewise in direction 2 and 3 plus R k.
Rho k has units of density. It is customary to define mass fraction omega k as the specie
density divided by the mixture density and therefore, sum sigma omega k equals 1 by
Daltons law. Another way of saying is sum of densities is equal to the mixture density.
The notion behind Daltons law is that each specie behaves as though it occupies the
volume of the total mixture.
If I were to substitute now, rho k as rho m multiplied by omega k, this equation would be
written in tensor notation in this fashion this is called the mass transfer equation. It has a
transient term, a convection term, a diffusion term and a source or a generation term.
Now, let us sum each of these terms over all species - that is sum over all k as done here.
(Refer Slide 07:38) Then clearly here this term would reduce to d rho m by d t; this term
would reduce to d rho m u j by d x j because omega k is equal to 1.
Sigma omega k will simply become unity or constant. Therefore, this term would simply
vanish. Just see now that this equation would be d rho m by d t plus d rho m u j by d x j
equal to sigma R k and that term is here. You will recognize readily then in the absence
of omega k, the left hand side is simply the bulk mass conservation and it equals 0; it
follows therefore the sigma R k must be 0.
These two last deductions are very important. sigma R k equal to 0 says that whenever
there is a chemical reaction it is true that some species will be generated, but there would
be others that would be destroyed and the total mass cannot be generated or destroyed;
that idea is expressed in sigma R k equal to 0.
What does summation of diffusion equal to 0 imply? It implies that when some species
are being diffused in a certain direction, other species are being diffused in the opposite
direction and that stands to reason.
For example, if fuel was decreasing then product would increase. The net result is that
summation of all diffusive quantities would be 0 and therefore, sigma N i k would be
sigma rho m u i plus sigma m double prime i k, but that quantity is 0 and therefore, sum
of the mass fluxes in direction i are simply the bulk mass flux rho m u i. We shall refer to
this equation much later in the course.
.
A word about Mass Diffusivity: strictly speaking mass diffusivity is defined only for a
Binary Mixture of two fluids 1 and 2 as D 1 2.
But in a combusting product mixture for example, there are several species present and
diffusivities of pairs of species are truly different. So, diffusion of carbon dioxide in
nitrogen or the diffusivity of carbon dioxide in nitrogen is different from diffusivity of
oxygen in nitrogen and vice versa, but in gaseous mixtures these diffusivity pairs
between species tend to be very nearly equal and therefore, we discard D 1 2 or d i j as
the symbol for diffusivity and replace it by single symbol D and that suffices for
combustion calculations.
Incidentally in turbulent flow, this assumption of equal effective diffusivity holds even
greater validity; this we shall appreciate a little later.
.
We now turn to the first law of thermodynamics in rate form that is Watts per cubic
meter. The first law of thermodynamics reads as d E by d t equal to d Q convection by d t
plus d Q conduction by d t plus rate of generation of energy minus work done by shear
forces minus work done by body forces.
Each of these terms is defined here and we shall seek mathematical representations for
each one of them.
.
So, let us consider the first term E dot; that would simply be d by d t rho m e naught or
the total energy. The total energy is the sum of static energy plus kinetic energy and the
static energy by a thermodynamic relation is nothing, but enthalpy minus p into specific
volume or p divided by rho m plus V square by 2.
So, e m is mixture specific energy, h m is mixture specific enthalpy, V square is the
kinetic energy - sum of u 1 square, u 2 square and u 3 square and rho m as we saw before
is sigma rho k, the Mixture Density.
In general, e naught will have contributions from many other force effects like potential
energy associated with rise or fall in elevation, electro-magnetic energies and so on and
so forth, but these we will neglect because practical equipments are fairly small.
But in which Yes, kinetic energy would be of some interest, but not these energies that I
mentioned at the moment.
.
Now, in order to represent the heat transfer and the work transfer across a control volume
we shall follow the thermodynamic conventions. We will say that heat flow into the
control volume is positive whereas, the heat flow out of the control volume is negative.
As we said before, all species are transported at mixture velocity. Here, I have shown all
the net mass transfers and heat transfers that could take place across a control volume
phase. N is total mass flux and q is the total heat flux across the control volume phase.
.
Net convection then by following the convention that the heat in is positive whereas, heat
out is negative, we would have convection as simply d by d x j of sigma N j k e naught k
and if I replace e naught k by h k minus p by rho m plus V square by 2.
Then you will see N j k would multiply with h k into the bracket, but the sum of N j k
would simply be rho m u j as we saw before minus p by rho m plus V square by 2. If we
now note that omega k into h k, that is the mass fraction of specie k multiplied by its
specific enthalpy must add up to the mixture enthalpy; then sigma N j k h k would be
sigma rho m u j omega k plus m double dot j k, the diffusion flux into h k.
Since sigma omega k h k is equal to h m, it will add up to rho m u j h m plus sigma m
double prime j k h k.
(Refer Slide Time: 15:37) Therefore, if I replace this term here then you will see you
have rho m u j h m minus p by rho m plus V square by 2 which would be written in this
fashion and then the left over term, the diffusion flux term that could be given by that
term. So, that is the expression for the convective flux.
.
Net conduction again by Fouriers law of conduction: Q conduction will be simply minus
d q j by d x j where q j is k m multiplied by d T by d x j and k m is the mixture
conductivity.
.
Net volumetric generation: Now, volumetric generation in a moving fluid typically
would comprise of the generation due to chemical energy because some reactions are
exothermic whereas, some other chemical reactions are endothermic. So, Q dot chem
would be positive in case of exothermic reactions and it would be negative in terms of
endothermic reaction.
If you want to evaluate Q dot chem in a moving fluid then one needs to postulate first of
all the chemical reaction model that is being employed and there are variety of chemical
reaction mechanisms of different levels of complexity. We shall see all these when we
come to study of mass transfer.
Q rad represents the net radiation exchange between the control volume and its
surroundings. Usually evaluation of this term would require what is called the radiation
transfer equation and it happens to be an integro-differential equation.
Treatment of that equation is really beyond the scope of the present lectures and it would
require usually numerical calculations in a real practical equipment, but suppose the
mixture that we are carrying has very high absorptivity may be because of soot, may be
because of particulates that are present in the gaseous mixture.
Then the absorptivity and scattering of the radiation would be very high. When
absorptivity and scattering coefficients are large, Q dot rad can actually be represented in
a manner similar to the conduction equation. The radiation conductivity can be defined
as 16 into sigma T cube divided by a plus s where sigma is the Stefan-Boltzmann
constant that you are all familiar with.
But remember this kind of representation is justified only when the gaseous mixture has
very high absorption and scattering coefficients.
.
Now, we come to the work done terms and the derivation to follow is somewhat longish
and I would request you to play good attention to how the derivation progresses.
Firstly there are shear forces and normal forces. Here is the stress; stress is force per unit
area multiplied by velocity gives you the work done and d by d x 1 of that gives you the
net work done.
So, sigma 1 which acts in the direction 1 multiplied by u 1 plus tau 1 2 into u 2 is the
work is the shear work in net shear work in x 1 direction and so on and so forth.
You will get shear stress multiplied by the associated velocity in the two directions and
the net work done by stresses W dot s would be given as that.
The body forces work is rho m into B 1, the force multiplied by the velocity u 1 is the
work done in direction 1, 2 and 3 likewise. So, W dot s is the stress work; W dot B is the
Body-Force Work.
Now we shall write these things as differentiation of a product. So, this d by d x 1 sigma
1 u 1 will be written as sigma 1 d u 1 by d x 1 plus u 1 into d sigma 1 by d x 1 and so on
and so forth.
.
On the next line you will see the result. So, the total work-done will be u 1 multiplied by
all these terms, u 2 multiplied by all these terms, u 3 multiplied by all these terms, plus
sigma 1 d u 1 by d x 1, sigma 2 d u 2 by d x 2, sigma 3 d u 3 by d x 3, tau 1 2 into the
strain rate associated with tau 1 2, tau 1 3 into the strain rate associated with tau 1 3, and
tau 2 3 into the strain rate associated with tau 2 3 and here I have already used the idea of
complementarities of stresses that is tau 1 2 is equal to tau 2 1. Now I draw your
attention to this term.
If you recall, when we wrote the Navier-Stokes equations before or the Newtons
second law of motion, these are simply the net forces acting in direction 1 and therefore,
these are nothing, but the right hand sides of the Newtons second law of motion.
They can be replaced by the left hand side of the Newtons second law of motion and
that is what I will do on the next slide plus all the stresses can be replaced in terms of
viscosity multiplied by strain rates.
.
Let us do this first. So, multipliers of u 1, u 2, and u 3 in equations 18, 19 are simply
right hand sides of momentum equations, if you recall that on lectures 3 slides 13-14-15.
We have replaced them by left hand side of momentum equations. Left hand side was u 1
D u 1 by D t into rho m u 2 D u 2 by D t and u 3 D u 3 by D t.
This would simply be D u 1 square by 2 D t, D u 2 square by D t and D u 3 square by D t
which we write as D V square by 2 D by D t into rho m. (Refer Slide Time: 22:30) These
are the first 3 terms that we have expressed; now we look at the remaining terms.
If I replace sigma 1 by minus p plus tau 1 1, sigma 2 as minus p plus sigma plus tau 2 2
and sigma 3 as minus p plus tau 3 3 and tau 1 2 as mu times D u 1 by D x 2 into D u 2 by
D x 2 and so on and so forth.
.
You will see that the term would be equations 21 and 22 would be simply mu phi v
minus p del dot V where phi v is called the Viscous Dissipation Function.
It would take the form 2 times d u 1 by d x 1 square which arises from tau 1 1, d u 2 by d
x 2 square, d u 3 by d x 3 square and so on and so forth and del dot V as we recall is
simply, d u 1 by d x 1 plus d u 2 by d x 2 plus d u 3 by d x 3.
.
Therefore, the total work done terms are simply rho m into D by D t V square by 2 plus
mu phi v minus p del dot V. You will notice that phi v will always be positive because it
is a sum of all the gradient square.
So, that sum would always be positive and in general and its purpose is to increase the
energy level of the mixture. (Refer Slide Time: 24:08) This is the kinetic energy term
and this is the minus p d V term or sometimes also called the pressure work term. Del dot
v as you know is this.
.
By way of summary: we wrote expression for E dot as d rho m e naught by d t;
expression for convection was written as minus d rho m u j e naught by d x j minus
diffusion heat transfer d by d x j of sum of m dot j k h k.
Q dot conduction was written in this fashion; Q gen was Q dot chem plus Q dot rad and
lastly we saw this term is this kinetic energy term, viscous dissipation term and so on and
so forth.
You will see that mu phi v is positive and therefore, it tends to increase the rate of energy
with time, conduction and if I were to replace Q dot rad as k rad d T d x j and then it
would simply get added to that term. (Refer Slide Time: 25:17) This is the p del dot V;
this can be both positive and negative and so can this be positive and negative.
.
The final energy equation then reads as follows. What I have done is simply transported
this negative term to the left hand side so that it becomes positive and we have d rho m e
naught by d t plus d rho m u j e naught by d x j equal to net conduction heat transfer.
Net conduction heat transfer due to mass diffusion, net kinetic energy generation minus p
del dot V plus Viscous Dissipation, chemical energy generation and radiation generation.
Now, if I replace e naught as h m minus p by rho m plus v square by 2 then this term
would become simply rho m D h by D t.
The kinetic energy term on the left hand side would cancel with this kinetic energy term
and the differential of rho m u j p by rho m which is essentially u j p would simply give
me D p by d would cancel partly with minus p del dot V and I will have a term called D
p by D t plus Q dot chem rad and so, this is called the Energy Equation written in
enthalpy form.
(Refer Slide Time: 26:56) This is the energy equation written in internal energy form. It
is this equation which is largely used in flows with or without chemical reaction.
Notice that all it says is that rate of change of enthalpy is equal to the net conduction heat
transfer, net mass diffusion heat transfer and total viscous dissipation.
D p by D t - this term is first of all the D p by D t will be partial D p by partial D t which
would be of importance in unsteady flows such as one in which explosions are studied
plus u into D p by u 1 into D p by d x 1, u 2 into D p by d x 2 plus u 3 into D p by d x 3 -
these terms are important particularly when shocks are present where very large pressure
gradients occur in a given direction, but in low speed force really this term is relatively
unimportant and we usually tend to ignore it.
Q dot chem would arise out of the combustion model that one I specified and radiation is
to be included in very high temperature reacting flows.
I will conclude here our equations of energy. (Refer Slide Time: 28:35) I would leave
you with the simply recall of the mass transfer equation that we derived that was this d
rho m omega k by d t and so on and so forth. This is the mass transport equation and then
the last one is the energy transport equation. It is these equations that we shall develop
further.

Prof. A. W. Date

Module No. # 01
Lecture No. # 05
Laminar Boundary Layers

In the previous lectures, having derived the equations of bulk mass conservation, the
momentum equations, the mass transport equation and the energy transport equation, we
are now ready to take up their application to a special class of flows which are called
boundary layer flows.
I will be beginning with boundary layer flows, which are in laminar state. Todays
lecture is to derive appropriate equations for laminar velocity bounded errors and scalar
bounded errors.

The purpose is to derive 2 dimensional flow and scalar transport equations to invoke the
boundary layer approximations, to write out 2 dimensional velocity boundary layer
equations and to write out 2 dimensional temperature and concentration boundary layer
equations.

Then very briefly mention the methods of solution, which we shall be developing in the
course of lectures. Recall that our 3D Navier Stokes equations were written in this
manner d rho m by dt d rho m U j by dx j equal to 0.
Then there were 3 momentum equations; one each in direction x 1 x 2 and x 3 and it
comprised of unsteady term, the convection term, the pressure gradient term, the
diffusion term and the body force term.
This is the second part of the stress term that gives rise to d by dx j mu d U j by dx i.
Further, we are going to make certain assumptions because as I said we are we want to
avoid use of numerical methods and try to achieve as much as possible by analytical
means.
This requires that we make certain assumptions- the first assumption is the flow is steady
d by dt equal to 0. I am not at all suggesting that analytical solutions to unsteady flow are
not possible but then our main interest in this course is to deal with steady flows in
equipments.
Therefore, I will take assume that d by dt equal to 0. I would say that the flow is laminar
and perhaps the most important assumption here is that all properties the intrinsic
properties, density and specific heat and the transport properties mu k and d are uniform.
You will recall mu arose out of Stokess stress and strain loss, k arose out of the
Fouriers law of heat conduction and d arose out of the Ficks law of mach diffusion. We
are going to say that they are all uniform.
That means they do not vary with position in the flow and therefore for all practical
purposes they are constants in space. I will also now, since we are dealing with 2
dimensions, I will instead of writing x 1 x 2, I shall write x and y by saying x is equal to
x 1 and y is equal to x 2.

And the dependent variables, I would change to u equal to u 1 and v equal to u 2 and
body forces which are essentially problem specific are presently to be ignored. So with
this assumption you will notice our mass conservation equation would simply because
density is constant would reduce to du by dx plus dv by dy.

I can go back a little to see, if density is constant then that term is 0 and this term rho m
du j by dx j equal to 0 would simply be du 1 by dx 1 plus du 2 by dx 2 equal to 0.
Therefore, that will simply read as du by dx plus dv by dy equal to 0.

The x momentum equation or the momentum equation in x direction would read as rho
times u du by dx plus v du by dy equal to minus dp dx plus mu d 2 u dx square and d 2 u
dy square.

This requires little explanation. For example, if mu is constant then, d by dx j mu du j dx
i would simply be written as mu times or if I may use the paper you will see that, d by dx
j of mu times du j dx i would be mu times d 2 U j by dx j dx i, that will be equal to mu
times d by dx i of du j by dx j and that is 0 by continuity equations for constant density
du j by dx j is equal to 0.



Therefore, this term simply vanishes. Now, let us look at this term - says that d by dx j of
mu du i dx j for constant viscosity. This will be d by dx j u i and in 2 dimension; this will
simply be du 1 by dx 1 d 2 u 1 by dx 1 square plus d 2 u by u 1 by dx 2 square and with
our replacements mu this will be d 2 U by dx square plus d 2 u by dy square. So that
explains, how that term would modify, we will look at this term now.


