Volume 3 Wet Dedusters

Part 5

Design of Venturi Scrubbers

Author

Anton van Santen

1 INTRODUCTION
2 CONCEPTUAL DESIGN
3 PROCESS DESIGN
4 MECHANICAL DESIGN
5 DETAILED USE OF MINISCRUBBER

1 INTRODUCTION
This part of the Manual is concerned with the design of gas atomised Venturi scrubbers
for the removal of fine particulates and mists from process gas streams. The design of
Venturi ejectors and scrubbers for gas absorption is not considered.
As noted in Part 2, Venturi scrubbers are wet collectors which rely on the high kinetic
energy created by accelerating a gas through a constriction to give good inertial
collection onto droplets distributed in the gas stream. This acceleration is achieved at the
expense of gas side pressure drop, which may be in excess of 1500 mm w.g. (14.7 kPa).
The liquid generally leaves the scrubber as a fine particulate laden spray which can be
removed by a low energy separator, such as a cyclone or wave plate demister. In this way
the Venturi can be seen merely as an agglomerator in which particles too fine for removal
by conventional means are attached to larger droplets in order to ease their subsequent
collection. A typical arrangement is shown in Figure 1. The efficiency of such a system is
therefore dependent both on the efficiency of the initial contact process between the
liquid and the particles and on the efficiency with which the demister operates. In a well
designed system the latter will be 100%. In severe cases where this is not the case, the
inclusion of a demister pad as a third stage will usually rectify the situation. Emissions,
therefore, are generally the result of penetration through the scrubber, and this is where
the problems of design are focused.

Figure 1 Schematic of a Typical Venturi Scrubber

A traditional starting point when considering the performance of Venturi scrubbers is the
dimensionless group which governs the impaction process: the inertial parameter, or
Stokes number, Kp:

(1)

where d and dD are the respective sizes of the particle and of the droplet collector, vr their
relative velocity, p the particle density and g the gas viscosity. Inertial collection is
therefore favoured by large, dense particles, small droplet collectors, and high relative
velocities.
An overemphasis on the maximisation of this process is a major reason for the many and
varied designs of Venturi scrubber available on the market. It must be stated at the outset
that such attempts are largely futile. Inertial impaction is energy intensive: the efficiency
which can be achieved in a given situation is determined principally by the energy
expended in the contact process, not the fine detail of how this is brought about. For
practical scrubbers, in which the majority of the energy is supplied in the form of gas
phase pressure drop, this means that the Venturi geometry and liquid and gas flow rates
(on which so much emphasis is often laid) are largely secondary considerations: they
affect the Venturi`s performance only in that they determine the pressure drop.
The practical consequence of this for Venturi design is that it separates the design
problem into two distinct parts: prediction of the required pressure drop, and the
mechanical design of a unit to generate this required pressure drop. These aspects will be
considered separately.
A third aspect which requires consideration is the process design of the scrubbing system
as a whole. All scrubbers require a considerable amount of ancillary equipment,
principally for liquid handling and treatment, but also for gas pre-treatment. An extensive
discussion of such equipment is given in Part 2 Section 2 of this manual. The design of
such equipment can have a significant influence on the mechanical design of the
scrubber. For example, the effectiveness of the liquor recycle clarification may determine
the method of the liquid injection; pre-quenching certainly will change the gas volume
and hence the physical size of the Venturi.
The emphasis of this report is on the prediction of the required pressure drop. This
enables selection of the fan which, once installed, defines both the pressure drop range
over which the scrubber can operate (hence the scope for changing the Venturi`s
performance), and the operating cost. Concise procedures for predicting the pressure drop
are presented in Section 2.
The process design is considered in Section 3. Scrubber psychrometry is discussed to
enable specification of both the gas volume to be handled by the Venturi and the load on
the fan.
The mechanical design of the scrubber requires specification of the geometry of the
Venturi, the method of water injection, and the liquid flow rate required to achieve the
desired pressure drop. This is discussed in Section 4. Any number of specification
combinations are possible. Generally, these will work equally well provided adequate
liquid distribution is achieved in the scrubbing section. However, predictive models are
not sufficiently advanced to enable a unit to be designed to a specific pressure drop.
Venturi scrubbers are therefore usually designed with the aid of either past experience or

simple predictive models to give approximately the correct pressure drop. This enables
the liquid flow rate to be fixed, and hence the size of the liquid handling and treatment
plant to be established. Once installed the scrubber may be "fine tuned" to the required
pressure drop. For small changes this may be done by altering the liquid to gas ratio.
Larger changes may require alteration of the throat geometry to increase or decrease the
gas velocity. Such engineering considerations are generally the province of the equipment
vendor. However, some discussion of these is given to enable the reader to complete the
design themselves if this is desired.

2 CONCEPTUAL DESIGN
2.1 General
2.2 Scoping design
2.3 Design by scaling

2.1 General
The major consideration in the design of Venturi scrubbers is the required pressure drop.
This defines both the efficiency which can be achieved in a given application and, to a
large extent, the operating cost. From a practical standpoint it also defines the size of the
fan. The correct selection of this is crucial since, once installed, the performance
characteristics of the fan dictate the scope for altering the performance of the scrubber.
Whilst some "fine tuning" may be possible, subsequent changes from the design point of
the fan (eg. demanding a higher pressure rise) may be detrimental to both the efficiency
of the fan and the volume throughput which it can deliver.
The pressure drop required strongly depends on the fineness of the material to be
collected: the finer the material, the higher the pressure drop required. Indeed, the
relationship is essentially exponential. An unfortunate paradox results from this. It means
that the efficiency of a Venturi scrubber is limited by the size of the particles in the last
few percent of the fine tail of the size distribution. Since in practical situations it is
virtually impossible to measure this tail with any confidence, design techniques which
require precise size information are largely unworkable. The traditional grade efficiency
calculation approach is therefore not to be recommended for Venturi design. It is
included here solely for the purposes of scoping design and is aimed at providing an
approximate indication of the required pressure drop. The procedures are given in Section
2.2 below.
Accurate specification of the required pressure drop can only be achieved on the basis of
pilot plant or, following SPS research, miniscrubber tests. This latter approach is given in
Section 2.3. Clearly, such tests are only possible when dealing with an existing process.
Conceptual processes require the grade efficiency approach, and therefore demand a
significantly greater design margin.

