United States

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United States
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For other uses of terms redirecting here, see US (disambiguation), USA (disambiguation), and United
States (disambiguation)
The United States of America (commonly referred to as the
United States, the U.S., the USA, or America) is a federal
constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal
district. The country is situated mostly in central North
America, where its forty-eight contiguous states and
Washington, D.C., the capital district, lie between the Pacific
and Atlantic
Oceans, bordered
by Canada to the
north and Mexico
to the south. The
state of Alaska is
in the northwest
of the continent,
with Canada to its
east and Russia to
the west across
the Bering Strait.
The state of
Hawaii is an
archipelago in the
mid-Pacific. The
country also
possesses several
territories, or
insular areas,
scattered around the Caribbean and Pacific.
At 3.79 million square miles (9.83 million km²) and with

about 305 million people, the United States is the third or
fourth largest country by total area, and third largest by land area and by population. The United States
is one of the world's most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale
immigration from many countries.[7] The U.S. economy is the largest national economy in the world,
with an estimated 2008 gross domestic product (GDP) of US$14.3 trillion (23% of the world total based
on nominal GDP and almost 21% at purchasing power parity).[4][8] .. The nation was founded by thirteen
colonies of Great Britain located along the Atlantic seaboard. On July 4, 1776, they issued the
Declaration of Independence, which proclaimed their independence from Great Britain and their
formation of a cooperative union. The rebellious states defeated Great Britain in the American
Revolutionary War, the first successful colonial war of independence.[9] A federal convention adopted
the current United States Constitution on September 17, 1787; its ratification the following year made
the states part of a single republic with a strong central government. The Bill of Rights, comprising ten
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constitutional amendments guaranteeing many fundamental
civil rights and freedoms, was ratified in 1791.
In the 19th
century, the
United States
acquired land
from France,
Spain, the United
Kingdom,
Mexico, and
Russia, and
annexed the
Republic of Texas
and the Republic of Hawaii. Disputes between the agrarian
South and industrial North over states' rights and the
expansion of the institution of slavery provoked the
American Civil War of the 1860s. The North's victory
prevented a permanent split of the country and led to the end
of legal slavery in the United States. By the 1870s, the
national economy was the world's largest.[10] The Spanish–
American War and World War I confirmed the country's status as a military power. In 1945, the United
States emerged from World War II as the first country with nuclear weapons, a permanent member of
the United Nations Security Council, and a founding member of NATO. The end of the Cold War left
the United States as the sole superpower. The country accounts for approximately 50% of global
military spending and is a leading economic, political, and cultural force in the world.[11]
The United States of

America (commonly referred
to as the United States, the
U.S., the USA, or America)
is a federal constitutional
republic comprising fifty
states and a federal district.
The country is situated
mostly in central North
America, where its forty-
eight contiguous states and
Washington, D.C., the capital
district, lie between the
Pacific and Atlantic Oceans,
bordered by Canada to the
north and Mexico to the
south. The state of Alaska is
in the northwest of the
continent, with Canada to its
east and Russia to the west
across the Bering Strait. The
state of Hawaii is an
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archipelago in the mid-Pacific. The country also possesses several territories, or insular areas, scattered
around the Caribbean and Pacific.
At 3.79 million square miles (9.83 million km²) and with about 305 million people, the United States is
the third or fourth largest country by total area, and third largest by land area and by population. The
United States is one of the world's most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of
large-scale immigration from many countries.[7] The U.S. economy is the largest national economy in the
world, with an estimated 2008 gross domestic product (GDP) of US$14.3 trillion (23% of the world total
based on nominal GDP and almost 21% at purchasing power parity).[4][8]
The nation was founded by thirteen colonies of Great Britain located along the Atlantic seaboard. On
July 4, 1776, they issued the Declaration of Independence, which proclaimed their independence from
Great Britain and their formation of a cooperative union. The rebellious states defeated Great Britain in
the American Revolutionary War, the first successful colonial war of independence.[9] A federal
convention adopted the current United States Constitution on September 17, 1787; its ratification the
following year made the states part of a single republic with a strong central government. The Bill of
Rights, comprising ten constitutional amendments guaranteeing many fundamental civil rights and
freedoms, was ratified in 1791.
In the 19th century, the United States acquired land from France, Spain, the United Kingdom, Mexico,
and Russia, and annexed the Republic of Texas and the Republic of Hawaii. Disputes between the
agrarian South and industrial North over states' rights and the expansion of the institution of slavery
provoked the American Civil War of the 1860s. The North's victory prevented a permanent split of the
country and led to the end of legal slavery in the United States. By the 1870s, the national economy was
the world's largest.[10] The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the country's status as a
military power. In 1945, the United States emerged from World War II as the first country with nuclear
weapons, a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council, and a founding member of
NATO. The end of the Cold War left the United States as the sole superpower. The country accounts for
approximately 50% of global military spending and is a leading economic, political, and cultural force in
the world.[11]
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Etymology
Contents
In 1507, Martin Waldseemüller
• 1 Etymology produced a world map on which
• 2 Geography and environment he named the lands of the
• 3 History Western Hemisphere "America"
o 3.1 Native Americans and European settlers after the first name of Italian
o 3.2 Independence and expansion explorer and cartographer
o 3.3 Civil War and industrialization Amerigo Vespucci.[12] The
o 3.4 World War I, Great Depression, and World War II former British colonies first
o 3.5 Cold War and protest politics used the country's modern name
o 3.6 Contemporary era in the Declaration of
• 4 Government and elections Independence, which was the
o 4.1 Parties, ideology, and politics "unanimous Declaration of the
• 5 Geographic divisions thirteen united States of
• 6 Foreign relations and military America" adopted by the
• 7 Economy "Representatives of the united
o 7.1 Income and human development States of America" on July 4,
o 7.2 Science and technology 1776.[13] The current name was
o 7.3 Transportation finalized on November 15,
o 7.4 Energy 1777, when the Second
• 8 Demographics Continental Congress adopted
o 8.1 Language the Articles of Confederation,
o 8.2 Religion the first of which states, "The
o 8.3 Education Stile of this Confederacy shall
o 8.4 Health be 'The United States of
o 8.5 Crime and law enforcement America.'" The short form
• 9 Culture United States is also standard.
o 9.1 Popular media
Other common forms include
o 9.2 Literature, philosophy, and the arts
the U.S., the USA, and America.
Colloquial names include the
o 9.3 Food
U.S. of A. and the States.
o 9.4 Sports
Columbia, a once popular name
• 10 See also
for the United States, was
• 11 References
derived from Christopher
Columbus. It appears in the
• 12 External links
name "District of Columbia".
The standard way to refer to a citizen of the United States is as an American. Though United States is
the formal adjective, American and U.S. are the most common adjectives used to refer to the country
("American values," "U.S. forces"). American is rarely used in English to refer to people not connected
to the United States.[14]
The phrase "the United States" was originally treated as plural—e.g., "the United States are"—including
in the Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1865. It became common to
treat it as singular—e.g., "the United States is"—after the end of the Civil War. The singular form is
now standard; the plural form is retained in the idiom "these United States."[15]
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Geography and environment
Main articles: Geography of the United States, Climate of the United States, and Environment of
the United States
Topographic map of the contiguous United States
The United States is situated almost entirely in the Western Hemisphere: the contiguous United States
stretches from the Pacific Ocean on the west to the Atlantic Ocean on the east, with the Gulf of Mexico
to the southeast; it is bordered by Canada on the north and Mexico on the south. Alaska is the largest
state in area; separated from the contiguous United States by Canada, it touches the Pacific on the south
and the Arctic Ocean on the north. Hawaii occupies an archipelago in the central Pacific, southwest of
North America. After Russia and Canada, the United States is the world's third or fourth largest nation
by total area, ranking just above or below China. The ranking varies depending on how two territories
disputed by China and India are counted and how the total size of the United States is calculated: the
CIA World Factbook gives 3,794,083 sq mi (9,826,630 km2),[1] the United Nations Statistics Division
gives 3,717,813 sq mi (9,629,091 km2),[16] and the Encyclopedia Britannica gives 3,676,486 sq mi
(9,522,055 km2).[17] Including only land area, the United States is third in size behind Russia and China,
just ahead of Canada.[18] The United States also possesses several insular territories scattered around the
West Indies (e.g., the commonwealth of Puerto Rico) and the Pacific (e.g., Guam).
View of the Rocky Mountains in Colorado
The coastal plain of the Atlantic seaboard gives way further inland to deciduous forests and the rolling
hills of the Piedmont. The Appalachian Mountains divide the eastern seaboard from the Great Lakes and
the grasslands of the Midwest. The Mississippi–Missouri River, the world's fourth longest river system,
runs mainly north–south through the heart of the country. The flat, fertile prairie of the Great Plains
stretches to the west, interrupted by a highland region in the southeast. The Rocky Mountains, at the
western edge of the Great Plains, extend north to south across the country, reaching altitudes higher than
14,000 feet (4,300 m) in Colorado. Farther west are the rocky Great Basin and deserts such as the
Mojave. The Sierra Nevada and Cascade mountain ranges run close to the Pacific coast. At 20,320 feet
(6,194 m), Alaska's Mount McKinley is the country's tallest peak. Active volcanoes are common
throughout Alaska's Alexander and Aleutian Islands, and Hawaii consists of volcanic islands. The
supervolcano underlying Yellowstone National Park in the Rockies is the continent's largest volcanic
feature.[19]
The bald eagle has been the national bird of the United States since 1782
The United States, with its large size and geographic variety, includes most
climate types. To the east of the 100th meridian, the climate ranges from humid
continental in the north to humid subtropical in the south. The southern tip of
Florida is tropical, as is Hawaii. The Great Plains west of the 100th meridian are
semi-arid. Much of the Western mountains are alpine. The climate is arid in the
Great Basin, desert in the Southwest, Mediterranean in coastal California, and
oceanic in coastal Oregon and Washington and southern Alaska. Most of Alaska is subarctic or polar.
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Extreme weather is not uncommon—the states bordering the Gulf of Mexico are prone to hurricanes,
and most of the world's tornadoes occur within the country, mainly in the Midwest's Tornado Alley.[20]
The U.S. ecology is very diverse: about 17,000 species of vascular plants occur in the contiguous United
States and Alaska, and over 1,800 species of flowering plants are found in Hawaii, few of which occur
on the mainland.[21] The United States is home to more than 400 mammal, 700 bird, 500 reptile and
amphibian, and 90,000 insect species.[22] The Endangered Species Act of 1973 protects threatened and
endangered species and their habitats, which are monitored by the United States Fish and Wildlife
Service. There are fifty-eight national parks and hundreds of other federally managed parks, forests, and
wilderness areas.[23] Altogether, the government regulates 28.8% of the country's land area.[24] Most of
this is protected, though some is leased for oil and gas drilling,[25] mining, or cattle ranching.
History
Main article: History of the United States
Native Americans and European settlers
Main articles: Native Americans in the United States, European colonization of the Americas,
and Thirteen Colonies
The indigenous peoples of the U.S. mainland, including Alaska Natives, migrated from Asia. They
began arriving at least 12,000 and as many as 40,000 years ago.[26] Some, such as the pre-Columbian
Mississippian culture, developed advanced agriculture, grand architecture, and state-level societies.
After Europeans began settling the Americas, many millions of indigenous Americans died from
epidemics of imported diseases such as smallpox.[27]
The Mayflower transported Pilgrims to the New World in 1620, as

depicted in William Halsall's The Mayflower in Plymouth Harbor, 1882
In 1492, Genoese explorer Christopher Columbus, under contract to the

Spanish crown, reached several Caribbean islands, making first contact with the indigenous people. On
April 2, 1513, Spanish conquistador Juan Ponce de León landed on what he called "La Florida"—the
first documented European arrival on what would become the U.S. mainland. Spanish settlements in the
region were followed by ones in the present-day southwestern United States that drew thousands
through Mexico. French fur traders established outposts of New France around the Great Lakes; France
eventually claimed much of the North American interior, down to the Gulf of Mexico. The first
successful English settlements were the Virginia Colony in Jamestown in 1607 and the Pilgrims'
Plymouth Colony in 1620. The 1628 chartering of the Massachusetts Bay Colony resulted in a wave of
migration; by 1634, New England had been settled by some 10,000 Puritans. Between the late 1610s and
the American Revolution, about 50,000 convicts were shipped to Britain's American colonies. [28]
Beginning in 1614, the Dutch settled along the lower Hudson River, including New Amsterdam on
Manhattan Island.
In 1674, the Dutch ceded their American territory to England; the province of New Netherland was
renamed New York. Many new immigrants, especially to the South, were indentured servants—some
two-thirds of all Virginia immigrants between 1630 and 1680.[29] By the turn of the century, African
slaves were becoming the primary source of bonded labor. With the 1729 division of the Carolinas and
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the 1732 colonization of Georgia, the thirteen British colonies that would become the United States of
America were established. All had local governments with elections open to most free men, with a
growing devotion to the ancient rights of Englishmen and a sense of self-government stimulating
support for republicanism. All legalized the African slave trade. With high birth rates, low death rates,
and steady immigration, the colonial population grew rapidly. The Christian revivalist movement of the
1730s and 1740s known as the Great Awakening fueled interest in both religion and religious liberty. In
the French and Indian War, British forces seized Canada from the French, but the francophone
population remained politically isolated from the southern colonies. Excluding the Native Americans
(popularly known as "American Indians"), who were being displaced, those thirteen colonies had a
population of 2.6 million in 1770, about one-third that of Britain; nearly one in five Americans were
black slaves.[30] Though subject to British taxation, the American colonials had no representation in the
Parliament of Great Britain.
Independence and expansion
Main articles: American Revolution, American Revolutionary War, and Manifest Destiny
Declaration of Independence, by John Trumbull, 1817–18
Tensions between American colonials and the British during the

revolutionary period of the 1760s and early 1770s led to the American
Revolutionary War, fought from 1775 through 1781. On June 14, 1775,
the Continental Congress, convening in Philadelphia, established a Continental Army under the
command of George Washington. Proclaiming that "all men are created equal" and endowed with
"certain unalienable Rights," the Congress adopted the Declaration of Independence, drafted largely by
Thomas Jefferson, on July 4, 1776. That date is now celebrated annually as America's Independence
Day. In 1777, the Articles of Confederation established a weak federal government that operated until
1789.
After the British defeat by American forces who were assisted by the French, Great Britain recognized
the independence of the United States and the states' sovereignty over American territory west to the
Mississippi River. A constitutional convention was organized in 1787 by those wishing to establish a
strong national government, with powers of taxation. The United States Constitution was ratified in
1788, and the new republic's first Senate, House of Representatives, and president—George Washington
—took office in 1789. The Bill of Rights, forbidding federal restriction of personal freedoms and
guaranteeing a range of legal protections, was adopted in 1791.
Attitudes toward slavery were shifting; a clause in the Constitution protected the African slave trade
only until 1808. The Northern states abolished slavery between 1780 and 1804, leaving the slave states
of the South as defenders of the "peculiar institution." The Second Great Awakening, beginning about
1800, made evangelicalism a force behind various social reform
movements, including abolitionism.
Territorial acquisitions by date
Americans' eagerness to expand westward prompted a long series of

Indian Wars and an Indian removal policy that stripped the native peoples of their land. The Louisiana
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Purchase of French-claimed territory under President Thomas Jefferson in 1803 almost doubled the
nation's size. The War of 1812, declared against Britain over various grievances and fought to a draw,
strengthened U.S. nationalism. A series of U.S. military incursions into Florida led Spain to cede it and
other Gulf Coast territory in 1819. The United States annexed the Republic of Texas in 1845. The
concept of Manifest Destiny was popularized during this time.[31] The 1846 Oregon Treaty with Britain
led to U.S. control of the present-day American Northwest. The U.S. victory in the Mexican-American
War resulted in the 1848 cession of California and much of the present-day American Southwest. The
California Gold Rush of 1848–49 further spurred western migration. New railways made relocation
easier for settlers and increased conflicts with Native Americans. Over a half-century, up to 40 million
American bison, or buffalo, were slaughtered for skins and meat and to ease the railways' spread. The
loss of the buffalo, a primary resource for the plains Indians, was an existential blow to many native
cultures.
Civil War and industrialization
Main articles: American Civil War, Reconstruction era of the United States, and Spanish-
American War
Battle of Gettysburg, lithograph by Currier & Ives, ca. 1863
Tensions between slave and free states mounted with arguments over the
relationship between the state and federal governments, as well as violent
conflicts over the spread of slavery into new states. Abraham Lincoln,
candidate of the largely antislavery Republican Party, was elected president in 1860. Before he took
office, seven slave states declared their secession—which the federal government maintained was illegal
—and formed the Confederate States of America. With the Confederate attack upon Fort Sumter, the
American Civil War began and four more slave states joined the Confederacy. Lincoln's Emancipation
Proclamation committed the Union to ending slavery. Following the Union victory in 1865, three
amendments to the U.S. Constitution ensured freedom for the nearly four million African Americans
who had been slaves,[32] made them citizens, and gave them voting rights. The war and its resolution led
to a substantial increase in federal power.[33]
Immigrants landing at Ellis Island, New York, 1902
After the war, the assassination of Lincoln radicalized Republican

Reconstruction policies aimed at reintegrating and rebuilding the Southern
states while ensuring the rights of the newly freed slaves. The resolution of
the disputed 1876 presidential election by the Compromise of 1877 ended Reconstruction; Jim Crow
laws soon disenfranchised many African Americans. In the North, urbanization and an unprecedented
influx of immigrants from Southern and Eastern Europe hastened the country's industrialization. The
wave of immigration, lasting until 1929, provided labor and transformed American culture. High tariff
protections, national infrastructure building, and new banking regulations encouraged growth. The 1867
Alaska purchase from Russia completed the country's mainland expansion. The Wounded Knee
massacre in 1890 was the last major armed conflict of the Indian Wars. In 1893, the indigenous
monarchy of the Pacific Kingdom of Hawaii was overthrown in a coup led by American residents; the
United States annexed the archipelago in 1898. Victory in the Spanish-American War the same year
demonstrated that the United States was a world power and led to the annexation of Puerto Rico, Guam,
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and the Philippines. The Philippines gained independence a half-century later; Puerto Rico and Guam
remain U.S. territories.
World War I, Great Depression, and World War II
Main articles: American Expeditionary Force, Great Depression in the United States, and
Military history of the United States during World War II
An abandoned farm in South Dakota during the Dust Bowl, 1936
At the outbreak of World War I in 1914, the United States remained

neutral. Most Americans sympathized with the British and French,
although many opposed intervention.[34] In 1917, the United States joined
the Allies, turning the tide against the Central Powers. After the war, the
Senate did not ratify the Treaty of Versailles, which established the League of Nations. The country
pursued a policy of unilateralism, verging on isolationism.[35] In 1920, the women's rights movement
won passage of a constitutional amendment granting women's suffrage. The prosperity of the Roaring
Twenties ended with the Wall Street Crash of 1929 that triggered the Great Depression. After his
election as president in 1932, Franklin D. Roosevelt responded with the New Deal, a range of policies
increasing government intervention in the economy. The Dust Bowl of the mid-1930s impoverished
many farming communities and spurred a new wave of western migration.
The United States, effectively neutral during World War II's early stages after Nazi Germany's invasion
of Poland in September 1939, began supplying materiel to the Allies in March 1941 through the Lend-
Lease program. On December 7, 1941, the United States joined the Allies against the Axis powers after
a surprise attack on Pearl Harbor by Japan. World War II cost far more money than any other war in
American history,[36] but it boosted the economy by providing capital investment and jobs. Among the
major combatants, the United States was the only nation to become richer—indeed, far richer—instead
of poorer because of the war.[37] Allied conferences at Bretton Woods and Yalta outlined a new system
of international organizations that placed the United States and Soviet Union at the center of world
affairs. As victory was won in Europe, a 1945 international conference held in San Francisco produced
the United Nations Charter, which became active after the war.[38] The United States, having developed
the first nuclear weapons, used them on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August. Japan
surrendered on September 2, ending the war.[39]
Cold War and protest politics
Main articles: Cold War, African-American Civil Rights Movement (1955–1968), and Vietnam
War
Martin Luther King, Jr. delivering his "I Have a Dream" speech, 1963
The United States and Soviet Union jockeyed for power after World War II
during the Cold War, dominating the military affairs of Europe through NATO
and the Warsaw Pact. The United States promoted liberal democracy and
capitalism, while the Soviet Union promoted communism and a centrally
planned economy. Both supported dictatorships and engaged in proxy wars.
American troops fought Communist Chinese forces in the Korean War of 1950–53. The House Un-
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American Activities Committee pursued a series of investigations into suspected leftist subversion,
while Senator Joseph McCarthy became the figurehead of anticommunist sentiment.
The 1961 Soviet launch of the first manned spaceflight prompted President John F. Kennedy's call for
the United States to be first to land "a man on the moon," achieved in 1969. Kennedy also faced a tense
nuclear showdown with Soviet forces in Cuba. Meanwhile, the United States experienced sustained
economic expansion. A growing civil rights movement, led by African Americans such as Rosa Parks
and Martin Luther King, Jr., fought segregation and discrimination. Following Kennedy's assassination
in 1963, the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and Voting Rights Act of 1965 were passed under President
Lyndon B. Johnson. Johnson and his successor, Richard Nixon, expanded a proxy war in Southeast Asia
into the unsuccessful Vietnam War. A widespread countercultural movement grew, fueled by opposition
to the war, black nationalism, and the sexual revolution. Betty Friedan, Gloria Steinem, and others led a
new wave of feminism that sought political, social, and economic equality for women.
As a result of the Watergate scandal, in 1974 Nixon became the first U.S. president to resign, rather than
be impeached on charges including obstruction of justice and abuse of power; he was succeeded by Vice
President Gerald Ford. The Jimmy Carter administration of the late 1970s was marked by stagflation and
the Iran hostage crisis. The election of Ronald Reagan as president in 1980 heralded a significant
rightward shift in American politics, reflected in major changes in taxation and spending priorities. His
second term in office brought both the Iran-Contra scandal and significant diplomatic progress with the
Soviet Union. The subsequent Soviet collapse ended the Cold War.
Contemporary era
The World Trade Center on the morning of September 11, 2001

Main articles: September 11 attacks, Iraq War, and Economic
crisis of 2008
The leadership role taken by the United States and its allies in the UN–
sanctioned Gulf War, under President George H. W. Bush, and the
Yugoslav wars, under President Bill Clinton, helped to preserve its
position as a superpower. The longest economic expansion in modern U.S. history—from March 1991
to March 2001—encompassed the Clinton administration and the dot-com bubble.[40] A civil lawsuit and
sexual scandal led to Clinton's impeachment in 1998, but he remained in office. The 2000 presidential
election, one of the closest in U.S. history, was resolved by a U.S. Supreme Court decision—George W.
Bush, son of George H. W. Bush, became president.
On September 11, 2001, al-Qaeda terrorists struck the World Trade Center in New York City and The
Pentagon near Washington, D.C., killing nearly three thousand people. In response, President Bush
launched the War on Terrorism. In late 2001, U.S. forces led an invasion of Afghanistan, removing the
Taliban government and al-Qaeda training camps. Taliban insurgents continue to fight a guerrilla war. In
2002, the Bush administration began to press for regime change in Iraq on controversial grounds.[41]
Lacking the support of NATO or an explicit UN mandate for military intervention, Bush organized a
Coalition of the Willing; coalition forces preemptively invaded Iraq in 2003, removing dictator and
former U.S. ally Saddam Hussein. The Iraq War, now opposed by most Americans, continues.[42]
Amnesty International has criticized the United States for human rights violations in its pursuit of the
War on Terrorism and the Iraq War.[43] In 2005, Hurricane Katrina caused severe destruction along much
of the Gulf Coast, devastating New Orleans. On November 4, 2008, amid a major economic crisis, the
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country elected Barack Obama as president. When he is inaugurated on January 20, 2009, he will
become the first African American to hold the office.
Government and elections