For constant density and steady flow, you have d rho m u i by dt plus d by dx j of rho m
u j u i and for constant density, this will simply become rho m du i by dt plus rho m u j
du i by dx j plus rho m u i du j by dx j.
Now, in a steady flow that is 0 and due to mass conservation equation du j dx j is 0.
Therefore, this will become d rho m u j du j by dx j or in 2 dimension; this will become
simply u 1 du 1 by dx 1 plus u 2 du 1 by dx 2 in x direction.

It will return rho m u 1 du 2 by dx 1 plus u 2 du 2 by dx 2 in x 2 direction. You will see
now, that how these terms have been modified to read like that. So, you will see in x 1
direction for example there is rho m u 1 du 1 by dx 1 which is rho u du by dx plus u 2,
which is v du by dy equal to minus dp by dx and the 2 diffusion terms that I mentioned.

Similarly, in the y direction you would have that term. So, these are the equations of flow
of a uniform property laminar 2 dimensional flow. We shall now invoke the boundary
layer concept and this is perhaps the most important slide for you to remember.
Now, the concept of boundary layer near a wall was first introduced by Ludwig Prandtl
in 1904, to theoretically predict the drag experienced by a body when it was immersed in
a flowing fluid.
Ships experience drag, motor cars driving in a motorway experience drag, aircrafts
experience drag and these drags are substantial. You have to expand energy to overcome
them and therefore it is very important that how much is the drag offered by a body when
it when the fluid flows past it.
Prandtl suggested that you do not need to consider the total flow around a body, but
nearly concentrate on a thin region very close to the wall as shown here, which he called
the boundary layer region. In this region that significant velocity variations take place.

And it is the region, in which viscosity of the fluid is dominates the determinant of flow.
In other words, viscosity viscous terms dominate very close to the wall. As you move
away from the wall, the importance of these terms becomes even more negligible and it
is these terms which mainly dominate in the far away from a solid surface.

Prandtl called the thin and long region near a wall as the boundary layer region, by long
and thin may mean that the dimension lateral to the flow delta at any point x in the flow
delta is much smaller than x.
That is what we mean by long and thin flows passed the surface or an interface the
region outside where a lateral velocity gradient are almost negligible is called the free
stream region. In the free stream, there is velocity u infinity t infinity and a conserved
property phi infinity.
Now, to develop this mathematical interpretation of this concept of long and thin flow
close to a wall, we are going to introduce dimensionless variables. So, x star would be
written as x divided by L, y star would be written as y divided by l, u star would be
written as u divided by U infinity, v star would be written as v divided by u infinity, p
star as p divided by rho infinity square, Re as U infinity, L by nu this is the reynolds
number corresponding to reference length L and assumption is delta is much less than X
and u the velocity in x direction is much greater than v.
It is this condition, which ensures that, in a boundary layer conditions of the properties of
the flow at one cross section are influenced only by the upstream conditions. The
conditions downstream have no influence on the conditions at a given cross section.

L and U infinity are simply the reference length and reference velocity. Each of these
quantity start quantities is a dimensionless quantity and therefore the equations would
read like this. So, let us look at the first equation after non dimensionalization.

You will see that du by dx plus dv by dy equal to 0. If I make this u to u star, it will
become us infinity du star by dx star, which means divided by L and likewise u infinity
dv star by dy star divided by L equal to 0.

So, it is u infinity by L du star by dx star plus dv star by d y star equal to 0 and that is
what I have written in equation number 6 here du star by dx star plus dv star by dy star
equal to 0. Likewise, let us look at the momentum equation.

The Momentum equation was written as rho times u du by dx plus v du by dy equal to
minus dp by dx plus mu times d2u by dx square plus d2u by dy square. If, I non
dimensionalize this equation I will have rho u infinity square giving me u star du star by
dx star, which is L plus v star du star by dy star minus rho u infinity square dp star
divided by L dx star.
All this is equal to plus mu times u infinity divided by L square d2u star by dx star
square plus d2u star by dy star square. If, I divide through by this quantity, you will see I
will get u star du star by dx star plus v star du star by dy star equal to minus dp star by dx
star plus mu U infinity by L square into L by rho u infinity square into d2u star by dx star
square plus d2u star by dy star square. So, what is this group? This is simply mu divided
by rho u infinity L and that is nothing but 1 over Reynolds number.

So, this equation is equation 7, u star du star by dx star plus v star du star by dy star
minus dp star by dx star plus 1 over Reynolds plus d2u star by dx star square plus d2u
star dy square. If, I have to non dimensionalize the v momentum equation, it would
appear very similar to that equation with dp star by dy star, here the dependent variable
would be v star and again divided by Reynolds number.

Now, I am going to do an order of magnitude analysis of this equation. So, we said u is
considered of the order of 1 and x is considered of the order 1. Then, according to this
assumption y dimension would be of the order of delta.

The v velocity will also be of the order of delta and that is what I have done. So, 1
divided by 1 plus delta star by delta star order of delta star and what this shows is that
both the terms are of the order unity. Therefore, neither could be ignored in this equation.

So, du star by dx star and dv star by dy star is equal to 0. Remember, here both
numerator and denominators are of the order 1. Here, both are of the order delta but it is
the derivative, which is most important and both derivatives are of the same order.
Likewise, let us do this for momentum equation. Then, u star is of order 1, u star dx star
is 1 by 1. This is of the order delta star u star is of the order 1 divided by y star, which is
delta star and therefore each term on the left hand side is of order.
I will now turn my attention straightaway to the diffusion terms. Then, you will see this
term is order of 1 by 1 square. Whereas, this term is 1 divided by delta square and it is
quite obvious that this term would usually dominate over this term because delta is so
much smaller than 1. In this equation, u star du star by dx star plus v star du star by dy
star equal to minus dp star by dx star plus 1 over Reynolds number into d2u star by dx
star plus square plus d2u star by dy star square.
This term is much bigger than this term and therefore I will drop that term. Now, this
term as a whole is of the order of 1. This is although of the order 1 and this term is of the
order delta square delta square
But Prandtl did say that, you must have effect of viscosity included if you wanted to
predict the drag, which means one of these two terms must be included. We have already
decided to drop this term. So, if this term is included, if an all terms are of order 1 then
Reynolds number or 1 over Reynolds number must be of order 1 or I mean order delta
square.
So that, Reynolds number is proportional to one over delta square, this is a large
quantity. So that, the delta square would get canceled with this delta square and the total
term would then be of order 1 and likewise I can say therefore by deduction this term
would also be of order 1.


So, the only term that is dropped now, that can be dropped is dt u star by dx star square,
all other terms are of order 1. Let us examine likewise the v momentum equation, then
you will see that the v momentum equation is u star dv star by dx star plus v star dv star
by dx star dy star equal to minus dp star by dy star plus 1 over Reynolds number into d2v
star by dx star plus d2v star by dy star square.
This is 1 delta star by 1 plus delta star delta star by delta star. So, you will notice that the
left hand side is of order delta square. We have agreed that 1 over Reynolds number shall
be of order delta square multiplied by 1 plus delta star by delta star square.
And again you will see that, if I take delta star common then I have delta star cube is a 1
plus 1 over delta star square. So, you will see that the first term is again much smaller
than the second term because the first term is of order 1 the second term is of order delta
square and therefore that can be neglected but the total term again is of order delta star.

So, each term in this equation is of the order delta star and therefore dp star by dy star
will be of order delta star square. So, we conclude that in the x momentum equation each
term is of order one.
Whereas, in the v momentum equation or the y momentum equation each term is of
order delta star. Therefore, this equation as the whole can be ignored in preference to that
equation, which is much bigger so and the principle deduction from this is that dp star by
dy star is of the order delta star or can be taken as 0.
What this says is that, in a boundary layer in a long and thin flow the pressure variations
is negligible in y direction. In fact, I can say that from this it follows that minus dp star
by dx star now would essentially be minus dp star by dx star, which I can also write as
minus dp star infinity by dx star. Which is also equal to minus dp whole star by dx. I can
measure the pressure at the wall in a given flow and I would get the quantity dp star by
dx star.

And the partial derivative is now replaced by total derivative simply because the
variation in y direction is 0. The conclusion from this slide is each term in this equation
is of order 1 therefore retained.
Each term in this equation is of order 1, the only term which is not is, this term the actual
second derivative in actual direction and ignore each term in this equation is of order
delta square and of the order delta star. Therefore, the equation as a whole is neglected.

You will then see the boundary layer approximations that emerged. So, what does it say?
It says that u star will be much greater than v star, which we had already postulated the
gradient of velocity in a y direction.
The u velocity in y direction would be much greater than the gradient of velocity because
would be one over delta star, whereas this is one over one this is delta star by one and
this is delta star by delta star.
Therefore, this would dominate over all these. We already shown that the second
derivative in y direction will be much greater than the second derivative in x direction
both for u and v. We also shown that the pressure gradient in y direction would be almost
negligible.

Therefore, the pressure gradient in x direction which is of the order 1 can be replaced by
either the pressure gradient in the infinity state that is the free stream region or it can be
evaluated at the wall state dp star wall dx star. The reduced equations also called the
Boundary layer equations are simply du by dx plus dv by dy equal to 0.

Rho into u du by dx plus v du by dy equal to minus dp infinity by dx plus mu d2u by dy
square. Now, just see for a moment, if you look at this figure you will see outside in the
free stream region the velocity variation with respect to y is negligible or 0.

Because u remains equal to u infinity outside the boundary layer. So, if I want to write
this equation in the infinity state that is in the free stream region, I will have this will
become rho infinity u infinity du infinity by dx but this term would be 0 because du dy is
0 and also d2u dy square is also 0, because this term vanishes in the free stream. The free
stream region is sometimes called in viscid region because viscosity is not allowed to
play any part.
The momentum equation written for the free stream region would simply be minus dp by
infinity by dx equal to rho u infinity du infinity by dx and in fact, I can replace that term
by this term.
These equations must be solved with n boundary conditions because there is a second
order derivative in y direction. Therefore, you need boundary condition at y equal to 0
which is y equal to wall and y tending to infinity which is the free stream condition.
If u infinity x is specified, one could readily replace that by this condition. When the
equations are solved with appropriate boundary condition, you would have u as a
function of x and y and v as a function of x and y as a solution because this term is
specified have two equations and two unknowns u and v. These can be readily obtained
and what you are interested is the shear stress at the wall, which is simply mu times du
dy at y equal to 0 which is the local shear stress tx.

The average shear stress which is given as 1 over L 0 to L mu du dy by dx divided by 1
over L will give you the total drag over a surface L of length L. So, we have finished our
discussion on velocity boundary layer equation.
Now, we will turn our attention to energy equation and you will recall the energy
equation that we wrote on the last slide of the previous lecture. So, this is the rate of
generation of rate of change of enthalpy plus conduction heat transfer first diffusion heat
transfer the heat transfer due to mass diffusion.
This is the viscous dissipation, this is the pressure work terms and these are the chemical
energy and this is the radiation, h m as you know is omega k h k, where h k is the
specific enthalpy of spaces k and h k is also given as heat of formation at sometimes at T
ref plus sensible heat Cp k dT.


We again invoke uniform property assumption in 2 dimensions. The equation would read
something like that; let me go back a little so the first equation would read in 2
dimensions.

It would read rho m dhm by dt plus rho m into u dhm by dx plus v dhm by dy equal to
and with uniform property d2t dx square plus d2t dy square plus d by dx of sum 1k h k
minus d by dy of sigma m naught 2k h k plus mu times 2 into du by dx square

plus 2 times dv by dy square plus dp by dt plus u dp by dx plus v dp by dy plus Q dot
chem plus Q dot rad. So, you will see in 2 dimensions the equation takes this form and
now, if I first of all make all our assumptions that the flow is steady therefore that is 0.
h m which is h naught f h k which is h naught f k and Cp k equal to Cp m then Cp m T
minus T ref because all spaces have the same property of the mixture and therefore Cp k
is equal to Cp m.
It is a uniform mixture you have k times d2T dT square and if I ignore for the time being
the diffusion equation the diffusion heat transfer for a single phase flow non reacting
flow then or absorb that in this.
Then you will see I get terms like this. Now, I am going to non dimensionalize these
terms. This as the whole can sigma omega k h k, which is h m would become sigma
omega k h naught fk plus Cp m T minus T ref into sigma omega k and which you know
is equal to 1.
So, you get that term sigma omega k h naught fk and that is equal to heat of combustion
plus Cp m T minus T ref and these term essentially is accounted by the chemical reaction
and I can replace h m here for is non reacting flow Cp m T minus T ref.


What I am done now is, I have said define T star equal to T minus T infinity divided by
some reference temperature difference. Then, you will see that this term would simply
become rho m Cp m into U dT by dx plus v dt by dy.
If I have to non dimensionalize the first term here, it would read as rho m Cp m delta T
naught divided by L u infinity equal to u star dT star by dx star plus v star dT star by dy
star square and that would equal k times delta T naught divided by L square d 2 T star by
dx star square plus d 2 T star by dy star square plus mu times u infinity square divided by
L square 2 times du star by dx star whole square plus 2 times dv star by dy star whole
square


plus du star by dx star whole square plus dv star by dy star whole square and so on. So,
that is what you see here the terms are written like that. Now, if I divide through by this
quantity you will readily see that, I will get u star dT star by dx star plus v star dt star by
dy star equal to k delta t naught by L square into rho into L divided by rho m Cp m delta
T naught u infinity. So, you will see delta T naught gets cancelled with delta T naught L
gets cancelled with one of these Ls and k divided by rho m Cp m k m. You will be
simply the thermal diffusivity alpha m divided by L into u infinity, which I can also write
as alpha m divided by nu m nu m divided by LU infinity and that is nothing but 1 over
Prandtl number into 1 over Schmidt number and that is what you see I mean one over
Reynolds number beg your pardon

That is what you see here, the multiplier of d 2 T star by dx star square plus d 2 T star by
dy star square would simply become 1 over Reynolds Prandtl. The third term, the
pressure work term , he viscous dissipation term is somewhat important.

In the sense that you will see now that if I have to divide through again. Then, you will
see that mu u infinity square divide by L square divided by 1 over rho m Cp m delta T
naught u infinity into L.
Now, you will see this becomes equal to u infinity square divided by Cp m delta T
naught. I have taken care of that term and this term then I have mu times rho m U
infinity L and therefore this is nothing but 1 over Reynolds number.
This term is dimensionless as we can see u infinity square is meter square per Second
Square. What about this term Cp m delta T naught, Cp m is joules per kg kelvin
multiplied by Kelvin. So, essentially it is joules per kg.
Joule is Newton meter by kg. Newton is kg into meters per Second Square into meter
divided by kg. So, kg kg gets cancelled and you again get meter square per Second
Square. Remember, Cp m delta T naught and u infinity square both have same units and
therefore this is a dimensionless quantity.
Professor Eckert defined a quantity u infinity square by 2, which is the kinetic energy
divided by Cp m delta T naught, which is the sensible energy as Eckert number E c. E c
is called the Eckert number E c and therefore you will see that it is at the moment U
infinity square by 2.

So, you get here Eckert number divided by Reynolds into all that. What about the
pressure gradient terms? Here you will see only a multiplier E c. In other words, the
dimensionless equation tells us that, there are now three parameters associated with heat
transfer.
One is the Prandtl number, the other one is the Reynolds number and the third one is
Eckert number. We can readily see, if the Eckert number was large both these terms will
be important. If the Reynolds number is high and Eckert number is small then we can
ignore these two term.
The pressure work term and the viscous dissipation term. So, with this equation I can do
order of magnitude analysis because it is now in dimensionless form. So, what is the
order of magnitude analysis that I do?

So, the left hand side which is equal to u star dt star by dx star plus v star dt star by dy
star will simply become 1 1 1 plus delta star 1 by delta star. So, both the terms on the left
hand side are important.
Right hand side remember this is 1 over Reynolds number Prandtl number into 1 divided
by 1 square plus 1 divided by delta star square and therefore that term would be d 2 T
star by dx star square will be much smaller than d 2 T star by dy star square.


So, if you follow through in this manner you can carry out that order of magnitude
analysis and the resulting equation would be simply this rho Cp u dT by dx plus v dT by
dy equal to diffusion only in y direction plus viscous dissipation due to velocity gradient
in y direction plus u d infinity by dx plus Q dot chem plus Q dot rad.