2.2 Scoping design

The scoping design provides an estimate of the pressure drop required for a given
efficiency. It is carried out by means of a grade efficiency analysis. The following data
are required:
The required efficiency
An accurate size analysis of the particulate material especially of the sub-2 micron
tail
The particulate density
The procedure is laid out in the Design Table, Table 1. This presents grade efficiency
data as a function of pressure drop ranging from 300 to 900 mm w.g. (2.94 to 8.83 kPa).
The grade efficiency data are the result of SPS in-house research reported in SPS RR 41
(van Santen, 1987).
1. From Design Table B (of 1) read off the physical sizes corresponding to the given
aerodynamic sizes for the particle density in question. Insert into Column A of the
Design Table.
2. Plot the size distribution curve, either on log-linear paper (as per Table 2), or on
distribution paper (such as log-normal or Rosin- Rammler paper). Insert into
Column B the cumulative weight percent undersize corresponding to the physical
sizes in Column A.
3. In Column C insert the weight fraction in each size range as dw = (Bi - Bi+1)/100.
4. Column D contains the grade efficiency data, presented as percentage pen
etration, %Pt(d). Multiply Column C with D to obtain the weight percent
penetration in range, Pt(d)dw. Insert the result in Column E. Do this for all size
ranges.
5. Sum the column to obtain the overall weight percent penetration. The over all
collection efficiency is 100-Sum. Determine the Number of Transfer Units as:
-ln(%penetration/100).
6. Repeat steps 4 and 5 for the four remaining pressure ranges.
7. Plot Number of Transfer Units against pressure drop on log-log axes (as per Fig.
2). Fit a best straight line through the data.
8. Determine the desired Number of Transfer Units as:
o ln(1 - %desired efficiency/100). Locate this point on the curve and read
off the corresponding pressure drop.

Figure 2 Example Design

Caution must be advised when using this method. The accuracy of the result depends on
the accuracy of the initial size distribution and also on the fineness of the dust. A safety
margin should also be allowed. If this brings the required pressure drop to over
approximately 600 mm w.g. (6 kPa) then pilot testing should be adopted at the earliest
opportunity to produce a more accurate figure.

2.3 Design by scaling

Arcane wisdom surrounds much of scrubber design, for example, 25 inches of water will
give 0.02 gr/scfm on a bark boiler. Much of this is in the hands of equipment vendors,
although some practical rules have surfaced, principally through the McIlvaine Manuals
(McIlvaine, 1974). Whilst it may be easy to find scientific fault in these (eg. in the above,
scrubbers are proportional collectors, so the emission for a given pressure drop is
proportional to the inlet loading assuming constant particle size), the complexity of the
interactions within a scrubber are such that scientific methods generally give no greater
confidence. This is especially true with the increasing practice of legislating on a
maximum opacity as well as a maximum emission limit.
Improved prediction can only be achieved by on-site pilot testing. However, even on a 1
m3/s (2000 cfm) scale the cost can be prohibitive, making the practice rare in the UK.
More commonly, pilotting is carried out in the laboratory as a one-off attempt to
determine the throughput characteristics of a particular geometry - a totally different
exercise. On-site pilot testing is increasingly common in the USA, especially on
applications where strict opacity limits are enforced. Generally such testing is carried out

by the equipment vendor and sevrral major suppliers operate mobile pilot facilities.
Similar trends are expected in Europe with the general tightening of control legislation.
2.3.1 Miniscrubber prediction of pressure drop

2.3.1 Miniscrubber prediction of pressure drop

An alternative approach, proposed by McIlvaine (1974) and developed by SPS, is the use
of miniscrubbers operating on the much smaller 0.002 m3/s (4 cfm) (of dust laden gas)
scale. In all scrubber design by scaling it is assumed, either implicitly or explicitly, that
the relationship between pressure drop and collection efficiency is independent of all
variables, including the scale. SPS research has shown this to be essentially valid
provided adequate liquid distribution is maintained (SPS RR 40, van Santen and Allen,
1985). Relational data from a miniscrubber may therefore be used to design any scale of
scrubber a-priori. The method has the great virtue of (relative) simplicity: essentially the
skills and effort required are the same as for in-stack cascade impactor particle size
measurement. Under laboratory conditions the technique has been shown to give pressure
drop predictions to better than 10%.
The SPS miniscrubber (Figure 3) consists of a 0.002 m3/s (4 cfm) Venturi section
mounted on a disengagement bucket which fits upstream of the filter unit in any standard
extractive sampling train. The efficiency of the unit is determined as a function of
pressure drop, which may be altered by changing the liquid flow rate through the
scrubber, the throat size, or the sampling velocity. From these measurements, a plot of the
number of transfer units, N , t against pressure drop as per Figure 2(b) may be prepared.
The pressure drop required for any desired efficiency can be determined directly from
this graph. The detailed use of the miniscrubber is discussed in Section 5.

Figure 3 Schematic of the miniscrubber sampling train

3 PROCESS DESIGN
3.1 General
3.2 Pre- and post quencher design
3.3 Physical and thermodynamic properties

3.1 General
An important consideration in the selection of any wet deduster is the need for a
comprehensive support system. An example of the complexity which may be involved is
given in Figure 4. In addition to the basic scrubber and entrainment separator there is
normally a slurry treatment device (most often a simple settling chamber), a final liquor
filtration plant to reduce the waste to a disposable form, and provision for recycle of the
treated scrubbing liquor to reduce the water usage. Whilst these ancillaries do not affect
the scrubber performance per se, poor liquor quality is often a cause of increased
maintenance, especially in spray irrigated scrubbers, and the overall size of the liquor
plant may limit the scope for controlling the scrubber pressure drop on liquid to gas ratio
(See Section 4.1). Wherever possible, it is advised that clear scrubbing liquor should be
used. This is to ensure that nozzles remain free from blockage and are protected against
corrosion. It is recognised however, that there are frequent cases where untreated liquor is
recycled to scrubbing plant. In these instances careful attention should be paid to the
selection of materials and sizing of equipment to ensure low maintenance costs and
consistent performance.

Figure 4 Typical arrangement of large, high temperature installation

.2 Pre- and post quencher design

In considering the design of pre-quenchers, three parameters have a major influence on
design and cost: quench liquor flow, atomisation, and residence time. The objective is to
condition the gas using only the minimum amount of liquid necessary, and to avoid
excessive scrubbing taking place in the quencher. Suggested design criteria are as
follows:
Liquor flowrate: 1.2-1.5 times evaporative loss, determined from simple
humidity change calculations, assuming the gas is saturated on exit. A

psychrometric chart for air-water is given in Figure 5; charts for other gas
systems and operating conditions can be obtained from SPS on request.