Main articles: Federal government of the United States and Elections in the United States
The west front of the United States Capitol, which houses the United
States Congress
The United States is the world's oldest surviving federation. It is a

constitutional republic, "in which majority rule is tempered by minority rights protected by law."[44] It is
fundamentally structured as a representative democracy, though U.S. citizens residing in the territories
are excluded from voting for federal officials.[45] The government is regulated by a system of checks and
balances defined by the U.S. Constitution, which serves as the country's supreme legal document and as
a social contract for the American people. In the American federalist system, citizens are usually subject
to three levels of government, federal, state, and local; the local government's duties are commonly split
between county and municipal governments. In almost all cases, executive and legislative officials are
elected by a plurality vote of citizens by district. There is no proportional representation at the federal
level, and it is very rare at lower levels. Federal and state judicial and cabinet officials are typically
nominated by the executive branch and approved by the legislature, although some state judges and
officials are elected by popular vote.
The South Portico of the White House, home and work place of the U.S. president
The federal government is composed of three branches:
• Legislative: The bicameral Congress, made up of the Senate and the House of Representatives,
makes federal law, declares war, approves treaties, has the
power of the purse, and has the power of impeachment, by
which it can remove sitting members of the government.
• Executive: The president is the commander-in-chief of the
military, can veto legislative bills before they become law, and
appoints the Cabinet and other officers, who administer and
enforce federal laws and policies.
• Judicial: The Supreme Court and lower federal courts,
whose judges are appointed by the president with Senate
approval, appoints, interpret laws, and can overturn laws they deem unconstitutional.
The House of Representatives has 435 members, each representing a congressional district for a two-
year term. House seats are apportioned among the states by population every tenth year. As of the 2000
census, seven states have the minimum of one representative, while California, the most populous state,
has fifty-three. The Senate has 100 members with each state having two senators, elected at-large to six-
year terms; one third of Senate seats are up for election every other year. The president serves a four-
year term and may be elected to the office no more than twice. The president is not elected by direct
vote, but by an indirect electoral college system in which the determining votes are apportioned by state.
The Supreme Court, led by the Chief Justice of the United States, has nine members, who serve for life.
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The state governments are structured in roughly similar fashion; Nebraska uniquely has a unicameral
legislature. The governor (chief executive) of each state is directly elected.
The front of the United States Supreme Court building
All laws and procedures of both state and federal governments are subject to review, and any law ruled
in violation of the Constitution by the judiciary is voided. The original text of the Constitution
establishes the structure and responsibilities of the federal government and its relationship with the
individual states. Article One protects the right to the "great writ" of habeas corpus, and Article Three
guarantees the right to a jury trial in all criminal cases. Amendments to the Constitution require the
approval of three-fourths of the states. The Constitution has been amended twenty-seven times; the first
ten amendments, which make up the Bill of Rights, and the Fourteenth Amendment form the central
basis of Americans' individual rights.
Parties, ideology, and politics
Main articles: Politics of the United States and Political ideologies in the United States
President-elect Barack Obama (right) meets with current President George

W. Bush (left) in the Oval Office, November 10, 2008
The United States has operated under a two-party system for most of its
history. For elective offices at all levels, state-administered primary
elections choose the major party nominees for subsequent general
elections. Since the general election of 1856, the major parties have been
the Democratic Party, founded in 1824, and the Republican Party, founded
in 1854. Since the Civil War, only one third-party presidential candidate—former president Theodore
Roosevelt, running as a Progressive in 1912—has won as much as 20% of the popular vote.
Within American political culture, the Republican Party is considered "center-right" or conservative and
the Democratic Party is considered "center-left" or liberal. The states of the Northeast and West Coast
and some of the Great Lakes states, known as "blue states", are relatively liberal. The "red states" of the
South and much of the Great Plains and Rocky Mountains are relatively conservative. A plurality of
Americans identify as Democrats, yet significantly more Americans identify as conservative than liberal.
[46]
Among the rights explicitly addressed in the Constitution, gun ownership is the subject of particularly
contentious debate.
The incumbent president, Republican George W. Bush, is the 43rd U.S. president. All presidents to date
have been men of European descent. After winning the 2008 presidential election, Democrat Barack
Obama will be the first president of mixed European and African descent. The 2008 elections also saw
the Democratic Party strengthen its control of both the House and the Senate. Every member of the U.S.
Congress is a Democrat or a Republican except two independent members of the Senate. An
overwhelming majority of state and local officials are also Democrats or Republicans.
Geographic divisions
Main articles: U.S. state, Territorial evolution of the United States, and Territorial acquisitions
of the United States
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The United States is a federal union of fifty states. The original thirteen states were the successors of the
thirteen colonies that rebelled against British rule. Most of the rest have been carved from territory
obtained through war or purchase by the U.S. government. One set of exceptions comprises Vermont,
Texas, and Hawaii: each was an independent republic before joining the union. Another set of
exceptions comprises those states created out of the territory of the original thirteen. Early in the
country's history, three states were created in this manner: Kentucky from Virginia; Tennessee from
North Carolina; and Maine from Massachusetts. During the American Civil War, West Virginia broke
away from Virginia. The most recent state—Hawaii—achieved statehood on August 21, 1959. The
states do not have the right to secede from the union.
The states compose the vast bulk of the U.S. land mass; the two other areas considered integral parts of
the country are the District of Columbia, the federal district where the capital, Washington, is located;
and Palmyra Atoll, an uninhabited but incorporated territory in the Pacific Ocean. The United States also
possesses five major overseas territories: Puerto Rico and the United States Virgin Islands in the
Caribbean; and American Samoa, Guam, and the Northern Mariana Islands in the Pacific. Those born in
the territories (except for American Samoa) possess U.S. citizenship.
Foreign relations and military

Main articles: Foreign policy of the United States and Military of the United States
President George W. Bush (right) with British Prime Minister Gordon

Brown
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The United States exercises global economic, political, and military influence. It is a permanent member
of the United Nations Security Council and New York City hosts the United Nations Headquarters.
Almost all countries have embassies in Washington, D.C., and many host consulates around the country.
Likewise, nearly all nations host American diplomatic missions. However, Cuba, Iran, North Korea,
Bhutan, Sudan, and the Republic of China (Taiwan) do not have formal diplomatic relations with the
United States.
The United States enjoys a special relationship with the United Kingdom and strong ties with Australia,
New Zealand, Japan, Israel, and fellow NATO members. It also works closely with its neighbors
through the Organization of American States and free trade agreements such as the trilateral North
American Free Trade Agreement with Canada and Mexico. In 2005, the United States spent $27 billion
on official development assistance, the most in the world. However, as a share of gross national income
(GNI), the U.S. contribution of 0.22% ranked twentieth of twenty-two donor states. Nongovernmental
sources such as private foundations, corporations, and educational and religious institutions donated $96
billion. The combined total of $123 billion is also the most in the world and seventh as a percentage of
GNI.[47]
The USS Ronald Reagan supercarrier
The president holds the title of commander-in-chief of the nation's armed

forces and appoints its leaders, the secretary of defense and the Joint
Chiefs of Staff. The United States Department of Defense administers the
armed forces, including the Army, Navy, Marine Corps, and Air Force. The Coast Guard is run by the
Department of Homeland Security in peacetime and the Department of the Navy in time of war. In 2005,
the military had 1.38 million personnel on active duty,[48] along with several hundred thousand each in
the Reserves and the National Guard for a total of 2.3 million troops. The Department of Defense also
employs about 700,000 civilians, disregarding contractors. Military service is voluntary, though
conscription may occur in wartime through the Selective Service System. American forces can be
rapidly deployed by the Air Force's large fleet of transport aircraft and aerial refueling tankers, the
Navy's fleet of eleven active aircraft carriers, and Marine Expeditionary Units at sea in the Navy's
Atlantic and Pacific fleets. Outside of the United States, the military is deployed to 770 bases and
facilities, on every continent except Antarctica.[49] The extent of this global military presence has
prompted scholars to describe the United States as maintaining an "empire of bases."[50]
Total U.S. military spending in 2006, over $528 billion, was 46% of global military spending and
greater than the next fourteen largest national military expenditures combined. (In purchasing power
parity terms, it was larger than the next six such expenditures combined.) The per capita spending of
$1,756 was about ten times the world average.[51] At 4.06% of GDP, U.S. military spending is ranked
27th out of 172 nations.[52] The proposed base Department of Defense budget for 2009, $515.4 billion, is
a 7% increase over 2008 and a nearly 74% increase over 2001.[53] The estimated cost of the Iraq War to
the United States through 2016 is $2.267 trillion.[54] As of December 12, 2008, the United States had
suffered 4,209 military fatalities during the war and almost 31,000 wounded.[55]
Economy
Main article: Economy of the United States
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The United States has a capitalist mixed economy,
Economic indicators which is fueled by abundant natural resources, a
well-developed infrastructure, and high
productivity. According to the International
Unemployment 6.7%November 2008[56] Monetary Fund, the U.S. GDP of $14.3 trillion
constitutes 23% of the gross world product at
market exchange rates and almost 21% of the gross
GDP growth -0.3%3Q 2008[57] [2.2%2007[1]] world product at purchasing power parity (PPP).[4]
The largest national GDP in the world, it was about
4% less than the combined GDP of the European
Union at PPP in 2007.[61] The country ranks eighth
CPI inflation 3.7%October 2007–October 2008[58]
in the world in nominal GDP per capita and fourth
in GDP per capita at PPP.[4] The United States is the
largest importer of goods and third largest exporter,
National debt $10.656 trillionDecember 9, 2008[59] though exports per capita are relatively low. Canada,
China, Mexico, Japan, and Germany are its top
trading partners.[62] The leading export commodity is
Poverty 12.5%2007[60] electrical machinery, while vehicles constitute the
leading import.[63] After an expansion that lasted just
over six years, the U.S. economy has been in recession since December 2007.[64]
The private sector constitutes the bulk of the economy, with government activity accounting for 12.4%
of GDP. The economy is postindustrial, with the service sector contributing 67.8% of GDP.[65] The
leading business field by gross business receipts is wholesale and retail trade; by net income it is finance
and insurance.[66] The United States remains an industrial power, with chemical products the leading
manufacturing field.[67] The United States is the third largest producer of oil in the world, as well as its
largest importer.[68] It is the world's number one producer of electrical and nuclear energy, as well as
liquid natural gas, sulfur, phosphates, and salt. While agriculture accounts for just under 1% of GDP,[65]
the United States is the world's top producer of corn[69] and soybeans.[70] The New York Stock Exchange
is the world's largest by dollar volume.[71] Coca-Cola and McDonald's are the two most recognized
brands in the world.[72]
Wall Street is home to the New York Stock Exchange
In 2005, 155 million persons were employed with earnings, of whom 80%
had full-time jobs.[73] The majority, 79%, were employed in the service
sector.[1] With about 15.5 million people, health care and social assistance
is the leading field of employment.[74] About 12% of workers are
unionized, compared to 30% in Western Europe.[75] The World Bank ranks the United States first in the
ease of hiring and firing workers.[76] Between 1973 and 2003, a year's work for the average American
grew by 199 hours.[77] Partly as a result, the United States maintains the highest labor productivity in the
world. However, it no longer leads in productivity per hour as it did from the 1950s through the early
1990s; workers in Norway, France, Belgium, and Luxembourg are now more productive per hour.[78]
The United States ranks third in the World Bank's Ease of Doing Business Index.[76] Compared to
Europe, U.S. property and corporate income tax rates are generally higher, while labor and, particularly,
consumption tax rates are lower.[79]
Income and human development

Research Trang15
Main articles: Income in the United States, Income inequality in the United States, Poverty in
the United States, and Affluence in the United States
Inflation adjusted percentage increase in after-tax

household income for the top 1% and four quintiles,
between 1979 and 2005 (gains by top 1% are reflected
by bottom bar; bottom quintile by top bar)[80]
According to the United States Census Bureau, the

pretax median household income in 2007 was $50,233.
The median ranged from $68,080 in Maryland to
$36,338 in Mississippi.[60] Using purchasing power
parity exchange rates, the overall median is similar to the most affluent cluster of developed nations.
After declining sharply during the middle of the 20th century, poverty rates have plateaued since the
early 1970s, with 11–15% of Americans below the poverty line every year, and 58.5% spending at least
one year in poverty between the ages of 25 and 75.[5][81] In 2007, 37.3 million Americans lived in
poverty.[60] The U.S. welfare state is now among the most austere in the developed world, reducing both
relative poverty and absolute poverty by considerably less than the mean for rich nations.[82][83] While the
American welfare state does well in reducing poverty among the elderly,[84] the young receive relatively
little assistance.[85] A 2007 UNICEF study of children's well-being in twenty-one industrialized nations
ranked the United States next to last.[86]
Despite strong increases in productivity, low unemployment, and low inflation, income gains since 1980
have been slower than in previous decades, less widely shared, and accompanied by increased economic
insecurity. Between 1947 and 1979, real median income rose by over 80% for all classes, with the
incomes of poor Americans rising faster than those of the rich.[87][88] Median household income has
increased for all classes since 1980,[89] largely owing to more dual-earner households, the closing of the
gender gap, and longer work hours, but growth has been slower and strongly tilted toward the very top
(see graph).[82][87][90] Consequently, the share of income of the top 1%—21.8% of total reported income in
2005—has more than doubled since 1980,[91] leaving the United States with the greatest income
inequality among developed nations.[82][92] The top 1% pays 27.6% of all federal taxes; the top 10% pays
54.7%.[93] Wealth, like income, is highly concentrated: The richest 10% of the adult population possesses
69.8% of the country's household wealth, the second-highest share among developed nations. [94] The top
1% possesses 33.4% of net wealth.[95]
Science and technology
Main articles: Science and technology in the United States and Technological and industrial
history of the United States
Astronaut Buzz Aldrin during the first human landing on the Moon, 1969
The United States has been a leader in scientific research and

technological innovation since the late 19th century. In 1876, Alexander
Graham Bell was awarded the first U.S. patent for the telephone. Thomas
Edison's laboratory developed the phonograph, the first long-lasting light
bulb, and the first viable movie camera. Nikola Tesla pioneered alternating
current, the AC motor, and radio. In the early 20th century, the automobile
Research Trang16
companies of Ransom E. Olds and Henry Ford promoted the assembly line. The Wright brothers, in
1903, made the first sustained and controlled heavier-than-air powered flight.[96] The rise of Nazism in
the 1930s led many European scientists, including Albert Einstein and Enrico Fermi, to immigrate to the
United States. During World War II, the Manhattan Project developed nuclear weapons, ushering in the
Atomic Age. The Space Race produced rapid advances in rocketry, materials science, and computers.
The United States largely developed the ARPANET and its successor, the Internet. Today, the bulk of
research and development funding, 64%, comes from the private sector.[97] The United States leads the
world in scientific research papers and impact factor.[98] Americans possess high levels of technological
consumer goods,[99] and almost half of U.S. households have broadband Internet access.[100] The country
is the primary developer and grower of genetically modified food; more than half of the world's land
planted with biotech crops is in the United States.[101]
Transportation
Main article: Transportation in the United States
Interstate 80, the second-longest U.S. Interstate highway, runs from California to New Jersey
As of 2003, there were 759 automobiles per 1,000 Americans, compared to 472 per 1,000 inhabitants of
the European Union the following year.[102] About 40% of personal vehicles are vans, SUVs, or light
trucks.[103] The average American adult (accounting for all drivers and nondrivers) spends 55 minutes
driving every day, traveling 29 miles (47 km).[104] The U.S. intercity passenger rail system is relatively
weak.[105] Only 9% of total U.S. work trips use mass transit, compared to 38.8% in Europe.[106] Bicycle
usage is minimal, well below European levels.[107] The civil airline industry is entirely privatized, while
most major airports are publicly owned. The five largest airlines in the world by passengers carried are
American; American Airlines is number one.[108] Of the world's thirty busiest passenger airports, sixteen
are in the United States, including the busiest, Hartsfield-Jackson Atlanta International Airport (ATL).
[109]
Energy
Main articles: Energy use in the United States and Energy policy of the United States
The United States energy market is 29,000 terawatt hours per year. Energy consumption per capita is
7.8 tons of oil equivalent per year, compared to Germany's 4.2 tons and Canada's 8.3 tons. In 2005, 40%
of this energy came from petroleum, 23% from coal, and 22% from natural gas. The remainder was
supplied by nuclear power and renewable energy sources.[110] The United States is the world's largest
consumer of petroleum.[111] For decades, nuclear power has played a limited role relative to many other
developed countries. Recently, applications for new nuclear plants have been filed.[112]
Demographics
Main articles: Demographics of the United States and Immigration to the United States
Largest ancestry groups by county, 2000
The United States population is projected by the U.S. Census Bureau to be

305,928,000,[2] including an estimated 11.2 million illegal immigrants.[113]
The United States is the third most populous nation in the world, after
Research Trang17
China and India. Its population growth rate is 0.89%, compared to the European Union's 0.16%.[114]
[1]
The birth rate of 14.16 per 1,000, 30% below the world average, is higher than any European country's
except Albania and Ireland.[115] In fiscal year 2007, 1.05 million immigrants were granted legal
residence. Mexico has been the leading source of new residents for over two decades; since 1998, China,
India, and the Philippines have been in the top four sending countries every year.[116] The United States is
the only industrialized nation in which large population increases are projected.[117]
The United States has a very diverse population—thirty-one ancestry groups have more than a million
members.[118] White Americans are the largest racial group, with German Americans, Irish Americans,
and English Americans constituting three of the country's four largest ancestry groups.[118] African
Americans are the nation's largest racial minority and third largest ancestry group.[119][118] Asian
Americans are the country's second largest racial minority; the two largest Asian American ancestry
groups are Chinese and Filipino.[118] In 2007, the U.S. population included an estimated 4.5 million
people with some American Indian or Alaskan native ancestry (2.9 million exclusively of such ancestry)
and over 1 million with some native Hawaiian or Pacific island ancestry (0.5 million exclusively).[119][120]
The population growth of Hispanic and Latino

Race/Ethnicity (2007) [119] Americans (the terms are officially interchangeable) is
a major demographic trend. The 45.4 million
Americans of Hispanic descent are identified as
White 80.0% sharing a distinct "ethnicity" by the Census Bureau;
64% of Hispanic Americans are of Mexican descent.
[121]
Between 2000 and 2007, the country's Hispanic
African American 12.8% population increased 27% while the non-Hispanic
population rose just 3.6%.[119] Much of this growth is
from immigration; as of 2006, 12.1% of the U.S.
population was foreign-born, with 54% of that figure
Asian 4.4%
born in Latin America.[122] Fertility is also a factor; the
average Hispanic woman gives birth to three children
in her lifetime. The comparable fertility rate is 2.2 for
Native American and Alaskan Native 1.0% non-Hispanic black women and 1.8 for non-Hispanic
white women (below the replacement rate of 2.1).[117]
Minorities (as defined by the Census Bureau, all those
Native Hawaiian and Pacific Islander 0.2% beside non-Hispanic, non-multiracial whites)
constitute 34% of the population; they are projected to
be the majority by 2042.[123]
Multiracial 1.6%
About 79% of Americans live in urban areas (as
defined by the Census Bureau, such areas include the
Hispanic or Latino (of any race) 15.1% suburbs); about half of those reside in cities with
populations over 50,000.[124] In 2006, 254 incorporated
places had populations over 100,000, nine cities had
more than 1 million residents, and four global cities had over 2 million (New York City, Los Angeles,
Chicago, and Houston).[125] There are fifty metropolitan areas with populations greater than 1 million.[126]
Of the fifty fastest-growing metro areas, twenty-three are in the West and twenty-five in the South. The
metro areas of Atlanta, Dallas, Houston, Phoenix, and Riverside all grew by more than three-quarters of
a million people between 2000 and 2006.[127]
Leading population centers

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Pop. [125][128]
Metro Metro area Region [129]
Rank Core city State

area pop.[126]
rank
1 New York New York 8,250,567 1 18,818,536 Northeast
City
2 Los Angeles California 3,849,378 2 12,950,129 West
New York City
3 Chicago Illinois 2,833,321 3 9,505,748 Midwest
4 Houston Texas 2,169,248 6 5,539,949 South
5 Phoenix Arizona 1,512,986 13 4,039,182 West
6 Philadelphia Pennsylvania 1,448,394 5 5,826,742 Northeast
7 San Antonio Texas 1,296,682 29 1,942,217 South Los Angeles
8 San Diego California 1,256,951 17 2,941,454 West
9 Dallas Texas 1,232,940 4 6,003,967 South
10 San Jose California 929,936 30 1,787,123 West
2006 U.S. Census Bureau estimates
Language
Main articles: Languages of the United States and Language Spoken at Home (U.S. Census)
Languages (2005)[130] English is the de facto national language. Although there is no

official language at the federal level, some laws—such as U.S.
naturalization requirements—standardize English. In 2005,
English (only) 216.2 million about 216 million, or 81% of the population aged five years and
older, spoke only English at home. Spanish, spoken by 12% of
the population at home, is the second most common language
Spanish, incl. Creole 32.2 million and the most widely taught foreign language.[130][131] Some
Americans advocate making English the country's official
language, as it is in at least twenty-eight states.[132] Both
Hawaiian and English are official languages in Hawaii by state
Chinese 2.3 million
law.[133] While neither has an official language, New Mexico has
laws providing for the use of both English and Spanish, as
Louisiana does for English and French.[134] Other states, such as
French, incl. Creole 1.9 million
California, mandate the publication of Spanish versions of
certain government documents including court forms.[135]
Several insular territories grant official recognition to their
Tagalog 1.4 million native languages, along with English: Samoan and Chamorro
are recognized by Samoa and Guam, respectively; Carolinian
and Chamorro are recognized by the Northern Mariana Islands;
Vietnamese 1.1 million Spanish is an official language of Puerto Rico.
Research
German 1.1 million Trang19
Religion
Main articles: Religion in the United States, History of religion in the United States, Freedom of
religion in the United States, Separation of church and state in the United States, and List of
religious movements that began in the United States
A church in the largely Protestant Bible Belt
The United States is an officially secular nation; the First Amendment of the U.S.
Constitution guarantees the free exercise of religion and forbids the establishment of
any religious governance. In a 2002 study, 59% of Americans said that religion
played a "very important role in their lives," a far higher figure than that of any other
[136]
wealthy nation. According to a 2007 survey, 78.4% of adults identified themselves as Christian,[137]
down from 86.4% in 1990.[138] Protestant denominations accounted for 51.3%, while Roman
Catholicism, at 23.9%, was the largest individual denomination. The study categorizes white
evangelicals, 26.3% of the population, as the country's largest religious cohort;[137] another study
estimates evangelicals of all races at 30–35%.[139] The total reporting non-Christian religions in 2007 was
4.7%, up from 3.3% in 1990.[138] The leading non-Christian faiths were Judaism (1.7%), Buddhism
(0.7%), Islam (0.6%), Hinduism (0.4%), and Unitarian Universalism (0.3%).[137] From 8.2% in 1990,[138]
16.1% in 2007 described themselves as agnostic, atheist, or simply having no religion,[137] still
significantly less than in other postindustrial countries such as Britain (2005: 44%) and Sweden (2005:
85%).[140]
Education
Main articles: Education in the United States, Educational attainment in the United States, and
Higher education in the United States
The University of Virginia, designed by Thomas Jefferson, a UNESCO