This is the boundary layer form of the energy equation. A note on Prandtl number.
Prandtl number as you know is the ratio of Cp mu k, which is also if I divide both the
numerator and denominator by rho than it is mu by rho divided by k by rho Cp and that
is equal to nu divided by alpha or kinematic viscosity divided by thermal diffusivity.
It is in a way the ratio of the rate at which momentum is transferred divided by the rate at
which heat is transferred. In boundary layers, this diffusion is taking place only across
the boundary layer.
Then, you also notice that Prandtl number is the property of the fluid. It has nothing to do
with the flow and therefore we can classify fluids according to their Prandtl numbers.
Close to one and little below say from about 0.5 to 1, you usually get gases, but 3 to 10
or little over 10 is water but if you extend that to about 100 you will get many organic
liquids included in this range. If the Prandtl number is much greater than 100, then
usually you will encounter very viscous oils because Prandtl number has viscosity in the
numerator. Usually, oils have a very large Prandtl numbers. On the other hand, liquid
metals like mercury, sodium, liquid potassium, which are used for high heat flux heat
transfers as obtained in for example breeder reactors liquid metals are preferred.
In those cases, their conductivities are so high compared to their viscosity that liquid
metals have very low Prandtl number. There are not many fluids in this range.
But from about let us say 5 or into 10 is to minus 3 to below, you essentially get liquid
metals. So, you have liquid metal range is very low Prandtl number gases very close to
unity Prandtl number.

Water and organic liquids between 3 and about 100 and oils much greater than 100. The
mass transfer equation can likewise be derived I am wont going to the details and it reads
in like this.


It can be non dimensionalised and instead of Prandtl number you will have a Schmidt
number. We will take up all this, when we come to mass transfer. Therefore, I can
summarize now what we did in this lecture.
We started with the derived 3 dimensional forms of the equations of bulk mass transfer
momentum and energy and reduce them to the boundary layer form which contains two
convection terms.
One diffusion term in y direction and one source term. It is good to get used to this form
of generalization of the equations, you will see for phi equal to 1 you will simply have d
rho U by dx plus d rho v by dy.
And that term would be 0 and S phi is 0 it is essentially the mass conservation equation
for u phi equal to u, you will see that this term is simply the viscosity and this term is
minus dp infinity by dx.
For temperature, this term can be taken for phi equal to temperature this term can be
taken as k m divided by Cp m and all the right hand side will be divided by through by
Cp m and for spaces k this.
Now, you will recall from your undergraduate studies that any 2 dimension on
differential equation written in the form a into phi xx plus 2 b into phi xy plus c into phi
yy equal to sum source term right hand side which may contain gradients of phi in so on
and so forth.
Then, the discriminant b squared minus ac; if it is 0, then the equation is called parabolic.
If b squared minus ac is less than 0 the equation is elliptic and b squared minus ac is
greater than 0, then the equation is hyperbolic.
Of course, we are going to assume that gamma is constant because we are dealing with
uniform property. So, we have only d 2 phi by dy square term that means c is finite, but
in our equation a and b are 0 and discriminant b square minus ac is actually 0.

Therefore, our boundary layer equations are parabolic and for such parabolic equation
there are 3 methods of solution - the first one is called the Similarity method in which the
partial differential equations are converted to ODEs Ordinary differential equation
integral method. Similarly, the numerical method finite difference of finite element. We
will take up these methods in the next lecture.
Prof. A. W. Date

Module No. # 01
Lecture No. # 06
Similarity Method

In the last lecture, we derived the Boundary layer equations of a two-dimensional
boundary layer and I ended by saying that there are three methods of solving these
equations. The first one is the similarity method, the second is the integral method and
the third is the finite difference or the finite element method.

Today, I am going to develop the similarity method. The topics then are to introduce the
notion of similarity of profiles. I will establish what are the conditions for existence of
similarity solutions and then, I will develop the similarity equation with appropriate
boundary conditions.

Let us recall the equations. The equation is the so-called mass conservation or the
continuity equation for a constant property steady flow, du by dx plus dv by dy equal to
0. These are the convection terms in the momentum equations the pressure gradient
and the viscosity effected term, mu d 2 u dy square. We said that if this equation was
written in the infinity state, then the pressure gradient could actually be written as rho U
infinity d U infinity by d x.
I shall be making this substitution here (Refer Slide Time: 01:41) in all subsequent
developments. The boundary conditions are obvious at y equal to 0; that is, at the wall,
the stream-wise velocity u will be 0, but there may be suction or blowing at the wall. So,
we shall say v equal to V w, which may be function of x. As y tends to infinity, u will
tend to U infinity at x, which is the Free Stream Velocity. So, we have two variables
here: V w as a function of x and U infinity as a function of x. U infinity as a function of x
represents the pressure gradient according to equation 3 here.

What is the notion of similarity profiles? The term similarity is associated with the
possibility that under certain conditions the velocity profiles at different stream-wise
locations, x 1, x 2, x 3, say in the boundary layer will be similar in shape.
Here (Refer Slide Time: 02:48) is a surface over which the flow is flowing and the
boundary layer development is taking place. The velocity profile at x 1 is as shown here,
at x 2, it is as shown here, and at x 3, it is as shown here. In terms of boundary
conditions, they are u equal to 0, u equal to U infinity here, u equal to 0, u equal to
infinity, and u equal to 0 and u equal to infinity. The question we ask is - they look
similar? Yes, but can they be collapsed on to a single curve? Now, this idea of a collapse
is very important and that is really what underlies the similarity.
The profiles at different positions, x 1, x 2, x 3 will collapse on each other if their shapes
at each position were equal. What does that mean? It means that the actual magnitudes of
u at some y at different locations would differ simply by a stretching factor, s. That is a
function of stream-wise distance, x. In other words, if the value of y here; the physical
value of y here (Refer Slide Time: 04:08) were stretched by s as a function of x. Then, it
is quite possible that the velocity profiles would collapse on each other. Basically, then
what we are saying is u, which was a function of x and y can now be written as u as a
function of eta bar, which is a new variable. It is called the Similarity Variable. v, which
was a function of x and y is a function of v eta bar. eta bar is equal to y, the transverse
distance multiplied by some function of x.
What we are aiming at is equations, which are functions of two variables x and y going
to be made functions of one variable. Therefore, a partial differential equation would
now be converted to an ordinary differential equation in eta bar. Let us say - how this is
done on the next slide.

The relations suggest that if similarity exists, we want to search for conditions for
similarity to exist. So, the relations that I showed on the last slide suggest that if
similarity exists, then there is velocity profiles u and v at any stream-wise location can be
collapsed on a single curve. This is because, u and v that are functions of two
independent variables x and y are now functions of a single variable eta bar only. The
Partial Differential Equations therefore, will be reduced to Ordinary Differential
Equations. However, such a reduction would be possible only when U infinity x V w as a
function of x and the stretching factor S as a function of x assumes certain restricted
forms known as similarity conditions. It is these special forms that we wish to discover
and they are called the similarity conditions.

I have written the momentum equation again rho u du by dx plus v du by dy equal to rho
U infinity d U infinity by d x plus mu d 2 u by dy square.

We have already introduced a variable called eta bar as y into s x. We introduce another
variable psi x y such that d psi by dy is defined as u and d psi by dx is defined as minus
v. Then, you will notice that if I substitute for u (Refer Slide Time: 07:05) in the
continuity equation and for v also in the continuity equation, I will get d 2 psi dx dy
minus d 2 psi dx dy equal to 0. Therefore, these definitions have not fallen from the
skies; it is simply; they satisfy the continuity equation. psi is called the Stream Function.
Now, if I have to substitute for all these quantities (Refer Slide Time: 07:33), then you
will see the momentum equation will become I am already going to divide by rho then
the momentum equation will become (Refer Slide Time: 07:43) d psi by dy into du by dx
would be d 2 psi by dx dy minus d psi by dx, which is v; d 2 psi by dy square equal to U
infinity d U infinity by dx plus mu divided by rho, which is nu times d3 psi by dy cube.

This is the psi equation we would get, where psi already satisfies the continuity equation
du by dx plus dv by dy equal to 0. Now, we are going to make some further definition.

Now, it is obvious. Since u is a function of x and y and v is a function of x and y, psi
would also be a function of x and y. That function I am introducing a (Refer Slide Time:
08:49) psi x y equal to some function n x into z times eta bar; z as a function of eta bar. I
am also going to define u over U infinity equal to dz by d eta bar. Since z is a function
only of eta bar, I can also write this as z dash.
Now, we wish to establish (Refer Slide Time: 09:24) the relationship between eta bar U
infinity and the n. So, we have introduced another function n x (Refer Slide Time:
09:33), we have already got one function s x, and we have the third function U infinity x.
We want to establish a relationship between these three variables.

We will recall that u over U infinity as I defined is dz by d eta bar and that is equal to 1
over U infinity into d psi by dy. However, notice that I can write this as 1 over U infinity
d psi by d eta bar into d eta bar by dy, which I can write as

What is d psi by d eta bar? You will see d psi by d eta bar would be simply n times dz by
d eta bar simply because n is a function of x and z is a function of eta bar. Therefore, you
will see I can replace this as (Refer Slide Time: 10:52) n over U infinity into dz by d eta
bar into d eta bar by dy. So, I can cancel dz by d eta bar on both sides and I will have that
as 1. Or, d eta bar by dy will be equal to U infinity by n; both are functions of x (Refer
Slide Time: 11:21). That would equal s x as per our definition because remember: (Refer
Slide Time: 11:30) eta bar is y into s x. So, d eta bar by dy would be simply s x.
This is a very important relation (Refer Slide Time: 11:40) because it establishes
relationship between three functions of x that we have introduced.

Now, it follows quite obviously; d psi by dy would be equal to U infinity into dZ by d eta
bar. From this definition itself u over U infinity is dZ by d eta bar. d 2 psi by dy square
would then be U infinity square by n into d 2 Z by d eta bar square. d 3 psi by dy cube
will be U infinity cube divide by n square into d 3 Z by d eta cube. d psi by dx; that is
where is a little we

Remember: psi is n times Z and x times Z eta bar.

Therefore, d psi by dx would be Z times dn by dx plus n x dZ by d eta bar d eta bar by dx
because remember: eta bar is function both of y and x d psi by dx equal to Z dn by dx
plus n dZ by d eta bar d eta bar by dx.
We also need d 2 psi by dx dy and that could be d by dx of d psi by dy; d psi by dy is
simply U infinity into dZ by d eta bar. Multiplication of the differentiation of a product
would give dZ by d eta bar d U infinity by dx plus U infinity d 2 Z by d eta bar d eta bar
by dx.

If I were to introduce all these quantities (Refer Slide Time: 13:30) in the last equation
on the previous slide, then you will notice that I would get

I am repeating the equation d 2 psi by dx dy minus d psi by dx d 2 psi by dy square equal
to U infinity d U infinity by dx plus nu d3 psi by dy cube.
And if I go to the next slide again this d psi by dy will be U infinity into dZ by d eta bar
into d 2 psi by dx dy, which is dZ by d eta bar into d U infinity by dx plus U infinity into
d 2 Z by d eta bar square into d eta bar by dx. This is the first term (Refer Slide Time:
14:46). Minus d psi by dx is Z times dn by dx plus n times dZ by d eta bar d eta bar by
dx into d 2 psi by dy square, which is simply U infinity squared by n into d 2 Z by d eta
bar square. That would equal U infinity d U infinity by dx plus nu times U infinity cube
divided by n square into d 3 Z by d eta cube.
Now, observe that (Refer Slide Time: 15:49) U infinity dZ by d eta, which is really the d
psi by dy multiplied by U infinity d 2 dZ by d eta square d eta bar by dx in this first term.
Cancels because of the negative sign here with the second term here (Refer Slide Time:
16:08); n dZ by d eta bar d eta bar by dx U infinity square by d 2 Z by d eta bar square
because n and n cancels here. So, this term and this term (Refer Slide Time: 16:21) will
vanish.

As a result, then I would have the equation, which would look like this; U infinity U
infinity into dz by d eta bar whole square (Refer Slide Time: 16:36) into d U infinity by
dx would be the first term; that is what I have written here (Refer Slide Time: 16:41).
The second term will be (Refer Slide Time: 16:43) minus Z dn by dx multiplied by U
infinity square by n d 2 Z by d eta bar square and that is the term I have written here
(Refer Slide Time: 16:54); would equal U infinity d U infinity by dx plus nu U infinity
cube by n square d 3 Z by d eta bar cube. I simply replace these (Refer Slide Time:
17:08) by prime quantity, Z prime square; Z Z prime; Z into Z double prime. This
becomes the Z triple prime here (Refer Slide Time: 17:19).

What are the boundary conditions? First of all, at y equal to 0, eta bar equal to 0, I have u
equal to 0 or that will be equal to Z prime 0; that is, the no slip condition, which I have
mentioned here.

In the infinity state, u equals U infinity. Therefore, Z prime U infinity will equal 1.
However, at y equal to 0, there is a suction or blowing velocity, V w. V w will be (Refer
Slide Time: 17:53) d psi by dx; n eta bar equal to 0. Since psi is equal to n x Z eta bar, I
will have n x dz by d eta bar plus Z dn by dx, all at eta bar equal to 0. If I replace dz by d
eta by Z prime 0, this will be 0 (Refer Slide Time: 18:15), but then as we know, this is
due to no slip condition that is 0. Therefore, I get V w is equal to minus Z 0 dn by dx. Or,
in other words (Refer Slide Time: 18:32), Z 0 equal to minus V w divided by dn by dx as
shown. Remember: this is a third order equation and therefore, I need three conditions. I
have provided 2 conditions at eta bar equal to 0 and one condition at eta bar equal to
infinity. Therefore, the problem statement is now complete.
When would this equation be a perfect ordinary differential equation? It would be a
perfect ordinary differential equation only if beta 1 and beta 2 are absolute constants and
not functions of x. Remember: beta 1 is entirely a function of x; beta 2 likewise is
entirely a function of x, and Z 0, which is V w divided by dn by dx is also a function of
x. However, unless these three quantities (Refer Slide Time: 19:25) are absolute
constants; beta 1, beta 2 and Z 0 are absolute constants, we do not have an ordinary
differential equation with appropriate boundary conditions.

That tells us in a way what the similarity conditions are going to be. So, the equation Z
triple prime plus beta 1 Z Z prime plus beta 2 into 1 minus Z prime square equal to 0 will
be an ODE if beta 1, beta 2 and Z 0 are absolute constants.

Now, consider 2 beta 1 minus beta 2; we have already written the definitions of beta 1
and beta 2 on the previous slide (Refer Slide Time: 20:05). So, I am writing now 2 beta 1
minus beta 2 equal to 2n divided by nu U infinity dn by dx minus n square by nu U
infinity square d U infinity by dx.
If I have to write the right hand side, you will see it can be written as d by dx of n square
divided by nu U infinity, where nu is the kinematic viscosity and it is a constant. If I
were integrate this equation from x equal to 0 to x equal n, then I will get n square by nu
U infinity equal to 2 beta 1 minus beta 2 times x because beta 1 and beta 2 are now taken
as constants with respect to x.
Now, I multiply both sides by (Refer Slide Time: 21:26) one over U infinity d U infinity
by d x. Then, you will see n square nu U infinity square d U infinity by dx will equal 2
beta 1 minus beta 2 x divided by U infinity d U infinity by dx. However, if you see the
left hand side now, it is nothing but beta 2. Therefore, I have a relationship that d U
infinity by U infinity will be equal to beta 2 over 2 beta 1 minus beta 2 into dx by X.

If I integrate this (Refer Slide Time: 22:27), it gives me the first similarity condition that
U infinity must vary as C x raise to beta 2 over to beta 1 minus beta 2. If I integrate this
from 0 to x, you will see (Refer Slide Time: 22:45) ln U infinity will be constant times ln
X and therefore, the relationship follows. So, ln U infinity equal to same constant ln X or
U infinity would be constant times C x raise to beta 2 over 2 beta 1 minus beta 2.
What about n x? You will see n square over nu infinity is equal to 2 beta 1 minus beta 2
x. If I multiply through by nu infinity and take a square root, then n will be (Refer Slide
Time: 23:34) under root nu infinity 2 beta 1 minus beta 2 x. You recall eta bar was
defined as y S X, which is shown as y U infinity by n. If I substitute for n here, then you
will see y under root U infinity would (( ))
Then similarly, psi, which was Z eta bar into n x would read like that (Refer Slide Time:
23:58) and Z 0 will be V w x over dn by dx equal to constant. So, now we have found the
variable eta bar in terms of beta 1 and beta 2, U infinity in terms of beta 1 and beta 2, and
psi again in terms of beta 1 and beta 2. Z 0 again likewise and that must be a constant.