Figure 5 Enthalpy-humidity chart for air - water vapour, 1.01325 bar

Residence time: Residence time is dependent on atomisation of the liquor sprays.

In general, good atomisation giving small droplet sizes will result in lower
residence times. Consideration may be given to in-duct systems, rather than
special quenching towers if space and cost are at a premium. However, if spray
nozzles are prone to blockage in an excessively dirty gas, a quench tower might
be essential. Under these circumstances, residence times will increase with gas
temperature.
Orders of magnitude are as follows:
Inlet Temperature (C) Contact Time (s)
250 - 500

< 0.5

500 - 800

0.5 - 1.5

800 - 1200

1.0 - 2.0

These times are however, very subjective. For example, on some steel plants,
blast furnace gas is cooled from 1200C in a primary quench with virtually no
hold-up, using a liquor rate of approximately 10 times the evaporative loss.

Atomisation: The choice of atomisation system depends on the choice of quench

liquor. Good atomisation giving small droplet sizes can generally only be
achieved with clean water, whereas many applications will simply recycle a
portion of the scrubbing liquor without treatment. In general, three options are
available:
Wetted wall Venturi or orifice pre-scrubber, operating at an atomisation pressure
of 0.5 - 1 kPa, using untreated recycle liquor.
Hydraulic sprays operating at 5.9 - 7.9 bar, using clarified recycled liquor. It is
important to ensure good distribution of liquor, and avoid localised underquenching which leads to particle formation through dry-out. Separate irrigation
of vessel walls is also advisable to avoid deposition on the surfaces.
Air atomised sprays with clean water. The economics of these systems generally
favour operation at low liquid rates, but this is balanced by reducing contact
times, perhaps by as much as 80-50% depending on temperature and application.

Pre-quenchers generally remove a significant proportion of the larger particulate matter.

Through evaporation the drain liquor may indeed be more concentrated than the product
from the Venturi itself. The overall process may be simplified by treating this liquor
separately. With erosive dusts it may also be advantageous to operate the pre-quencher at
higher liquid rates to increase the collection performance and so reduce the burden on the
Venturi.
Adiabatic quenching is achieved at the expense of increasing the vapour burden. For high
temperature gases this results in an undesirable extra load on the fan and an enhanced
stack plume. Both can be reduced by post-quenching. This can only be done by removing
heat, not by merely adding more liquid. Generally a forced draught cooling tower is used
with the run-around chilled water directly contacting the stack gas in a packed column.
However, tubular heat exchangers and Venturi ejectors are used for small flows. Plume
dispersion may then be aided by re-heating the depleted stack gas. This is generally done
before the fan at the expense of an increased gas volume in order to evaporate entrained
condensate which might otherwise cause blade erosion. Whilst design of these systems is
beyond the scope of this report, thermodynamic properties to enable sizing are given
below.

3.3 Physical and thermodynamic properties

3.3.1 Humid gas density
3.3.2 Gas viscosity
3.3.3 Specific and latent heats
3.3.4 Saturation vapour pressure and humidity

3.3.1 Humid gas density

For practical purposes the density of a wet gas is related to its humidity through the ideal
gas laws:
(2)
Where: MV/Mg ratio of molecular weights of water vapour and the carrier gas (water/air =
0.622)
*
dry gas density at NTP (air: 1.293 kg/m3 @ T* = 273 K, P* = 101.325 kPa)

PT
total system pressure (static pressure), kPa
PV
partial pressure of water vapour is given by Y PT/(Y + MV/Mg)
Y
gas humidity, kg vapour/kg dry gas (Figure 5).
For complex gas mixtures, such as combustion products, the gas density may be
determined using a tabular method described in Mini Manual 2 Section 7.2 (Bahu et al,
1986). However, for most cases this additional accuracy is not warranted.

3.3.2 Gas viscosity

Gas viscosity is of relatively minor importance in the context of this report. It has minor
dependencies on composition, humidity, and (sparingly) pressure. However, for practical
purposes these may be ignored. A standard value for air of 1.81 x 10-5 kg/ms is used
throughout. For extreme conditions allowance should be made for temperature (Figure 6).

Figure 6 Viscosity of Air (Weast, 1974)

3.3.3 Specific and latent heats

The specific heat, Cp, may be approximated by a correlation of the form:
(3)
where Cpis in kJ/(kg K) and T is the absolute temperature (K). For enthalpy calculations
the specific heat must be determined over the temperature range with reference to a
datum, generally 273 K. This is formally obtained by integration. However, sufficient
accuracy may be achieved using a linear approximation such that the specific heat is
calculated at the mean temperature, (T+273)/2. Table 2 gives values of the constants for
use in equation 3 for some common gases and water. The latent heat of vaporisation, ,
has a minor dependency on temperature. For practical purposes a mean value for water of
2350 kJ/kg may be used. The dependence may be approximated by the form:

(4)

where Tr is the reduced temperature relative to the critical temperature, Tc, (Tr =T/Tc) and
the superscript "*" refers to reference conditions. For water Tc = 647.3 K and @ 273 K
= 2501 kJ/kg.

3.3.4 Saturation vapour pressure and humidity

The saturation vapour pressure, Ps, of water may be obtained from standard steam tables.
It may also be approximated by the form:
(5)
where a = 18.3036
b = 3816.44
c = -46.13
and Ps is in mm Hg. (multiply by 133.32 to convert to Pa).
The saturation humidity is given by the ideal gas laws as:

(6)

4 MECHANICAL DESIGN
The mechanical design of Venturi scrubbers is the province of the equipment vendor and
relies heavily on past experience in similar applications. Different manufacturers tend to
concentrate on different parts of the market, for example: metallurgical fume;
incinerators; flue gas desulphurisation; and so on, thus care is required to select a vendor
with appropriate experience. Failure in this regard generally results in lengthy
commissioning and endless maintenance problems. The mechanical design embraces a
number of considerations:
Venturi geometry;
the required pressure drop and method of pressure drop control;
design of the entrainment separator and liquor handling facilities;
erosion and fouling (Venturi, entrainment separator, and liquor utility);
materials of construction;
performance monitoring facilities;
maintenance.