World Heritage Site
American public education is operated by state and local governments,

regulated by the United States Department of Education through
restrictions on federal grants. Children are required in most states to attend school from the age of six or
seven (generally, kindergarten or first grade) until they turn eighteen (generally bringing them through
twelfth grade, the end of high school); some states allow students to leave school at sixteen or seventeen.
[141]
About 12% of children are enrolled in parochial or nonsectarian private schools. Just over 2% of
children are homeschooled.[142] The United States has many competitive private and public institutions of
higher education, as well as local community colleges with open admission policies. Of Americans
twenty-five and older, 84.6% graduated from high school, 52.6% attended some college, 27.2% earned a
bachelor's degree, and 9.6% earned graduate degrees.[143] The basic literacy rate is approximately 99%.[1]
[144]
The United Nations assigns the United States an Education Index of 0.97, tying it for 12th in the
world.[145]
Health
Main articles: Health care in the United States, Health care reform in the United States, and
Health insurance in the United States
Research Trang20
[146]
The United States life expectancy of 77.8 years at birth is a year shorter than the overall figure in
Western Europe, and three to four years lower than that of Norway, Switzerland, and Canada.[147] Over
the past two decades, the country's rank in life expectancy has dropped from 11th to 42nd in the world.
[148]
The infant mortality rate of 6.37 per thousand likewise places the United States 42nd out of 221
countries, behind all of Western Europe.[149] U.S. cancer survival rates are the highest in the world.[150]
Approximately one-third of the adult population is obese and an additional third is overweight;[151] the
obesity rate, the highest in the industrialized world, has more than doubled in the last quarter-century. [152]
Obesity-related type 2 diabetes is considered epidemic by health care professionals.[153] The U.S.
adolescent pregnancy rate, 79.8 per 1,000 women, is nearly four times that of France and five times that
of Germany.[154] Abortion, legal on demand, is highly controversial. Many states ban public funding of
the procedure and restrict late-term abortions, require parental notification for minors, and mandate a
waiting period. While the abortion rate is falling, the abortion ratio of 241 per 1,000 live births and
abortion rate of 15 per 1,000 women aged 15–44 remain higher than those of most Western nations.[155]
The Texas Medical Center in Houston, the world's largest medical

center[156]
The U.S. health care system far outspends any other nation's, measured in
both per capita spending and percentage of GDP.[157] The World Health
Organization ranked the U.S. health care system in 2000 as first in responsiveness, but 37th in overall
performance. The United States is a leader in medical innovation. In 2004, the nonindustrial sector spent
three times as much as Europe per capita on biomedical research.[158]
Unlike in all other developed countries, health care coverage in the United States is not universal, and
largely relies on private funding. In 2004, private insurance paid for 36% of personal health
expenditures, private out-of-pocket payments covered 15%, and federal, state, and local governments
paid for 44%.[159] In 2005, 46.6 million Americans, 15.9% of the population, were uninsured, 5.4 million
more than in 2001. The main cause of this decline is the drop in the number of Americans with
employer-sponsored health insurance.[160] The subject of uninsured and underinsured Americans—
estimates of which vary widely—is a major political issue.[161] In 2006, Massachusetts became the first
state to mandate universal health insurance.[162]
Crime and law enforcement
Main articles: Policing in the United States, Law of the United States, Crime in the United
States, Prisons in the United States, and Capital punishment in the United States
Homicide rates in selected countries, 2004
Law enforcement in the United States is primarily the

responsibility of local police and sheriff's departments,
with state police providing broader services. Federal
agencies such as the Federal Bureau of Investigation
(FBI) and the U.S. Marshals Service have specialized
duties. At the federal level and in almost every state,
jurisprudence operates on a common law system. State courts conduct most criminal trials; federal
courts handle certain designated crimes as well as appeals from state systems.
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Among developed nations, the United States has above-average levels of violent crime and particularly
high levels of gun violence and homicide.[163] In 2007, there were 5.6 murders per 100,000 persons, [164]
three times the rate in neighboring Canada.[165] The U.S. homicide rate, which decreased by 42%
between 1991 and 1999, has been roughly steady since.[164]
The United States has the highest documented incarceration rate[166] and total prison population[167] in the
world. At the start of 2008, more than 2.3 million people were incarcerated, more than one in every 100
adults.[168] The current rate is about seven times the 1980 figure.[169] African American males are jailed at
about six times the rate of white males and three times the rate of Hispanic males.[166] In 2006, the U.S.
incarceration rate was over three times the figure in Poland, the Organisation for Economic Co-
operation and Development (OECD) country with the next highest rate.[170] The country's high rate of
incarceration is largely due to sentencing and drug policies.[166][171] Though it has been abolished in most
Western nations, capital punishment is sanctioned in the United States for certain federal and military
crimes, and in thirty-seven states. Since 1976, when the U.S. Supreme Court reinstated the death penalty
after a four-year moratorium, there have been over 1,000 executions. [172] In 2006, the country had the
sixth highest number of executions in the world, following China, Iran, Pakistan, Iraq, and Sudan.[173] In
December 2007, New Jersey became the first state to abolish the death penalty since the 1976 Supreme
Court decision.
Culture
Main articles: Culture of the United States and Social class in the United States
American cultural icons: apple pie, baseball, and the American flag
The United States is a multicultural nation, home to a wide variety of

ethnic groups, traditions, and values.[7][174] There is no "American"
ethnicity; aside from the now small Native American and Native Hawaiian
populations, nearly all Americans or their ancestors immigrated within the past five centuries. [175] The
culture held in common by most Americans is referred to as mainstream American culture, a Western
culture largely derived from the traditions of Western European migrants, beginning with the early
English and Dutch settlers. German, Irish, and Scottish cultures have also been very influential.[7]
Certain cultural attributes of Mandé and Wolof slaves from West Africa were adopted by the American
mainstream; based more on the traditions of Central African Bantu slaves, a distinct African American
culture developed that would also deeply affect the mainstream.[176] Westward expansion integrated the
Creoles and Cajuns of Louisiana and the Hispanos of the Southwest and brought close contact with the
culture of Mexico. Large-scale immigration in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries from
Southern and Eastern Europe introduced many new cultural elements. More recent immigration from
Asia and especially Latin America has had broad impact. The resulting cultural mix may be described as
a homogeneous melting pot, or as a pluralistic salad bowl in which immigrants and their descendants
retain distinctive cultural characteristics.[7]
While the mainstream culture holds that the United States is a classless society,[177] scholars identify
significant differences between the country's social classes, affecting socialization, language, and values.
[178]
The American middle and professional class has initiated many contemporary social trends such as
modern feminism, environmentalism, and multiculturalism.[179] Americans' self-images, social
viewpoints, and cultural expectations are associated with their occupations to an unusually close degree.
[180]
While Americans tend greatly to value socioeconomic achievement, being ordinary or average is
generally seen as a positive attribute.[181] Though the American Dream, or the perception that Americans
Research Trang22
enjoy high social mobility, plays a key role in attracting immigrants, some analysts find that the United
States has less social mobility than Western Europe and Canada.[182]
Women now mostly work outside the home and receive a majority of bachelor's degrees.[183] In 2005,
28% of households were married childless couples, the most common arrangement.[184] The extension of
marital rights to homosexuals is contentious—several states permit civil unions in lieu of marriage.
Between 2003 and 2008, the supreme courts of Massachusetts, California, and Connecticut ruled those
states' bans on same-sex marriage unconstitutional. The California ruling was superseded by a state
constitutional amendment, approved by voters in November 2008, that defines marriage as between a
man and woman. Between 2004 and 2008, voters in 13 other states approved similar constitutional bans
on same-sex marriage.
Popular media
Main articles: Cinema of the United States, Television in the United States, and Music of the
United States
The Hollywood sign
The world's first commercial motion picture exhibition was given in New
York City in 1894, using Thomas Edison's Kinetoscope. The next year
saw the first commercial screening of a projected film, also in New York,
and the United States was in the forefront of sound film's development in
the following decades. Since the early 20th century, the U.S. film industry has largely been based in and
around Hollywood, California. Director D. W. Griffith was central to the development of film grammar
and Orson Welles's Citizen Kane (1941) is frequently cited as the greatest film of all time.[185] American
screen actors like John Wayne and Marilyn Monroe have become iconic figures, while
producer/entrepreneur Walt Disney was a leader in both animated film and movie merchandising. The
major film studios of Hollywood have produced the most commercially successful movies in history,
such as Star Wars (1977) and Titanic (1997), and the products of Hollywood today dominate the global
film industry.[186]
Americans are the heaviest television viewers in the world,[187] and the average viewing time continues
to rise, reaching five hours a day in 2006.[188] The four major broadcast networks are all commercial
entities. Americans listen to radio programming, also largely commercialized, on average just over two-
and-a-half hours a day.[189] Aside from web portals and web search engines, the most popular websites
are eBay, MySpace, Amazon.com, The New York Times, and Apple Inc.[190] Twelve million Americans
keep a blog.[191]
The rhythmic and lyrical styles of African American music have deeply influenced American music at
large, distinguishing it from European traditions. Elements from folk idioms such as the blues and what
is now known as old-time music were adopted and transformed into popular genres with global
audiences. Jazz was developed by innovators such as Louis Armstrong and Duke Ellington early in the
20th century. Country music, rhythm and blues, and rock and roll emerged
between the 1920s and 1950s. In the 1960s, Bob Dylan emerged from the
folk revival to become one of America's greatest songwriters and James
Brown led the development of funk. More recent American creations
Research Trang23
include hip hop and house music. American pop stars such as Elvis Presley, Michael Jackson, and
Madonna have become global celebrities.[192]
Literature, philosophy, and the arts
Main articles: American literature, Visual arts of the United States, Theater in the United States,
and American classical music
Writer Jack Kerouac, one of the best known figures of the Beat Generation
In the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, American art and literature took most of its cues from
Europe. Writers such as Nathaniel Hawthorne, Edgar Allan Poe, and Henry David Thoreau established a
distinctive American literary voice by the middle of the 19th century. Mark Twain and poet Walt
Whitman were major figures in the century's second half; Emily Dickinson, virtually unknown during
her lifetime, is now recognized as an essential American poet. A work seen as capturing fundamental
aspects of the national experience and character—such as Herman Melville's Moby-Dick (1851), Twain's
The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (1885), and F. Scott Fitzgerald's The Great Gatsby (1925)—may
be dubbed the "Great American Novel."
Eleven U.S. citizens have won the Nobel Prize in Literature, most recently Toni Morrison in 1993.
Ernest Hemingway, the 1954 Nobel laureate, is often named as one of the most influential writers of the
20th century.[193] Popular literary genres such as the Western and hardboiled crime fiction developed in
the United States. The Beat Generation writers opened up new literary approaches, as have
postmodernist authors such as John Barth, Thomas Pynchon, and Don DeLillo.
The transcendentalists, led by Ralph Waldo Emerson and Thoreau, established the first major American
philosophical movement. After the Civil War, Charles Peirce and then William James and John Dewey
were leaders in the development of pragmatism. In the 20th century, the work of W. V. Quine and
Richard Rorty brought analytic philosophy to the fore of U.S. academics. Ayn Rand's objectivism won
mainstream popularity.
In the visual arts, the Hudson River School was a mid-19th-century movement in the tradition of
European naturalism. The 1913 Armory Show in New York City, an exhibition of European modernist
art, shocked the public and transformed the U.S. art scene. [194] Georgia O'Keeffe, Marsden Hartley, and
others experimented with new styles, displaying a highly individualistic sensibility. Major artistic
movements such as the abstract expressionism of Jackson Pollock and Willem de Kooning and the pop
art of Andy Warhol and Roy Lichtenstein developed largely in the United States. The tide of modernism
and then postmodernism has brought fame to American architects such as Frank Lloyd Wright, Philip
Johnson, and Frank Gehry.
New York City's Broadway theater district is host to many popular shows
One of the first major promoters of American theater was impresario P. T.

Barnum, who began operating a lower Manhattan entertainment complex
in 1841. The team of Harrigan and Hart produced a series of popular
musical comedies in New York starting in the late 1870s. In the 20th
century, the modern musical form emerged on Broadway; the songs of musical theater composers such
Research Trang24
as Irving Berlin, Cole Porter, and Stephen Sondheim have become pop standards. Playwright Eugene
O'Neill won the Nobel literature prize in 1936; other acclaimed U.S. dramatists include multiple Pulitzer
Prize winners Tennessee Williams, Edward Albee, and August Wilson.
Though largely overlooked at the time, Charles Ives's work of the 1910s established him as the first
major U.S. composer in the classical tradition; other experimentalists such as Henry Cowell and John
Cage created an American approach to classical composition. Aaron Copland and George Gershwin
developed a unique synthesis of popular and classical music. Choreographers Isadora Duncan and
Martha Graham helped create modern dance, while George Balanchine and Jerome Robbins were
leaders in 20th century ballet. Americans have long been important in the modern artistic medium of
photography, with major photographers including Alfred Stieglitz, Edward Steichen and Ansel Adams.
The newspaper comic strip and the comic book are both U.S. innovations. Superman, the quintessential
comic book superhero, has become an American icon.
Food
Main article: Cuisine of the United States
An example of an American strip mall, with restaurants featuring Mexican- and Chinese-based food.
Mainstream American culinary arts are similar to those in other Western countries. Wheat is the primary
cereal grain. Traditional American cuisine uses ingredients such as turkey, white-tailed deer venison,
potatoes, sweet potatoes, corn, squash, and maple syrup, indigenous foods employed by Native
Americans and early European settlers. Slow-cooked pork and beef barbecue, crab cakes, potato chips,
and chocolate chip cookies are distinctively American styles. Soul food, developed by African slaves, is
popular around the South and among many African Americans elsewhere. Syncretic cuisines such as
Louisiana creole, Cajun, and Tex-Mex are regionally important. Characteristic dishes such as apple pie,
fried chicken, pizza, hamburgers, and hot dogs derive from the recipes of various immigrants. French
fries, Mexican dishes such as burritos and tacos, and pasta dishes freely adapted from Italian sources are
widely consumed.[195] Americans generally prefer coffee to tea. Marketing by U.S. industries is largely
responsible for making orange juice and milk ubiquitous breakfast beverages.[196] During the 1980s and
1990s, Americans' caloric intake rose 24%;[195] frequent dining at fast food outlets is associated with
what health officials call the American "obesity epidemic." Highly sweetened soft drinks are widely
popular; sugared beverages account for 9% of the average American's caloric intake.[197]
Sports
Main article: Sports in the United States
The Pro Bowl (2006), American football's annual all-star game
Since the late 19th century, baseball has been regarded as the national
sport; American football, basketball, and ice hockey are the country's three
other leading professional team sports. College football and basketball
attract large audiences. Football is now by several measures the most popular spectator sport.[198] Boxing
and horse racing were once the most watched individual sports, but they have been eclipsed by golf and
auto racing, particularly NASCAR. Soccer is played widely at the youth and amateur levels and is
Research Trang25
growing in popularity as a professional spectator sport. Tennis and many outdoor sports are popular as
well.
While most major U.S. sports have evolved out of European practices, basketball, volleyball,
skateboarding, and snowboarding are American inventions. Lacrosse and surfing arose from Native
American and Native Hawaiian activities that predate Western contact. Eight Olympic Games have
taken place in the United States. The United States has won 2,301 medals at the Summer Olympic
Games, more than any other country,[199] and 216 in the Winter Olympic Games, the second most.[200]
See also
United States portal
North America portal
Main article: List of United States-related topics
• List of international rankings

• Lists of country-related topics
• Topic outline of geography
• Topic outline of North America
External links
Find more about United States on Government
Wikipedia's sister projects:
• Official U.S. Government Web Portal Gateway to
Dictionary definitions government sites
• House Official site of the United States House of
Representatives
Textbooks
• Library of Congress Official site of the Library of
Congress
Quotations
• Senate Official site of the United States Senate
• Supreme Court Official site of the Supreme Court of the
Source texts
United States
• White House Official site of the President of the United
Images and media States
News stories Overviews and Data
Learning resources • InfoUSA Portal to U.S. Information Agency resources

• State Energy Profiles Economic, environmental, and energy data for each state
• State Fact Sheets Population, employment, income, and farm data from the U.S. Economic
Research Service
• The 50 States of the U.S.A. Collected informational links for each state
• U.S. Census Housing and Economic Statistics Wide-ranging data from the U.S. Census Bureau
• United States entry at The World Factbook
• United States Encyclopaedia Britannica entry
• United States at the Open Directory Project
History
Research Trang26
• Historical Documents Collected by the National Center for Public Policy Research
• U.S. National Mottos: History and Constitutionality Analysis by the Ontario Consultants on
Religious Tolerance
• USA Collected links to historical data
Maps
• National Atlas of the United States Official maps from the U.S. Department of the Interior
• United States Satellite view at WikiMapia (not affiliated with Wikipedia/Wikimedia Foundation)
• Wikimedia Atlas of the United States
Other
• U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services Official government site

• United States travel guide from Wikitravel
Research Trang27
Research Trang28
Research Trang29
THE END OF UNITED STATES

HANOI 19122008
SYHUNG2020@GMAIL.COM
Research Trang30
China
Jump to: navigation, search

This article is about Chinese civilization. For the modern political state comprising Mainland China,
Hong Kong and Macau, see People's Republic of China. For the modern political state comprising
Taiwan, Penghu, Kinmen, and Matsu, see Republic of China. For other uses, see China
(disambiguation).
China (traditional Chinese: 中國 ; simplified Chinese: 中

国 ; Tongyong Pinyin: Jhongguó; Hanyu Pinyin:
Zhōngguó (help·info); Wade-Giles (Mandarin):
Chung¹kuo²) is a cultural region, an ancient civilization,
and, depending on perspective, a national or multinational
entity extending over a large area in East Asia.
China has one of the world's oldest people and continuous

civilizations, consisting of states and cultures dating back
more than six millennia. It has the world's longest
continuously used written language system, and is the
source of many major inventions, such as what the British
scholar and biochemist Joseph Needham called the "four
great inventions of Ancient China": paper, the compass,
gunpowder, and printing. Historically, China's cultural
sphere has extended across East Asia as a whole, with
Chinese religion, customs, and writing systems being
adopted to varying degrees by neighbors such as Japan,
Korea and Vietnam. The first evidence of human presence
in the region was found at the Zhoukoudian cave and is one
of the first known specimens of Homo Erectus, now
commonly known as the Peking Man, estimated to have
lived approximately from 300,000 to 550,000 years ago.
Noticeably, it is also known that the Peking Man was able
to control and use Fire.
The last Chinese Civil War has resulted in two political

entities using the name China:
the People's Republic of China (PRC), commonly

•
known as China, has control over mainland China,
and the largely self-governing territories of Hong
Kong (since 1997) and Macau (since 1999).
• the Republic of China (ROC), commonly known as Taiwan, has control over the islands of
Taiwan, Pescadores, Kinmen, and Matsu.
Research Trang31
Etymology
Contents Main article: Names of China
• 1 Etymology
• 2 History
• 3 Territory and environment
• 4 Economy
• 5 Society
• 6 Demography
• 7 Sports and recreation The traditional (中國) and simplified (中国) writings of "China"
• 8 Science and technology
• 9 See also
• 10 References China
• 11 External links English and many other languages use various forms of the name
"China" and the prefix "Sino-" or "Sin-". These forms are thought
to derive from the name of the Qin Dynasty that first unified the country (221–206 BCE). The
pronunciation of "Qin" is similar to the phonetic "cheen", which is considered the possible root of the
word "China".[1] However, the Chinese themselves never referred to their nation as the Qin. Instead, the
Mandarin pronunciation is "Zhong Guo."
'China' was referred to by many other names, such as Sinae, Seres, Kina, Cathay, etc, by western
historians before the modern period.
Zhōngguó the Middle Kingdom
China is known as 'Zhōngguó' in Mandarin and pinyin (中國 in traditional chinese or 中国 in simplified
chinese). The character zhōng means "middle" or central; the letter, guó, means land, kingdom or
country. An appropriate English translation would be "middle kingdom".
This article contains Chinese text. Without proper rendering

support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols
instead of Chinese characters.
The name "Zhōngguó" first appeared in the Classic of History (6th century BCE), and was used to refer
to the late Zhou Dynasty, as they believed that they were the "center of civilization",[2] while peoples in
the four cardinals were called Eastern Yi, Southern Man, Western Rong and Northern Di respectively.
Some texts imply that "Zhōngguó" was originally meant to refer to the capital of the sovereign, to differ
from the capital of his vassals.[3] The use of "Zhōngguó" implied a claim of political legitimacy, and
"Zhōngguó" was often used by states who saw themselves as the sole legitimate successor to previous
Chinese dynasties; for example, in the era of the Southern Song Dynasty, both the Jin Dynasty and the
Southern Song state claimed to be "Zhōngguó".[4]
"Zhōngguó" came to official use as an abbreviation for the Republic of China (Zhonghua Minguo) after
the government's establishment in 1912. Since the People's Republic of China, established in 1949, now
controls the great majority of the area encompassed within the traditional concept of "China", the
Research Trang32
People's Republic is the political unit most
commonly identified with the abbreviated name
History of China "Zhōngguó".[5]
ANCIENT
History
3 Sovereigns and 5 Emperors Main articles: History of China and Timeline
of Chinese history
Xia Dynasty 2100–1600 BCE
Shang Dynasty 1600–1046 BCE Ancient China was one of the earliest centers of
human civilization. Chinese civilization was also one
Zhou Dynasty 1122–256 BCE of the few to invent writing independently, the others
being Mesopotamia, the Indus Valley Civilization,
Western Zhou the Mayan civilization, the Minoan Civilization of
Eastern Zhou ancient Greece, and Ancient Egypt.
Spring and Autumn Period Prehistory

Warring States Period
Archaeological evidence suggests that the earliest
IMPERIAL humans in China date from 2.24 million to 250,000
years ago.[6][7] A cave in Zhoukoudian (near present-
Qin Dynasty 221 BCE–206 BCE day Beijing) has fossils dated at somewhere between
300,000 to 550,000 years. The fossils are of Peking
Han Dynasty 206 BCE–220 CE
Man, and he discovered and used fire.
Western Han
The earliest evidence of a fully modern human in
Xin Dynasty China comes from Liujiang County, Guangxi, where
a cranium has been found and dated to approximately
Eastern Han 67,000 years ago. Although much controversy
persists over the dating of the Liujiang remains,[8][9]
Three Kingdoms 220–280 [dead link]
a partial skeleton from Minatogawa in
Wei, Shu & Wu Okinawa, Japan has been dated to 18,250 ± 650 to
16,600 ± 300 years ago, so modern humans must
Jin Dynasty 265–420 have reached China before that time.
Western Jin
16 Kingdoms 304– Dynastic rule
439
Eastern Jin
Main articles: Dynasties in Chinese history
Southern & Northern Dynasties 420–589 and Chinese sovereign
Sui Dynasty 581–618 Chinese tradition names the first dynasty Xia, but it
was considered mythical until scientific excavations
Tang Dynasty 618–907 found early bronze-age sites at Erlitou in Henan
( Second Zhou 690–705 ) Province.[10] Archaeologists have since uncovered
urban sites, bronze implements, and tombs in
5 Dynasties & locations cited as Xia's in ancient historical texts, but
Liao Dynasty
10 Kingdoms
907–1125
it is impossible to verify that these remains are of the
907–960 Xia without written records from the period.
Research
Song Dynasty Trang33
960–1279
Northern Song W. Xia