Now, there is something very useful that we can deduce.

Remember: the equation is an ordinary differential equation as long as beta 1, beta 2 and
Z 0 are constants. So, I can arbitrarily choose these values.

For example, I can set beta 1 equal to 1 and beta 2 equal to beta; that is what I have done.
Without loss of generality, I can set beta 1 equal to 1 and beta 2 equal to beta. Then, the
equation would read as Z triple prime plus Z Z double prime plus beta 1 minus Z square
equal to 0. U infinity will simply read as C x raise to beta over 2 minus beta.

Now, this type of variation of U infinity as a function of C x raise to beta; U infinity
equal to C times x times raise to beta over 2 minus beta - Has a very special significance
in fluid dynamics and that is what I have shown here (Refer Slide Time: 25:33). The
potential flow theory shows that U infinity equal to C x raise to beta over 2 minus beta
represents flow over wedges of included angle pi beta. As you can see, (Refer Slide
Time: 25:48) this is a wedge of included angle pi beta and the flow is this way. So, the
free stream velocity variation would follow U infinity equal to C x raise to beta over 2
minus beta. This is what you get from the potential flow theory. If beta is equal to 0, that
is U infinity equals constant; that could straightaway give you the flow over a flat plate,
which is a wedge with included angle 0.
However, I can also open up the wedge fully and make it into pi beta equal to 1 or beta
equal to 1. I will have what is called as a stagnation point flow because the flow would
hit a plate perpendicular to it and would tend to go this way (Refer Slide Time: 26:39) as
well as this way. In the positive x direction, the velocity profiles would be like I have
shown here.
However, I can also have negative values of beta and that is what is shown here (Refer
Slide Time: 26:52). Now, quite intuitively you can see that when a flow jumps over a
hump, it is quite possible that downstream of the hump - beginning of the hump, the
velocity profile will go through a point of 0 here. Then, the flow actually will recirculate
with a negative velocity close to the wall now. That actually happens for beta less than
minus 0.2 as we shall show (Refer Slide Time: 27:23).
Now, when recirculation occurs, our boundary layer theory falls flat in the sense that is
no longer applicable because we enter the regime of elliptic flows. So, beta equal to
minus 0.2 has a very special significance because that is the point at which the flow at
best would separate; that is, have a 0 share velocity. If you increase beta beyond that
value, then there will be recirculation. So, this generalization beta 1 equal to 1 and beta 2
equal to beta renders this equation (Refer Slide Time: 28:01) with some physical rigor
and Z 0 equal to minus V w x over dn by dx must be constant. So, the set of equation that
you see here tells you how U infinity should vary, how n should vary with x, how eta bar
be defined, how psi be defined, and how Z 0 or in other words, V w should vary with x
so that the equation is truly an ordinary differential equation.
For further discussion, I am going to change the definition I am going to say (Refer Slide
Time: 28:43) U infinity equal to C x raise to beta over 2 minus beta will be written as c x
raise to m, where m is equal to beta over 2 minus beta or beta is equal to 2 m over m plus
1. eta therefore; I am changing eta bar to eta. I am defining eta as y under root U infinity
by nu x, which will be equal to eta bar times under root 2 minus beta.
Remember: f dash eta equal to Z dash eta bar equal to u over U infinity. The reason I am
doing this is to make further analytical development more elegant. There is no other
purpose other than making the analysis more elegant.

Having to write beta over 2 minus beta every time makes life somewhat difficult. So, I
have simply defined m equal to beta over to 2 minus beta or beta is equal to 2 m divided
by m plus 1. I have simplified eta by removing 2 minus beta into it. Now, the new
variable is eta, I am replacing z by f and saying f dash eta will be equal to z dash eta bar
equal to u over U infinity, as before.

With this substitution, then you will notice that our equation Z triple prime plus Z Z
double prime plus beta into 1 minus Z prime square equal to 0 and I am changing this.
Remember: I have said f dash eta equal to Z dash eta bar equal to u over U infinity.
Now, you can see what would be Z double prime; Z double prime will be d z prime by d
eta bar, but Z prime is f prime eta, which I can also write as df prime by d eta into d eta
by d eta bar. However, remember: eta is equal to eta bar under root 2 minus beta.
Therefore, Z double prime will be simply under root 2 minus beta into f double prime;
that is equal to Z double prime. Likewise, you can show Z triple prime will be 2 minus
beta f triple prime and you can also show that Z will be equal to f by under root 2 minus
beta.

With these three substitutions in this equation (Refer Slide Time: 31:54). So, I will have
2 minus beta f triple prime plus f divided by under root 2 minus beta into under root 2
minus beta f double prime plus beta into 1 minus f prime square equal to 0. You will see
this and this get cancelled. So, you get essentially 2 minus beta f triple prime plus ff
double prime plus beta into 1 minus f prime square equal to 0.
Now, as we know, we already define beta equal to 2 m over m plus 1. If you have to
substitute for 2 minus beta and beta, you will see this equation reduces to f triple prime
plus m plus 1 by 2 ff double prime plus m times 1 minus f prime square equal to 0.

In the new similarity variable f and eta, appropriate Z equation will transform to this
equation in f. psi is equal to f eta under root nu U infinity x and therefore, v will be equal
to d psi by dx.

If you differentiate this equation, you will see psi equal to f eta under root nu U infinity
x, which is really the n x. So, n x is equal to under root nu U infinity x, but U infinity is c
x raise to m. Therefore, nu c x raise to m plus 1. That will be equal to nu c x raise to m
plus 1 by 2. dn by dx will be under root nu c into m plus 1 by 2 into x raise to m minus 1
by 2. Similarly eta, which is y times under root U infinity by nu x will become equal to y
times under root c by nu into x raise to m minus 1 by 2. This is very important: dn by dx.
Therefore, d eta by dx will be simply y times under root c by nu m minus 1 by 2 into x
raise to m minus 3 by 2. This is another equation (Refer Slide Time: 35:03) of great
value.

V, which is equal to minus d psi by dx, which is minus d by dx of f eta n. Then, you will
see this will be simply equal to minus into f dn by dx plus n into df by d eta into d eta by
dx.

If you substitute the last two derivations; this quantity for dn by dx (Refer Slide Time:
35:45) and this quantity for d eta by dx and replace this by f dash, then this is nothing but
f dn by dx plus n f dash d eta by dx. Then, simply substitute these 2 quantities (Refer
Slide Time: 36:07) and you can show after some algebra that v by U infinity under root
U infinity by x by nu, which is nothing but v over U infinity Rex to the power half. It is
equal to minus m plus 1 by 2 into f plus m minus 1 over m plus 1 into f dash eta and that
is what I shown here.

You will now get a solution to v in terms of f, f dash and eta. So, v is a function of eta is
known in terms of the pressure gradient parameter m. At f 0, you have V w by dn by dx
so that it will transform into V w x by U infinity Re x by because all I do is if f equal to
0, I have simply put f 0 and f dash 0. f dash 0 is 0 already; as you now, will become the
no slip condition.
Essentially, f 0 then becomes V w divided by U infinity by x Re x to the power half,
which is the B f, which is called the blowing parameter. Re x to the power half and Re x
is U infinity x by nu.
We have an equation: f triple prime m plus 1 by 2 into f double prime plus m into 1
minus f dash square equal to 0 with the 3 boundary conditions f 0, f dash 0 and f dash
infinity.

Let me summarize. We have transformed the 2D Boundary Layer partial differential
equation to a third order ordinary differential equation f triple prime plus m plus 1 half f f
double prime plus m 1 minus f double prime square equal to 0.
The ODE is valid for U infinity equal to C x raise to m and V w x by U infinity x into Re
x 0.5 equal to B f equal to constant only. So, it is a solution for any arbitrary variations of
U infinity and V w. The equation is not an ODE then. These are called the similarity
conditions. So, the solutions can only be obtained for these restricted variations of U
infinity and V w. The independent similarity variable is eta equal to y under root U
infinity divided by nu x.
Because U infinity equal to C x raise to m, for m greater than 0, U infinity will increase
with the x or we say we have an Accelerating Flow or a Negative Pressure Gradient.
Likewise, if m less than 0, we say we have a De-celerating Flow or a Positive Pressure
Gradient or an Adverse Pressure Gradient. For m equal to 0, we already notice that U
infinity is a constant and therefore, the Pressure Gradient is 0. It is called the Flat Plate
Flow. For m equal to 1, we have a Stagnation Point Flow or an Accelerating Flow.
Overall, we say m is a Pressure Gradient Parameter.
In the next lecture, I will show you how to solve these ordinary differential equations.
Convection Heat and Mass Transfer
Prof. A. W. Date

Module No. # 01
Lecture No. # 07
Similarity Solution to Velocity BL


In the last lecture, we converted the partial differential equation of a two dimensional
boundary layer to an ordinary differential equation which we call the similarity equation.
The purpose of this lecture is to show how to solve such a similarity equation by
shooting method.

In this lecture, I will also present some solutions to the velocity boundary layer equation.
Our interest is to solve this third order ordinary differential equation with the boundary
condition f 0 equal to B f which we defined as the blowing parameter into 2m plus 1. f
dash 0 is equal to 0 which is the no slip condition and f dash infinity equal to 1 is the
boundary condition. So, our solution is for the velocity profile, f dash eta u over U
infinity will be function firstly of the pressure gradient parameter because U infinity is a
function of m and B f which arises from the manner in which V w, the wall velocity
varies.

Secondly, our velocity distribution in the y direction would be given by that. So, once we
solve this equation, we get f f dash variations from which we get the velocity distribution
v as well as u as a function of y. Just by way of reminder, I may say eta, the similarity
variable eta is nothing but y times under root U infinity divided by nu X, where U
infinity is cx raised to m and therefore, you will see this becomes nothing but c by nu x
raised to m minus 1 by 2. That is what the variable eta is. This is the stretching
parameter.
Similarity solutions are possible only when U infinity varies in this fashion. We say m is
a pressure gradient parameter; why - because remember dp infinity by dx is simply
minus rho U infinity dU infinity by dx.

That is equal to minus rho cx raised to m c into m into x raised to m minus 1 or that is
equal to minus rho c square m into x raised to 2 m minus 1. So, you will see the pressure
gradient is totally determined by whether m is positive or negative and therefore, we call
this m as a pressure gradient parameter. This is called the similarity independent variable
and f dash eta is equal to u over U infinity.

Now we want to solve this third order equation - third order ordinary differential
equation. We essentially split it up into 3 first order differential equations as shown.
Before I do that, let me just tell you the f dash eta solution gives the Coefficient of
Friction as a function of the Reynolds number.

So, the shear stress at the wall would be mu times du by dy which is equal to 0. So, tau
wall will be mu times du by dy at y equal to 0 which I can also write- mu times U
infinity du by U infinity by dy at y equal to 0.
I can also write it as mu U infinity df by d y df dash by dy at y equal to 0 which I shall
write as mu U infinity df dash by d eta into d eta by dy at eta equal to 0. As you know,
since eta is equal to y into U infinity nu x, you will see this difference becomes mu times
U infinity under root U infinity by nu x, which is d eta by dy into f double prime 0.
We define C fx as the shear stress divided by the kinetic energy of the free stream and
therefore, this will become 2 times f double prime 0 into Reynolds x to the power of
minus 0.5.
That is what I have shown here; the local skin friction coefficient would be defined as
that. So, once we have solved the problem, we can determine f double prime 0.
Sometimes it is also of interest to find out average skin friction coefficient over a length
L. Well, all you do is integrate tau all x from 0 to L and divide by the length L and you
will get that. Therefore, we must determine f double prime 0 for which we have no
boundary condition at the moment. Further parameter of interest will be listed in a later
slide.

As I said, we split up the third order equation into three first order equations. The first is
d f by d eta f dash and I can solve it from eta equal to 0 to eta equal to infinity, because I
know the boundary condition f 0 d f 2 over m plus 1 -this is known because I have
already specified the value of B f and I have already specified the value of m. d f dash by
d eta will be equal to f double prime; this is a second ordinary differential equation with f
dash 0 equal to 0 because this is a known condition. Similarly, f double prime by d eta
will be f triple prime and f triple will be simply -from our ordinary differential equation,
it will be this quantity with a negative sign and that is what I have written here. But to
solve this equation, I do not know the initial condition, f double prime at eta equal to 0
and that is an unknown condition.
How do I do that? I will show that later. Since these three equations are ordinary
differential equations, I can always solve them by Runge-Kutta method with which you
are already familiar. From eta equal to 0 to eta equal to eta max - I say eta max in lieu of
infinity, because it is no point in going on solving for a length longer than is necessary.
Usually values of eta max of the order of 3 to 10 will suffice depending on the value B f
and m.

So, eta max is a fictitious quantity; it represents infinity condition because in a numerical
calculation you must give some value to infinity and that is given as eta max. What
would be the solution algorithm?

Select the value of m and B f which is given. You want to solve this problem for a given
pressure gradient and given blowing parameter. Select eta max and step change d eta.
You are solving from eta equal to 0 to eta equal to eta max; the conditions known here
are f 0 f dash 0.
But f double prime 0 is not known; f double prime 0 is not known. This eta equal to 0 to
eta max is divided into very small number of steps; we call them d eta. Each step is
called d eta and we intend to obtain solution at different values of eta along up to here.
Solve three equations simultaneously by Runge-Kutta method by first guessing a value
of f double prime 0. Now, if I choose a value which is not correct then what do I expect?
I expect f dash eta max to somehow go to 1 at correct value of f dash.
But what I will find if my guess is not quite correct? I will end up like this. Obviously, I
must refine my guess for f double prime 0 and in the next guess I may find that I come
out in that position. So, this is guess 1, this is guess 2 - neither is f dash eta max is not
equal to 1.
So, I check if f dash eta max is equal to 1. Since it is not, I must refine these two first two
guesses and I go on doing that by this little formula. It is simply a linear interpolation of
the errors on the both sides so that the third guess will give me an error in f double prime
0 which is more and more accurate. If I say f double prime 0 by as a phi, then phi at k
plus first iteration would be equal to phi k plus 1 minus psi k phi minus phi k minus 1 psi
k over psi k minus 1, where k is the iteration number and psi is the value of f dash eta
max predicted at eta max.
So, I sense which way to move for f dash double prime 0 by observing the value of f
dash eta max eta equal to eta max. If of course, I now find that f dash eta max is equal to
1 then I say assumed value of f double prime 0 is a correct one at convergence then print
values of f eta f dash eta and f double prime eta and note down the value of f double
prime 0 which is required for calculation of the skin friction coefficient.


Here, I show a typical calculation for a set of assuming m is equal to 0 and B f is equal to
0- the equation that I am really solving is simply f triple prime since m is equal to 0 m f f
double prime equal to 0, this is the equation I am solving for m equal to 0 and the
boundary condition is that f dash 0 is equal to 0, f dash infinity is equal to 1, and f 0
which is equal to B f into 2 by m plus 1 since this is 0 and B f is equal to 0, f 0 is also
equal to 0.

I have taken in this case after some experience that eta max should be about 7. I took eta
equal to 7 because I am solving for m equal to 0 and B f equal to 0 which is essentially a
flood pit boundary layer without suction or blowing and I have divided this into 300
steps. I am not suggesting that 300 is really required; you can get away with smaller
number but just I took a value of 300. I have d eta is 1 divided by 300 of eta max.
Since I do not know the solution (Refer Slide Time: 13:46) I made an initial guess of f
double prime equal to 0.02. This was my first guess and I found eta max f dash eta max
equal to 0.123; obviously this is not correct. I then refined the guess to 0.07 and I found
that it is 0.342 with these two solutions (Refer Slide Time: 14:09) I let our iteration
refinement formula to take over and then I find that the third guess was 0.22 and it
became 0.761, fourth guess 0.306 948, fifth 0.329 0.997 and 6 gave me 0.33071 and f
dash max is indeed 1, which means that this value of f double prime 0 is correct.
When you are solving this for the first time obviously you do not know f double prime 0.
You do not know what eta max to take? So, the best thing is to increase the value of eta
max, decrease the value of eta max and in each case determine the value of f double
prime 0 corresponding to f dash max equal to 1, so that our solution should be
independent of the number of points taken in the domain and the eth value of eta max
chosen.
Of course, you do not want eta max to be too large at the same time it should not be so
small that you do not resolve the entire viscosity affected region properly. Because I
started with a very poor guess of 0.02, I needed 6 iterations to discover the correct value
of f double prime. In this case therefore, C f x which is 2 times f double prime 0 Re x to
the half will be simply 2 times 0.33, so that is equal to 0.6614, C f bar will be 1.28. It is
also possible that the equation that I wrote here- there is a series solution possible for this
equation and that series solution gives C f x equal to 0.664 and C f bar equal to 1.328.