Tradition plays a part in the selection process: European practice is to use circular
Venturis on furnace applications, whereas North American practice often favours
rectangular throats. In general, higher liquid rates and lower gas velocities are
encountered in North American scrubbers. Such differences are ultimately immaterial
since it is the operating pressure drop which governs the collection efficiency. Claims
that units are designed for "optimal" or "enhanced" performance, should be viewed with
suspicion.
4.1 Selection of Venturi geometry
4.2 Sizing of Venturis for a given pressure drop
4.3 Entrainment Separation
4.4 Materials of Construction

4.1 Selection of Venturi geometry

The principle aspects to geometry selection are:
shape of the Venturi section: whether round or rectangular, with a long, short or
no throat;
means of water injection;
means of pressure drop control.
These are interactive. Several alternatives for pressure drop control and liquid injection
are shown in Figures 7 and 8. As noted above, selection is often a matter of preference
and past experience, but desired operating characteristics may also be important. The
purpose of this Section is to give some guiding principles based on the latter of these.

Figure 7 Common Methods of Velocity Control

Figure 8 Common Means of Liquid Injection

4.1.1 Method of pressure drop control

4.1.2 Circular vs rectangular Venturis
4.1.3 Means of irrigation

4.1.1 Method of pressure drop control

The chief reasons for pressure drop control are:
to adjust the scrubber to the design pressure drop during commissioning;
to maintain a desired efficiency over a range of gas rates.
Control may be achieved either by altering the liquid rate or by changing the gas velocity
in the throat, usually by changing the throat area.
Control on liquid rate.
For practical scrubbers, pressure drop varies linearly with liquid to gas ratio. The
sensitivity, however, can vary significantly (see SPS RR 41) so the success of this
method of control depends on the design of the scrubber and the range of control
required. For the purpose of this discussion, gas phase pressure drop can be considered to
comprise two components: a "dry" pressure drop, due to gas friction at the walls and
energy lost in turbulence; and a "wet" pressure drop, representing the energy lost in
atomising and accelerating liquid. As liquid rate essentially affects only the latter of
these, useful control can be achieved where the wet pressure drop is the dominant
contributor to the overall pressure drop. This is favoured by:
open throat design without baffles, damper plates, or spray headers;
shallow convergent and divergent sections. Typical half angles are 12.5and 3.5
resp.;
long throat sections in which the liquid is accelerated to approaching the gas
velocity;
wetted wall atomisation, rather than spray irrigation.

This method is therefore generally restricted to wetted wall, fixed throat scrubbers. This
geometry is by far the most amenable to mathematical treatment, and hence pressure drop
models may be used with some confidence to predict required changes (see Section 4.2).
Excessive liquid turn-down, however, may result in inadequate throat coverage with a
resulting loss of performance. A practical minimum for scrubbers handling over 5 m3/s
gas is 0.3 m3 water per 1000 m3 gas. Lower values may be used with smaller scrubbers.
Demands on the liquid handling system generally restrict liquor rate changes to 25%.
Control on throat area.
Pressure drop, both dry and wet, generally vary with the square of the gas velocity.
Scrubbers are therefore inherently more sensitive to changes in gas velocity than changes

in liquid rate. This has two consequences: it is better to control pressure drop on gas
velocity by changing the throat area; inadvertent changes in gas velocity are difficult to
accommodate by changes in liquid rate. Scrubbers designed for varying gas rates are
therefore universally of the variable throat type. Several examples are shown in Figure 7.
Butterfly dampers are simple in construction and actuation. They are prone to
erosion and have severe non-linear sensitivity. They can also cause liquid
maldistribution in spray irrigated scrubbers. They may be used with both circular
and rectangular throats but require adequate duct length before the entrainment
separator to enable pressure recovery.
Hinged walls are used with rectangular (prismatic) Venturis. Again they are
simple in construction and actuation. Excessive throat opening can, however,
lead to poor liquid distribution in wall irrigated scrubbers.
Falling plug ("plumb bob") designs give proportional control and form a positive
seal when fully closed. However, they require upstream spray irrigation to
prevent fouling.
Rising plug designs again give proportional control together with increased
fouling resistance. They may be used with either spray or wetted wall irrigation.
They fail open.

The actuation may be manual or automatic. Manual adjustment is generally used where
set-point changes are required. Fine control of pressure drop can then be made on the
liquid rate. Automatic adjustment is preferable for non-steady processes. However,
independent monitoring of the liquor flow is required since falls in the flow (often due to
lime scaling) can result in decreased collection efficiency through inadequate atomisation
even though the overall pressure drop is maintained (see SPS RR 40 Section 3.3.3).

4.1.2 Circular vs rectangular Venturis

The shape of the Venturi is less important than ensuring adequate liquid distribution.
Rectangular units are generally simple to fabricate and can be easily fitted with
replaceable wear plates for erosion protection. Throat widths should not exceed 500 mm
in order to achieve adequate liquid distribution. Large gas flows ( less than 25 m3/s) can
be accommodated by simply increasing the breadth. However, care and frequent
maintenance is required to ensure uniform liquor feed along such lengths. Rectangular
sections generally have higher dry pressure drops than circular units due to their larger
surface area for a given flow, and thus have less scope for pressure drop control on the
liquid feed rate. The end walls are prone to poor irrigation and hence fouling. This can
cause dampers and other pressure control devices to jam.
Circular units for small flows (up to 5 m3/s) are relatively easy to irrigate either with a
single spray nozzle or by wetted wall irrigation. Construction of the conical sections is
generally more complicated but adaption to the duct work is simpler. Pressure drop
control may be by plugs. However, the additional complexity of their seals and supports
is prohibitive if alterations are required only infrequently. Liquid distribution in large
units requires undesirable use of multiple nozzles.

4.1.3 Means of irrigation

Inadequate liquid distribution is the primary reason for the poor performance of many
industrial scrubbers. Generally the problem results from scale deposits blocking or
restricting pipework and nozzles, but designs which introduce the liquid at or part way
down the throat have inherent mal-atomisation problems, especially when followed by a
short diffuser. The formation of wet/dry interfaces, whilst not affecting performance
directly, can increase the overall operating cost through increased maintenance. Several
means of liquid introduction are shown in Figure 8.
Rectangular scrubbers use either overflow weirs or simple open ended pipes as transverse
jets ahead of the throat. In both cases the bulk of the atomisation occurs at the start of the
throat where the liquid is sheared off the converging walls into the gas bulk. For short
throated scrubbers an enhanced converging half angle of up to 30 should be used to
ensure rapid film penetration. The use of jets within the throat is not to be recommended
as this leads to atomisation beyond the highest velocity zone and is akin to "swatting the
fly after it`s passed".
Circular scrubbers for small flows (greater than 5 m3/s) may also use overflow weirs.
However, improved fouling resistance can be achieved by using a "dentists` bowl" inlet
which uses low pressure tangential jets to "swirl" the liquid down the converging section.
Larger scrubbers generally require supplementary irrigation from a central spray. Some
gas phase pressure drop may be saved if this is a high pressure spray so that the liquid is
pre-atomised as finely dispersed droplets. However, this approach is restrictive on the
liquid rate and the additional cost of pumping must then be borne in mind. Fresh make-up
water should be used wherever possible in order to minimise nozzle fouling and erosion.