Some of the thousands of life-size Terracotta Warriors of the Qin Dynasty,

ca. 210 BCE.
The second dynasty, the loosely feudal Shang, settled along the Yellow
River in eastern China from the 18th to the 12th century BCE. They were
invaded from the west by the Zhou, who ruled from the 12th to the 5th
century BCE until their centralized authority was slowly eroded by neighboring warlords. Many strong,
independent states continually waged war with each other in the Spring and Autumn period, only
occasionally deferring to the Zhou king.
The first unified Chinese state was established by the Qin Dynasty in 221 BCE, when the office of the
Emperor was set up and the Chinese language was forcibly standardized. This state did not last long, as
its legalist policies soon led to widespread rebellion.
The subsequent Han Dynasty ruled China between 206 BCE and 220 CE, and created a lasting Han
cultural identity among its populace that would last to the present day. The Han Dynasty expanded the
empire's territory considerably with military campaigns reaching Korea, Vietnam, Mongolia and Central
Asia, and also helped establish the Silk Road in Central Asia.
After Han's collapse, another period of disunion followed, including the highly chivalric period of the
Three Kingdoms. Independent Chinese states of this period also opened diplomatic relations with Japan,
introducing the Chinese writing system there. In 580 CE, China was reunited under the Sui. However,
the Sui Dynasty was short-lived after a failure in the Goguryeo-Sui Wars (598–614) weakened it.
A 10th-11th century Longquan stoneware vase from Zhejiang province,

during the Song Dynasty.
Under the succeeding Tang and Song dynasties, Chinese technology

and culture reached its zenith. The Song dynasty was the first
government in world history to issue paper money and the first Chinese
polity to establish a permanent standing navy. Between the 10th and
11th centuries, the population of China doubled in size. This growth
came about through expanded rice cultivation in central and southern
China, and the production of abundant food surpluses. Within its
borders, the Northern Song Dynasty had a population of some 100
million people. The Song Dynasty was a culturally rich period in China
for the arts, philosophy, and social life. Landscape art and portrait
paintings were brought to new levels of maturity and complexity after the Tang Dynasty, and social
elites gathered to view art, share their own, and make trades of precious artworks. Philosophers such as
Cheng Yi and Chu Hsi reinvigorated Confucianism with new commentary, infused Buddhist ideals, and
emphasized a new organization of classic texts that brought about the core doctrine of Neo-
Confucianism.
In 1271, the Mongol leader and the fifth Khagan of the Mongol Empire Kublai Khan established the
Yuan Dynasty, with the last remnant of the Song Dynasty falling to the Yuan in 1279. A peasant named
Zhu Yuanzhang overthrew the Mongols in 1368 and founded the Ming Dynasty. Ming Dynasty thinkers
Research Trang34
such as Wang Yangming would further critique and expand Neo-Confucianism with ideas of
individualism and innate morality that would have tremendous impact on later Japanese thought. Chosun
Korea also became a nominal vassal state of Ming China and adopted much of its Neo-Confucian
bureaucratic structure. China's capital was moved from Nanjing to Beijing during the early Ming
Dynasty. The Ming fell to the Manchus in 1644, who then established the Qing Dynasty. An estimated
25 million people died during the Manchu conquest of the Ming Dynasty (1616–1644).[11]
The Qing Dynasty, which lasted until 1912, was the last dynasty in China. In the 19th century the Qing
Dynasty adopted a defensive posture towards European imperialism, even though it engaged in
imperialistic expansion into Central Asia itself. At this time China awoke to the significance of the rest
of the world, in particular the West. As China opened up to foreign trade and missionary activity, opium
produced by British India was forced onto Qing China. Two Opium Wars with Britain weakened the
Emperor's control.
One result was the Taiping Civil War, which lasted from 1851 to 1862. It was led by Hong Xiuquan,
who was partly influenced by a misinterpretation of Christianity. Hong believed himself to be the son of
God and the younger brother of Jesus. Although the Qing forces were eventually victorious, the civil
war was one of the bloodiest in human history, costing at least twenty million lives (more than the total
number of fatalities in the First World War), with some estimates of up to two hundred million. Other
costly rebellions followed the Taiping Rebellion, such as the Punti-Hakka Clan Wars (1855–1867), Nien
Rebellion (1851–1868), Muslim Rebellion (1862–1877), Panthay Rebellion (1856–1873) and the Miao
Rebellion (1854–1873).[12][13] These rebellions resulted in an estimated loss of several million lives each
and led to disastrous results for the economy and the countryside.[14][15][16] The flow of British opium
hastened the empire's decline.
A corner tower of the Forbidden City at night; the palace served as

the residence for the imperial family since the reign of the Yongle
Emperor of the Ming Dynasty in the 15th century, up until the fall
of the Qing Dynasty in 1912.
While China was wracked by continuous war, Meiji Japan

succeeded in rapidly modernizing its military and set its sights on
Korea and Manchuria. Influenced by Japan, Korea declared independence from Qing China's suzerainty
in 1894, leading to the First Sino-Japanese War, which resulted in the Qing Dynasty's cession of both
Korea and Taiwan to Japan. Following these series of defeats, a reform plan for the empire to become a
modern Meiji-style constitutional monarchy was drafted by the Emperor Guangxu in 1898, but was
opposed and stopped by the Empress Dowager Cixi, who placed Emperor Guangxu under house arrest
in a coup d'état. Further destruction followed the ill-fated 1900 Boxer Rebellion against westerners in
Beijing. By the early 20th century, mass civil disorder had begun, and calls for reform and revolution
were heard across the country. The 38-year-old Emperor Guangxu died under house arrest on 14
November 1908, suspiciously just a day before Cixi's own death. With the throne empty, he was
succeeded by Cixi's handpicked heir, his two year old nephew Puyi, who became the Xuantong
Emperor, the last Chinese emperor. Guangxu's consort, who became the Empress Dowager Longyu,
signed the abdication decree as regent in 1912, ending two thousand years of imperial rule in China. She
died, childless, in 1913.
Republic of China (1912–1949)
Research Trang35
Main article: History of the Republic of China
On 1 January 1912, the Republic of China was established, heralding the end of the Qing Dynasty. Sun
Yat-sen of the Kuomintang (the KMT or Nationalist Party) was proclaimed provisional president of the
republic. However, the presidency was later given to Yuan Shikai, a former Qing general, who had
ensured the defection of the entire Beiyang Army from the Qing Empire to the revolution. In 1915,
Yuan proclaimed himself Emperor of China but was forced to abdicate and return the state to a republic
when he realized it was an unpopular move, not only with the population but also with his own Beiyang
Army and its commanders.
Map of Republic of China printed by Rand McNally & Co. in the year
1914.
After Yuan Shikai's death in 1916, China was politically fragmented,

with an internationally recognized but virtually powerless national
government seated in Peking (modern day Beijing). Warlords in
various regions exercised actual control over their respective territories.
In the late 1920s, the Kuomintang, under Chiang Kai-shek, was able to reunify the country under its own
control, moving the nation's capital to Nanking (modern day Nanjing) and implementing "political
tutelage", an intermediate stage of political development outlined in Sun Yat-sen's program for
transforming China into a modern, democratic state. Effectively, political tutelage meant one-party rule
by the Kuomintang.
The Sino-Japanese War of 1937–1945 (part of World War II) forced an uneasy alliance between the
Nationalists and the Communists as well as causing around 10 million Chinese civilian deaths. With the
surrender of Japan in 1945, China emerged victorious but financially drained. The continued distrust
between the Nationalists and the Communists led to the resumption of the Chinese Civil War. In 1947,
constitutional rule was established, but because of the ongoing Civil War many provisions of the ROC
constitution were never implemented on the mainland.
People's Republic of China and Republic of China (1949–present)
Territories currently administered by two states that formally

use the name China:
the PRC (in purple) and the ROC (in orange).
Main articles: History of the People's Republic of
China and Republic of China on Taiwan
See also: History of Hong Kong, History of
Macau, and History of Taiwan
After its victory in the Chinese Civil War, the Communist

Party of China (CCP) led by Mao Zedong gained control of
most of Mainland China. On 1 October 1949, they
established the People's Republic of China as a Socialist
State headed by a "Democratic Dictatorship" with the CCP
as the only legal political party, thus, laying claim as the successor state of the ROC. The central
Research Trang36
government of the Chinese Nationalist Party led by Chiang Kai-shek was forced to retreat to the island
of Taiwan that it had occupied at the end of World War II and moved the ROC government there. Major
armed hostilities ceased in 1950 but no peace treaty has been signed.
Beginning in the late 1970s, the Republic of China began the implementation of full, multi-party,
representative democracy in the territories still under its control (Taiwan, and a number of smaller
islands including Quemoy and Matsu). Today, the ROC has active political participation by all sectors
of society. The main cleavage in ROC politics is the issue of eventual political unification with the
Chinese mainland vs. formal independence of Taiwan.
After the Chinese Civil War, mainland China underwent a series of disruptive socioeconomic
movements starting in the late 1950s with the Great Leap Forward and continuing in the 1960s with the
Cultural Revolution that left much of its education system and economy in shambles. With the death of
its first generation Communist Party leaders such as Mao Zedong and Zhou Enlai, the PRC began
implementing a series of political and economic reforms advocated by Deng Xiaoping that eventually
formed the foundation for mainland China's rapid economic development starting in the 1990s.
Post-1978 reforms on the mainland have led to some relaxation of control over many areas of society.
However, the PRC government still has almost absolute control over politics, and it continually seeks to
eradicate what it perceives as threats to the social, political and economic stability of the country.
Examples include the fight against terrorism, jailing of political opponents and journalists, custody
regulation of the press, regulation of religion, and suppression of independence/secessionist movements.
In 1989, the student protests at Tiananmen Square were violently put to an end by the Chinese military
after 15 days of martial law. In 1997, Hong Kong was returned to the PRC by the United Kingdom, and
in 1999, Macau was returned by Portugal.
Today, mainland China is administered by the People's Republic of China—a one-party state under the
leadership of the Chinese Communist Party—while the island of Taiwan and surrounding islands are
administered by the Republic of China—a democratic multi-party state. After the founding of the
People's Republic in 1949, both states claimed to be the sole legitimate ruler of all of "China". After the
Kuomintang retreat to Taiwan in 1949, the Republic of China had maintained official diplomatic
relations with most states around the world, but by the 1970s, a shift had occurred in international
diplomatic circles and the People's Republic of China gained the upper hand in international diplomatic
relations and recognition count. In 1971, under resolution 2758, the representatives of Chiang Kai-shek
to the United Nations were expelled from the intergovernmental organization. With the expulsion of the
Chiang Kai-shek's representatives, and effectively the Republic of China, the representatives of the
People's Republic of China were invited to assume China's seat on the UN Security Council, the UN
General Assembly and other United Nations councils and agencies. Later attempts by the Republic of
China to rejoin the UN have either been blocked by the People's Republic of China, which has veto
power on the UN Security Council, or rejected by the United Nations Secretariat or a United Nations
General Assembly committee responsible for the General Assembly's agenda.[17]
Since the relocation of its capital to Taiwan, the Republic of China has not formally renounced its claim
to all of China, nor has it changed its official maps, which includes the mainland and Mongolia.
Following the introduction to full democracy, and the electoral victory of the DPP's Chen Shui-bian in
the presidential elections, the ROC had adopted a policy of separating the state's identity from "China",
while moving towards identifying the state as "Taiwan". However, the ROC has not made any formal
moves to change the name, flag, or national anthem of the state to reflect a Taiwanese identity due to the
lack of consensus within Taiwan, pressure from the United States and the fear of invasion or military
action from the People's Republic of China against the island. The Republic of China during the DPP
Research Trang37
years did not actively pursue its claims on mainland China or Mongolia, however following the electoral
victory of the KMT's Ma Ying-jeou as president, the claim to mainland China has been reinstated. [18]
The People's Republic of China claims to have succeeded the Republic of China as the sole legitimate
governing authority of all of China, which, from the official viewpoint of the People's Republic of
China, includes the island of Taiwan. Over the last 50 years, both the Republic of China and the People's
Republic of China have used diplomatic and economic means to compete for recognition in the
international arena. Because most international, intergovernmental organizations observe the One-China
policy of the People's Republic of China, the PRC has been able to pressure organizations, such as the
World Health Organization and the International Olympic Committee, to refuse to officially recognize
the Republic of China. Due to the One-China policy, states around the world are pressured to refuse, or
to cut off, diplomatic relations with the Republic of China. As a result, only 23 U.N. member states
currently maintain official diplomatic relations with the Republic of China, while the vast majority of
U.N. member states maintain official diplomatic relations with the People's Republic of China.
Territory and environment
Historical political divisions
Main article: History of the political divisions of China
Territories occupied by different dynasties as well as modern

political states throughout the history of China.
Top-level political divisions of China have altered as

administrations changed. Top levels included circuits and
provinces. Below that, there have been prefectures,
subprefectures, departments, commanderies, districts, and
counties. Recent divisions also include prefecture-level cities,
county-level cities, towns and townships.
Most Chinese dynasties were based in the historical heartlands

of China, known as China proper. Various dynasties also
expanded into peripheral territories like Inner Mongolia, Manchuria, Xinjiang, and Tibet. The Manchu-
established Qing Dynasty and its successors, the ROC and the PRC, incorporated these territories into
the Chinese empire.
Geography and climate
Main article: Geography of China

See also: Environment of China
Composite satellite photo
China ranges from mostly plateaus and mountains in the west to lower
lands in the east. Principal rivers flow from west to east, including the
Yangtze (central), the Huang He (Yellow river, north-central), and the
Amur (northeast), and sometimes toward the south (including the Pearl
River, Mekong River, and Brahmaputra), with most Chinese rivers emptying into the Pacific Ocean.
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In the east, along the shores of the Yellow Sea and the East China Sea there are extensive and densely
populated alluvial plains. On the edges of the Inner Mongolian plateau in the north, grasslands can be
seen. Southern China is dominated by hills and low mountain ranges. In the central-east are the deltas of
China's two major rivers, the Huang He and Yangtze River. Most of China's arable lands lie along these
rivers, and they were the centers of China's major ancient civilizations. Other major rivers include the
Pearl River, Mekong, Brahmaputra and Amur. Yunnan Province is considered a part of the Greater
Mekong Subregion, which also includes Myanmar, Laos, Thailand, Cambodia, and Vietnam.[19]
Main geographic features and regions of China.
In the west, the north has a great alluvial plain, and the south has a vast
calcareous tableland traversed by hill ranges of moderate elevation, and
the Himalayas, containing Earth's highest point, Mount Everest. The
northwest also has high plateaus with more arid desert landscapes such as
the Takla-Makan and the Gobi Desert, which has been expanding. During many dynasties, the
southwestern border of China has been the high mountains and deep valleys of Yunnan, which separate
modern China from Burma, Laos and Vietnam.
Snowy mountains in Diqing, north-west Yunnan.
The Paleozoic formations of China, excepting only the upper part of the
Carboniferous system, are marine, while the Mesozoic and Tertiary
deposits are estuarine and freshwater, or else of terrestrial origin. Groups
of volcanic cones occur in the Great Plain of north China. In the Liaodong
and Shandong Peninsulas, there are basaltic plateaus.
The climate of China varies greatly. The northern zone (containing Beijing) has summer daytime
temperatures of more than 30 degrees Celsius and winters of Arctic severity. The central zone
(containing Shanghai) has a temperate continental climate with very hot summers and cold winters. The
southern zone (containing Guangzhou) has a subtropical climate with very hot summers and mild
winters.
Due to a prolonged drought and poor agricultural practices, dust storms have become usual in the spring
in China.[20] Dust has blown to southern China and Taiwan, and has reached the West Coast of the
United States. Water, erosion, and pollution control have become important issues in China's relations
with other countries.
Economy
Main article: Economic history of China
See also: Economy of the People's Republic of China and Economy of the Republic of China
Society
Culture
Main article: Culture of China

Research Trang39
See also: Chinese law, Chinese philosophy, and Confucianism
Wang Yangming, a highly influential Neo-Confucian.
A Chinese Opera (Beijing Opera) performance in Beijing, one of the many aspects of traditional
Chinese culture
Confucianism was the official philosophy throughout most of Imperial China's history, and mastery of
Confucian texts was the primary criterion for entry into the imperial bureaucracy. China's traditional
values were derived from various versions of Confucianism. A number of more authoritarian strains of
thought have also been influential, such as Legalism. There was often conflict between the philosophies,
e.g. the Song Dynasty Neo-Confucians believed Legalism departed from the original spirit of
Confucianism. Examinations and a culture of merit remain greatly valued in China today. In recent
years, a number of New Confucians (not to be confused with Neo-Confucianism) have advocated that
democratic ideals and human rights are quite compatible with traditional Confucian "Asian values".[21]
With the rise of Western economic and military power beginning in the mid-19th century, non-Chinese
systems of social and political organization gained adherents in China. Some of these would-be
reformers totally rejected China's cultural legacy, while others sought to combine the strengths of
Chinese and Western cultures. In essence, the history of 20th-century China is one of experimentation
with new systems of social, political, and economic organization that would allow for the reintegration
of the nation in the wake of dynastic collapse.
Arts, scholarship, and literature
Main articles: Chinese art and History of Chinese art

See also: Chinese art, Chinese painting, Chinese paper art, Chinese calligraphy, Chinese
poetry, Cinema of China, and Music of China
Chinese calligraphy by Mi Fu, Song Dynasty, ca. 1100 CE
A bamboo book copy of Sun Tzu's The

Art of War, a 20th century reprint of a
Qianlong imperial edition.
Chinese characters have had many variants and styles throughout Chinese
history. Tens of thousands of ancient written documents are still extant, from
oracle bones to Qing edicts. This literary emphasis affected the general
perception of cultural refinement in China, e.g. the view that calligraphy was a
higher art form than painting or drama. Manuscripts of the Classics and
religious texts (mainly Confucian, Taoist, and Buddhist) were handwritten by
ink brush. Calligraphy later became commercialized, and works by famous
artists became prized possessions. Chinese literature has a long past; the earliest classic work in
Chinese, the I Ching or "Book of Changes" dates to around 1000 BCE. A flourishing of
philosophy during the Warring States Period produced such noteworthy works as Confucius's
Analects and Laozi's Tao Te Ching. (See also: the Chinese classics.) Dynastic histories were
often written, beginning with Sima Qian's seminal Records of the Historian, which was written
from 109 BCE to 91 BCE. The Tang Dynasty witnessed a poetic flowering, while the Four Great
Research Trang40
Classical Novels of Chinese literature were written during the Ming and Qing Dynasties.
Printmaking in the form of movable type was developed during the Song Dynasty. Academies of
scholars sponsored by the empire were formed to comment on the classics in both printed and
handwritten form. Royalty frequently participated in these discussions as well. The Song
Dynasty was also a period of great scientific literature, and saw the creation of works such as Su
Song's Xin Yixiang Fayao and Shen Kuo's Dream Pool Essays. There were also enormous works
of historiography and large encyclopedias, such as Sima Guang's Zizhi Tongjian of 1084 CE or
the Four Great Books of Song fully compiled and edited by the 11th century.For centuries,
religious and social advancement in China could be achieved through high performance on the
imperial examinations. This led to the creation of a meritocracy, although success was available
only to males who could afford test preparation. Imperial examinations required applicants to
write essays and demonstrate mastery of the Confucian classics. Those who passed the highest
level of the exam became elite scholar-officials known as jinshi, a highly esteemed socio-
economic position. Chinese philosophers, writers and poets were highly respected and played
key roles in preserving and promoting the culture of the empire. Some classical scholars,
however, were noted for their daring depictions of the lives of the common people, often to the
displeasure of authorities.The Chinese invented numerous musical instruments, such as the
zheng (zither with movable bridges), qin (bridgeless zither), sheng (free reed mouth organ), and
xiao (vertical flute) and adopted and developed others such the erhu (alto fiddle or bowed lute)
and pipa (pear-shaped plucked lute), many of which later spread throughout East Asia and
Southeast Asia, particularly to Japan, Korea, and Vietnam.
Demography
Main articles: Demographics of the People's Republic of China, Ethnic groups in Chinese
history, and Ethnic minorities in China
Ethnolinguistic map of the People's Republic of China

and the Republic of China.
Ming Dynasty Styled Hanfu that were banned shortly

after Qing Took Over Ming Dynasty thus breaking off
the dominating traditions of wearing Hanfu that were
worn during all of past dynasties.
Hundreds of ethnic groups have existed in China

throughout its history. The largest ethnic group in China
by far is the Han. This group, however, is internally
diverse and can be further divided into smaller ethnic
groups that share similar traits.
Over the last three millennia, many previously distinct ethnic groups in China have been Sinicized into a
Han identity, which over time dramatically expanded the size of the Han population. However, these
assimilations were usually incomplete, and vestiges of indigenous language and culture still often
remain in various regions of China. Because of this, many within the Han identity have maintained
distinct linguistic and cultural traditions while still identifying as Han. Several ethnicities have also
dramatically shaped Han culture, e.g. the Manchurian clothing called the qipao became the new
"Chinese" fashion after the 17th century, replacing earlier Han styles of clothing such as the Hanfu. The
Research Trang41
modern term Chinese nation (Zhonghua Minzu) is now used to describe a notion of a Chinese nationality
that transcends ethnic divisions.
Languages
Main article: Languages of China
Most languages in China belong to the Sino-Tibetan language family, spoken by 29 ethnicities. There
are also several major dialects within the Chinese language itself. The most spoken dialects are
Mandarin (spoken by over 70% of the population), Wu, Yue (Cantonese), Min, Xiang, Gan, and Hakka.
Non-Sinitic languages spoken widely by ethnic minorities include Zhuang (Thai), Mongolian, Tibetan,
Uyghur (Turkic), Hmong and Korean.[22]
Classical Chinese was the written standard in China for thousands of years, and allowed for written
communication between speakers of various unintelligible languages and dialects in China. Vernacular
Chinese or baihua is the written standard based on the Mandarin dialect first popularized in Ming
dynasty novels, and was adopted (with significant modifications) during the early 20th century as the
national vernacular. Classical Chinese is still part of the high school curriculum and is thus intelligible to
some degree to many Chinese.
Religion
A Chinese Tang Dynasty (618–907) sculpture of the Buddha seated in

meditation.
Main article: Religion in China
The "official" orthodox faith system held by most dynasties of China until
the overthrow of the last dynasty is a panentheistic system, centering on
the worship of "Heaven" or Shangdi (literally "Emperor Above") as an
omnipotent force[citation needed]. This faith system pre-dated the development
of Confucianism and Taoism and the introduction of Buddhism and
Christianity. It has features of a monotheism in that Heaven is seen as an
omnipotent entity, endowed with personality but no corporeal form.
Worship of Heaven includes the erection of shrines, the last and greatest
being the Altar of Heaven in Beijing, and the offering of prayers. Manifestation of the powers of Heaven
include weather and natural disasters. Although its popularity gradually diminished after the advent of
Taoism and Buddhism, among other religions, some of its concepts remained in use throughout the pre-
modern period and have been incorporated in later religions of China.
Taoism is an indigenous religion of China and its beginnings are traditionally traced to the composition
of Lao Zi's Tao Te Ching (The Book of Tao and Its Virtues) or to seminal works by Zhang Daoling. The
philosophy of Taoism is centered on "the way"; an understanding of which can be likened to recognizing
the true nature of the universe. Taoism in its unorganized form is also considered a folk religion of
China. More secular derivatives of Taoist ideas include Feng Shui, Sun Tzu's Art of War, and
acupuncture.
Buddhism in China was first introduced from India and Central Asia during the Han dynasty and
became very popular among Chinese of all walks of life, embraced particularly by commoners, and
Research Trang42
sponsored by emperors in certain dynasties. Mahayana ( 大乘 , Dacheng) is the predominant form of
Buddhism practiced in China, where it was largely Sinicized and later exported to Korea, Japan and
Vietnam. Some subsets of Mahayana popular in China include Pure Land (Amidism) and Zen.
Buddhism is the largest organized faith in China and the country has the most Buddhist adherents in the
world. Many Chinese, however, identify themselves as both Taoist and Buddhist at the same time.
Ancestor worship is a major religious theme shared among all Chinese religions. Traditional Chinese
culture, Taoism, Confucianism, and Chinese Buddhism all value filial piety, or a love and respect for
one's parents and ancestors, as one of the most important virtues. Chinese people generally offer prayers
and food for their ancestors, light incense and candles, and burn offerings of Joss paper. These activities
are typically conducted at the site of ancestral graves or tombs, at an ancestral temple, or at a household
shrine.
Christianity in China has developed since at least the 7th century AD with the introduction of the
Assyrian Church of the East. Christianity began to make significant inroads in China after the 16th
century through Jesuit and later Protestant missionaries. The Taiping Rebellion was influenced to some
degree by Christian teachings, and the Boxer Rebellion was in part a reaction against Christianity in
China.
Islam in China dates to a mission in 651, eighteen years after Muhammad's death. Muslims came to
China for trade, dominating the import/export industry during the Song Dynasty.[23][24] They became
influential in government circles, including Zheng He, Lan Yu and Yeheidie'erding, was one of the
people who helped to construct the Yuan Dynasty's capital, Khanbaliq. Nanjing became an important
center of Islamic study.[25] The Qing Dynasty waged war and genocide against Muslims in the Dungan
revolt and Panthay rebellion.[26][27][28]
Judaism in China is dates to as early as the 7th or 8th century CE. In the first half of the 20th century,
many Jews arrived in Shanghai and Hong Kong during those cities' periods of economic expansion,
seeking refuge from the Holocaust. Shanghai was notable for its volume of Jewish refugees, as it was
the only port in the world to accept them without an entry visa.
Sports and recreation
Dragon boat racing, a popular traditional Chinese sport.