We are very close. Our shooting method has given very close answer to the series
solution. Now, you can see how the profiles looks like for the flood pit boundary layer
without suction and blowing. You will see the value of f dash goes from 0 to 1 very
asymptotically and that is u over U infinity.
Where f dash becomes constant- f becomes linear and the value of f double prime, you
can see 0.33 and when you go towards the n, you will see that the second derivative of f
or the du dy is also going to 0 which is what we expect. So that also is correct. Actually u
over U infinity becomes very close to 1 at about eta equal to phi.
So, we took eta max equal to 7; well that is good enough even if I took eta max equal to
6, I would get exactly the same results. Normally one does not want this to be too large,
the difference between edge of the boundary layer and the eta max chosen should not be
too large because unnecessarily you are doing computations which need not be done.

Now, in order to interpret the solutions in boundary layer theory, we define certain
thicknesses. One of the problems with boundary layer theory is that remember u over U
infinity goes very asymptotically to 1 and one cannot really say what is exactly the
thickness of the boundary layer. It is a notional quantity. Boundary layer thickness is a
notional quantity and we associate that with the notion that we shall say boundary layer
thickness delta is the value of y where u over U infinity f dash eta is equal to 0.99 - that
is sort of a convention that is followed.

But a more exact representation would be displacement thickness delta 1 and we define
that as 0 to infinity 1 over rho u divide rho infinity. Now, you can see what does that
represent, it simply represents the idea that when a boundary layer is formed because of
this viscosity affected region; if the boundary layer did not exist everywhere, the fluid
will be flowing at the velocity U infinity.
Because of the boundary layer, less fluid is flowing through this area and therefore, we
define delta 1 as 0 to infinity rho infinity U infinity minus rho u divided by rho infinity U
infinity dy. You can see therefore, this quantity represents the amount by which the mass
deficit has occurred because of the low velocity region in the vicinity of the wall.
In our case of course, since we are saying a uniform property flow rho is equal to rho
infinity and therefore, we will simply have 0 to infinity 1 minus u over U infinity dy and
if I say this is equal to 0 to delta plus delta to infinity 1 minus u over U infinity dy, then
you will notice that this is really beyond delta - the boundary layer thickness, u is in fact
equal to U infinity and therefore, that is equal to 0. So I get this is, u over U infinity dy.
This thickness is called the displacement thickness. Even if I choose eta max much
greater than delta in dimensionless form, it does not matter because all the integrations
after that are 0 and therefore, displacement thickness is a far more precise quantity (Refer
Slide Time: 20:32) than the quantity delta which is a sort of a fictitious value at f dash
eta equal to 0.99 and therefore, these thicknesses are much more reliable indicators of the
thickness of a boundary layer.
Likewise, momentum thickness is defined as mass deficit multiplied by u over. It simply
tells you the amount of momentum deficit that has been caused by the presence of the
boundary layer. Again, if rho is equal to rho infinity then this simply becomes u over U
infinity 1 minus u over U infinity.

Since u over U infinity is f dash and d y is related to eta, I can convert this definition to
this form - delta star is equal to delta over X Re x half delta one star delta one x, this is
fairly straightforward to show.

For example, I can define delta 1 as 0 to delta 1 minus u over U infinity d y and
remember eta is y times under root U infinity by nu x. Therefore, d eta is simply d y
times under root U infinity by nu x. So, if I change these values to eta, then you will see
this become 0 1 minus f dash into d eta into under root nu x by U infinity and this will
become eta at delta - eta at delta is what I shall call delta star- will be simply delta under
root U infinity by nu x which is nothing but eta max in our case in a way or less than eta
max.
So, now I get - delta 1 under root U infinity by nu x equal to 0 to infinity or whatever
value you want to call it- 1 minus f dash d eta. If I manipulate this delta 1 by x into under
root U infinity x by nu and that is equal to delta 1 by x Re x to the half equal to 0 to
infinity 1 minus f dash d eta and this quantity I define as delta 1 star and analogously
delta star delta by x U infinity by x by nu and then this is the value of eta at f dash eta
equal to 0.99 and delta 2 star likewise is delta 2 by x under root U infinity by nu x is
equal to 0 to infinity f dash 1 minus f dash d eta.
In actual numerical integration after the convert solution is obtained, I simply replace
this infinity here by eta max and this also I replace by eta max. No harm done. So, I get
values of delta 1 star delta 2 star delta star and (Refer Slide Time: 24:24) I recover the
value of C f x as 2 f double prime 0 Re x to the power half.

So, these quantities are evaluated after the solution has been obtained. I have obtained
several solutions for U infinity equal to cx raised to m, which is our velocity profile. So,
all positive values of m represent accelerating flow; all negative values of m represent
the decelerating flow or the flow with an adverse pressure gradient.
This is the flow with a favorable pressure gradient. Remember beta is equal to 2m over
m plus 1 - this is the wedge angle and I have also mentioned the wedge angle m equal to
0 represent the flat plate solution and I have already showed you 0.33 is the value of f
double prime, delta star where f dash infinity is 0.99 turns out to be 4.9, delta 1 star is
1.727, delta 2 star is 0.663. As the flow accelerates, as compared to m equal to 0, you
will see the boundary layer thickness is reducing as it should, because the flow is
accelerating now and therefore, the viscosity affected region is thinner.
But in a decelerating flow, the viscosity affected region becomes thicker. Thinner the
boundary layer, thickness or sharper is the velocity gradient and that is what you see here
- there is an increase in the f double prime 0 value which increases the skin friction
coefficient.
On the negative side, very interesting thing happened. At value of m equal to minus
0.091 which corresponds to beta equal to minus 0.2, f double prime is 0, this is the
separating boundary layer and its thickness will be 7.42 compared to 4.9 for a flat plate
boundary layer. If you decrease the value rather of m still further, you will simply get a
recirculation region near the wall and of course, that is not admissible in boundary layer
theory. Incidentally look at this solution for m equal to 0 with a skin friction coefficient
which is 0.33, f double prime 0 is 0.33; this boundary layer has been measured for its
skin friction and velocity profile.
The velocity profiles were made by a Russian scientist Nikuradze in 1942 and by
Liepman and Dhawan in 1951 and since then several others have verified these
measurements and on a boundary layer development on a flat plate. All of them predict
excellently these values of 0.33 and 4.9 which is the boundary layer thickness. I have
already showed you that m equal to 0, there is an exact solution which matches very well
and so does it match with experimental data for m equal to 0. Experimental verifications
have also been done for accelerating boundary layers and decelerating boundary and
separation is indeed predicted when m equals minus 0.091 which is the separation
pressure gradient parameter. The comments are, for m equal to 0 - delta star is about 0.5
and f double prime 0 is approximately 0.33.

For an accelerating flow, m is greater than 0 and the boundary layer thickness now
reduces; but the skin friction coefficient increases. I can see the velocity profiles
obtained for m equal to 0 compared to the value of m greater than 0.You will see for m
equal to 0, the boundary layer thickness is indeed just about 5 or say 4.92.
But the velocity gradients are indeed very sharp as the acceleration takes place. On the
negative m side, m equal to decelerating flow, the boundary layer thickness goes on
increasing and at m equal to minus 0.91, you see the velocity gradient at the wall- this is
eta, this is u over U infinity is in fact zero, as you can see the zero gradient very clearly.
If you were to reduce m further, separation will definitely occur. So, this is the threshold
value for separation to occur. What is our conclusion then? Adverse pressure gradient
causes flow thickening compared to a flat plate boundary layer, whereas the favorable
pressure gradient causes flow thinning. Now, we shall look at effect of suction and
blowing. Remember our B f is defined as V w divided by U infinity into R e x to the half
and that should be a constant. That is what we have said.


So, V w over U infinity under root U infinity x by nu should be constant or V w into
under root x by nu infinity should be a constant and therefore, V w should be
proportional to under root U infinity by x or that is equal to proportional to x raised to m
minus 1 divided by 2 and that is what I have shown here. V w should be proportional to
x raised to m minus 1 by 2. I am only going to consider two cases of m; the solution can
of course, be obtained for any value pressure gradient.
But you will see now that if m is equal to 0 that is on a flat plate if I want to obtain
similarity solution for which m is equal to 0, U infinity is a constant then V w must vary
for m equal to 0, V w must vary under root x. For m equal to 1, V w must be constant
because m is equal to 1. Similarity solutions are possible for these two cases only when
in case of m equal to 0, V w varies as 1 over under root x and for m equal 1, V w is
constant. Both these solutions have great relevance in gas turbine cooling technology.
Near the leading edge of the blade, cooling air is injected through the leading edge at
almost constant rate. Therefore, m equal to 1 case is very well taken care of by this V w
constant, whereas along the suction side there is a region where there is almost a constant
pressure gradient m equal to 0 and that is where you inject fluid at a decreasing rate as 1
over under root x.

These solutions have affinity to the situations obtained in gas turbine blade. Remember
this is the leading edge. So, this corresponds to m equal to 1. Here are the solutions for
flat plate m equal to 0 and I have varied B f on the negative side up to minus 2 and on the
positive side of plus 2. B f less than 0 represents suction, B f greater than 0 represents
blowing into the flat plate boundary layer,
Now, you can see what suction does? Suction reduces the thickness of the boundary
layer and therefore, the skin friction increases. Thinning of the boundary layers always
increases skin friction along with delta star - even the displacement thickness and
momentum thickness is also reducing and as a result the skin friction coefficient is
increasing.
On the blowing side obviously the boundary layer thickness compared to no blowing
would go on increasing as you can see with a decrease in skin friction and in fact at point
B f equal to 0.612, shear stress equal to 0 occurs, which means separation has occurred
due to blowing.

We shall see now the case of m equal to 1. Very similar! Suction increases the skin
friction whereas, blowing reduces skin friction but notice that in case of a stagnation
point flow, no matter how hard you blow even up to B f equal to 1, there is no indication
of separation at all. It will require a very large value of B f in fact unreasonably
impractically large value of B f to really cause separation in a stagnation flow.
That is understandable; there is an oncoming flow and if I want to close by separation of
the boundary layer, then I must blow almost at the same rate as the oncoming flow is.

So, even up to B f equal to 1, separation does not occur. Here are the velocity profile -
for the flat plate and stagnation point flow. Let us look at the stagnation point flow first,
you will see B f equal to 0 curve is there and the velocity has become almost equal to 1
at m eta equal to about 5. Because of the suction, negative values of m minus 0.5 and
minus 1- there is a thinning of the boundary layer with increasing gradient of velocity
near the wall, so that increases the skin friction.
On the blowing side however, there is a thickening of the boundary layer but even with B
f equal to 1, there is no indication that separation would occur. On the other hand, if you
look at the solutions for flat plate boundary layer, this is the solution for B f equal to 0
which is going up to 5 and these are the solutions for suction obviously thinning the
boundary layer.
By look at what happens for 0.5, boundary layer thickness is almost become double of
what is it was for B f equal to 0 and at 0.612 you get a 0 gradient velocity profile at the
wall to indicating a separating profile. We have seen how velocity boundary layer
solutions are influenced by the pressure gradient parameter m as well as the suction and
blowing parameter B f, how thinning and thickening of the velocity boundary layer takes
place under the influence of these. We have also seen the merits of shooting method; it
involves selection of eta max.

So, once the program has been written for the general purpose we can go on varying the
values of m and beta f as per wish and can generate a large number of solution for further
use.
Prof. A. W. Date

Module No. # 01
Lecture No. # 08
Similarity Soln to Temp BL -1

In the last two lectures, we dealt with similarity method for the velocity boundary layer.
In lecture 6, we developed the similarity equation and in lecture 7 we obtained solutions
to the similarity equations.

Today, we will deal with similarity method for the temperature boundary layer or the
energy equation and like before we shall first establish the condition for existence of
similarity solutions to the temperature boundary layer equation and then derive the
boundary conditions.

As you will recall, the boundary layer form of the energy equation has convective terms
on the left hand side, the diffusion term in the transverse direction, the viscous
dissipation term, the pressure work term and two heat generation terms - one due to
chemical reactions; the other due to radiation. For our purposes, presently we shall
ignore Q dot chem and Q dot rad. As we said earlier, u dp infinity by dx is important
only in high speed gas flows of compressible or compressible gas flows. Therefore, the
last three terms are neglected because we are largely dealing with uniform property in
compressible flows.
The boundary conditions to this equation would be at the wall - y equal to 0- T will equal
T wall and that may or may not be a function of x; at y equal to infinity, T will be equal
to T infinity and is assumed to be constant in the free stream. It does not vary with x.

If you want to develop similarity equation, then first of all, we define T w x minus T
infinity - that is the reference between wall and infinity states - as sum function G x. We
define theta eta, where eta is the similarity variable introduced in the velocity boundary
layer equation equal to T at any point in the boundary layer minus T infinity divided by
T wall x minus T infinity.

And eta as you will recall equals y into under root U infinity by nu x. If I make the
substitutions of these two quantities in the differential equation, you will notice that I am
going to replace T in these three terms by theta.

You will notice that dT dx will equal d by dx of T infinity plus theta into T w minus T
infinity. Since T infinity is constant, it does not contribute to derivative. Therefore, I
would get T w minus T infinity d theta by dx plus theta into d by dx of T w, because T w
is a function of x. dT dy; likewise, d by dy of T infinity plus theta into T w minus T
infinity and that was simply reduced to T w minus T infinity d theta by dy. Likewise,
d2T dy square will simply reduce to T w minus T infinity d2 theta by dy square.

Therefore, upon substitution, you will see the equation would become dividing through
by rho C p, I will get u dt by dx plus v dT by dy equal to alpha d2T dy square plus mu by
rho C p du by dy square. If I substitute these three derivatives here, I will get T w minus
T infinity into u d theta by dx plus v d theta by dy plus theta into u dT w by dx equal to
alpha into T w minus T infinity into d2 theta by dy square plus nu by C p du by dy whole
square. That is what I will get.

Notice dT w by dx is nothing but dG by dx. T w minus T infinity is nothing but G.
Therefore, if I divide through by G, I will get u d theta by dx plus v d theta by dy plus u
theta by G dG by dx equal to alpha times d2 theta by dy square plus nu by Cp T w minus
T infinity du by dy whole square.

This is the last equation that you see here. We now wish to represent each term in terms
of similarity variables.

Recall that for the velocity boundary layer, the similarity variables are U infinity equal to
C x raise to m, eta as we saw before is - y into square root of U infinity divided by nu x
psi - is f eta into n x a function of x. n(x) itself is under root nu U infinity x. We define u
over U infinity equal to f dash. Therefore, u will become equal to U infinity f dash. v
which is equal to minus d psi by dx will become minus into f dash into n x into d eta by
dx plus f into dn by dx - follows from this definition of psi.
d theta by dx would be simply theta dash into d eta by dx, where theta dash is d theta by
d eta. d theta by dy would be equal to theta dash d eta by dy and d eta by dy would be
simply under root nu U infinity x. d2 theta by dy square would be d theta double prime U
infinity nu x into du by dy whole square equal to f double prime square nu x.

So, you will see that if I now substitute for u d theta by dx and so on and so forth in this
equation, then I would get U infinity into f dash into d theta by dx which is d theta - this
is theta dash - d eta by dx minus f dash n d eta by dx plus f dn by dx into d theta by dy
which is theta dash into under root U infinity by nu x equal to alpha times -I must
include - u theta - u is equal to U infinity f dash theta divided by G dG by dx equal to
alpha times U infinity by nu x into theta double prime plus nu by Cp T wall minus T
infinity into U infinity cube by nu x into f double prime whole square.
It is very clear then. Now, notice that dn by dx, since n is equal to under root nu U
infinity x, U infinity is equal cx raise to m and eta is equal to under root U infinity by nu
x. I can show that eta is equal to n by nu x which is equal to under root U infinity under n
divided by nu x which will be under root U infinity nu x.