4.2 Sizing of Venturis for a given pressure drop

Within reason, any number of geometries with any number of operating parameters may
be used to achieve a desired pressure drop. Practical constraints, such as susceptibility to
fouling and erosion, ease of maintenance, and personal preference, therefore, dictate the
final design. Converting a pressure drop figure into a physical scrubber requires a
reduction in the degrees of freedom, and ultimately the arbitrary selection of certain key
parameters. This is automatically done by vendors when they invoke their own design
correlations. However, these have little predictive power and are generally only
applicable to the one geometry for which the correlation was produced. Greater
sophistication immediately gives rise to the problem of describing the droplet motion as
the liquid phase is accelerated and decelerated by the gas. Various approaches have been
adopted. These have been discussed in SPS RR 41. A design method based on a rational
amalgamation of these is described below.
4.2.1 Rectangular Venturis
4.2.2 Sizing Procedure

4.2.1 Rectangular Venturis

The modelling of two phase pressure drop in Venturi sections is not well advanced. A
necessary assumption is that the flows are one-dimensional, ie. there is no flow

separation and all quantities can be described by local axial mean values. Clearly, this is
more applicable to circular than rectangular Venturis. Furthermore, rectangular units tend
to have steeper converging and diverging angles, so flow separation and two-dimensional
effects are exacerbated. For practical purposes this is a second order problem as
rectangular units tend to be of the adjustable throat type or, if not, are simple enough in
construction to allow inexpensive modification to give the desired pressure drop at the
commissioning stage. The approach adopted here is, therefore, to treat rectangular units
as circular on the basis of their hydraulic equivalent diameter. Once a geometry has been
established a more rigorous pressure drop prediction can be obtained using the Boll
model presented by Yung et al (1977). This is too lengthy to be reproduced here.

4.2.2 Sizing Procedure

The sizing method adopted here makes the following major assumptions:
the "dry" pressure drop is solely the result of gas acceleration losses in the
diffuser and can be estimated from the correlation of Patterson (1938). Wall
friction is ignored;
the "wet" pressure drop is solely the result of the liquid accelerational losses in the
throat and can be estimated from the analytical model of Yung et al (1977). No
allowance is made for different means of irrigation;
the "wet" pressure drop recovery in the diffuser can be estimated from the
analytical model of Leith et al (1985).
These models have been discussed in SPS RR 41. All additional pressure drop
components are ignored and the throat is considered to be an open void. Baffles and other
protrusions are considered as simply decreasing the throat area. However, these often
have disproportionate effects on the dry pressure drop, so an adequate safety margin
should be allowed to enable tuning during commissioning.
The method is summarised in Figure 9. As noted previously, it is necessary to reduce the
degrees of freedom in order to produce a design. With the above assumptions this may be
done by arbitrarily setting three key parameters, the liquid to gas ratio, the droplet to gas
velocity ratio at the end of the throat, and the diffuser angle. The throat length and
diameter (ie. gas velocity) for a given pressure drop are then fixed, thus completing the
design.

START

In p u t d e s ig n p r e s s u r e d r o p , Po a n d s y s t e m
p a ra m e te rs
S e le c t
L i q u i d / G a s r a t i o Q i/ Q g
D iffu s e r a n g le 2
D r o p le t v e lo c ity r a t io

E s tim a te d ry p re s s u re d r o p fa c to r R

E s tim a te d e s ig n w e t p r e s s u r e d r o p P

END

D t e r m i n e t h r o a t v e l o c i t y vg t

D e t e r m in e d r y p r e s s u r e d r o p p

C a lc u la t e o v e r a ll p r e r s s u r e d r o p P

= P

D e te r m in e
T h r o a t l e n g t h lt
T h jro a t d ia m e te r d t

No

R e c a lc u la te R

Yes

Figure 9 Flowchart of Design Method

1. Obtain required input data
o the desired pressure drop, PD (N/m2)
o the gas flow rate, Qg (m3/s)
o the mean duct velocity downstream of the scrubber (to within 10%), vgf
(m/s)
o the gas and liquid densities, g, l, (kg/m3), and the gas viscosity,g
(kg/ms)
2. Select liquid to gas ratio, Ql/Qg
Liquid to gas ratios should typically lie in the range 0.5-1.0 l/m3 (0.0005 - 0.001
m3/m3) gas, although more extreme values, down to 0.2 l/m3 (0.0002 m3/m3) or up
to 1.8 l/m3 (0.0018 m3/m3), can be encountered. Such extreme values are however
generally not needed for well designed scrubbers. (1 US gall/1000 cfm = 0.1337
l/m3). Extreme values are encountered, but these are generally not required for
well designed scrubbers. Competent advice should be sought before their use.
Selection within the range is largely arbitrary, although this strongly determines
the final geometry of the scrubber. The following guidelines should be noted:
Select
high

o
o

high pressure drop required (> 8 kPa)

low gas velocity required to minimise erosion (greater

than 60 m/s)
gas at elevated temperature without pre-quench
gas absorption required (Q /Q up to 5) l g
large gas flows ( less than 7 m3/s) to ensure good throat
coverage, esp. wetted wall Venturis
o
spray irrigated Venturis (dictated by nozzle requirements)
Select
o
anticipate high turn-up for pressure drop control
low
o
once-through liquor circulation
3. Select diffuser angle,
o
o
o