Main article: Sports in China
For sports in the current ROC controlled region see Sport in
Taiwan.
Many historians believe that football (soccer) originated in China, where a

form of the sport may have appeared around 1000 CE. [29] Other popular sports include martial arts, table
tennis, badminton, and more recently, golf. Basketball is now popular among young people in urban
centers.
There are also many traditional sports. Chinese dragon boat racing occurs during the Duan Wu festival.
In Inner Mongolia, Mongolian-style wrestling and horse racing are popular. In Tibet, archery and
equestrian sports are part of traditional festivals.[30]
Physical fitness is highly regarded. It is common for the elderly to practice Tai Chi Chuan and qigong in
parks.
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Board games such as International Chess, Go (Weiqi), and Xiangqi (Chinese chess) are also common
and have organized formal competitions.
The capital city of the People's Republic of China, Beijing, hosted the 2008 Olympic Games, a major
international sporting event.
Remains of an ancient Chinese handheld crossbow, 2nd century BCE.

Main article: History of science and technology in China
Further information: List of Chinese inventions and List of
Chinese discoveries
Among the technological accomplishments of ancient China were paper

(not papyrus) and papermaking, woodblock printing and movable type
printing, the early lodestone and needle compass, gunpowder, toilet paper,
early seismological detectors, matches, pound locks, the double-action
piston pump, blast furnace and cast iron, the iron plough, the multi-tube
seed drill, the suspension bridge, natural gas as fuel, the escapement
mechanism for clocks, the differential gear for the South Pointing Chariot, the hydraulic-powered
armillary sphere, the hydraulic-powered trip hammer, the mechanical chain drive, the mechanical belt
drive, the raised-relief map, the propeller, the crossbow, the cannon, the rocket, the multistage rocket,
etc. Chinese astronomers were among the first to record observations of a supernova. The work of the
astronomer Shen Kuo (1031–1095) alone was most impressive, as he theorized that the sun and moon
were spherical, corrected the position of the polestar with his improved sighting tube, discovered the
concept of true north, wrote of planetary motions such as retrogradation, and compared the orbital paths
of the planets to points on the shape of a rotating willow leaf. With evidence for them, he also postulated
geological theories for the processes of land formation in geomorphology and climate change in
paleoclimatology. Other important astronomers included Gan De, Shi Shen, Zhang Heng, Yi Xing,
Zhang Sixun, Su Song, Guo Shoujing, and Xu Guangqi. Chinese mathematics evolved independently of
Greek mathematics and is therefore of great interest in the history of mathematics. The Chinese were
also keen on documenting all of their technological achievements, such as in the Tiangong Kaiwu
encyclopedia written by Song Yingxing (1587–1666).
China's science and technology had fallen behind that of Europe by the 17th century. Political, social
and cultural reasons have been given for this, although recent historians focus more on economic causes,
such as the high level equilibrium trap. Since the PRC's market reforms, China has become better
connected to the global economy and is placing greater emphasis on science and technology.
See also
• Administrative • Chinese • List of
divisions of name Chinese
China • Chinese discoveries
• Agriculture in nationalism • List of
China • Chinese Chinese
• Chinese New Year inventions
architecture • Chinese • List of
• Chinese people cities in
Research Trang44
astronomy • Chinese China
• Chinese units of • List of
calendar measureme recipients
• Chinese nt of tribute
cuisine • Culture of from China
• Chinese China • List of
dragon • Fenghuang tributaries
• Chinese • Forbidden of Imperial
economy City China
• Chinese • History of • List of
geography postage in wettest
• Chinese China tropical
language cyclones in
• Chinese • Hospitals in China
mathematics China • Military
history of
• Chinese China
medicine • Overseas
Chinese
• Summer
Palace
External links
• China.org.cn China news, weather, business, travel, language courses, archives

• U.S. Department of State, Background Note on China
• U.S. Department of Commerce, Office of China Economic Area
• Interactive China map with province and city guides.
• China Digital Times Online China news portal, run by the Graduate School of Journalism of
University of California at Berkeley.
• China Worker
• China Map
• NY Inquirer: China's 21st Century
• The Chinese Superpower-Historical Background, Dr Rivka Shpak-Lissak
People's Republic of China
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History
China (timeline) · Republic of China · People's Republic of China · 1949-1976 · 1976-1989 · 1989-2002 · since 2002
Research Trang45
Overviews Geography and climate · Geology · Environment
Regions East · Northeast · North · Western (Northwest · Southwest) · South Central
Bays · Canyons · Caves · Deserts · Grasslands · Hills · Islands · Mountains (ranges · passes) · Peninsulas ·
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sanitation · Welfare
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divisions
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Economy history · Science and technology · Transportation · Ports and harbors · Communications · Special
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THE END OF CHINA
FROM WIKIPEDIA, FREE ENCYCLOPEDIA
VIETNAM
Research Trang48
Vietnam (pronounced /ˌviːɛtˈnɑːm/; Vietnamese: Việt Nam), officially the Socialist Republic of
Vietnam (Vietnamese: Cộng hòa xã hội chủ nghĩa Việt Nam; [koŋ˨ hʊa˨˩ sa˧˨˧ hoi˨ tɕu˧˩˧
ŋiə˧˨˧ vɪət˨ nam˧]), is the easternmost country on the Indochina Peninsula in Southeast Asia. It is
bordered by China to the north, Laos to the northwest, Cambodia to the southwest, and the South China
Sea to the east. With a population of over 86 million, Vietnam is the 13th most populous country in the
world.
The people of Vietnam regained independence and broke away from China in 938 AD after their victory
at the Battle of Bạch Đằng River (938). Successive dynasties flourished along with geographic and
political expansion deeper into Southeast Asia, until it was colonized by the French in the mid-19th
century. Efforts to resist the French eventually led to their expulsion from the country in the mid-20th
century, leaving a nation divided politically into two countries. Fighting between the two sides
continued during the Vietnam War, ending with a communist victory in 1975.
Emerging from this prolonged military engagement, the war-ravaged nation was politically isolated. The
government’s centrally planned economic decisions hindered post-war reconstruction and its treatment
of the losing side engendered more resentment than reconciliation. In
1986, it instituted economic and political reforms and began a
Contents path towards international reintegration. By 2000, it had
established diplomatic relations with most nations. Its
• 1 Etymology economic growth had been among the highest in the world in
• 2 History the past decade. These efforts culminated in Vietnam joining
o 2.1 Pre-Dynastic era the World Trade Organization in 2007 and its successful bid to
o 2.2 Dynastic era become a non-permanent member of the United Nations
o 2.3 Western colonial era Security Council in 2008.
o 2.4 First Indochina War
o 2.5 Vietnam War
o 2.6 Postwar
o 2.7 Đổi Mới
• 3 Government and politics
• 4 International relations
• 5 Subdivisions
• 6 Geography and climate
• 7 Nature
o 7.1 Biodiversity
• 8 Economy
• 9 Military
• 10 Transport
• 11 Demography
o 11.1 Population
o 11.2 Languages
o 11.3 Religions
o 11.4 Education
• 12 Science
• 13 Culture
o 13.1 Media
o 13.2 Tourism
• 14 International rankings
• 15 See also
• 16 Sources and notes
Research Trang49
• 17 References
Etymology
Through the centuries, Vietnam has been called by many different names: Văn Lang during the Hùng
Vương Dynasty, Âu Lạc during the An Dương Vương dynasty, Van Xuan during the Anterior Lý
Dynasty, Đại Cồ Việt during the Đinh dynasty and Anterior Lê Dynasty. Starting in 1054, Vietnam was
called Đại Việt (Great Viet). During the Hồ Dynasty, Vietnam was called Đại Ngu (Hán tự: 太虞 ).
Then, in 1804, King Gia Long planned to use the name of Nam Việt for Vietnam then changed it to Việt
Nam. In English, the two syllables were written into one: Vietnam. From 1839 to 1945, Emperor Minh
Mạng renamed Việt Nam to Đại Nam (literally "Great South").
The name Việt Nam had been used for this country before it became the official name in "Dư địa chí" of
Nguyễn Trãi written in 1435 and perhaps even before. "Việt" is the name of the largest ethnic group in
Vietnam: the Kinh (người Kinh) and "Nam" means "the South", affirming Vietnam's sovereignty from
China (usually called "North country" by the Vietnamese).
History
Main article: History of Vietnam
Pre-Dynastic era
Song Da bronze drum's surface, Vietnam
The area now known as Vietnam has been inhabited since Paleolithic times, and some archaeological
sites in Thanh Hoa Province purportedly date back several thousand years. Archaeologists link the
beginnings of Vietnamese civilization to the late Neolithic, Early Bronze Age, Phung-nguyen culture,
which was centered in Vinh Phuc Province of contemporary Vietnam from about 2000 to 1400 BCE. By
about 1200 BCE, the development of wet-rice cultivation and bronze casting in the Ma River and Red
River plains led to the development of the Dong Son culture, notable for its elaborate bronze drums. The
bronze weapons, tools, and drums of Dongsonian sites show a Southeast Asian influence that indicates
an indigenous origin for the bronze-casting technology. Many small, ancient copper mine sites have
been found in northern Vietnam. Some of the similarities between the Dong Sonian sites and other
Southeast Asian sites include the presence of boat-shaped coffins and burial jars, stilt dwellings, and
evidence of the customs of betel-nut-chewing and teeth-blackening.
Dynastic era
Emperor's Tomb in Hue
The legendary Hồng Bàng Dynasty of the Hùng kings is considered by

many Vietnamese as the first Vietnamese state, known as Văn Lang. In
257 BCE, the last Hùng king lost to Thục Phán, who consolidated the Lạc
Việt tribes with his Âu Việt tribes, forming Âu Lạc and proclaiming himself An Dương Vương. In 207
BCE, a Chinese general named Zhao Tuo defeated An Dương Vương and consolidated Âu Lạc into
Nanyue. In 111 BCE, the Chinese Han Dynasty consolidated Nanyue into their empire.
Research Trang50
[2]
For the next thousand years, Vietnam was mostly under Chinese rule. Early independence movements
such as those of the Trưng Sisters and of Lady Triệu were only briefly successful. It was independent as
Vạn Xuân under the Anterior Ly Dynasty between 544 and 602. By the early 10th century, Vietnam had
gained autonomy, but not independence, under the Khúc family.
In 938 CE, a Vietnamese lord named Ngô Quyền defeated Chinese forces at the Bạch Đằng River and
regained independence after 10 centuries under Chinese control.[3] Renamed as Đại Việt, the nation went
through a golden era during the Lý and Trần Dynasties. During the rule of the Trần Dynasty, Đại Việt
repelled three Mongol invasions.[4] Buddhism flourished and became the state religion. Following the
brief Hồ Dynasty, Vietnamese independence was momentarily interrupted by the Chinese Ming
Dynasty, but was restored by Lê Lợi, the founder of the Lê Dynasty. Vietnam reached its zenith in the
Lê Dynasty of the 15th century, especially during the reign of Emperor Lê Thánh Tông (1460–1497).
Between the 11th and 18th centuries, the Vietnamese expanded southward in a process known as nam
tiến (southward expansion).[5] They eventually conquered the kingdom of Champa and part of the
Khmer Empire.[6][7]
Towards the end of the Lê Dynasty, civil strife engulfed much of Vietnam. First, the Chinese-supported
Mạc Dynasty challenged the Lê Dynasty's power. After the Mạc Dynasty was defeated, the Lê Dynasty
was reinstalled, but with no actual power. Power was divided between the Trịnh Lords in the North and
the Nguyễn Lords in the South, who engaged in a civil war for more than four decades. During this time,
the Nguyễn expanded southern Vietnam into the Mekong Delta, annexing the Champa in the central
highlands and the Khmer land in the Mekong. The civil war ended when the Tây Sơn brothers defeated
both and established their new dynasty. However, their rule did not last long and they were defeated by
the remnants of the Nguyễn Lords led by Nguyen Anh with the help of the French. Nguyen Anh unified
Vietnam, and established the Nguyễn Dynasty, ruling under the name Gia Long.
Western colonial era
Flag of French Indochina (French colonie)

Main articles: Sino-French War, Union of Indochina, and Empire
of Vietnam
Vietnam's independence was gradually eroded by France in a series of

military conquests from 1859 until 1885 when the entire country became part of French Indochina. The
French administration imposed significant political and cultural changes on Vietnamese society. A
Western-style system of modern education was developed, and Christianity was propagated widely in
Vietnamese society. Developing a plantation economy to promote the exports of tobacco, indigo, tea and
coffee, the French largely ignored increasing calls for self-government and civil rights. A nationalist
political movement soon emerged, with leaders such as Phan Boi Chau, Phan Chu Trinh, Phan Dinh
Phung, Emperor Ham Nghi and Ho Chi Minh calling for independence. However, the French
maintained control of their colonies until World War II, when the Japanese war in the Pacific triggered
the invasion of French Indochina in 1941. This event was preceded by the establishment of the Vichy
French administration, a puppet state of Nazi Germany then ally of the Japanese Empire. The natural
resources of Vietnam were exploited for the purposes of the Japanese Empire's military campaigns into
the British Indochinese colonies of Burma, the Malay Peninsula and India.
First Indochina War
Research Trang51
Main articles: First Indochina War, Democratic Republic of Vietnam, State of Vietnam, and
State of Vietnam referendum, 1955
French paratroopers in the delta area of northern Vietnam (1952)
In 1941, the Viet Minh — a communist and nationalist liberation

movement — emerged under Ho Chi Minh, to seek independence for
Vietnam from France as well as to oppose the Japanese occupation.
Following the military defeat of Japan and the fall of its Empire of
Vietnam in August 1945, Viet Minh occupied Hanoi and proclaimed a
provisional government, which asserted independence on September 2.[8] In the same year the
Provisional French Republic sent the French Far East Expeditionary Corps, which was originally created
to fight the Japanese occupation forces, in order to pacify the liberation movement and to restore French
rule. On November 20, 1946, triggered by the Haiphong Incident, the First Indochina War between Viet
Minh and the French forces ensued, lasting until July 20, 1954.
Despite fewer losses — Expeditionary Corps suffered 1/3 the casualties of the Chinese and Soviet-
backed Viet Minh — during the course of the war, the U.S.-backed French and Vietnamese loyalists
eventually suffered a major strategic setback at the Siege of Dien Bien Phu, which allowed Ho Chi Minh
to negotiate a ceasefire with a favorable position at the ongoing Geneva conference of 1954. Colonial
administration ended as French Indochina was dissolved. According to the Geneva Accords of 1954 the
forces of former French supporters and communist nationalists were separated south and north,
respectively, with the Vietnamese Demilitarized Zone, at the 17th parallel, between. A Partition of
Vietnam, with Ho Chi Minh's Democratic Republic of Vietnam in North Vietnam, and Emperor Bao
Dai's State of Vietnam in the South Vietnam, was not intended by the 1954 Agreements, and they
expressly forbade the interference of third powers. Counter to the counsel of his American advisor, the
State of Vietnam Prime Minister Ngo Dinh Diem toppled Bao Dai in a fraudulent referendum organised
by his brother Ngo Dinh Nhu, and proclaimed himself president of the Republic of Vietnam. The
Accords mandated nationwide elections by 1956, which Diem refused to hold, despite repeated calls
from the North for talks to discuss elections. [9]
Vietnam War
Main articles: Vietnam War, North Vietnam, South Vietnam, Ngo Dinh Diem, Buddhist crisis,
Role of United States in the Vietnam War, ARVN, NLF, Ho Chi Minh Trail, and Operation Menu
Democratic nationwide elections mandated by the Geneva Conference of 1954 having been thwarted by
Ngo Dinh Diem, the communist nationalist National Liberation Front began a guerrilla campaign in the
late 1950s, assisted by the Democratic Republic of Vietnam, to overthrow Diem's government, which
the NLF's official statement described as a "disguised colonial regime"[9].
In 1963, Buddhist discontent with Diem's pro-Catholic discrimination erupted following the banning of
the Buddhist flag and the Hue Vesak shootings. This resulted in a series of mass demonstrations known
as the Buddhist crisis. With Diem unwilling to bend, his brother orchestrated the Xa Loi Pagoda raids.
As a result, the US' relationship with Diem broke down and resulted in coup that saw Diem killed.
Diem was followed by a series of military regimes that often lasted only months before being toppled by
another. With this instability, the communists began to gain ground.
Research Trang52
To support South Vietnam's struggle against the communist insurgency, the US began increasing its
contribution of military advisers. US forces became embroiled in combat operations in 1965 and at their
peak they numbered more than 500,000.[10] North Vietnamese forces attacked most major targets in
southern Vietnam during the 1968 Tet Offensive.[11] Communist forces supplying the NLF carried
supplies along the Truong Son Road, which passed through Laos and Cambodia. The US president
authorized Operation Menu, a SAC bombing campaign in Laos and Cambodia, which he kept secret
from the US Congress.[12] [13]
Its own casualties mounting, and facing opposition to the war at home and condemnation abroad, the
U.S. began transferring combat roles to the South Vietnamese military according to the Nixon Doctrine;
the process was subsequently called Vietnamization. The effort had mixed results. The Paris Peace
Accords of January 27, 1973, formally recognized the sovereignty of Vietnam "as recognized by the
1954 Geneva Agreements". Under the terms of the accords all American combat troops were withdrawn
by March 29, 1973. Limited fighting continued, but all major fighting ended until the North once again
sent troops to the South during the Spring of 1975, culminating in the Fall of Saigon on April 30, 1975.
South Vietnam briefly became the Republic of South Vietnam, under military occupation by North
Vietnam, before being officially integrated with the North under communist rule as the Socialist
Republic of Vietnam on July 2, 1976.
Postwar
Upon taking control, the Vietnamese communists banned all other political parties, arrested public
servants and military personnel of the Republic of Vietnam and sent them to reeducation camps. The
government also embarked on a mass campaign of collectivization of farms and factories.
Reconstruction of the war-ravaged country was slow, and serious humanitarian and economic problems
confronted the communist regime. Millions of people fled the country in crudely-built boats, creating an
international humanitarian crisis.[14][15] In 1978, the Vietnamese army invaded Cambodia (sparking the
Cambodian-Vietnamese War) which removed the Khmer Rouge from power.[16] This action worsened
relations with China, which launched a brief incursion into northern Vietnam (the Sino-Vietnamese
War) in 1979.[17] This conflict caused Vietnam to rely even more heavily on Soviet economic and
military aid.
Đổi Mới
In a historic shift in 1986, the Communist Party of Vietnam implemented free-market reforms known as
Đổi Mới (renovation). With the authority of the state remaining unchallenged, private ownership of
farms and companies, deregulation and foreign investment were encouraged. The economy of Vietnam
has achieved rapid growth in agricultural and industrial production, construction and housing, exports
and foreign investment. It is now one of the fastest growing economies in the world[citation needed].
Government and politics

Main article: Politics of Vietnam
Vietnam National Convention Center
The Socialist Republic of Vietnam is a single-party state. A new

state constitution was approved in April 1992, replacing the 1975
version. The central role of the Communist Party was reasserted
Research Trang53
in all organs of government, politics and society. Only political organizations affiliated with or endorsed
by the Communist Party are permitted to contest elections. These include the Vietnamese Fatherland
Front, worker and trade unionist parties. Although the state remains officially committed to socialism as
its defining creed, the ideology's importance has substantially diminished since the 1990s. The President
of Vietnam is the titular head of state and the nominal commander in chief of the military of Vietnam,
chairing the Council on National Defense and Security. The Prime Minister of Vietnam Nguyen Tan
Dung is the head of government, presiding over a council of ministers composed of 3 deputy prime
ministers and the heads of 26 ministries and commissions.
The National Assembly of Vietnam is the unicameral legislature of the government, composed of 498
members. It is superior to both the executive and judicial branches. All members of the council of
ministers are derived from the National Assembly. The Supreme People's Court of Vietnam, which is
the highest court of appeal in the nation, is also answerable to the National Assembly. Beneath the
Supreme People's Court stand the provincial municipal courts and the local courts. Military courts are
also a powerful branch of the judiciary with special jurisdiction in matters of national security. All
organs of Vietnam's government are controlled by the Communist Party. Most government appointees
are members of the party. The General Secretary of the Communist Party is perhaps one of the most
important political leaders in the nation, controlling the party's national organization and state
appointments, as well as setting policy.
The Vietnam People's Army is the official name for the combined military services of Vietnam, which is
organized along the lines of China's People's Liberation Army. The VPA is further subdivided into the
Vietnamese People's Ground Forces (including Strategic Rear Forces and Border Defense Forces), the
Vietnam People's Navy, the Vietnam People's Air Force and the coast guard. Through Vietnam's recent
history, the VPA has actively been involved in Vietnam's workforce to develop the economy of
Vietnam, in order to coordinate national defense and the economy. The VPA is involved in such areas as
industry, agriculture, forestry, fishery and telecommunications. The total strength of the VPA is close to
500,000 officers and enlisted members. The government also organizes and maintains provincial militias
and police forces. The role of the military in public life has steadily been reduced since the 1980s.
International relations
The current Vietnamese foreign policy is: "Implement consistently the foreign policy line of
independence, self-reliance, peace, cooperation and development; the foreign policy of openness and
diversification and multilateralization of international relations. Proactively and actively engage in
international economic integration while expanding international cooperation in other fields. Vietnam is
a friend and reliable partner of all countries in the international community, actively taking part in
international and regional cooperation processes" (Extract from The Political Report of The Central
Committee - Vietnam Communist Party, 9th Tenure, at The Party’s 10th National Congress [1].
As of December 2007, Vietnam has established diplomatic relations with 172 countries (the list is here:
[2]). Vietnam holds membership of 63 international organizations such as the United Nations, ASEAN,
AES, La Francophonie, WTO and 650 non-government organizations [3].
Subdivisions
Main articles: Provinces of Vietnam and Districts of Vietnam
Research Trang54
Provinces of Vietnam
Vietnam is divided into 58 provinces (known in Vietnamese as

tỉnh, from the Chinese 省 , shěng). There are also 5 centrally-
controlled municipalities existing at the same level as provinces
(thành phố trực thuộc trung ương).
The provinces are further subdivided into provincial

municipalities (thành phố trực thuộc tỉnh), townships (thị xã) and
counties (huyện), and then, subdivided into towns (thị trấn) or
communes (xã).
The centrally-controlled municipalities are subdivided into

districts (quận) and counties, and then, subdivided into wards
(phường).
Geography and climate