Remember, if I were to replace this n by n nu x U infinity by nu x, then you will see that
I get U infinity f dash into theta dash d eta by dx minus f dash. n is equal to under root nu
U infinity x d eta by dx plus f dn by dx into theta prime under root U infinity by nu x.
Therefore, you will see this becomes U infinity f dash into theta dash d eta by dx minus f
dash into theta dash U infinity d eta by dx plus f theta prime under root U infinity by nu
x dn by dx.
Therefore, you will see this term gets canceled with this term. I have now minus f theta
dash - this is the left hand side- f theta dash under root U infinity by nu x dn by dx plus f
dash U infinity theta by G dG by dx equal to alpha U infinity by nu x theta double prime
plus nu by Cp T w minus T infinity U infinity cube by nu x into f double prime whole
square. This would be the equation.

That is what I have shown on this figure. You will see these two terms now get canceled.
U infinity by nu x, as you can see is simply n over nu x, so, if I divide through now by U
infinity by x in this equation, then you will get minus f theta prime into under root nu x
by U infinity dn by dx plus f dash. The equation I have written here is quite correct.


I hope you will check the algebra. n and n will get canceled and this term gets canceled
with that one and minus theta dash n f dn by dx is equal to all this. f dash theta and this
will become U infinity squared because I have divided through by this. So, this will go
and this will go. I will get U infinity by a nu x is n over nu x, so that is why u get n here
and divided by n and that is how this and this term gets canceled. You then have this
term, f dash theta d divided by Gx and multiplying through by x, I get f dash theta x dG
by dx minus f theta dash x over n dn by dx equal to - that is this term - theta double
prime divided by Prandtl plus 2Ec x f double prime square where Eckert number Ec x is
defined as U infinity square divided by 2 divided by Cp into T w minus T infinity.
Now, to show this x over n dn by dx equal to m plus 1 by 2, that is a straight forward
thing, in the sense that - remember n is equal to under root nu U infinity into x, but U
infinity is equal to cx raise to m. Therefore, this becomes nothing but c times nu x raise
to m plus 1 and that is equal to under root c nu x raise to m plus 1 by 2 -that is n. dn by
dx therefore, will be under root c nu into m plus 1 by 2 into x raise to m minus 1 by 2.
Therefore, x divided by n dn by dx will be equal to x divided by under root c nu x raised
to m plus 1 by 2 into under root c nu into m plus 1 by 2 into x raised to m minus 1 by 2.
So, you get this gets canceled with that; this is x raise to 1, so, this becomes x raise to
minus 1 by 2. So, this this and this gets canceled and you simply get m plus 1 by 2

That is what is shown here. This is the pressure gradient parameter m and therefore, our
equation would become like this - I have transferred all terms on the right hand side and
multiplied through by Prandtl number, then you will see our equation becomes theta
double prime plus Prandtl into m plus 1 by 2 f theta dash minus f dash theta x by G dG
by dx, which is the wall temperature variation of a function plus 2 Ec x f double prime
square equal to 0.


As I said before, this equation will be a perfectly ordinary differential equation; if this
quantity x divided by G dG by dx is a constant. Let us say, it is gamma. Then, the
solution to G will be simply sum delta T ref x by G dG by dx equal to gamma gives me
dG by G is equal to gamma times dx by x. The solution therefore, is G times some
constant delta T ref into x raise to gamma.

Unless the wall temperature variation is of this form, gamma is an arbitrary constant.
Then, similarity solutions will be possible. Likewise, Ec x should also be a constant. But
what is Ec x?

Ec x is U infinity squared by 2 divided by C p into T w minus T infinity and this is equal
to c squared x raise to 2m divided by 2 times C p - and this is - delta T ref x raised to
gamma. G is T w minus T f. Therefore, Ec x will be constant, if this is constant then this
and this must cancel which means gamma must equal 2m, if Ec x is not equal to 0.

Remember similarity solutions to the temperature boundary layer are possible when Ec is
ignored - that is viscous dissipation is ignored. Then, gamma can take absolutely
arbitrary values. But, when viscous dissipation is included, gamma can take only
restrictive values - gamma equal to 2m.
This is because there is a connection between the viscous dissipation term and the
velocity solution. Such odd constraints are put in similarity method. So, these are
conditions for existence of similarity solution: the wall temperature variation must follow
this law, must be proportional to x raised to gamma and EC x if EC x is included, then
gamma must equal 2m.

So, then our final energy equation is of this type, theta double prime plus Prandtl m plus
1 by 2 f theta dash minus gamma f dash theta. This represents the wall temperature
variation, this is the viscous dissipation and this is the pressure gradient and this is the
Prandtl number with a reminder that where Ec is equal to this and if Ec is not equal to 0
then gamma is equal to 2m, otherwise, gamma can take absolutely arbitrary values.

What would be the boundary conditions? That is straight forward to see, if you recall the
temperature. So, at the wall, eta equal to 0 - theta 0 will be 1 and at infinity state, the
numerator will be 0, so, theta infinity will be 0. That is what you see here.

The boundary conditions are this and what would the solutions look like, theta eta will be
functions first of all m and B f, because f f dash and f double prime are functions of m
and B f and in addition you have Prandtl number, the wall temperature variation
parameter and the viscous dissipation parameter, Ec. This is what we expect.
How do we solve this second order differential equation- like we did in the in the case of
velocity boundary layer, where we had a third order equation.

We split this up into 2 first order differential equations. The first equation is simply d
theta by d eta equal to theta dash with theta 0 equal to 1 which is known; wall
temperature is known. Then, d theta dash by d eta equal to theta prime which is equal to
minus Prandtl all this. But, we do not know the theta dash 0.
Like we did in the in the velocity boundary layer equations, first of all, we obtain for a
given m and B f gives f f dash f double prime. We then guess theta prime 0 and solve
these two equations by Runge-Kutta method from eta equal to 0 to eta equal to eta max.
At each of iteration, we check the boundary condition at the outer edge whether theta eta
max has tended to 0 or not, if not, we revise theta dash 0 and continue the solutions
again.

When the solution is obtained, we define as we did in case of velocity boundary layer,
the thicknesses of the temperature boundary layer.

The physical thickness, delta is - remember our solution will look like this - theta verses
eta, at wall it will be 1 and we expect the solution to go something like this with this 0
boundary condition at eta equal to some eta max. So, how do we choose the value of the
thermal boundary layer thickness?

As we choose velocity boundary layer thickness and say that when f dash eta tends to
about 0.99, we say that is velocity boundary layer thickness.
Likewise, in temperature boundary layer, we say when theta tends to about 0.01 - that is
somewhere here - then that would represent. But there is a notional thickness. There is no
exactness. We can impart the exactness by defining another thickness called the enthalpy
thickness. It is defined as 0 to infinity rho Cp u T minus T infinity, which is the actual
enthalpy within the boundary layer when integrated to dy and this is the enthalpy that
would be carried in the layer, if there was no boundary layer.
So, for uniform property flow, rho Cp gets canceled with this; u over U infinity will be
simply f dash and T minus T infinity over T wall minus T is our theta. Therefore, this
relationship - if I change y to eta then delta 2 star like delta 2 by x into Reynolds x to the
0.5 equal to 0 to eta max f dash theta d eta - this is the dimensionless form for a uniform
property enthalpy thickness.


Remember we obtained solutions by guessing the value of theta prime 0.How is it related
to the heat transfer coefficient, h x? The local heat transfer coefficient will be q wall
divided by T wall minus T infinity - remember at any x, if this is q wall - T w and T
infinity then, h x is simply q w divided by T wall minus T infinity. This is the
definition, you will recall. That would equal, if this was the temperature profile - the
gradient of temperature will be minus k dT by dy at y equal to 0 divided by T w minus T
infinity.
Since theta is equal to T minus T infinity over T w minus T infinity, I can straight away
say, this is equal to minus k d theta by dy at y equal to 0; this is dT divided by T w minus
T infinity. If I now change, eta is equal to y times U infinity by nu x. Then, you will see
this can also be written as - minus k d theta by dy d eta into d eta by dy at y equal to 0.
That is equal to 0 minus k minus k theta dash 0 into under root U infinity by nu x.

I can develop further as - h x into x by k equals the Nusselt number n u x. Then you will
see this becomes equal to minus x by K into K theta prime 0 into U infinity by nu x and
you will see K and K gets canceled and you will get this as - minus theta prime 0 into
under root U infinity x by nu. That is nothing but - minus theta prime 0 Re x to the half.
Therefore, I can say that - Nu x Re x to the half minus half is equal to minus theta prime
0. Our R-K solution gives us the value of theta prime 0 which in turn give us the value of
Nusselt number.

That is what I have derived here; Nu x is equal to that. Sometimes, in boundary layer
theory, we define, Stanton x Nu is Nusselt named after the scientist Nusselt. Similarly, St
is Stanton named after a scientist Stanton and that is defined as - h x divided by rho Cp U
infinity. Remember there is no length dimension in the definition of Stanton number and
this is found sometimes quite useful in defining a dimensionless heat transfer coefficient.
It is simply - Nusselt x divided by Reynolds x into Prandtl. This is simple algebra to
show that if I divide this quantity by Reynolds x and Prandtl, you would get Stanton.
Then, the solution is essentially Nusselt x or Stanton x equal to is a function of m B f
Prandtl gamma Ec and with the remainder. If Ec is not equal to 0, gamma is equal to 2m.
Knowing local value of h x, you can always calculate average value of heat transfer
coefficient and average value of Nusselt number.

So here is the first solution obtained to the thermal boundary layer equation taking the
case of a flat plate.

Flat plate means - m equal to 0; no suction blowing means - B f is equal to 0; constant
wall temperatures means gamma is equal to 0; no viscous dissipation - means Ec is equal
to 0.
We have a very simple equation. Our thermal equation will simply look like - theta
double prime plus Prandtl into f theta dash divided by 2 equal to 0. The velocity equation
would look like - f triple prime plus half f f double prime equal to 0. So, if I now say that
Prandtl number is equal to 1, then, theta double prime will equal 1 by 2 f theta prime
equal to 0.
The boundary conditions here are - f 0 equal to f dash zero equal to 0 and f dash infinity
equal to 1. Whereas, the boundary conditions here are - theta 0 equal to 1 and theta
infinity equal to 0. You will see therefore, that there is a remarkable similarity between
these two equations. If I were to say that theta eta equals 1 minus f times eta, then, I do
not have to solve the temperature equation; simply the value of velocity boundary layer
equation itself will show me that.

So, you will see here the earlier solution, f for f dash - this is a velocity boundary layer
equation for Prandtl equal to 1 and the boundary layer thickness for the velocity was
about 5. Likewise, the temperature profile theta should be 1 minus f dash eta. So, theta is
nothing but - 1 minus f dash eta. This is the f double prime 0 which is going. Here, it is
the theta double prime theta double prime or theta prime at x equal to 0.
This shows that perfect analogy between heat and momentum transfer exists for Prandtl
equal to 1. Remember Prandtl is simply - nu by alpha. If this is equal to 1, the rate of
diffusion of momentum and heat are equal. In such a case, there is a perfect analogy
between heat and momentum transfer and all thicknesses would be equal. So, thermal
boundary layer thickness delta star would equal a velocity boundary layer thickness delta
star.
Enthalpy thickness, delta 2 star would equal momentum thickness delta 2 star, minus
theta prime 0 would simply equal f double prime 0 as seen in the figure here with a
negative sign as you see - this is theta dash 0 and this is f double prime 0. That is what
you see here. This reference case is of great value to us because we can now go on
comparing the effects of m, B f, gamma and Ec and Prandtl number on solutions.

Here are the solutions generated by Runge-Kutta computer program. What I am now
done is allowed for the variation of Prandtl number by keeping m B f gamma Ec all
equal to 0. So, we have case of flow reflat plate at constant wall temperature; no suction
and blowing and viscous dissipation is ignored; then you see value of minus theta prime
0 - for I have computed from 0.7 to 25 as the Prandtl number. So, you will see at Prandtl
number 1, this is the well-known velocity solution where perfect analogy between
momentum and heat transfer exists, 0.33, 4.92. But, when the Prandtl number is reduced
to 0.7 which is for the gas, you get theta prime 0 is lowered to 0.291, the thermal
boundary layer thickness increases and so does the enthalpy thickness increase.
On the other hand, at 5 which is small as water, you get higher heat transfer 0.572, 2.73
and 0.231 still higher 0.721. These are the really the organic liquid range in which this
still increases; so, you have minus theta p.rime 0 increases with Prandtl number. So,
minus theta prime 0 is Nu x Re x to the half
Now, if I were to correlate these values - theta prime 0 as a function of Prandtl number, I
would see that it will become almost 0.33 into Prandtl raised to one third. Therefore, you
can develop from the numerical solutions or the similarity solution an expression for
Nusselt number as Nu x is equal to 0.332 Reynolds x to the half Prandtl.
This result looks remarkably like an experimental correlation and indeed this result has
been found to be an excellent agreement with the experimental data. One point to note,
however is that - delta star, the thermal boundary layer thickness increases with decrease
in Prandtl number. Another way of saying - thermal boundary layer thickness decreases
with increase in Prandtl number and therefore, as we move towards oils and other things
where the Prandtl number is very large, you would see that the thermal boundary layer
thickness would be much smaller than the velocity boundary layer thickness.

In other words, as we move towards oils - which is Prandtl number very much greater
than 1, then, you will get situation like - this will be the velocity boundary layer and the
temperature boundary layer would just develop like that.
On the other hand, for liquid metals when Prandtl number is very much less than 1, then,
you will get - this would be temperature boundary layer and the velocity boundary layer
will be this. So, here delta is much smaller than delta whereas, here delta would be much
greater than delta. This important deduction we will make use of it in several further
developments of both the similarity method as well as the integral method that we will be
discussing much later.
With this, I have given you a simple sample solution for a very special case of m equal to
0, B f equal to 0, gamma equal to 0, Ec equal to 0. In the next lecture, I will explore the
influences precisely of these parameters on heat transfer rate.

Prof. A. W. Date

Module No. # 01
Lecture No. # 09
Similarity Solution to Temp BL - II

In this lecture, we will now look at Solutions to the Similarity Temperature Boundary
Layer equation. By way of reminder the equation is theta double prime equal to Prandtl
number into m plus 1 by 2 f theta dash minus gamma f dash theta plus 2 Ec f double
prime equals 0 square equal to 0.

With the boundary condition that at the wall, theta 0 will be 1; and in the infinity state,
theta infinity will be 0. We are interested in the developing solution, so that we will look
at effect of Prandtl number, we look at effect of pressure gradient and of course, also on
the suction of blowing parameter which is embedded in the solutions for f f dash and f
double prime. We look at effect of wall temperature variation gamma and we look at
effect of viscous dissipation on the nature of the solutions sometimes.

Remember, I obtained already solution for Prandtl equal to 1; m equal to 0; gamma equal
to 0; and Ec equal to 0; that is the solution I presented in the last lecture. Now I want to
look at effect of very high and very low Prandtl numbers and this is what you see for
liquid metals, the value of eta, remember, at the 0.005 which is a very low Prandtl
number. The value of theta max or the value of delta star is nearly 53.3, whereas for
Prandtl number equal to 1 it is 4.92 as you remember. So, as the Prandtl number is
reduced, the thermal boundary layer thickness goes on lower and lower temperature
gradient.
If I were to correlate this theta prime 0, it would be correlated reasonably well by this
correlation Nu x is equal to 0.564 in all x Prandtl to the half. On the other hand, on the
oil side, you will see Prandtl equal to 1 gives you this which is the reference solution
about 4.92 as the Temperature Boundary Layer thickness, but for 50, 100, 500 and 1000
you see the Temperature Boundary Layer thickness goes on reducing and I have given
some values here for 1000; it is as low as 0.495, which is 10 times smaller than the
Velocity Boundary Layer thickness which was about 5 and this is 0.624. At Prandtl
number of 100, it is just one-fifth of the boundary layer thickness for Prandtl equal 1.