Typical diffuser half angles are in the range 3 - 15 with typical choices for
conventional applications in the range 5 - 8. Classical long throat Venturi
scrubbers have a diffuser half angle of 3.5, selected as the critical value to
prevent flow separation. Prismatic scrubbers and scrubbers with plug type
dampers tend to have much steeper angles, typically to 15, and hence shorter
diffusers, in the latter case to minimise the problems of supporting the actuator
arm. Steeper angles can cause "jetting" of the scrubbing liquor, resulting in bypassing and impaired efficiency. Butterfly dampers can exacerbate this problem
by concentrating the flows to one side of the scrubber. Short diffusers should
therefore be followed by at least two duct diameters of straight ducting before the
entrainment separator. Shallower angles are encountered, but the suggestion is
that this merely increases the overall pressure drop by unproductive wall friction.
4. Select droplet to gas velocity ratio,
A significant proportion, if not the majority of the pressure drop in a scrubber
represents energy expended in atomising and accelerating the liquid. Clearly, if
the Venturi throat is sufficiently long, then the liquid would attain the gas throat
velocity. However, as inertial collection depends on the relative velocity between
the particles (ie. gas) and the liquid, there is little virtue in such designs. In the
author`s experience a practical ratio of droplet to gas velocity, when used in
conjunction with the above assumptions, is 80%. This gives a reasonable balance
between throat length and gas velocity.
With the constraining parameters set, the gas velocity for a given pressure drop
can be determined by iteration.
5. Estimate the dry pressure drop factor, R
Allowance must be made for the contribution of the dry pressure drop to the total.
The fraction which this represents depends on both the throat velocity and the
liquid to gas ratio, and thus must be determined iteratively once the throat velocity
has been established. The initial estimate should be in the range 0.1 - 0.3,
preferably between 0.15 and 0.2, with high values representing large divergent
angles ( > 12) and low liquid to gas ratios ( <0.5 l/m3).

6. Estimate the design wet pressure drop, PR

The first estimate of the design wet pressure drop is:
(7)
7. Determine the throat gas velocity, vgt
The throat velocity is a function of the liquid to gas ratio and the exit duct
velocity. Values determined for a typical exit duct velocity of 30 m/s are
presented in Figure 8. Input variables are PR (from 6) and the liquid to gas ratio
(from 2). Use this graph where the exit velocity is 30 m/s 10%, then proceed to
8.
Versions of Figure 10 can be constructed for other exit duct velocities. For the
general case, however, the throat velocity can equally be determined by simple
calculation. The procedure is iterative, requiring an initial guess of the velocity.
Generally only one iteration is required. The procedure is as follows:
Select a gas velocity, Vte, in the range 50 - 110 m/s, typically 60 - 80 m/s.
High values correspond to a high pressure drop ( > 6.0 kPa) and/or low
liquid to gas ratios ( < 0.4 l/m3).
o Estimate the corresponding wet pressure drop using the Leith model:
o

(8)
o

where, from 4, = 0.8. Compare the calculated pressure drop Pe with the
design figure PR and, if necessary, iterate with a new velocity given by:

(9)
o

Continue until the pressure drop error is acceptable ( <5%). Then vgt = vte.

8. Determine the dry pressure drop component, Pg

Calculate the exit duct to throat area ratio:
(10)
then from Figure 11 determine the diffuser loss coefficient, KG and thus the dry
pressure drop as:

(11)

Figure 10 Design Graph for Throat Velocity

Figure 11 Correlation for Gas Acccelerational Pressure Loss in Diffusers (after

Patterson, 1938)

9. Calculate overall pressure drop and iterate

The scrubber design is almost complete. However, the calculations so far have
been based on an estimate of the pressure drop split between the dry and wet
components (ie. R in 5). An iteration may be necessary.
Determine the overall pressure drop:
(12)
and compare with the design pressure drop, PD. If the error is greater than 5%
then iterate from Step 6 using:
(13)
10. Determine the throat length, lt
The throat length is a function of throat gas velocity, liquid to gas ratio and
physical properties of the gas and liquid. For air/water systems under standard
conditions (20C and 1 bar) the relationship is given in Figure 12. For other
conditions and systems the relationship must be calculated. Here the assumptions
are that the liquid has no axial velocity when atomised at the start of the throat,
the droplets have a Sauter mean size in m given by the Nukiyama Tanasawa
correlation, and that the steady state drag coefficient may be determined by the
Dickinson and Marshall correlation (see SPS RR 41 Appendix A), such that:

(14)

(15)
(16)
(17)
where x is a dimensionless throat length which, following Yung et al (1977), is
related to by:

(18)
For = 0.8 as used here, x = 1.3417.

Figure 12 Design Graph for Throat Length (air/water @ 20C and 1 bar with
= 0.8)

11. Determine throat diameter, dt, and remaining parameters

Having specified Qg and determined the throat velocity, vgt, for circular Venturis
the throat diameter is simply:

(19)

For rectangular scrubbers the throat area is given by Qg/vgt but the breadth and
width are arbitrary. Common practice is to use ratios of 1.5 to 2.5 for small
throats, rising to 3 and above as the width approaches 300 mm. The difficulties of
adequate liquid distribution generally restrict throat widths to 500 mm, but the
breadth may increase almost indefinitely provided liquid supply can be ensured
along the entire distance.
The remaining dimensions may now be determined to suit the requirements of the
application. Note that typical convergence half angles are between 8 and 15,
with suggested lower and upper limits of 5 and 30 respectively, with low values
generally giving low dry pressure drops. Higher values are recommended for
wetted wall Venturis where a steep angle ensures good liquid penetration across
the throat.

4.3 Entrainment Separation

In Venturi scrubbers it is the entrainment separator which is actually the gas cleaning
device. The Venturi merely acts as an agglomerator, causing fine particles to adhere to
liquid droplets for the entrainment separator to remove. The bulk of this latter process
actually occurs in the elbow between the two. The separator must therefore remove both
bulk liquid (at high velocity) and drops finely dispersed in the gas stream. Rarely will the
separator remove any unadhered dust particles or provide much additional gas
pruification, although both may be achieved in a further contactor, such as a packed bed.
Total efficiency is required of the separator as small losses can seriously degrade the
overall performance of the system. For example, at 99% the entrain ment losses from a
scrubber operating at 1 l/m3 (1 x 10-3 m3/m3) on a recycle liquor with a solids
concentration of 15% will amount to an equivalent dust burden of 1.5 g/m3 (1.5 x 10-3
kg/m3). In some cases this may approach the inlet burden to the scrubber itself. Twostage separation is therefore common; traditionally a cyclone followed by a knitted mesh
pad or a baffle eliminator, sometimes both.
Entrainment after a separator is in two forms:

1. small droplets due to the inherent inability of the separator to remove the finest
droplets;
2. re-entrainment of collected liquid, the result of:
o transition from separated to separated-entrained flow,
o rupture of bubbles,
o creeping of liquid on entrainment surfaces,
o shattering of liquid droplets resulting from splashing.
With most separators the former may be reduced by increasing the gas velocity, the latter
by decreasing the gas velocity. Design is therefore largely a compromise.
The transition from separated flow to separated-entrained flow occurs at the reentrainment velocity. This is the overall gas velocity through the separator at which liquid
droplets will be stripped from wetted surfaces. The magnitude of this velocity depends on
the Reynolds number of the liquid film, the liquid properties, and the angle at which the
gas strikes the wetted surface. A correlation for cyclones is presented in Figure 13
(Calvert et al, 1975). Here the liquid Reynolds number is given by:
(20)
where a is the cyclone inlet height and l the liquor viscosity (water @ 20C = 1.02 x 10-3
kg/ms). Practical inlet velocities are between 20 and 50 m/s, a typical choice being
between 30 and 40 m/s, with values in the lower range being used to minimise erosion
with liquors of high solids concentrations. Values in the middle range generally result in
pressure drops of the order of 0.75 to 1.0 kPa. Calvert estimated that drop sizes resulting
from operation above the transition point are approximately 250 microns. These can
readily be removed with a vane baffle eliminator.