Main article: Geography of Vietnam
Vietnam is approximately 331,688 km² (128,066 sq mi) in area (not including Hoang Sa and Truong Sa
islands), larger than Italy and almost the size of Germany. The perimeter of the country running along its
international boundaries is 4,639 km (2,883 mi). The topography consists of hills and densely forested
mountains, with level land covering no more than 20%. Mountains account for 40% of the area, with
smaller hills accounting for 40% and tropical forests 42%. The northern part of the country consists
mostly of highlands and the Red River Delta. Phan Xi Păng, located in Lào Cai province, is the highest
mountain in Vietnam at 3,143 m (10,312 ft). The south is divided into coastal lowlands, Annamite Chain
peaks, extensive forests, and poor soil. Comprising five relatively flat plateaus of basalt soil, the
highlands account for 16% of the country's arable land and 22% of its total forested land.
Ha Long Bay, a World Heritage Site
The delta of the Red River (also known as the Sông Hồng), a flat,
triangular region of 15,000 square kilometers[18], is smaller but more
intensely developed and more densely populated than the Mekong
River Delta. Once an inlet of the Gulf of Tonkin, it has been filled in by
the enormous alluvial deposits of the rivers over a period of millennia,
and it advances one hundred meters into the Gulf annually. The Mekong delta, covering about 40,000
square kilometers, is a low-level plain not more than three meters above sea level at any point and criss-
crossed by a maze of canals and rivers. So much sediment is carried by the Mekong's various branches
and tributaries that the delta advances sixty to eighty meters into the sea every year.
Ban Gioc Waterfalls in Northern Vietnam.
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Because of differences in latitude and the marked variety of topographical relief, the climate tends to
vary considerably from place to place. During the winter or dry season, extending roughly from
November to April, the monsoon winds usually blow from the northeast along the China coast and
across the Gulf of Tonkin, picking up considerable moisture; consequently the winter season in most
parts of the country is dry only by comparison with the rainy or summer season. The average annual
temperature is generally higher in the plains than in the mountains and plateaus and in the south than in
the north. Temperatures in the southern plains (Ho Chi Minh City and the Mekong Delta) varies less,
going between 21 and 28 degree Celsius (70 and 82.5 °F) over the course of a year. The seasons in the
mountains and plateaus and in the north are much more dramatic, and temperatures may vary from 5
degree Celsius (41 °F) in December and January to 37 degree Celsius (98.6 °F) in July and August.
Nature
Vietnam has two World's Natural Heritage sites: Halong Bay

and Phong Nha-Ke Bang National Park and 6 World's
biosphere reserves including: Can Gio Mangrove Forest, Cat
Tien, Cat Ba, Kien Giang, Red River Delta, Western Nghe An.
Biodiversity
Saola
Vietnam is in the Indomalaya ecozone.
According to chapter 1 in National Environmental Present Condition Report 2005- Biodiversity Subject
of Vietnam Environment Protection Agency,[19] in species diversity, Vietnam is one of 25 countries
having high level in biodiversity all over the world, is ranked 16th of biologically diverse level (having
16% world's species) (page 9). 15,986 flora was identified of which 10% was endemic (p9). Statistic
says that there are 307 nematodes, 200 oligochaeta, 145 acarina, 113 springtails, 7750 insects, 260
reptiles, 120 amphibians, 840 birds and 310 mammals of which 100 birds and 78 mammals are endemic
(p9,10). Vietnam also have 1438 fresh water microalgae (9,6% species in the world) (Table 1.2, p9). It is
defined that there are 794 aquatic invertebrate and 2458 sea fish (p10,11). In recent years, there have
been 13 genera, 222 species, 30 taxa of flora newly described and 6 mammals have been discovered
such as the saola, giant muntjac, Edwards's Pheasant, Tonkin Snub-nosed Langur, livistona halongensis,
geothelphusa vietnamica, etc (frame 1.4, p11,12). In agricultural genetic diversity, Vietnam is one of 12
world's original cultivar centers (p13). Vietnam National Cultivar Gene Bank is preserving 12,300
cultivars of 115 species (p14).
In chapter 4 of that report, it is said that Vietnam government spent 49.07 million USD for biodiversity
in 2004 (p71) and have established 126 conservation areas including 28 national parks (p73).
Economy
Main article: Economy of Vietnam
Vietnamese currency: 500 000 VND
Research Trang56
Historically, Vietnam has been an agricultural civilization based on wet rice cultivating.
The Vietnam War destroyed much of the economy of Vietnam. Upon taking power, the Government
created a planned economy for the nation. Collectivization of farms, factories and economic capital was
implemented, and millions of people were put to work in government programs. For a decade, united
Vietnam's economy was plagued with inefficiency and corruption in state programs, poor quality and
underproduction and restrictions on economic activities and trade. It also suffered from the trade
embargo from the United States and most of Europe after the Vietnam War. Subsequently, the trade
partners of the Communist blocs began to erode. In 1986, the Sixth Party Congress introduced
significant economic reforms with market economy elements as part of a broad economic reform
package called "đổi mới" (Renovation). Private ownership was encouraged in industries, commerce and
agriculture. Vietnam achieved around 8% annual GDP growth from 1990 to 1997 and continued at
around 7% from 2000 to 2005, making it the world's second-fastest growing economy. Simultaneously,
foreign investment grew threefold and domestic savings quintupled. Manufacturing, information
technology and high-tech industries form a large and fast-growing part of the national economy.
Vietnam is a relative newcomer to the oil business, but today it is the third-largest oil producer in
Southeast Asia with output of 400,000 barrels per day (64,000 m³/d). Vietnam is one of Asia's most
open economies: two-way trade is around 160% of GDP, more than twice the ratio for China and over
four times India's.[20]
Vietnam is still a relatively poor country with an annual GDP of US$280.2 billion at purchasing power
parity (2006 estimate)[21]. This translates to a purchasing power of about US$3,300 per capita (or
US$726 per capita at the market exchange rate). Inflation rate was estimated at 7.5% per year in 2006.
Deep poverty, defined as a percent of the population living under $1 per day, has declined significantly
and is now smaller than that of China, India, and the Philippines. [22]
As a result of several land reform measures, Vietnam is now the largest producer of cashew nuts with a
one-third global share and second largest rice exporter in the world after Thailand. Vietnam has the
highest percent of land use for permanent crops, 6.93%, of any nation in the Greater Mekong Subregion.
Besides rice, key exports are coffee, tea, rubber, and fishery products. However, agriculture's share of
economic output has declined, falling as a share of GDP from 42% in 1989 to 20% in 2006, as
production in other sectors of the economy has risen. According to the CIA World Fact Book, the
unemployment rate in Vietnam is 4.3%.[23] Among other steps taken in the process of transitioning to a
market economy, Vietnam in July 2006 updated its intellectual property legislation to comply with
TRIPS. Vietnam was accepted into the WTO on November 7, 2006. Vietnam's chief trading partners
include Japan, Australia, ASEAN countries, the U.S. and Western European countries.
Military
Coast guard station in Hà Tiên

Main article: Military of Vietnam
Quân Đội Nhân Dân Việt Nam, The Vietnam People's Army (VPA), is the
official collective term for the armed forces of the Socialist Republic of
Vietnam. The VPA consists of the Vietnam People's Ground Forces,
Vietnam People's Navy, Vietnam People's Air Force, and Vietnam People's Coast Guard.
Research Trang57
Transport
Hai Van Pass.

Main article: Transportation in Vietnam
The modern transport network of Vietnam was originally

developed under French rule for the purpose of raw materials
harvesting, and reconstructed and extensively modernized
following the Vietnam War. The road system is the most
popular form of transportation in the country. Vietnam’s road
system includes national roads administered by the central
level; provincial roads managed by the provincial level; district roads managed by the district level;
urban roads managed by cities and towns; and commune roads managed by the commune level.
Bicycles, motor scooters and motorcycles remain the most popular forms of road transport in Vietnam's
cities, towns, and villages although the number of privately-owned automobiles is also on the rise,
especially in the larger cities. Public bus operated by private companies is the main long distance travel
means for many people. Traffic congestion is a serious problem in Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City as the
cities' roads struggle to cope with the booming numbers of automobiles. There are also more than
17,000 kilometers of navigable waterways, which play a significant role in rural life owing to the
extensive network of rivers in Vietnam.
The nation has seven developed ports and harbors at Cam Ranh, Da Nang, Hai Phong, Ho Chi Minh
City, Hong Gai (Halong City), Qui Nhon, and Nha Trang.
Demography
Main article: Demography of Vietnam
Population
Main article: Ethnic groups in Vietnam
Close portrait of a Hmong woman
Recent census estimates the population of Vietnam at beyond 84 million.

Vietnamese people, also called "Viet" or "Kinh", account for 86.2 percent
of the population. Their population is concentrated in the alluvial deltas
and coastal plains of the country. A homogeneous social and ethnic majority group, the Kinh exert
political and economic control. There are more than 54 ethnic minorities throughout the country, but the
Kinh are purveyors of the dominant culture. Most ethnic minorities, such as the Muong, a closely related
ethnic of the Kinh, are found mostly in the highlands covering two-thirds of the territory. Before the
Vietnam War, the population of the Central Highlands was almost exclusively Degar (over 40 hill tribal
groups).{cn}} The Hoa (ethnic Chinese) and Khmer Krom are mainly lowlanders. The largest ethnic
minority groups include the Hmong, Dao, Tay, Thai, and Nung.
Languages
Research Trang58
Main article: Vietnamese language
The people of Vietnam speak Vietnamese as a native language. In its early history, Vietnamese writing
used Chinese characters. In the 13th century, the Vietnamese developed their own set of characters
called Chữ nôm. The celebrated epic Đoạn trường tân thanh (Truyện Kiều or The Tale of Kieu) by
Nguyễn Du was written in Chữ nôm. During the French colonial period, Quốc ngữ, the romanized
Vietnamese alphabet used for spoken Vietnamese, which was developed in 17th century by Jesuit
Alexandre De Rhodes and several other Catholic missionaries, became popular and brought literacy to
the masses.
Various other languages are spoken by several minority groups in Vietnam. The most common of these
are Tày, Mường, Khmer, Chinese, Nùng, and H'Mông. The French language, a legacy of colonial rule, is
still spoken by some older Vietnamese as a second language, but is losing its popularity. Vietnam is also
a full member of the Francophonie. Russian — and to a much lesser extent German, Czech, or Polish
— is sometimes known among those whose families had ties with the Soviet bloc. In recent years,
English is becoming more popular as a second language. English study is obligatory in most schools.
Chinese and Japanese have also become more popular.
Religions
Main article: Religion in Vietnam

Religions of Vietnam
religion percentage
"One pillar" pagoda, Hanoi capital.

Buddhism 85%
Christianity 8% Cao Dai temple in My Tho
For
Caodaism 3%
Others 4%
much of Vietnamese
history, Mahayana
Buddhism, Taoism
and Confucianism have strongly influenced the religious and
cultural life of the people. About 85% of Vietnamese identify with
Buddhism, though not all practice on a regular basis[24][25][26][27][28][29]
[30]
. About 8% of the population are Christians (about six million
Roman Catholics and fewer than one million Protestants,
according to the census of 2007). Christianity was introduced first
by the Portuguese and the Dutch traders in the 16th and 17th centuries, then further propagated by
French missionaries in the 19th and 20th centuries, and to a lesser extent, by American Protestant
missionaries during the presence of American forces during the 1960s and early 1970s. The largest
Protestant churches are the Evangelical Church of Vietnam and the Montagnard Evangelical Church.
Two thirds of Vietnam's Protestants are ethnic minorities.[31]
Research Trang59
Vietnam has great reservation towards Roman Catholicism. This mistrust originated during the French
colonial time when some Catholics collaborated with the French colonists as espionage agents and
militiamen to suppress the Vietnamese independence movement. Furthermore, the Church's teaching in
Vietnam regarding communism made it an unwelcome counterforce to communist rule. Relationship
with the Vatican, however, has improved in recent years. Membership of Sunni and Bashi Islam, a small
minority faith, is primarily practiced by the ethnic Cham minority, though there are also a few ethnic
Vietnamese adherents in the southwest. The communist government has from time to time been
criticized for its religious restrictions although it has categorically denied that such restrictions exist
today.
The vast majority of Vietnamese people of Asian religions practice Ancestor Worship.
From the articles of Religions by country, Religion in Vietnam and Demographics of Vietnam; 85% is
nominal/secular Buddhists including predominant 83% East Asian Buddhist or "Triple religion" (80% of
people are worship the mixture of Mahayana Buddhism mainly, Taoism, Confucianism with Ancestor
Worship; 2% Hòa Hảo with 1% of some new Vietnamese-Buddhist sects as Tứ Ân Hiếu Nghĩa, Pure
Land Buddhist, etc) and 2% Theravada Buddhism, mainly among Khmer people but the census of
Government showed that only over 10 million people have taken refuge in the Three Jewels[32][33]; 8%
Christians (7% Catholics and 1% Protestants); 3% Caodaism; 2.5% Tribal animism; less than 70
thousand Muslims; small Hindu communities (over 50 thousand people) and a small number of Baha'is
and Jews.
Education
Main article: Education in Vietnam
Vietnam has an extensive state-controlled network of schools, colleges and universities but the number
of privately-run and mixed public and private institutions is also growing. General education in Vietnam
is imparted in 5 categories: Kindergarten, elementary schools, middle schools, high schools, and
college / university. Courses are taught mainly in Vietnamese. A large number of public schools have
been organized across cities, towns and villages with the purpose of raising the national literacy rate
which is already among the highest in the world. There are a large number of specialist colleges,
established to develop a diverse and skilled national workforce. A large number of Vietnam's most
acclaimed universities are based in Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City. Facing serious crises, Vietnam's
education system is under a holistic reform launched by the government. In Vietnam, education from
age 6 to 11 is free and mandatory. Education above these ages is not free, therefore some poor families
may find it hard to come up with the tuition for their children without some forms of public or private
assistance. Regardless, school enrollment is among the highest in the world and the number of colleges
and universities increased quite dramatically in recent years, from 178 in 2000 to 299 in 2005.
Science
Historically, Vietnamese scholars did not practice the "sciences" in its generally accepted meaning, but
many academic fields were well developed, especially the social sciences and humanities. It has at least
ten centuries of commentary and analytic writings. Among the best known works are those of "Đại Việt
sử ký toàn thư" of Ngô Sĩ Liên. Writings that deal with geography, nature, customs and people were
written by "Dư địa chí" of Nguyễn Trãi. In mathematics, operations (including power and extract the
root) of primary arithmetics and surveying, measurement (length, area, volume...) of primary geometry
were taught in schools using the famous textbook: "Đại thành toán pháp" of Lương Thế Vinh. Lương
Research Trang60
Thế Vinh had notion of zero and Mạc Hiển Tích used the term "số ẩn" (unknown/secret/hidden number)
to refer to negative numbers. Much knowledge was collected into encyclopedia: "Vân đài loại ngữ" of
Lê Quý Đôn and "Lịch triều hiến chương loại chí" of Phan Huy Chú.
Culture
Main article: Culture of Vietnam
The Temple of Literature , main entry
Vietnamese phở noodle soup with sliced rare

beef and well done beef brisket.
The official spoken and written language of

Vietnam is Vietnamese.
The culture of Vietnam has been influenced by neighboring China. Due to Vietnam's long association
with the south of China, one characteristic of Vietnamese culture is filial duty. Education and self-
betterment are highly valued. Historically, passing the imperial Mandarin exams was the only means for
Vietnamese people to socially advance themselves.
In the socialist era, the cultural life of Vietnam has been deeply influenced by government-controlled
media and the cultural influences of socialist programs. For many decades, foreign cultural influences
were shunned and emphasis placed on appreciating and sharing the culture of communist nations such as
the Soviet Union, China, Cuba and others. Since the 1990s, Vietnam has seen a greater exposure to
Southeast Asian, European and American culture and media.
One of the most popular Vietnamese traditional garments is the "Áo Dài", worn often for special
occasions such as weddings or festivals. White Áo dài is the required uniform for girls in many high
schools across Vietnam. Áo Dài was once worn by both genders but today it is worn mainly by females,
except for certain important traditional culture-related occasions where some men do wear it.
Vietnamese cuisine uses very little oil and many vegetables. The main dishes are often based on rice,
soy sauce, and fish sauce. Its characteristic flavors are sweet (sugar), spicy (serrano peppers), sour
(lime), nuoc mam (fish sauce), and flavored by a variety of mint and basil.
Vietnamese music varies slightly in the three regions: Bắc or North, Trung or Central, and Nam or
South. Northern classical music is Vietnam's oldest and is traditionally more formal. Vietnamese
classical music can be traced to the Mongol invasions, when the Vietnamese captured a Chinese opera
troupe. Central classical music shows the influences of Champa culture with its melancholic melodies.
Southern music exudes a lively attitude.
See also Vietnamese art, theatre, dance, and literature
My Dinh National Stadium in Western Hanoi
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Football (soccer) is the most popular sport in Vietnam. Sports and games such as badminton, tennis,
ping pong, and chess are also popular with large segments of the population. Volleyball, especially
women's volleyball, is watched by a fairly large number of Vietnamese people. The (expatriate
Vietnamese) community forms a prominent part of Vietnamese cultural life, introducing Western sports,
films, music and other cultural activities in the nation.
See also List of Vietnamese traditional games.
Vietnam is home to a small film industry.
Among countless other traditional Vietnamese occasions, the traditional Vietnamese wedding is one of
the most important. Many of the age-old customs in a Vietnamese wedding continue to be celebrated by
both Vietnamese in Vietnam and overseas, often combining both western and eastern elements.
See also List of festivals in Vietnam
Media
Vietnam's media sector is controlled by the government to follow the official communist party line. The
Voice of Vietnam is the official state-run radio broadcasting service that covers the nation. It also
broadcasts internationally via shortwave, renting transmitters in other countries and provides broadcasts
from its website. Vietnam Television is the national television broadcasting company. As Vietnam
moved toward a free-market economy with its Đổi mới measures, the government has relied on the print
media to keep the public informed about its policies. The measure has had the effect of almost doubling
the numbers of newspapers and magazines since 1996 . Vietnam is putting considerable effort into
modernization and expansion of its telecommunication system, but its performance continues to lag
behind that of its more modern neighbors.
Tourism
The official logo of Vietnam, used to promote the tourist attractions in the country
Vietnam's number of visitors for tourism and vacation has increased steadily over the past ten years.
About 3.56 million international guests visited Vietnam in 2006, an increase of 3.7% from 2005. The
country is investing capital into the coastal regions that are already popular for their beaches and boat
tours. Hotel staff and tourism guides in these regions speak a good amount of English.
International rankings
Organization Survey Ranking
Heritage Foundation/The Wall Street

Index of Economic Freedom 142 out of 157
Journal
The Economist Worldwide Quality-of-life Index, 2005 61 out of 111

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Reporters Without Borders Worldwide Press Freedom Index 155 out of 167
Transparency International Corruption Perceptions Index 111 out of 163
United Nations Development Programme Human Development Index 109 out of 177
World Economic Forum Global Competitiveness Report 77 out of 125
See also
v•d•e
Vietnam topics
Timeline · Early kingdoms · Chinese domination · Early independence · Dynastic

History
period · Colonization · Franco-Vietnamese War · Vietnam War · Socialism after 1975
Constitution · Political parties (Communist Party of Vietnam) · Elections · Foreign

Politics
relations
Executive President · Prime Minister
Legislative National Assembly

Government
Supreme People's Court · Provincial Municipal Courts · Local
Judicial
Courts · Military Courts · People's Police of Vietnam
Military Ground Forces · Navy · Air Force · Coast Guard
Economy Doi Moi · Companies · Vietnamese dong (VND)
Vietnam Airlines · Jetstar Pacific Airlines · Airports (Tan Son Nhat / Noi Bai / Da
Transport
Nang International Airports) · Vietnam Railways
Northwest · Northeast · Red River Delta · North Central Coast · South Central Coast ·
Geography
Central Highlands · Southeast · Mekong River Delta
Society Demographics · Ethnic groups · Religion · Culture · Media · Education · Public
Research Trang63
holidays
Arts Art · Dance · Cinema · Cuisine · Literature · Martial arts · Music · Theater
Other topics Communications · National flag / coat of arms · Provinces · Diaspora · Human rights
Portal · WikiProject
Sources and notes
1. ^ a b c d "Vietnam". International Monetary Fund. Retrieved on 2008-10-09.

2. ^ Chinese Colonization (200BC - 938AD)
3. ^ Spears offer insight into early military strategy, Viet Nam News
4. ^ The Tran Dynasty and the Defeat of the Mongols
5. ^ The Le Dynasty and Southward Expansion
6. ^ The Kingdom of Champa
7. ^ The Chams: Survivors of a Lost Civilisation
8. ^ http://coombs.anu.edu.au/%7Evern/van_kien/declar.html Declaration of Independence,
Democratic Republic of Vietnam] – Vietnam Documents
9. ^ a b The United States in Vietnam - An Analysis in Depth of America's Involvement in Vietnam,
by George McTurnin Kahin and John W. Lewis Delta Books, 1967.
10. ^ Vietnam War
11. ^ Tet Offensive"...NLF/NVA troops and commandos attacked virtually every major town and
city in South Vietnam as well as most of the important American bases and airfields...In Saigon,
nineteen VC commandos blew their way through the outer walls of the US Embassy..."
12. ^ Bombs over Cambodia Yale. Access 20 Nov '08
13. ^ Operation Menu Access 20 Nov '08
14. ^ United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. "The State of The World's Refugees 2000 –
Chapter 4: Flight from Indochina". Retrieved on 2007-04-06.: Three million fled Vietnam,
Cambodia, and Laos combined; close to a million Vietnamese were helped by the UNHCR.
15. ^ Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. "Boat people: A Refugee Crisis". Retrieved on 2007-04-
06.
16. ^ Cambodia - The Fall of Democratic Kampuchea, U.S. Library of Congress
17. ^ Chinese Invasion of Vietnam, GlobalSecurity.org
18. ^ Agroviet Newsletter September 2005
19. ^ Báo cáo Hiện trạng môi trường quốc gia 2005 - (Vietnamese)
20. ^ Vietnam Vrooooom: Asia's second-fastest-growing economy takes the global stage. - CNN
Money
21. ^ Source for GDP: Economist Intelligence unit
22. ^ Economy of Vietnam – CIA World FactBook
23. ^ Vietnam CIA World Fact Book, 2007 est., access 20 Nov 07
24. ^ US Department of State: Background Note: Vietnam
25. ^ The Largest Buddhist Communities – adherents.com. This quotes a much lower figure than the
85% quoted by the US Department of State
26. ^ APEC – Vietnam
27. ^ Encyclopedia of the Nations – Vietnam
28. ^ Vietnam travel and holidays – Vietnam's religions
Research Trang64
29. ^ Religion of the Vietnamese
30. ^ "Vietnam: International Religious Freedom Report 2007". U.S. Department of State: Bureau of
Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor (2007-09-14). Retrieved on 2008-01-21.
31. ^ Vietnam's Christians persecuted as state sees hidden enemy, The Independent, October 15,
2004
32. ^ Embassy of Vietnam – Beliefs and religions
33. ^ CIA Factbook- Vietnam
References
• Herring, George C. America's Longest War: The United States and Vietnam, 1950-1975 (4th ed 2001),
most widely used short history.
• Jahn GC. 2006. The Dream is not yet over. In: P. Fredenburg P, Hill B, editors. Sharing rice for peace and
prosperity in the Greater Mekong Subregion. Victoria, (Australia): Sid Harta Publishers. p 237-240
• Karrnow, Stanley. Vietnam: A History. Penguin (Non-Classics); 2nd edition (June 1, 1997). ISBN 0-14-
026547-3
• McMahon, Robert J. Major Problems in the History of the Vietnam War: Documents and Essays (1995)
textbook
• Tucker, Spencer. ed. Encyclopedia of the Vietnam War (1998) 3 vol. reference set; also one-volume
abridgment (2001)
• Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary, 7th edition, Oxford University Press.
External links
Find more about Vietnam on Government
• Portal of the Government of Vietnam
Dictionary definitions • Communist Party of Vietnam
• National Assembly: the Vietnamese legislative body
• General Statistics Office
Textbooks
• Ministry of Foreign Affairs
Quotations
Economy
Source texts
• Site Vietnam economy
• National Securities Center
Images and media • Securities
• live price of stock
News stories
Media
Learning resources State-run
• Voice of Vietnam: State radio broadcaster

• Vietnam Television: State television broadcaster
• Vietnam News Agency: Official state news agency
• Nhân Dân (The People): Official Communist Party newspaper
• Quân đội Nhân Dân: Newspaper of the People's Army
• Vietnam Net: Largest Vietnamese portal, run by the government-owned Vietnam Post and
Telecommunication Corporation
• Hà Nội Mới (New Hanoi): run by the Hanoi Communist Party (Vietnamese)
• Sài Gòn Giải Phóng (Liberated Saigon): run by the Ho Chi Minh City Communist Party
Research Trang65
Non state-run
While all media in Vietnam must be sponsored by a Communist Party organization and be registered
with the government, the following media sources have less government control than others.
• VnExpress: Popular online newspaper (Vietnamese)

• Tuổi Trẻ (Youth): Daily newspaper with highest circulation, affiliated with the Ho Chi Minh
Communist Youth Organization of Ho Chi Minh City (Vietnamese)
• Thanh Niên (Youth): Major daily newspaper, affiliated with the Vietnam National Youth
Federation
• Lao Động (Labour): Major daily newspaper, affiliated with the Vietnam General Confederation
of Labour (the sole labour union in Vietnam) (Vietnamese)
• Tiền Phong (Vanguard): Major daily newspaper, affiliated with the Ho Chi Minh Communist
Youth organization (Vietnamese)
• Vietnam Economic Times – for foreign investors.
Overviews
• BBC – Country profile: Vietnam