Minus theta P of 0 goes on increasing with Prandtl number and a good curve fit is 0.339
Reynolds x to the power of 5 Prandtl to the third, but we will discuss both these solutions
a little later. We want to study effect of m first of all and for which, we will assume that
there is no suction or blowing; we will assume that the wall temperature is constant; we
will assume that there is no viscous dissipation included.
We are only including the effect of m along with that of the Prandtl number. So, the
governing equation as you will see for gamma equal to 0 and Ec equal to 0, would
simply be that theta double prime Prandtl m plus 1 by 2 f theta dash equal to 0; which I
can write as d theta dash over d theta dash because theta double prime is simply d theta
dash.
That would equal minus Prandtl m plus 1 by 2 f. If I integrate this equation once, I will
get ln theta prime from 0 to eta equal to minus Prandtl m plus 1 by 2, which is a constant
into 0 to eta f d eta. Another way of saying, it is theta prime at any eta would be equal to
theta prime at 0 exponential of minus Prandtl by into m plus 1 by 2 0 to eta f d eta.
If I integrate this equation once again, then I get theta equal to minus theta prime 0 0 to
eta exponential of this quantity into d eta plus a constant of integration C 1, which I
discover firstly from the boundary condition - theta 0 is equal to 1. So, if I said theta 0
which means 0 to 0. Therefore, this contributes nothing and theta 0 being 1, I get C 1
equal to 1.
Now, I impose the boundary condition at infinity. So, theta infinity 0 - this integration
will become 0 to infinity, and therefore, I will get theta prime 0 which is of interest to me
equal to - because that represents the Nusselt number - equal to 0 to infinity, exponential
of all this raised to minus 1.
Now you will see some special cases of f. Since, velocity solution f d eta is known, we
can evaluate this integral.

The solutions that I show here have been evaluated for moderate Prandtl numbers 0.7, 5,
10, and 25 aligned for m negative. Remember, I cannot go for below m equal to minus
0.091 because that is where the separation occurs. So, I begin with m equal to minus
0.085, minus 065, minus 0.04, 0.0, 0.33, 1, and 4; these are excel rating flows.

Now, remember h x will be function of x m minus 1 by 2, the heat transfer coefficient.
Remember, Nu x is h x into x by k is equal to some constant into Reynolds x to the
power half. This constant is a function of Prandtl number. So, what do we get? h x will
be equal to k by x into U infinity x by nu raised to half into or proportional to that. What
is U infinity? It is equal to C x. So, I get this as C nu by half into x into m plus 1 by 2,
which is proportional to k C by nu raised to half into x raised to m minus 1 by 2.
So, remember heat transfer coefficient - the pressure gradient has this effect on heat
transfer coefficient. If m is equal to 0, h x will simply decrease with the x. So, for m less
than 1, h x will decrease with x, but for m greater than 1, you could also get h x relatively
increasing with x. This is something very important. This is for m greater than 1 h x
versus x, and for m equal to 1 h x will be constant - m equal to 1,

Now, this is a very important point to remember that for stagnation point flow, Heat
Transfer Co-efficient is essentially constant. You will recall that we had also seen that
delta 2 star and delta 1 star, etcetera all the thicknesses are also constant for a stagnation
point flow. So, let us look at this and the solutions for showing the effect of f at any 1
Prandtl number. Let us check Prandtl number 0.7 and then you will see that when m is
equal to 0 for flat plate, the thickness is 5.6, but when you have decelerating flow the
thickness goes on increasing like the Velocity Boundary Layer thickness. When you
have accelerating flow, the Temperature Boundary Layer thickness also decreases as
shown here. This state of affairs prevails at all Prandtl numbers that I have listed here.
Now, let us look at the effect of Prandtl number at any pressure gradients. So, let us look
at stagnation itself. So, you will see that for Prandtl number 0.7 minus theta prime 0 is
0.49, it increases to 1.03 at Prandtl 5; 1.32 and 1.81. So, what have you seen, as the value
of m increases, the heat transfer coefficient increases; as the Prandtl number increases,
the heat transfer coefficient increases. We have captured both these effects in the
solution; of course, it would be possible to develop a correlation of the form.

Nu x is equal to C times Re x to the half, where C is now a function of Prandtl number
and m for Prandtl number between 0.7 and 25 and minus 0.085 m 4. You will see this
will take the form of an experimental correlation which can be used for further design
work any time we wish and one need not generate new solutions every time by means of
a computer.

I now want to look at the effect of very high and very low Prandtl numbers in the
presence of pressure gradient. So, remember for Prandtl number very much greater than
1, delta would be much less than 0.

Therefore, you will have a situation of a Velocity Boundary Layer like that and a
Temperature Boundary Layer just like that. So, in other words delta is much smaller than
delta. So, for all practical purposes I can say that the velocity profile is really linear in the
Temperature Boundary Layer equation and that we have seen many times in our earlier
solution.
So, in other words f dash eta within the Temperature Boundary Layer will simply be
equal to f dash 0 for that value of m into eta. Integration will give me f eta is equal to f
double prime 0 m which is a constant eta square by 2 plus a constant.

But f 0 is equal to 0 and therefore, C is equal to 0. So, essentially I get f eta equal to f
double prime 0, this into eta square by 2.

That is what I have shown here: f eta would be approximately equal to f double prime 0
m eta square by 2. So, if I now include this solution in this, here, which is an
approximate solution to the velocity, in this I can readily evaluate minus theta prime 0
and that is what I have done.

So, if I substitute f double prime 0 m eta square by 2 for f, then I get that. This would
simply transformed to minus Prandtl m plus 1 f double prime 0 m divided by 12 into eta
cube because this is equal to eta square is eta cube by 3 2 into 2 is 4 into 3 is 12 into d eta
minus 1.

Now, if I use the definition of this and that is what I will show you how to evaluate that
integral, it is not a very difficult thing to do, but we will none the less do that. So, for the
moment let us say, let Prandtl m plus 1 f double prime 0 m divided by 12, let us say it is
equal to A and define A eta cube equal to x. Then 3Aeta square d eta will equal d x and
therefore, d eta will equal d x divided by 3A eta square and eta square will be equal to
eta cube raised to 2 by 3 and that will equal x by a raised to 2 by 3. I get d x divided by
3A into x by A raised to 2 by 3 into 1 over 3A by into 1 by 3 into d x over x raised to 2
by 3.

Therefore, our integral is simply 0 to infinity exponential of minus A eta cube d eta. Can
be written as 0 to infinity exponential of minus x into 3A raised to 1 by 3 into x raised to
minus 2 by 3 into d x or this is equal to 1 raised to 3A raised to 1 by 3 integral 0 2
infinity x raised to minus 2 by 3 exponential of minus x d x.
Now, if you recall the definition of gamma function that is given as 0 to infinity x raise
to n minus 1 e raised to minus x d x. So, in our case n is nothing but n minus 1 is equal to
minus 2 by 3, and therefore, n will be equal 1 minus 2 by 3 equal to 1 by 3.

So, essentially we have integration - integral itself is equal to 1 over 3A raised to 1 by 3
into gamma times 1 by 3. But, usually gamma functions are plotted for values of gamma
greater than or equal to 1, and therefore, we make use of the relationship that gamma n
plus 1 is also equal to n times gamma n. So, in other words gamma 1 by 3 can be written
as 1 over 1 by 3 into gamma 4 by 3 or that is equal to 3 times gamma 4 by 3.

This is gamma 4 by 3, and therefore, you will see our integral can be written as gamma 4
by 3 divided by A raised to 1 by 3. The integral itself will become minus theta prime 0 A
raised to 1 by 3 divided by gamma 4 by 3 because this is raise to minus 1. So, this goes
into the denominator and the A goes into the numerator and this is the solution. (Refer
Slide Time: 16:32) The value of gamma 4 by 3 you can look up the tables of course this
is about 0.893. So, if you look at m equal to 0, if I put m equal to 0 and recall that for m
equal to 0, f double prime 0 is 0.33 and use this equal to 0.893. Then you will see a
correlation is possible for very high Prandtl numbers Nu x 0.339 Re x to the 0.5 Prandtl
third.

Now, I had curve fitted the solutions exactly in the same manner, here, for oils as you
will see here 0.339 Re x to Prandtl third. These are numerical solutions and this is
obtained from our assumption that the velocity profile is linear. So, this kind of an
assumption helps you to evaluate close form solutions which we can call as correlations,
but you can do this for any value of m for which f double prime 0 m has been calculated
from the Velocity Boundary Layer solution.


Likewise, let us look at the case of very low Prandtl number in which case as I said the
Velocity Boundary Layer thickness will be solved and the Temperature Boundary Layer
thickness will be solved TBL and this will be the VBL.


So, you will see for greater part of the thickness of the boundary layer u is, in fact equal
to u infinity, and therefore, f dash eta is about 1 throughout the boundary layer which
gives me f eta equal to eta itself. In this equation for theta prime 0 if I substitute f equal
to eta, then I will get the relationship, and that, this will simply become eta square by 2.
So, this becomes Prandtl m plus 1 by 4 eta square whole thing raise integrated raised to
minus 1.
If you put this as some y or something like that you can do this, carry out this integration
part easily and use the error function definition e erf x is equal to 2 by root pi 0 to x e
raised to minus eta square d eta. Then you will see and note that erf infinity is equal to 1.
So, then it is very easy to show that Nu x Re x to the minus 5 which is minus theta prime
0 will simply be equal to Prandtl m plus 1 by pi and that is what you see again for m
equal to 0. You will see this becomes simply Prandtl divided by pi and as a result 0.564
Re x Prandtl.

The great thing about this solution is the following at liquid metals - for liquid metals
you see both the exponent of Reynolds number and Prandtl number is identical. Now
what does that mean Re x and Prandtl that is U infinity x by nu into nu by Prandtl nu by
alpha, the thermal. So nu and nu gets canceled, that means in liquid metals viscosity has
no influence and that matches with the idea that viscosity is really if its effect is confined
to such a narrow region of the thermal boundary layer thickness, that viscosity simply
has no effect on the rate of heat. This resolve is very typical of liquid metal heat transfer.
Whereas, for all the other higher Prandtl numbers, you will always get a separate effect
of Reynolds and Prandtl number.
But here incidentally this product - this is Reynolds numbers, this is Prandtl number, but
the product Reynolds, Prandtl is called Peclet number. Peclet was the French scientist
and Peclet number is of importance in liquid metal heat transfer. Liquid metals, as you
know are used in very high heat flux heat transfer cooling such as breeder reactors, and
others.

So, these kinds of solutions are great value and the constant is 0.564. If you recall, I will
go back to the numerical solution that we had obtained.

Indeed, the solutions at very low Prandtl numbers do match this correlation here and that
is precisely where it comes from.


It comes from this assumption that f dash eta is about 1. So, having studied the effect of
m, the pressure gradient and Prandtl number are high and low Prandtl number; under
essentially constant wall temperatures, no suction, blowing and no viscous dissipation.
We now move to the case of looking at effect of wall temperature variation. Again I am
going to considered the flat plate boundary layer, no suction or blowing, and viscous
dissipation is neglected.

Then the governing equation, read something like this. Now, there is no close form
solution possible for this because of this additional extra term and I need to now look at
the numerical solution which I have presented here from very moderate Prandtl numbers
wall temperature variation. Gamma positive indicates that the temperature of the wall is
increasing with x; whereas, this indicates that the temperature is decreasing with x;
negative value of gamma indicates the temperature is decreasing with x.

So, what do we find? Let us look at results at any 1 Prandtl number and you will see
compared to gamma equal to 0 where wall temperature is constant. There is as gamma
increases, this wall temperature increases in the x direction. Then, so does the Nusselt
number or the solution which is minus theta prime 0 increases, when the temperature
decreases with the x. You, in fact the heat transfer decreases and in fact you heat the
situation at gamma equal to minus 0.5, where there is absolutely no heat transfer. This is
called the adiabatic case. If you reduce gamma, still further, then you will actually get
negative heat transfer although the wall temperature is bigger than the free stream
temperature, you will actually get a negative heat transfer.

Now, I have allowed gamma to take any arbitrary values simply because Ec is equal to 0
and we did say that gamma is restricted to 2 m only when Ec is included. We have not
included Ec, and therefore, this is a remarkable result that when the wall temperature
decreases with x, you could get a situation of adiabatic heat transfer or in fact even
negative heat transfer. We did alert in the beginning that we are interested in looking at
situations like this. For gamma equal to minus 0.5, temperature gradient at the wall is 0 is
an adiabatic case although T w is greater than T infinity.

Now, we can explain this why this happens. So, let us take our flat plate and the wall
temperature is now decreasing with x. This is the wall temperature. So, you can imagine
at any x, the particles close to the surface would arrive from a region of higher
temperature, so much so, that the convicted heat into the layer, the temperature here
could well become absolutely equal to the temperature of the wall at that point.
So, in effect I get a situation where I have a profile which will look like that. So,
basically although T w is bigger than T infinity, I could get a situation where it is like
that - if the slope is still negative, this is corresponding to gamma equal to minus 0.5. I
could even get a situation which is like that. This is gamma less than minus 0.5; this is,
let us say minus 0.6 as I have shown. (Refer Slide Time: 25:23)
So, you could get situation where the heat transfer will be going in, although T w is
greater than T infinity. The situation arises because the fluid particles coming from the
upstream region would be a hotter than the value of the wall temperature itself.

So, these order fluid may thus inhibit heat transfer from the surface to the cooler free
stream. By the same reasoning for gamma equal to minus 0.5, theta would increase
beyond 1 at some distance close to the surface and, heat will flow into the surface even if
T w is greater than T infinity. Hence, T heat transfer coefficient will be negative.

We verify these in the next slide where I have shown effect of value of gamma on the
predicted temperature profile. The curve here shows the constant wall temperature case.
The Prandtl number is chosen to be 0.7. Therefore, the boundary layer thickness is
slightly bigger than 5. Let us look at on the acceleration side, this is gamma equal to 1;
this is 2; this is 4; and the U get steeper gradients and near the wall and thinner and
thinner Temperature Boundary Layer thickness as wall temperature increasing with x,
but on the negative side that is wall temperature decreasing with x, you get a shallow or
gradient near the wall, their boundary layer thickness itself goes on increasing at gamma
equal to minus 0.5. You can see very clearly the 0 gradients and for gamma equal to
minus 0.6, value of theta, at this point has exceeded the value at the wall which was 1.
So, our temperature solution does indeed conform what we anticipated.

Now, we look at the effect of viscous dissipation and viscous dissipation typically is
accounted when you have very high velocity gradients du by dy whole square or when
you have very high viscosity which is mu. So, I am taking here a case of Prandtl equal to
0.7 and assuming that the velocity gradients near the wall are very high. Then the
solution would be - and the wall temperature is constant, there is no suction or blowing
and pressure gradient is 0. Then the governing equation will be this and because the wall
temperature is constant, Ec would be simply this and theta is this. (Refer Slide Time:
27:49)
So, Ec less than 0 implies that T w is less than T infinity and Ec greater than 0 implies T
w is greater than T infinity. So, here are the solutions to - so this is 0.292 for Prandtl
number 0.7 is the value of theta dash 0 with 5.26 as the Temperature Boundary Layer
thickness when Ec is positive that is when T w is greater than T infinity. You in fact do
find an almost adiabatic situation at Ec equal to 1.2 and negative heat transfer when Ec
becomes 2.4 and 4.8.
On the other hand, when Ec is negative that is if T wall is less than T infinity that is a
cooling case, then you find that the heat transfer rate increases in the presence of effect
of A.

So, Ec equal to 1.2 is a special adiabatic case is a very special adiabatic case and here are
the solutions for different values of Ec, the Eckert number. So, here the solution is for
Eckert number equal to 0, this is theta dash eta and the wall the value is 1. You do see
that at 1.2, the gradient is 0, and therefore, it turns out to be an adiabatic case, and for 2.4
the temperature is exceeded value of 1 and it has exceeded value of 1. So, although T w
is greater than T infinity, you will get negative heat transfer for these 2 values of Eckert
numbers.
On the negative side, you see the temperature gradient become sharper and sharper
because of the viscous dissipation. See at some point, the temperature actually goes
below the free stream temperature because it is less than 0. So, just as wall temperature is
exceeded for positive, free stream temperature is exceeded. So, Ec less than 1.2 theta is
less than 0 at some positions indicating that t eta E can be greater than T infinity within
the boundary layer and Ec greater than 1.2 minus theta h x is less than 0 even when T w
is. Both these are effects of viscous dissipation due to mu du by dy square. This kind of
viscous heating is of great concern. A viscous heating effect is from re-entry vehicles of
into the space and from the space into the upper atmosphere. When sudden increase in
viscosity of the atmosphere would generate and the re-entry vehicle is hurtling down at
very high velocities of the order of 5 to 6000 meters per second. You get enormous
velocity gradients very close to the wall, and as a result, the viscous dissipation term
becomes very dominant.
You would generate large amounts of heat. If the effect number turns out to be bigger
than 1.2, then you could well get heat transferred into the re-entry vehicles surface a
dangerous. That is why the re-entry vehicles are coated with a bleating materials, so that
when the heat transfer takes place inside and the surface temperature goes up the
material evaporates and carries away the heat of which has been in grace from the
outside into the wall of the re-entry vehicle. So, study of such effects is of great
consequence in practice.