Figure 13 Re-entrainment from Cyclone Spray Eliminators (after Calvert et al,

1975)
Liquid creep is generally the only other major contributor to re-entrainment losses in
cyclones. This can be minimised by maintaining a low superficial body velocity
(typically in the range 2 - 3.5 m/s, preferably 2.4 - 3 m/s) and extending the gas exit duct
into the cyclone body, thus forming a vortex finder. With reverse flow cyclones, losses
may be further reduced by fitting a mist skirt to the vortex finder. Conservatism suggests
that the same should be done for a conventional cyclone (Figure 14a). Losses may also be
minimised by maintaining a low exit duct velocity. Almost universally this is 10 m/s.

Vane eliminators are widely used as secondary eliminators. These have the advantage of
being directly insertable into the cyclone body as the gas spin merely enhances their
performance. These items are proprietary design and should be sized on the basis of the
manufacturer`s data. Zig-zag baffles and knitted mesh are also insertable, but generally
benefit from being separated from the cyclonic body, either by a vane or a baffle plate
(Figure 14b). Zig-zag baffles are again proprietary items and should be sized in
accordance with manufacturer`s specifications. Typical superficial velocities in vertical
flow are 3.5 to 5 m/s.

Figure 14 Design of Cyclonic Separators

Mesh eliminators are themselves generally more sensitive to re-entrainment, chiefly as a
result of flooding. The Souders-Brown equation is generally used to calculate the
maximum velocity:

(21)

Reported values of K in vertical flow are:

K = 0.110 for mesh densities of 145-190 kg/m3
= 0.125 for densities < 145 kg/m3
= 0.090 for plastic mesh
Values of K for meshes inclined at some angle to the horizontal may be estimated
from:
(22)
Demisters are generally operated at some fraction of their maximum velocity, usually
0.75. Typical velocities are 3 to 4.5 m/s, giving a pressure drop of 0.3 kPa over a 100 mm
thick pad. Pad fouling can be a severe problem. Ultimately, this will lead to a decrease in
voidage and operation above the flooding velocity. Continual irrigation is therefore
required on both sides of the pad (Figure 13b). It should also be given an occasional
thorough dousing, inspection and possible removal. Provision must be made for access in
the vessel design.

4.4 Materials of Construction

All scrubbers suffer erosion from both the particle and the scrubbing liquid. In most
applications they also suffer corrosion from trace gas components and, where the
scrubbing liquid is recycled, from dissolved species in the liquor. These, together with
scaling, are significant factors in scrubber design and a primary reason for mechanical
failure. Correct selection of construction, lining, and coating materials is essential. This is
beyond the scope of this report. Several regions requiring special consideration are shown
in Figure 15.
These are:
quenching zone and region upstream of quenching zone where, through thermal
conduction, the duct temperature may fall below the acid dew point;
regions of liquid impingement, especially the elbow to the entrainment separator;

high velocity gas regions or changes of flow direction, especially the junction at
the start of the throat, dampers, and the elbow;
seals, especially casing seal with plug-type dampers when used with a flooded
elbow;
wet/dry interfaces;
spray nozzles;
welds on instrument pockets and generally post manufacture welds.

Figure 15 Erosion and Corrosion Zones

Generally the effects of corrosion are minimised by purging the scrubber liquid and
dosing to maintain a suitable pH for the selected materials. Erosion protection may be
achieved by the use of replaceable components and wear plates. However, ill fitting wear
plates can themselves provide a site for corrosion. Competent advice should be sought
and candidate materials tested where appropriate.

5 DETAILED USE OF MINISCRUBBER

Sampling strategy.
The method closely resembles in-stack cascade impactor size measurement in terms of
sampling requirements. The principal difference is that with size sampling the accuracy
may be improved by sampling at multiple points. Whilst possible, this is largely
impractical with the miniscrubber. Care is therefore required to select a sampling point
which will give representative results.
Sampling should be carried out in a straight, preferably vertical, section of ductwork as
far upstream and downstream of any disturbance as possible. A 10 point pitot velocity
traverse should be made and the location rejected if:

the ratio of the highest to the lowest velocity exceeds 2 to 1

the velocity at any point is negative
the flow at any one point is more than 30 to the duct axis
the absolute temperature at any point differs by more than 10% from the mean.

Rarely will a location be suitable if less than 2 duct diameters downstream or one
diameter upstream of a disturbance. Methods of improving a sampling location have been
discussed in SPS SAR 30 Section 2.2 (Wallin and van Santen, 1982).
Concentration fluctuations or differences across the duct are unimportant. However, the
miniscrubber is sensitive to small differences at the fine tail of the size distribution.
Sizing measurements should therefore be made using an in-stack cascade impactor fitted
with a suitable pre-cutter. At least four points, two each on two lines at right angles,
should be investigated. No variation should be found in the sub 2 micron tail. More
practically, where differences do exist, the likely effect on the miniscrubber prediction
can be estimated by running the size data through the scoping design procedure, Part 2
Section 2. The reader must then determine for himself whether this uncertainty is
acceptable. If an alternative (and better) sampling location is not available, then some
legitimacy can be gained by traversing the miniscrubber probe across the duct during the
sampling. Replicate measurements under identical conditions should be made on both
sampling lines in order to estimate the error. Note that this method biases the sampling to
the high concentration regions, which, because these tend to be of the coarser dust, results
in an underprediction of the required pressure drop.
The sampling probe should be as short as practically possible to minimise deposition
losses. If all sampling points are equal the sampling should be carried out at a single point
just far enough away from the duct wall to avoid flow distortions caused by the sampling
port. All lines should be lagged or trace heated if condensation is a possibility. The
conveying velocity should be of the order of 20 m/s to further minimise deposition losses.
Sampling should be isokinetic to within 5%.