• CIA World Factbook – Vietnam
• Freedom House "Countries at the Crossroads" report - Vietnam: information on government
accountability, civil liberties, rule of law, and anticorruption efforts
• VietNam Map or a collection of Vietnamese maps
• Encyclopaedia Britannica – Vietnam
• Open Directory Project – Vietnam directory category
• US State Department – Vietnam includes Background Notes, Country Study and major reports
• US Library of Congress – Country Study: Vietnam
• Information about Vietnam: from the Vietnamese Ministry of Foreign Affair
• Le Viêt Nam, aujourd'hui: News concerning Vietnam (English & French)
• Business Anti-Corruption Portal Vietnam Country Profile
• Vietnam tourism website Official Tourism website of Vietnam
v•d•e
Subdivisions of Vietnam
Regions
Northwest · Northeast · Red River Delta · North Central Coast · South Central Coast ·
Central Highlands · Southeast · Mekong River Delta
Municipalities
Cần Thơ · Đà Nẵng · Hải Phòng · Hà Nội (now included Hà Tây) · Hồ Chí Minh City
Provinces
An Giang · Bắc Giang · Bắc Cạn · Bạc Liêu · Bắc Ninh · Bà Rịa-Vũng Tàu · Bến Tre · Bình
Định · Bình Dương · Bình Phước · Bình Thuận · Cà Mau · Cao Bằng · Đắk Lắk · Đắk
Nông · Điện Biên · Đồng Nai · Đồng Tháp · Gia Lai · Hà Giang · Hà Nam · Hà Tĩnh · Hải
Dương · Hòa Bình · Hậu Giang · Hưng Yên · Khánh Hòa · Kiên Giang · Kon Tum · Lai
Research Trang66
Châu · Lâm Đồng · Lạng Sơn · Lào Cai · Long An · Nam Định · Nghệ An · Ninh Bình ·
Ninh Thuận · Phú Thọ · Phú Yên · Quảng Bình · Quảng Nam · Quảng Ngãi · Quảng Ninh ·
Quảng Trị · Sóc Trăng · Sơn La · Tây Ninh · Thái Bình · Thái Nguyên · Thanh Hóa · Thừa
Thiên-Huế · Tiền Giang · Trà Vinh · Tuyên Quang · Vĩnh Long · Vĩnh Phúc · Yên Bái
Districts
Geographic locale
v•d•e
Countries and other territories in Southeast Asia
Sovereign states Dependencies

Brunei Malaysia Christmas Island (Australia)
Burma Philippines Cocos (Keeling) Islands (Australia)
Cambodia Singapore
East Timor Thailand Divisions of sovereign states
Indonesia Vietnam Andaman and Nicobar
Laos Islands (India)
Hainan Island (PRC)
Disputed territories
Islands in the Naf River (Bangladesh, Burma) · Macclesfield Bank (PRC, ROC) · Paracel Islands (PRC, ROC,
Vietnam) · Pratas Islands (PRC, ROC) · Sabah (Malaysia, Philippines) · Scarborough Shoal (Philippines, PRC,
ROC) · Spratly Islands (Brunei, Malaysia, Philippines, PRC, ROC, Vietnam) · Active separatist or autonomist
movements
Aceh · Maluku Islands · West Papua · Chinland · Sulawesi · Nagaland · Wa State · Zogam ·
Bangsamoro · Patani
v•d•e
Countries of Asia
Afghanistan · Armenia · Azerbaijan1 · Bahrain · Bangladesh · Bhutan · Brunei · Burma · Cambodia ·

People's Republic of China · Republic of China (Taiwan)2 · Cyprus · Egypt3 · Georgia1 · India · Indonesia4 ·
Iran · Iraq · Israel · Japan · Jordan · Kazakhstan1 · North Korea · South Korea · Kuwait · Kyrgyzstan · Laos ·
Lebanon · Malaysia · Maldives · Mongolia · Nepal · Oman · Pakistan · Philippines · Qatar · Russia1 · Saudi
Arabia · Singapore · Sri Lanka · Syria · Tajikistan · Thailand · East Timor (Timor-Leste)4 · Turkey1 ·
Turkmenistan · United Arab Emirates · Uzbekistan · Vietnam · Yemen3
For dependent and other territories, see Dependent territory.
1
Partly or significantly in Europe. 2 The Republic of China (Taiwan) is not officially recognized by the United Nations; see
Political status of Taiwan.
3
Partly or significantly in Africa. 4 Partly or wholly reckoned in Oceania.
Research Trang67
Research Trang68
THE END OF VIETNAM
WIKIPEDIA, THE FREE ENCYCLOPEDIA
Research Trang69
UNITED KINGDOM
(Redirected
from United
Kigdom)
Jump to:
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For an outline on
this subject, see
Topic outline of
the United
Kingdom. For
other uses of
terms redirecting here, see UK (disambiguation), United
Kingdom (disambiguation), and Britain (disambiguation)
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern

Ireland,[12] commonly known as the United Kingdom, the
UK or Britain,[13] is a sovereign state located off the
northwestern coast of continental Europe. It is an island
country,[14][15] spanning Great Britain, the northeast part of
Ireland, and
many small islands. Northern Ireland is the only part of the
UK with a land border, sharing it with the Republic of
Ireland.[16][17] Apart from this land border, the UK is
surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, the North Sea, the
English Channel and the Irish Sea. The largest island, Great
Britain, is linked to France by the Channel Tunnel.
The United Kingdom is a unitary state consisting of four

countries: England, Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales.
[18]
It is governed by a parliamentary system with its seat of
government in London, the capital, but with three devolved
national administrations in Belfast, Cardiff and Edinburgh,
the capitals of Northern Ireland, Wales and Scotland
respectively. The UK is a constitutional monarchy with
Queen Elizabeth II as the head of state. The Channel Islands
and the Isle of Man are Crown Dependencies and not part of
the UK, but form a federacy with it.[19] The UK has fourteen
overseas territories,[20] all remnants of the British Empire,
which at its height encompassed almost a quarter of the
world's land surface, the largest empire in history. British
influence can continue to be observed in the language,
culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies.
Queen Elizabeth II remains the head of the Commonwealth
of Nations and head of state of each of the Commonwealth realms.
Research Trang70
The UK is a developed country, with the fifth (nominal

GDP) or sixth (PPP) largest economy in the world. It was
the world's first industrialised country[21] and the world's
foremost power during the 19th and early 20th centuries,[22]
but the economic cost of two world wars and
the decline of its empire in the latter half of
Contents the 20th century diminished its leading role in
[hide] global affairs. The UK nevertheless remains a
major power with strong economic, cultural,
• 1 History
• 2 Government and politics
o 2.1 Devolved national administrations
o 2.2 Local government
• 3 Foreign relations and armed forces
• 4 Law and criminal justice
o 4.1 England, Wales and Northern Ireland
o 4.2 Scotland
• 5 Geography
o 5.1 Cities and conurbations
• 6 Demography military and political influence and is a
o 6.1 Population nuclear power, with the second or third
o 6.2 Migration highest defence spending in the world. It is a
o 6.3 Ethnic groups Member State of the European Union, holds a
o 6.4 Languages permanent seat on the United Nations
o 6.5 Religion
Security Council, and is a member of the G8,
 6.5.1 Christianity
NATO, Organisation for Economic Co-
 6.5.2 Other religions
operation and Development, World Trade
• 7 Economy
Organization and the Commonwealth of
• 8 Education
Nations.
• 9 Healthcare
• 10 Transport
• 11 Sport
o 11.1 Football
o 11.2 Other sports
• 12 Culture History
o 12.1 Cinema Main article: History of the United
o 12.2 Literature Kingdom
o 12.3 Media
 12.3.1 Broadcasting
 12.3.2 Internet The Battle of
 12.3.3 Print Waterloo
o 12.4 Music marked the end
o 12.5 Philosophy of the Napoleonic Wars.
o 12.6 Science, engineering and innovation
o 12.7 Visual art On 1 May 1707 the Kingdom of Great
• 13 Symbols Britain[23][24] was created
o 13.1 Within the United Kingdom by the political union of
• 14 See also
Research Trang71
• 15 Notes and references
the Kingdom of England (which included Wales) and the Kingdom of Scotland. This event was the
result of the Treaty of Union that was agreed on 22 July 1706,[25] and then ratified by both the Parliament
of England and Parliament of Scotland each passing an Act of Union in 1707. Almost a century later, the
Kingdom of Ireland, already under English control by 1691, joined the Kingdom of Great Britain with
the passing of the Act of Union 1800.[26] Although England and Scotland had been separate states prior
to 1707, they had been in personal union since the Union of the Crowns in 1603, when James VI King of
Scots had inherited the throne of the Kingdoms of England and Ireland and moved his court from
Edinburgh to London.[27][28]
The British Empire in 1897. By 1920 it had become the largest empire in history.
In its first century, the United Kingdom played an important role in developing Western ideas of the
parliamentary system as well as making significant contributions to literature, the arts and science.[29]
The UK-led Industrial Revolution transformed the country and fuelled the growing British Empire.
During this time, like other great powers, the UK was involved in colonial exploitation, including the
Atlantic slave trade, although the passing of the Slave Trade Act in 1807 made it the first country to
prohibit trade in slaves.[30]
After the defeat of Napoleon in the Napoleonic Wars, the UK emerged the principal naval power of the
19th century and remained an eminent power into the mid-20th century. The British Empire expanded to
its maximum size by 1921, gaining the League of Nations mandate over former German and Ottoman
colonies after World War I.
Long simmering tensions in Ireland led to the partition of the island in 1920, followed by independence
for the Irish Free State in 1922 with Northern Ireland remaining within the UK. As a result, in 1927, the
formal name of the UK was changed to its current name, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and
Northern Ireland.[31]
The Battle of Britain. The UK was the only Allied European country to
remain free from occupation during World War II.
During the 1920s, the BBC, the world's first large-scale international
broadcasting network, was created. The UK fought Nazi Germany as one
of the major Allied powers of World War II and helped plan the postwar world. World War II left the
United Kingdom financially damaged. Marshall Aid and costly loans taken from both Canada and the
United States helped the UK on the road to recovery.
The immediate post-war years saw the establishment of the Welfare State, including among the world's
first and most comprehensive public health services, while the demands of a recovering economy
attracted immigrants from all over the Commonwealth. Although the new postwar limits of Britain's
political role were confirmed by the Suez Crisis of 1956, the international spread of the English
language meant the continuing influence of its literature and culture, while from the 1960s its popular
culture also found influence abroad.
Following a period of global economic slowdown and industrial strife in the 1970s, the 1980s saw the
inflow of substantial North Sea oil revenues and economic growth. The premiership of Margaret
Research Trang72
Thatcher marked a significant change of direction from the post-war political and economic consensus; a
path that has continued under the New Labour governments of Tony Blair and Gordon Brown since
1997.
The United Kingdom was one of the 12 founding members of the European Union at its launch in 1992
with the signing of the Maastricht Treaty. Prior to that, it had been a member of the EU's forerunner, the
European Economic Community (EEC), from 1973. The attitude of the present Labour government
towards further integration with this organisation is mixed,[32] with the Official Opposition, the
Conservative Party, favouring less powers and competencies being transferred to
the EU.[33]
The end of the 20th century saw major changes to the governance of the UK with
the establishment of devolved national administrations for Northern Ireland,
Scotland and Wales following pre-legislative referenda.[34]

Main articles: Monarchy of the United Kingdom, Politics of the United
Kingdom, and Elections in the United Kingdom
HM Queen Elizabeth II
The United Kingdom is a constitutional monarchy: Queen Elizabeth II is head of state of the UK as well
as of fifteen other Commonwealth countries, putting the UK in a personal union with those other states.
The Crown has sovereignty over the Crown Dependencies of the Isle of Man and the Bailiwicks of
Jersey and Guernsey, which are not part of the United Kingdom though the UK government manages
their foreign affairs and defence and the UK Parliament has the authority to legislate on their behalf.
Since the United Kingdom is one of the three countries in the world today that does not have a codified
constitution,[35] the Constitution of the United Kingdom consists mostly of written sources, including
statutes, judge made case law, and international treaties. As there is no technical difference between
ordinary statutes and "constitutional law," the UK Parliament can perform "constitutional reform"
simply by passing Acts of Parliament and thus has the power to change or abolish almost any written or
unwritten element of the constitution. However, no Parliament can pass laws that future Parliaments
cannot change.[36]
The UK's remaining overseas territories
The UK has a parliamentary government based on the Westminster system that has been emulated
around the world — a legacy of the British Empire. The Parliament of the United Kingdom that meets in
the Palace of Westminster has two houses: an elected House of Commons and an appointed House of
Lords, and any Bill passed requires Royal Assent to become law. It is the ultimate legislative authority
in the United Kingdom since the devolved parliament in Scotland and
devolved assemblies in Northern Ireland, and Wales are not sovereign
bodies and could be abolished by the UK parliament despite being
established following public approval as expressed in referenda.
Research Trang73
The Houses of Parliament
The position of Prime Minister, the UK's head of government, belongs to the Member of Parliament
who can obtain the confidence of a majority in the House of Commons, usually the current leader of the
largest political party in that chamber. The Prime Minister and Cabinet are formally appointed by the
Monarch to form Her Majesty's Government. Though the Prime Minister chooses the Cabinet, and by
convention HM The Queen respects the Prime Minister's choices. The Cabinet is traditionally drawn
from members of the Prime Minister's party in both legislative houses, and mostly from the House of
Commons, to which they are responsible. Executive power is exercised by the Prime Minister and
Cabinet, all of whom are sworn into Her Majesty's Most Honourable Privy Council, and become
Ministers of the Crown. The Rt Hon Gordon Brown MP, leader of the Labour Party, has been Prime
Minister, First Lord of the Treasury and Minister for the Civil Service since 27 June 2007.[37]
For elections to the House of Commons, the UK is currently divided into 646 constituencies, with 529 in
England, 18 in Northern Ireland, 59 in Scotland and 40 in Wales,[38] though this number will rise to 650
at the next General Election. Each constituency elects one Member of Parliament by simple plurality.
General Elections are called by the Monarch when the Prime Minister so advises. Though there is no
minimum term for a Parliament, the Parliament Act (1911) requires that a new election must be called
within five years of the previous general election.
The UK's three major political parties are the Labour Party, the Conservative Party, and the Liberal
Democrats, who won between them 616 out of the 646 seats available in the House of Commons at the
2005 general election. Most of the remaining seats were won by parties that only contest elections in one
part of the UK such as the Scottish National Party (Scotland only), Plaid Cymru (Wales only), and the
Democratic Unionist Party, Social Democratic and Labour Party, Ulster Unionist Party, and Sinn Féin
(Northern Ireland only, though Sinn Féin also contests elections in Ireland). In accordance with party
policy, no elected Sinn Féin Member of Parliament has ever attended the House of Commons to speak in
the House on behalf of their constituents as Members of Parliament are required to take an oath of
allegiance to the Monarch.[39]
For elections to the European Parliament, the UK has 78 MEPs, elected in 12 multi-member
constituencies.[40] Questions over sovereignty have been brought forward due to the UK's membership of
the European Union.[41]
Devolved national administrations
Main articles: Northern Ireland Executive, Scottish Government, and Welsh Assembly
Government
Scottish Parliament is the national legislature of Scotland.
Parliament Buildings in Stormont, Belfast, seat of the assembly
Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales each has its own

government or Executive, led by a First Minister, and a
Research Trang74
devolved, unicameral legislature. England, the largest country of the United Kingdom, has no devolved
executive or legislature and is administered and legislated for directly by the UK government and
parliament on all issues. This situation has given rise to the so-called West Lothian question which
concerns the fact that MPs from Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales can vote, sometimes decisively,
[42]
on matters affecting England that are handled by devolved legislatures for their own constituencies.
[43]
The Scottish Government and Parliament have wide ranging powers over any matter that has not been
specifically 'reserved' to the UK parliament, including education, healthcare, Scots law and local
government.[44] Following their victory at the 2007 elections, the pro-independence SNP formed a
minority government with its leader, Alex Salmond, becoming First Minister of Scotland.[45] The pro-
union parties responded to the electoral success of the SNP by creating a Commission to examine the
case for devolving additional powers while excluding Scottish independence as an option,[46] though the
then leader of the Scottish Labour Party, Wendy Alexander, indicated that Labour would support calls
for independence to be placed before the people in a referendum in the hope that a vote to reject
independence would settle the constitutional debate for a generation.[47]
The Welsh Assembly Government and the National Assembly for Wales have more limited powers than
those devolved to Scotland,[48] although following the passing of the Government of Wales Act 2006, the
Assembly can now legislate in some areas through Legislative Competency Orders which can be granted
on a case by case basis.[49] The current Welsh Assembly Government was formed several weeks after the
2007 elections, following a brief period of minority administration, when Plaid Cymru joined Labour in
a coalition government under the continuing leadership of First Minister Rhodri Morgan.
The Northern Ireland Executive and Assembly have powers closer to those already devolved to
Scotland. The Northern Ireland Executive is currently led by First Minister Peter Robinson (Democratic
Unionist Party) and deputy First Minister Martin McGuinness (Sinn Féin).[50]
Local government
Main article: History of local government in the United Kingdom

See also: Local government in England, Local government in Northern Ireland, Local
government in Scotland, and Local government in Wales
Manchester Town Hall, used for the local governance of Manchester,

is an example of Victorian era Gothic revival architecture.
The history of local government in the United Kingdom is marked by

little change in the arrangements that preceded the Union until the 19th
century, after which there has been a constant evolution of role and
function.[51] Change did not occur in England, Northern Ireland,
Scotland and Wales in a uniform manner and the devolution of power
over local government to Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland means
that future changes are unlikely to be uniform either.
The organisation of local government in England is complex, with the distribution of functions varying
according to the local arrangements. Legislation concerning local government in England is decided by
the UK parliament and the government of the United Kingdom, because England does not have a
Research Trang75
devolved parliament. The upper-tier subdivisions of England are the nine Government office regions or
European Union government office regions.[52] One region, Greater London, has had a directly elected
assembly and mayor since 2000 following popular support for the proposal in a referendum.[53] It was
intended that other regions would also be given their own elected regional assemblies but a rejection by
a referendum in 2004 of a proposed assembly in the North East region stopped this idea in its tracks.[54]
Below the region level, London consists of 32 London boroughs and the rest of England has either
county councils and district councils or unitary authorities. Councillors are elected by First Past The Post
in single member wards or by the multi-member plurality system in multi-member wards.[55]
Local government in Northern Ireland has, since 1973, been organised into 26 district councils, each
elected by single transferable vote with powers limited to services like collecting waste, controlling
dogs, and maintaining parks and cemeteries.[56] However, on 13 March 2008, the Executive agreed on
proposals to create 11 new councils to replace the present system[57] and the next local elections will be
postponed until 2011 to facilitate this.[58]
Local government in Scotland is divided on a basis of 32 council areas with wide variation in both size
and population. The cities of Glasgow, Edinburgh, Aberdeen and Dundee are separate council areas as
also is Highland Council which includes a third of Scotland's area but just over 200,000 people. The
power invested in local authorities is administered by elected councillors, of which there are currently
1,222[59] who are each paid a part-time salary. Elections are conducted by single transferable vote in
multi-member wards that elect either three or four councillors. Each council elects a Provost or
Convenor to chair meetings of the council and to act as a figurehead for the area. Councillors are subject
to a code of conduct enforced by the Standards Commission for Scotland.[60] The representative
association of Scotland's local authorities is the Convention of Scottish Local Authorities (COSLA).[61]
Local government in Wales consists of 22 unitary authorities, including the cities of Cardiff, Swansea
and Newport, which are separate unitary authorities in their own right.[62] Elections are held every four
years by First Past The Post[63] with the most recent elections being in May, 2008. The Welsh Local
Government Association represents the interests of local authorities in Wales.[64]
Foreign relations and armed forces

Main articles: Foreign relations of the United Kingdom and British Armed Forces
HMS Illustrious - one of the Royal Navy's Invincible class aircraft

carriers
A test launch of a Trident II MIRV SLBM

from one of the Royal Navy's Vanguard
class submarines
Research Trang76
The Royal Air Force's Eurofighter Typhoon - an advanced fighter aircraft
The United Kingdom is a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council, a member of the
G8 and NATO, and a member state of the European Union. The UK has a "Special Relationship" with
the United States. Apart from the US and Europe, Britain's close allies include Commonwealth nations
and other English speaking countries. Britain's global presence and influence is further amplified
through its trading relations and its armed forces, which maintain approximately eighty military
installations and other deployments around the globe.[65]
The Army, Navy and Air Force are collectively known as the British Armed Forces (or Her Majesty's
Armed Forces) and officially the Armed Forces of the Crown. The commander-in-chief is the monarch,
HM Queen Elizabeth II and they are managed by the Ministry of Defence. The armed forces are
controlled by the Defence Council, chaired by the Chief of the Defence Staff.
The United Kingdom fields one of the most technologically advanced and best trained armed forces in
the world. According to various sources, including the Ministry of Defence, the UK has the third highest
military expenditure in the world, despite only having the 27th largest military in terms of manpower.
Total defence spending currently accounts for 2.2% of total national GDP, compared to 4.4% at the end
of the Cold War.[66] It is the second largest spender on military science, engineering and technology.[67]
The Royal Navy is a, operating blue-water navy, currently one of the few, along with the French Navy
and the United States Navy.[68] The British Armed Forces are equipped with advanced weapons systems,
including the Challenger 2 tank and the Eurofighter Typhoon jet fighter. The Ministry of Defence signed
contracts worth £3.2bn to build two new supercarrier sized aircraft carriers on 3 July 2008.[69]
The United Kingdom is one of the five recognised countries possessing nuclear weapons, utilising the
Vanguard class submarine-based Trident II ballistic missile system.
The British Armed Forces are charged with protecting the United Kingdom and its overseas territories,
promoting the United Kingdom's global security interests, and supporting international peacekeeping
efforts. They are active and regular participants in NATO, including the Allied Rapid Reaction Corps, as
well as the Five Power Defence Arrangements and other worldwide coalition operations. Overseas
garrisons and facilities are maintained at Ascension Island, Belize, Brunei, Canada, Diego Garcia, the
Falkland Islands, Germany, Gibraltar, Kenya, and Cyprus.[70]
The British Army had a reported strength of 102,440 in 2005,[71] the Royal Air Force a strength of
49,210 and the 36,320-strong Royal Navy, which includes the Royal Marines, who provide commando
units specialising in amphibious warfare.
The United Kingdom Special Forces, provide troops trained for quick, mobile, military responses in
counter-terrorism, land, maritime and amphibious operations, often where secrecy or covert tactics are
required.
There are reserve forces supporting the regular military. These include the Territorial Army, the Royal
Naval Reserve, Royal Marines Reserve and the Royal Auxiliary Air Force. This puts total active and
reserve duty military personnel at approximately 429,500, deployed in over eighty countries.
Despite the United Kingdom's military capabilities, recent pragmatic defence policy has a stated
assumption that "the most demanding operations" would be undertaken as part of a coalition.[72] Setting
aside the intervention in Sierra Leone, operations in Bosnia, Kosovo, Afghanistan and Iraq may all be
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taken as precedent. Indeed the last war in which the British military fought alone was the Falklands War
of 1982, in which they were victorious.
Law and criminal justice