Now, we look at finally the effect of B f, the suction and blowing parameter and I am
going to consider again the constant wall temperature and ignore viscous dissipation, but
I will allow offer effect of Prandtl number and B fs. So, we are looking at 3 parameters
here - B f, Prandtl number, and m. I am restricting this to the case of gases, because these
B f cases are of interest in gas turbine cooling problems.
So, you will see in suction case, when B f is negative compared to B f equal to 0 which
has no suction and I am looking at a flat plate solution. Then, when there is suction, there
is increase in heat transfer, but when there is blowing, there is a decrease in heat transfer.

You will note - recall that B f equal to 0.612 was the case where separation occurs. So,
we are not interested in B f equal to 1, but we are interested for m equal to 1 in which
you will see that the again the same thing prevails, that the heat transfer increases on the
suction side, whereas, heat decreases on the blowing side. This essentially occurs
because the thickening and thinning of the boundary layers associated with suction or
blowing. Suction thins the boundary layer, and therefore, increases the rate of heat
transfer. Blowing thickens the boundary layer, and therefore, lowers the heat transfer
coefficient. For m equal to 0, B f equal to 0.612 is a very special case and that is where
the separation occurs.
You will see on the next slide, the graphs, these are the flat plate solutions and these are
the stagnation point solution. This is B f equal to 0.5, 0.3, 0, minus 0.5, 1, and 2; as I said
B f equal to 0.612 is an adiabatic case. You will see on the suction side, we get very
large temperature gradients and on the blowing side, we get shallower temperature
gradients compared to m equal to 0.
Now, if I were to compute this for Prandtl number 0.5 or 1, the results are very similar,
and therefore, not shown here.

So, with this I conclude my discussion on the Similarity method as a whole, and
therefore, it is time that we looked at the summary of the equations in the boundary
conditions. For the Velocity Boundary Layer, similarity equation is this - f triple prime
plus m plus 1 f f double prime plus m 1 minus f times square equals 0, where m is the
pressure gradient parameter.
The suction and blowing parameter comes in through the boundary condition f 0. The
similarity conditions or the variables are U infinity is equal to C x raised to m B f v w x u
infinity x Re x to the half must be constant and the variable eta must be y under root U
infinity by nu x and the similarity solutions are C f x m B f which is the function of m
and B f equal 2 times f double prime 0 Re x to the minus 0.5.
Likewise, the temperature equation is theta double prime into Prandtl m plus 1 by 2 f
theta prime minus Prandtl into the wall temperature gradient parameter in and the
viscous dissipation parameter. The boundary conditions are simply, this theta 0 is equal
to 1; theta infinity is 0. The similarity condition is that the wall temperature can vary
only as x to the power of gamma. If Eckert number or the viscous dissipation is present,
however, gamma must remain equal to m, and the similarity solutions as a whole are
multi parameter solutions involving pressure gradient, m Prandtl number, suction, and
blowing parameter, wall temperature, and Ec that is what I have shown. We have seen a
wide variety of the solutions of this type. It is not very difficult to write computer
programs both for solving the Velocity Boundary Layer equation as well as the
Temperature Boundary Layer and I have already given you the method in the last two
lectures. So, I suppose with that I conclude my discussion of Similarity method. In the
lectures to follow, we will take up integral methods of solving boundary layer equations.
1
Prof. A. W. Date

Module No. # 01
Lecture No. # 10
Integral Equations of BL

How to derive and solve similarity equations to obtain friction factor and Nusselt number
for two-dimensional laminar boundary layers? Now, we will move to the next method;
that is, the integral method for solving boundary layer equations. Therefore, the task for
this lecture is to derive the integral equations of a boundary layer.

First is the development of the integral equation for a velocity boundary layer. Next is
the development of integral equation for a temperature boundary layer. Solve these
equations to obtain friction factor and Nusselt number for two-dimensional laminar
boundary layers.
2

We now move to the next method, it is the integral method for solving boundary layer
equations. Therefore, the task for this lecture is to derive the integral equations of a
boundary layer. So, we shall first begin with the development of the equation for a
temperature boundary layer.
The integral method represents a class of approximate methods capable of handling
arbitrary variations of U infinity, suction or blowing velocity - V w and wall temperature
variation - T w. In this respect, you will recall that similarity method permitted only
certain type of variations of the free stream velocity, the wall velocity and the wall
temperature variations. The method is called approximate method, not because its
equations are approximate. The method actually derives exact boundary layer equations,
but in integral form and not in differential. It gives them solution methodology, which is
approximate and not the equations.
A very important point to remember in all further development, unlike the similarity
method, this method is attractive because at least in some simple cases, closed form
solutions can be obtained with little algebraic effort. At one time, people used to call the
integral because you could do all the calculations by simple algebra without requiring a
computer. The second advantage of the method is of course that it can now deal with any
arbitrary variations of U infinity, V w and T w.
3

First of all, let us consider the boundary layer- d u by d x plus d v by d y equal to 0. The
convection terms or the momentum transfer terms, the pressure gradient term and the
viscous term. These equations are integrated term by term with respect to y of the
boundary layer. From y equal to 0, where u is equal to 0 and v is equal to V w and to y
equal to l, where u equals U infinity and v equals some fictitious velocity V l. l is greater
than the delta max in the region 0 less than x and x less than L; you will see on the next
slide.

4
This figure shows a surface on which a boundary layer grows. Of course, a boundary
layer development can be uneven. The boundary layer can grow, shrink and then grow
depending on the pressure gradient that is applied. When U infinity varies arbitrarily
with x, the boundary layer thickness will vary arbitrarily with x. We always choose to
analyze a boundary layer over a given length L. In this length L, we make sure that we
choose a dimension delta L, which is greater than delta max in this region as shown here.
Integrating continuity equation term by term, we will get 0 to l d u by d x dy. This term
will simply reduce to V l minus V w and this term is taken to the right hand side as
minus 0 to l du by dx dy. I can take the differential out and write it as minus d by d x of 0
to l u dy. You will see then that V l minus V w simply represents the change in the flow
rate between two successive stations. V l is a fictitious velocity at l and V w (X) is the
familiar suction or blowing velocity.

If I have to integrate momentum equation term by term, then you will see 0 to l d by dx
of u u dy plus 0 to l d by dy of u v dy equal to 0 to l U infinity d U infinity by dx dy plus
mu times d square u by dy square dy. On taking the differential out, this term will simply
be d by dx of 0 to l u u dy plus U infinity V l minus u w V w equal to U infinity d U
infinity by dx is not a function of y. Therefore, it can be taken out. Integral 0 to l dy
would simply yield l, whereas this in turn would integrate to mu times du by dy at y
equal to l minus du by dy at y equal to 0.
5
Notice, this term (Refer Slide Time: 07:37) will vanish because u w is equal to 0. So that
term goes to 0 and likewise, du by dy, y at l is also equal to 0. The term that survives is
mu by rho du by dy at y equal to 0. Mu into du by dy at y equal to 0, it is nothing but the
shear stress divided by rho and that is what you see on the right hand side. This term is
represented here and I have replaced V l into U infinity. From the previous result as
shown here, V l is V w minus d by d x of u d y and of course, this term survives.

We will move further. U infinity d U infinity by dx l is nothing but U infinity d U
infinity by dx into 0 to l dy. Since U infinity is not a function of y, I can absorb it inside
the integral and write it as d U infinity by dx into 0 to l U infinity dy. Then, I would read
the first term plus U infinity into V w minus d by dx into u dy. Now, this term is replaced
by d U infinity is minus tau wall x by rho
Now, consider the identity d by dx of a product. Integral 0 to l u dy plus U infinity d by d
x integral 0 to l u d y. This is precisely the term you see here; so, I am going to replace
here. If I do it, then you will notice that I can write this equation in this manner, d by d x
0 to l u into u minus U infinity dy plus d U infinity by dx into 0 to l u minus U infinity
into dy. This equals to minus tau wall x divided by rho and minus U infinity into V w.
6

If I divide and multiply each term by the same quantity that is If I multiply this equation
by U infinity square and divide by U infinity square and if I multiply this equation by U
infinity and divide by U infinity, then you will notice that I can write the equation in this
manner. It is written as d by dx of U infinity square u over U infinity into u over U
infinity minus 1 dy plus U infinity d U infinity by dx equal to 0 to l u over U infinity
minus 1 dy and all this.
Recall that this integral is nothing but our momentum thickness. This term is nothing but
minus delta 1 or the displacement thickness. Therefore, this term will become minus d by
dx into U infinity square delta 2. This term will become minus U infinity d U infinity by
dx into delta 1. So, canceling the minus sign, which appears in each term, we would have
the equation which looks like this (Refer Slide Time: 11:30) d by dx U infinity square
delta 2 plus U infinity d u by d U infinity by dx delta 1 equal to the shear stress term and
the suction or blowing term. I will further manipulate this equation as shown on the next
slide.
7

If I divide by U infinity square and open up this differential of a product as U infinity
square d delta 2 by dx into delta 2 into d U infinity square by dx, then you will notice
that the equation will be read as d delta 2 by dx plus 1 over U infinity d U infinity by dx
into d u delta 2 plus delta 1 equal to C f x by 2 plus V w by U infinity.
So, each term now has dimension as x U infinity. U infinity has the velocity dimension.
Delta 2 and delta 1 have length dimension and so does x. The terms on the right hand
side completely dimensionless. It is this equation, which is known as the integral
momentum equation. We have an exact equation because we have not introduced any
assumptions in its derivation. We have simply integrated the partial differential equation
from 0 to l because all quantities vary only with x.
The partial differential equation of the boundary layer is converted to an ODE for an
integral parameter delta 2. This is very similar to what we did in similarity method,
where the PDEs were converted to third order ordinary differential equation. Here, the
equations are converted to a first order ordinary differential equation for an integral
parameter delta 2. C fx is the coefficient of friction and that is simply defined as tau wall
x over rho infinity square divided by 2. So, it is well known to you and this is the integral
momentum equation.
8

There is another variant of the equation, which is called the integral kinetic energy
equation. It can be derived from the earlier momentum equation, but I will derive it from
first principles. Our momentum equation reads like this, where these are the terms. If I
multiply each term by u divided by rho throughout, then you will see and define E as u
square by 2. You will see this term can be simply written as du E by dx, this term can be
written as dv E by dy equal to U infinity d U infinity by dx plus mu into u d square u by
dy square. I repeat E is the energy of the actual velocity, u square by 2.
If we integrate this equation from y equal to 0 to y equal to l or delta, where it does not
really matter what we do. This term will simply become u into u square by 2, so that
becomes u cube by 2 d by dx integral 0 to delta dy. This term will be v E at delta minus v
E at y equal to 0, but at y equal to 0, u is equal to 0. Therefore, E is equal to 0 and that
term will go up. V l into E at l or infinity is simply V w minus d by dx of 0 to delta u dy
into U infinity square by 2. It would be equal to d U infinity by dx into u U infinity dy
plus mu integral 0 to delta u into d square u by dy square dy. It is this last term, which I
shallbecause this is just in result on the next slide.
9

Integration by parts will give mu into 0 to delta into u d square u by dy square dy equal
to minus mu into integral 0 to delta du by dy whole square. Now, in the integral kinetic
energy equation, we introduce another thickness called the kinetic energy thickness. It is
defined very much like the momentum thickness, except that we now have 1 minus u
over U infinity square, which represents the kinetic energy deficit caused by (.) of the
previous equation (Refer Slide Time: 17:11), which is shown here. You will see that this
can be manipulated and read as du by dx of U infinity cube delta 3 equal to V w into U
infinity square plus 2 mu du by dy whole square.
10

Integral kinetic energy equation is sometimes used in boundary layers analysis of
boundary layers with suction and blowing. We now turn to integral energy equation.
Again, consider the surface on which a boundary layer is developing. This solid line
represents the velocity boundary layer. Now, the thermal boundary layer will either have
a thickness greater than the velocity boundary layer thickness or smaller than velocity
boundary layer thickness. You already know from your similarity solutions that when
Prandtl number is greater than 1, the thermal boundary layer thickness is smaller than the
velocity boundary layer thickness; whereas, if Prandtl number is less, boundary layer
thickness is greater than the momentum or the velocity boundary layer thickness delta.
So, while integrating this energy equation, which includes this viscous dissipation term.
We will choose l big enough, so that it is either greater than delta or it is greater than
thermal boundary layer thickness, capital delta for Prandtl number less than 1. We define
for convenience that theta equal to T, where T infinity is constant with x, but T wall is
some function of x and I will introduce that function shortly.
This equation (Refer Slide Time: 19:21) will simply become du theta by dx. Additional
term is arising out of the fact that T w is a function of x. Therefore, you will have a term
called by T w minus T infinity into d by dx of T w minus T infinity. This term will
become alpha delta 2 theta by dy square. This term will become mu into C p T w minus
T infinity du by dy whole square. It is this equation that we shall integrate from 0 to l,
11
where l is greater than delta max for Prandtl equal to 1, Prandtl greater than 1 and l is
greater than capital delta max for Prandtl less than 1.

Let us do the integration on the next slide. You will notice that integration of this will
simply become d by dx of integral u theta dy. If I divide and multiply by U infinity, it
will be read as d by dx of U infinity from 0 to l U infinity u by U infinity theta dy.

12
The integration of this term will simply give V l theta infinity minus V w theta w and
theta w as is 1. you will see V l theta l minus V w theta w plus this term will be simply 1
over T w minus T infinity by dx of T w minus T integral u theta dy and that is what I
have written and u theta I have divided by U infinity and multiplied by U infinity.

You will see V l theta l minus V w theta w plus this term (Refer Slide Time: 21:12) will
be simply 1 over T w minus T infinity by dx of T w minus T into integral u theta dy and
that is what I have written. I have divided by U infinity and multiplied by U infinity. The
diffusion term will simply give alpha d theta by dy at l minus alpha d theta by dy at 0
plus nu whole square dy.
Now, if you recall that our enthalpy thickness delta 2 was defined as 0 to infinity U into
T minus T infinity over U infinity into T 1 minus T infinity. It is nothing but 0 to l u over
U infinity theta dy. In other words, this quantity is nothing but capital delta 2 into theta l
because of its definition as 0.
Therefore that term vanishes, whereas theta w is equal to 1 because the temperature
gradient at the infinities and at the edge of the boundary layer is 0. What this term means
is that d theta by dy at y equal to 0 multiplied by alpha d theta by dy. It will be simply
equal to dt dy divided by T w minus T infinity. Therefore, q w into rho C p with a
negative sign and q w divided by T w minus T infinity is nothing but local heat transfer
13
coefficient h x divided by rho into C p. So, this term (Refer Slide Time: 22:58) will be
replaced by minus h x rho C p.

You will see the equation is now read as d by dx of U infinity delta 2 by dx plus U
infinity delta 2 into T w minus T infinity into d by dx into T w minus T infinity is equal
to h x divided by rho C p plus V w plus mu by C p into integral 0 to l du by dy whole
square into dy.
If I divide by U infinity after opening this differential, then I would get the integral
energy equation as d delta 2 by dx plus delta 2 into the wall variation term into the free
stream variation or the pressure gradient term - Stanton x. It is h x divided by rho C p U
infinity. I have shown here, which is nothing but Nusselt number divided by Reynolds
number into Prandtl number and we have seen this before.
The wall velocity variation term, V w by U infinity and the viscous dissipation term is
this. Each term here is dimensionless (Refer Slide Time: 24:24) and as you can see, this
is dimensionless and this is dimensionless, delta 2 is dimensionless, this is
dimensionless. Is this in dimension? It can be shown quite easily. Now, each term is
dimensionless and therefore, we have an ordinary differential equation for capital delta 2
analogous to an ODE for small delta 2 in the velocity boundary layer equation.
14

Let me summarize all the equations that we have derived. Integral continuity equation
simply gives V l minus V w equal to minus d by dx of 0 to l u dy. The integral
momentum equation gives variation of d delta 2 by dx and accounts for the wall velocity.
The integral energy equation gives the rate of change of enthalpy thickness as delta 2 and
accounts for the wall temperature variation, the free stream variation, wall velocity
variation and the viscous dissipation. Our interest is always to determine Stanton x and C
x. In the next lecture, I will take the solution of the velocity boundary layer equations in
their integral form. Thank you.

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Convective Heat and Mass Transfer

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