Operating philosophy.
The notes below refer specifically to the SPS mini-scrubber operating as part of a
standard extractive dust sampling train. However, the general principles can be applied to
any miniature pilot plant scrubber. Indeed, there may be virtue in operating on a
somewhat larger scale, especially if analysis of the emitted fraction is required.
Given that the sampling is isokinetic, each "run" produces three key pieces of
information:

the pressure drop;

the weight of dust penetrating the scrubber, collected on the back-up filter, Wo;
the weight of dust collected in the scrubber, Wb.

The operating velocity, liquid to gas ratio, sampling duration and sampled volume are
ultimately irrelevant to the analysis. However, the weight collected is determined from
the concentration of the collected liquor. The liquid rate should therefore be kept to a
practical minimum in order to improve the measure ment accuracy. Typical liquid to gas
ratios are 0.8 - 1.3 l/m3 (1 x 10-3 m3/m3), although satisfactory results can be obtained with
ratios as low as 0.6 l/m3 (0.6 x 10-3 m3/m3) or as high as 1.9 l/m3 (1.9 x 10-3 m3/m3). As
sampling proceeds, deposition on the back-up filter causes the sample rate to fall, thus
reducing the scrubber pressure drop. Compensation should be made by increasing the
suction pressure to maintain isokinetic sampling rather than by increasing the liquid rate.
Preparation.
The following items and preparation are required:
exhaust filters. Glass fibre filters are suitable, but should be baked for at least 2
hours at 105C to remove trace organic components. Weighing when cool
should be to 0.05 mg. The filter housing should be heated during the
measurements to prevent blockage through condensation.
liquor collection. A dry 5l capacity water bottle weighed to 0.1 g and fitted with
a means of sampling a representative aliquot. (In the laboratory tests this was a
20 ml syringe with a wide bore needle fitted through a bung in the cap).
concentration determination. Liquor concentration may be determined either by
evaporating to dryness and weighing, or by filtering, drying and weighing. The
former is less accurate because the tare weight of the evaporating dish reduces
the sensitivity (small changes in large numbers). The latter is only suitable for
non-soluble particles but overcomes the tare weight problem. Hence each run
requires either: four 50 ml capacity beakers suitable for oven drying pre-weighed
to 0.1 mg; or four 50 ml containers pre-weighed to 0.1 mg plus four 0.22 micron
acetate filters pre-baked and weighed as per the exhaust filters. (Handling and
identification of these fragile filters is simplified if placed individually in light
weight containers. Aluminium foil baking dishes are ideal).
scrubbing liquid. 2 to 4 litres of fresh demineralised water placed in a constant
head tank with at least 3m elevation. Alternatively pressurise or use a small
centrifugal pump to supply head.

Operating procedure.
Typically six data points are required for an acceptable accuracy. These should represent
replicate sets at each of three pressure drops; at approximately the desired pressure drop
(estimated via the impactor size distribution), 50% higher and 50% lower. The standard
procedure adopted in the research programme (SPS RR 40) was then to:
1. Determine the gas velocity at the sampling point by pitot measurement (see Mini
Manual 1 Part 2) and select a sampling nozzle for isokinetic sampling at 2 l/s.
2. Select probe to give conveying velocity approximately 20 m/s. 12 mm polished
stainless steel is usual.
3. Rinse collection bucket and assemble parts. No need to dry. Assemble back-up
filter.
4. Leak test the system: Close water supply valve. With the probe outside the duct
switch on suction. No flow should be recorded with the sampling nozzle capped.
5. Adjust water and air rates to give desired pressure drop at isokinetic flow. If
liquid to gas ratio outside normal operating range select a different Venturi
throat piece and repeat set-up procedure from 4.
6. With the miniscrubber running place sampling probe in the duct at the required
sampling location. If this proves difficult detach probe and reconnect to
miniscrubber when in correct location.
7. Continue sampling, adjusting the sample rate to maintain isokinetic conditions at
a constant scrubber pressure drop. Halt measurement when no further adjustment
is available. With the miniscrubber still running detach probe to allow a
complete air change in the de-entrainment bucket. Simultaneously switch off
water.
8. Carefully remove dust from outside of probe, then rinse out internal deposits and
add washings to the bucket.
9. Remove, dry and weigh filter to 0.05 mg. Note the weight gain, Wo gm.
10. Determine the liquor concentration. Note: in the SPS research this was done
entirely by weighing as volume determinations using measuring flasks were
found to be inaccurate for these purposes. Throughout, the weight contribution
of the collected particulate matter was ignored.
Transfer collected scrubbing liquor to the 5l bottle. Rinse bucket and add
washings to the bottle. Re-weigh bottle to 0.1 g and hence note volume of liquid
collected, Vc ml. Fit the sampling syringe to the bottle and shake well to give a
uniform suspension. Invert bottle and remove an approximately 20 ml aliquot.
Repeat to give a total of 8 samples. Pair together into the four 50 ml containers
and re-weigh to 0.1 mg to determine their volumes V ml. Evapori ate to dryness
or filter as desired to determine the weight of particulate matter in each, Wi gms.
11. Determine the miniscrubber efficiency, as:
(23)
12. where Wb is the total weight of particulate collected in the bucket

(24)
13. Plot efficiency in transfer units against pressure drop on log-log axes as per
Figure 2(b) where Number of Transfer units, Nt = -ln(1-/100).
14. Repeat entire procedure at least six times at three different pressure drops.
Analysis and use of data.
The data plot will inevitably be scattered. The scatter may have two causes: poor
experimental technique, in which case a best fit straight line should be taken through all
the data; or genuine variations due to fluctuations in the particulate size distribution, in
which case a best straight line should be taken through the tops of the data pairs. This can
result in two markedly different lines and consequently markedly different predictions of
the required pressure drop. The correct approach can be inferred from the cascade
impactor data. If this shows no variation in size distribution at the various sampling
locations then the scatter taken can be assumed to be random. If the impactor data is
scattered then the latter course would be more valid. However, with only three useful data
points the accuracy of the method must be in question. Further replicate cascade impactor
and miniscrubber measurements should therefore be made. If the confidence interval
cannot be reduced below 30%, or if the predicted pressure drop for the required
efficiency is greater than 6.0 kPa, then further pilot testing should be considered.