Main article: Law of the United Kingdom
The Royal Courts of Justice of England and Wales.
The High Court of Justiciary - the supreme criminal court of Scotland.
The United Kingdom does not have a single legal system due to it being created by
the political union of previously independent countries with Article 19 of the Treaty
of Union guaranteeing the continued existence of Scotland's separate legal system.[73]
Today the UK has three distinct systems of law: English law, Northern Ireland law and Scots law.
Recent constitutional changes will see a new Supreme Court of the United Kingdom come into being in
October 2009 that will take on the appeal functions of the Appellate Committee of the House of Lords.
[74]
The Judicial Committee of the Privy Council, comprising the same members as the Appellate
Committee of the House of Lords, is the highest court of appeal for several independent Commonwealth
countries, the UK overseas territories, and the British crown dependencies.
England, Wales and Northern Ireland
Main articles: English law and Northern Ireland law
Both English law, which applies in England and Wales, and Northern Ireland law are based on common-
law principles. The essence of common-law is that law is made by judges sitting in courts, applying their
common sense and knowledge of precedent (stare decisis) to the facts before them. The Courts of
England and Wales are headed by the Supreme Court of Judicature of England and Wales, consisting of
the Court of Appeal, the High Court of Justice (for civil cases) and the Crown Court (for criminal cases).
The Appellate Committee of the House of Lords (usually just referred to, as "The House of Lords") is
presently the highest court in the land for both criminal and civil cases in England, Wales, and Northern
Ireland and any decision it makes is binding on every other court in the hierarchy.
Crime in England and Wales increased in the period between 1981 and 1995 though, since that peak,
there has been an overall fall of 48% in crime from 1995 to 2007/8.[75] Despite the fall in crime rates, the
prison population of England and Wales has almost doubled over the same period, to over 80,000,
giving England and Wales the highest rate of incarceration in Western Europe at 147 per 100,000. [76] Her
Majesty's Prison Service, which reports to the Ministry of Justice, manages most of the prisons within
England and Wales.
Scotland
Main article: Scots law
Scots law, a hybrid system based on both common-law and civil-law principles, applies in Scotland. The
chief courts are the Court of Session, for civil cases,[77] and the High Court of Justiciary, for criminal
cases.[78] The Appellate Committee of the House of Lords (usually just referred to as "The House of
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Lords") presently serves as the highest court of appeal for civil cases under Scots law but only if the
Court of Session grants leave to appeal or the initial judgement was by a majority decision. Sheriff
Courts deal with most civil and criminal cases including conducting criminal trials with a jury, known as
Sheriff solemn Court, or with a Sheriff and no jury, known as (Sheriff summary Court). The Sheriff
Courts provide a local court service with 49 Sheriff courts organised across six Sheriffdoms.[79] The
Scots legal system is unique in having three possible verdicts for a criminal trial: "guilty", "not guilty"
and "not proven". Both "not guilty" and "not proven" result in an acquittal with no possibility of retrial.
[80]
The Cabinet Secretary for Justice is the member of the Scottish Government responsible for the police,
the courts and criminal justice, and the Scottish Prison Service, which manages the prisons in Scotland.
[81]
Though the level of recorded crime in 2007/8 has fallen to the lowest for 25 years, [82] the prison
population, at over 8,000,[83] is hitting record levels and is well above design capacity.[84]
Geography
Main articles: Geography of the United Kingdom and Climate of the United Kingdom
UK's topography
The total area of the United Kingdom is approximately 245,000 square kilometres
(94,600 sq mi) comprising of the island of Great Britain, the northeastern one-sixth
of the island of Ireland (Northern Ireland) and smaller islands. [8] It lies between the
North Atlantic Ocean and the North Sea, coming within 35 kilometres (22 mi) of
the northwest coast of France, from which it is separated by the English Channel.[8]
Great Britain lies between latitudes 49° and 59° N (the Shetland Islands reach to nearly 61° N), and
longitudes 8° W to 2° E. The Royal Greenwich Observatory, near London, is the defining point of the
Prime Meridian. When measured directly north-south, Great Britain is a little over 1,100 kilometres
(700 mi) in length and is a fraction under 500 kilometres (300 mi) at its widest, but the greatest distance
between two points is 1,350 kilometres (840 mi) between Land's End in Cornwall (near Penzance) and
John o' Groats in Caithness (near Thurso). Northern Ireland shares a 360-kilometre (224 mi) land
boundary with the Republic of Ireland.[8]
The United Kingdom has a temperate climate, with plentiful rainfall all year round.[8] The temperature
varies with the seasons but seldom drops below −10 °C (14.0 °F) or rises above 35 °C (95 °F). The
prevailing wind is from the southwest, bearing frequent spells of mild and wet weather from the Atlantic
Ocean.[8] Eastern parts are most sheltered from this wind and are therefore the driest. Atlantic currents,
warmed by the Gulf Stream, bring mild winters, especially in the west, where winters are wet, especially
over high ground. Summers are warmest in the south east of England, being closest to the European
mainland, and coolest in the north. Snowfall can occur in winter and early spring, though it rarely settles
to great depth away from high ground.
England accounts for just over half of the total area of the UK, covering 130,410 square kilometres
(50,350 sq mi). Most of the country consists of lowland terrain, with mountainous terrain north-west of
the Tees-Exe line including the Cumbrian Mountains of the Lake District, the Pennines and limestone
hills of the Peak District, Exmoor and Dartmoor. The main rivers and
estuaries are the Thames, Severn and the Humber. England's highest
mountain is Scafell Pike, which is in the Lake District 978 metres
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(3,209 ft). England has a number of large towns and cities and, in terms of Larger Urban Zones, has six
of the top 50 Zones in the European Union.
Ben Nevis, in Scotland's Grampian Mountains, is the highest point in the British Isles
Scotland accounts for about a third of the total area of the UK, covering 78,772 square kilometres
(30,410 sq mi),[85] including nearly eight hundred islands, mainly west and north of the mainland,
notably the Hebrides, Orkney Islands and Shetland Islands. The topography of Scotland is distinguished
by the Highland Boundary Fault – a geological rock fracture – which traverses the Scottish mainland
from Helensburgh to Stonehaven. The faultline separates two distinctively different regions; namely the
Highlands to the north and west and the lowlands to the south and east. The more rugged Highland
region contains the majority of Scotland's mountainous terrain, including Ben Nevis, which at
1,343 metres (4,406 ft) is the highest point in the British Isles.[86] Lowland areas, especially the narrow
waist of land between the Firth of Clyde and the Firth of Forth known as the Central Belt, are flatter and
home to most of the population including Glasgow, Scotland's largest city, and Edinburgh, the capital
and political centre of the country.
Wales accounts for less than a tenth of the total area of the UK, covering 20,758 square kilometres
(8,010 sq mi). Wales is mostly mountainous, though south Wales is less mountainous than north and
mid Wales. The main population and industrial areas are in south Wales, consisting of the coastal cities
of Cardiff (the capital, political and economic centre), Swansea and Newport and the South Wales
Valleys to their north. The highest mountains in Wales are in Snowdonia, and include Snowdon (Welsh:
Yr Wyddfa), which, at 1,085 m (3,560 ft) is the highest peak in Wales. The 14 (or possibly 15) Welsh
mountains over 3,000 feet (914 m) high are known collectively as the Welsh 3000s. Wales has over
1,200 km (750 miles) of coastline. There are several islands off the Welsh mainland, the largest of which
is Anglesey (Ynys Môn) in the northwest.
Northern Ireland accounts for just 14,160 square kilometres (5,470 sq mi) and is mostly hilly. It includes
Lough Neagh, at 388 square kilometres (150 sq mi), the largest body of water in the UK and Ireland.[87]
The highest peak is Slieve Donard at 849 metres (2,785 ft) in the province's Mourne Mountains.
Cities and conurbations
Main articles: List of largest United Kingdom settlements by population and List of
conurbations in the United Kingdom
The capitals of the individual countries of the UK are: Belfast (Northern Ireland), Cardiff (Wales),
Edinburgh (Scotland) and London (England); the latter is also the capital of the UK as a whole.[8]
view • talk • edit

Rank City Location Pop. Rank City Location Pop.
1 London London 7,172,091 11 Coventry West 303,475

Midlands
2 Birmingham West 970,892 12 Kingston upon Yorkshire 301,416
Midlands Hull and the
Humber
3 Glasgow Scotland 629,501 13 Bradford Yorkshire 293,717
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and the
Humber
4 Liverpool North 469,017 14 Cardiff Wales 292,150
West
England
5 Leeds Yorkshire 443,247 15 Belfast Northern 276,459
and the Ireland
Humber
6 Sheffield Yorkshire 439,866 16 Stoke-on-Trent West 259,252
and the Midlands
Humber
7 Edinburgh Scotland 430,082 17 Wolverhampton West 251,462
Midlands
8 Bristol South 420,556 18 Nottingham East 249,584
West Midlands
England
9 Manchester North 394,269 19 Plymouth South 243,795
West West
England England
10 Leicester East 330,574 20 Southampton South East 234,224
Midlands England
2001 Census
The largest conurbations are:
• Greater London Urban Area - 8.5 million

• West Midlands conurbation - 2.3 million
• Greater Manchester Urban Area - 2.2 million
• West Yorkshire Urban Area - 1.5 million
• Greater Glasgow - 1.2 million
Demography
Main article: Demography of the United Kingdom
A Census occurs simultaneously in all parts of the UK every ten years.[88] The Office for National
Statistics is responsible for collecting data for England and Wales with the General Register Office for
Scotland and the Northern Ireland Statistics and Research Agency each being responsible for censuses in
their respective countries.[89]
Population
At the most recent census in 2001, the total population of the United Kingdom was 58,789,194, the third
largest in the European Union, the fifth largest in the Commonwealth and the twenty-first largest in the
world. By mid-2007, this was estimated to have grown to 60,975,000.[90] Current population growth is
mainly due to net immigration but a rising birth rate and increasing life expectancy have also
contributed.[91] The mid-2007 population estimates also revealed that, for the first time, the UK is now
home to more people of pensionable age than children under the age of 16.[92]
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[93]
England's population by mid-2007 was estimated to be 51.1 million. It is one of the most densely
populated countries in the world with 383 people resident per square kilometre in mid-2003,[94] with a
particular concentration in London and the South East. The mid-2007 estimates put Scotland's
population at 5.1 milion, Wales at 3 million and Northern Ireland at 1.8 million[93] with much lower
population densities than England. Compared to England's 383 inhabitants per square kilometre
(990 /sq mi), the corresponding figures were 142 /km² (370 /sq mi) for Wales, 125 /km² (320 /sq mi) for
Northern Ireland and just 65 /km² (170 /sq mi) for Scotland in mid-2003.[94]
In 2007, the average total fertility rate (TFR) across the UK was 1.90 children per woman.[95] It is
estimated that in 2008, the fertility of the United Kingdom climbed to 1.91 children per woman.[96]
While a rising birth rate is contributing to current population growth, it remains considerably below the
'baby boom' peak of 2.95 children per woman in 1964,[95] below the replacement rate of 2.1, but higher
than the 2001 record low of 1.63.[95] England and Wales have birth rates of 1.92 and 1.90 respectively.
Scotland had the lowest fertility at only 1.73 children per woman, while Northern Ireland had the highest
at 2.02 children.[95] The birth rate is higher amongst foreign-born women than UK-born women,
although it is only the latter which is rising.[95]
Migration
Main article: Immigration to the United Kingdom since 1922
In contrast with some other European countries, immigration is contributing to a rising population,[97]
accounting for about half of the population increase between 1991 and 2001. Citizens of the European
Union have the right to live and work in the United Kingdom [98] and one in six immigrants were from
Eastern European countries that joined the EU in 2004, with larger numbers coming from New
Commonwealth countries.[99] Transitional arrangements apply to Romanians and Bulgarians whose
countries joined the EU in January 2007.[100] Official figures showed that 2.3 million net migrants[101]
have moved to Britain since 1997,[102] 84% of them from outside Europe,[103] and a further 7 million are
expected by 2031,[104] though these figures are disputed.[105] The latest official figures show that net
immigration to the UK in 2007 was 237,000, up from the 191,000 the previous year.[106] Though the
proportion of foreign-born people in the UK remains slightly below that of some other European
countries,[107] the actual number may almost double to 9.1 million over the next two decades. [108] At the
same time, due to emigration, at least 5.5 million British-born people are living abroad,[109][110][111] with
Australia, Spain, and France being the top three destinations.[112][113]
In 2006, there were 149,035 applications for British citizenship, 32% fewer than in 2005. The number of
people granted citizenship during 2006 was 154,095, 5% fewer than in 2005. The largest groups of
people granted British citizenship were from India, Pakistan, Somalia and the Philippines.[114] 21.9% of
babies born in England and Wales in 2006 were born to mothers who were born outside the UK,
(146,956 out of 669,601), according to official statistics released in 2007.[115]
Figures published in August 2007 indicated that 682,940 people applied to the Worker Registration
Scheme (for nationals of the central and eastern European states that joined the EU in May 2004)
between 1 May 2004 and 30 June 2007, of whom 656,395 were accepted. [116] Self-employed workers
and people who are not working (including students) are not required to register under the scheme so
this figure represents a lower limit on immigration inflow. These figures do not indicate the number of
immigrants who have since returned home, but 56% of applicants in the 12 months ending 30 June 2007
reported planning to stay for a maximum of three months, with net migration in 2005 from the new EU
states standing at 64,000.[117] Research suggests that a total of around 1 million people had moved from
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the new EU member states to the UK by April 2008, but that half this number have since returned home
or moved on to a third country.[118][119] One in every four Poles in the UK planned to remain for life, a
survey has revealed.[120] The 2008 economic crisis in the UK and the growing economy in Poland
reduced the economic incentive for Poles to migrate to the UK.[121]
National Insurance data suggests that 2.5 million foreign workers moved to the UK to work (including
those moving for short periods), the majority from EU countries, between 2002 and 2007.[122]
The UK government is currently introducing a points-based immigration system for immigration from
outside of the European Economic Area that will replace existing schemes, including the Scottish
Government's Fresh Talent Initiative.
Ethnic groups
Main article: Ethnic groups in the United Kingdom
The present day population of the UK is descended from varied ethnic stocks, mainly pre-Celtic, Celtic,
Roman, Anglo-Saxon and Norman. Since 1945, substantial immigration from Africa, the Caribbean and
South Asia has been a legacy of ties forged by the British Empire. Migration from new EU member
states in Central and Eastern Europe since 2004 has resulted in growth in these population groups, but,
as of 2008, the trend is reversing and many of these migrants are returning home, leaving the size of
these groups unknown.[123] As of 2001, 92.1% of the population identified themselves as White, leaving
7.9%[124] of the UK population identifying themselves as mixed race or ethnic minority.
Ethnic group Population % of total*

White 54,153,898 92.1%
Black 1,148,738 2.0%
Mixed race 677,117 1.2%
Indian 1,053,411 1.8%
Pakistani 747,285 1.3%
Bangladeshi 283,063 0.5%
Other Asian (non-Chinese) 247,644 0.4%
Chinese 247,403 0.4%
Other 230,615 0.4%
* Percentage of total UK population
Ethnic diversity varies significantly across the UK. 30.4% of London's population[125] and 37.4% of
Leicester's[126] was estimated to be non-white as of June 2005, whereas less than 5% of the populations
of North East England, Wales and the South West were from ethnic minorities according to the 2001
census.[127] As of 2007, 22% of primary and 17.7% of secondary pupils at maintained schools in England
were from ethnic minority families.[128][129]
Languages
Main article: Languages of the United Kingdom
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Countries where the English language has de facto or de jure official language status.
The UK does not de jure have an official language but the predominant spoken language is English, a
West Germanic language descended from Old English which features a large number of borrowings
from Old Norse, Norman French and Latin. Largely due to the British Empire, the English language has
spread across the world, and become the international language of business as well as the most widely
taught second language.[130] Scots, a language descended from early northern Middle English, is
recognised at European level[131] and is not just a dialect of English. There are also four Celtic languages
in use in the UK: Welsh, Irish, Gaelic and Cornish. In the 2001 Census over a fifth (21%) of the
population of Wales said they could speak Welsh,[132] an increase from the 1991 Census (18%).[133] In
addition, it is estimated that about 200,000 Welsh speakers live in England.[134] Over 92,000 people in
Scotland (just under 2% of the population) had some Gaelic language ability, including 72% of those
living in Eilean Siar.[135] Welsh and Scottish Gaelic are also spoken by small groups around the globe
with some Gaelic still spoken in Nova Scotia, Canada, and Welsh in Patagonia, Argentina.
Across the United Kingdom, it is generally compulsory for pupils to study a second language to some
extent: up to the age of 14 in England,[136] and up to age 16 in Scotland. French and German are the two
most commonly taught second languages in England and Scotland. In Wales, all pupils up to age 16 are
either taught in Welsh or taught Welsh as a second language.[137]
Religion
Main article: Religion in the United Kingdom
The Treaty of Union that led to the formation of the United Kingdom ensured that there would be a
protestant succession as well as a link between church and state that still remains. Christianity is the
major religion, followed by Islam, Hinduism, Sikhism and then Judaism in terms of number of
adherents. The 2007 Tearfund Survey[138] revealed 53% identified themselves as Christian which was
similar to the 2004 British Social Attitudes Survey,[139] and to the 2001 Census in which 71.6% said that
Christianity was their religion,[140] (though the latter used "a softer question".) However, the Tearfund
survey showed only one in ten Britons actually attend church weekly. [141]. There is also a large and
growing atheist and agnostic population with 9.1 million (15% of the UK population) claiming no
religion in the 2001 census.[142] There is a disparity between the figures for those identifying themselves
with a particular religion and for those proclaiming a belief in a God: research suggests that just 38% of
the population have a belief in a God with a further 40% believing in a 'spirit or life force'.[143]
Christianity
Westminster Abbey is used for the coronation of British Monarchs, when they are
also made the head of the Church of England.
Christianity is the main religion in England with the Anglican Church of England
the Established Church[144]: the church retains a representation in the UK
Parliament and the British monarch is a member of the Church (required under
Article 2 of the Treaty of Union) as well as its Supreme Governor. The Church of England also retains
the right to draft legislative measures (related to religious administration) through the General Synod
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that can then be passed into law by Parliament. The Roman Catholic Church in England and Wales is
the second largest denomination of Christianity with around 5 million members, mainly in England. [145]
There are also growing Evangelical and Pentecostal churches, with Pentecostal churches in England now
third after the Church of England and the Roman Catholic Church in terms of church attendance. [146]
Other large Christian groups include Methodists and Baptists.
The presbyterian Church of Scotland (known informally as The Kirk), is recognised as the national
church of Scotland and not subject to state control. The British monarch is an ordinary member, and is
required to swear an oath to "defend the security" of the Church at the coronation. The Roman Catholic
Church in Scotland is Scotland's second largest christian denomination representing a sixth of the
population.[147] The Scottish Episcopal Church, which is now part of the Anglican Communion, dates
from the final establishment of Presbyterianism in Scotland in 1690, when it split from the Church of
Scotland, and is not a 'daughter church' of the Church of England. Further splits in the Church of
Scotland, especially in the nineteenth century, led to the creation of various other Presbyterian churches
in Scotland, including the Free Church of Scotland.
In the 1920s, the Church in Wales was separated from the Church of England and became
'disestablished'. The Church in Wales remains in the Anglican Communion. Methodism and other
independent churches are traditionally strong in Wales.
The main religious groups in Northern Ireland are organised on all-Ireland basis. Though Protestants are
in the majority overall,[148] the Roman Catholic Church of Ireland is the largest single denomination. The
Presbyterian Church in Ireland, closely linked to the Church of Scotland in terms of theology and
history, is the largest Protestant denomination, followed by the Anglican Church of Ireland which was
disestablished in the nineteenth century.
Other religions
The East London Mosque, one of the country's largest Islamic places of
worship.
At the 2001 census, there were 1,536,015 Muslims in England and Wales,[149] forming 3% of the
population. Muslims in Scotland numbered 42,557 representing 0.84% of the population.[150] There were
a further 1,943 Muslims in Northern Ireland.[151]. The biggest groups of Muslims are of Pakistani,
Bangladeshi and Indian origin. The 2006 controversy over the burqa, brought up in comments by
politician Jack Straw, reflects a split between some Britons questioning Muslim integration with British
society, and others who believe that wearing the veil is compatible with it, in Britain.[152]
Over 1 million people follow religions of Indian origin: 560,000 Hindus, 340,000 Sikhs with about
150,000 practising Buddhism.[153] One non-governmental organisation estimates that there are 800,000
Hindus in the UK.[154] Leicester houses one of the world's few Jain temples that are outside of India.[155]
There are approximately 270,000 Jews in Britain, according to the 2001 census.[156]
Economy
Main article: Economy of the United Kingdom
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London is Europe's largest financial centre and one of the world's three largest financial centres
alongside New York and Tokyo.[157]
The UK economy is made up (in descending order of size) of the economies of England, Scotland,
Wales and Northern Ireland. Based on market exchange rates, the United Kingdom is today the fifth
largest economy in the world[158] and the second largest in Europe after Germany.
The Industrial Revolution started in the United Kingdom with an initial concentration on heavy
industries such as shipbuilding, coal mining, steel production, and textiles. The empire created an
overseas market for British products, allowing the UK to dominate international trade in the 19th
century. However, as other nations industrialised, coupled with economic decline after two world wars,
the United Kingdom began to lose its competitive advantage and heavy industry declined, by degrees,
throughout the 20th century. Manufacturing remains a significant part of the economy, but accounted for
only one-sixth of national output in 2003.[159] The British motor industry is a significant part of this
sector, although it has diminished with the collapse of the MG Rover Group and most of the industry is
foreign owned. Civil and defence aircraft production is led by the United Kingdom's largest aerospace
firm, BAE Systems, and the continental European firm EADS, the owner of Airbus. Rolls-Royce holds a
major share of the global aerospace engines market. The chemical and pharmaceutical industry is strong
in the UK, with the world's second and sixth largest pharmaceutical firms (GlaxoSmithKline and
AstraZeneca, respectively)[160] being based in the UK.
The UK service sector, however, has grown substantially, and now makes up about 73% of GDP.[161]
The service sector is dominated by financial services, especially in banking and insurance. London is the
world's largest financial centre with the London Stock Exchange, the London International Financial
Futures and Options Exchange, and the Lloyd's of London insurance market all based in the City of
London. London is a major centre for international business and commerce and is the leader of the three
"command centres" for the global economy (along with New York City and Tokyo).[162] It has the largest
concentration of foreign bank branches in the world. In the past decade, a rival financial centre in
London has grown in the Docklands area, with HSBC and Barclays Bank relocating their head offices
there. Many multinational companies that are not primarily UK-based have chosen to site their European
or rest-of-world headquarters in London: an example is the US financial services firm Citigroup. The
Scottish capital, Edinburgh, has one of the large financial centres of Europe[163] and is the headquarters
of the Royal Bank of Scotland Group, one of the world's largest banks.
North Sea oil and gas supply most of the UK's energy needs.
Tourism is very important to the British economy. With over

27 million tourists arriving in 2004, the United Kingdom is ranked as
the sixth major tourist destination in the world.[164] London, by a
considerable margin, is the most visited city in the world with 15.6
million visitors in 2006, ahead of 2nd placed Bangkok (10.4 million
visitors) and 3rd placed Paris (9.7 million).[165]
The creative industries accounted for 7% GVA in 2005 and grew at an average of 6% per annum
between 1997 and 2005.[166]
The United Kingdom's agriculture sector accounts for only 0.9% of the country's GDP.[8]
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The UK has a small coal reserve along with significant, yet continuously declining[167] natural gas and oil
reserves. Over 400 million tonnes of proven coal reserves have been identified in the UK.[168] In 2004,
total UK coal consumption (including imports) was 61 million tonnes,[169] allowing the UK to be self
sufficient in coal for just over 6.5 years, although at present extraction rates it would take 20 years to
mine.[168] An alternative to coal-fired electricity generation is underground coal gasification (UCG).
UGC involves injecting steam and oxygen down a borehole, which extracts gas from the coal and draws
the mixture to the surface - a potentially very low carbon method of exploiting coal. Identified onshore
areas that have the potential for UGC amount to between 7 billion tonnes and 16 billion tonnes. [170]
Based on current UK coal consumption, these volumes represent reserves that could last the UK
between 200 and 400 years.[171]
The Bank of England; the central bank of the United Kingdom.
Government involvement throughout the economy is exercised by the Chancellor of the Exchequer
(currently Alistair Darling) who heads HM Treasury, but the Prime Minister (currently The Rt Hon
Gordon Brown MP), is First Lord of the Treasury; the Chancellor of the Exchequer is the Second Lord
of the Treasury. In recent years, the UK economy has been managed in
accordance with principles of market liberalisation and low taxation
and regulation. Since 1997, the Bank of England's Monetary Policy
Committee, headed by the Governor of the Bank of England, has been
responsible for setting interest rates at the level necessary to achieve
the overall inflation target for the economy that is set by the
Chancellor each year.[172] The Scottish Government, subject to the
approval of the Scottish Parliament, has the power to vary the basic
rate of income tax payable in Scotland by plus or minus 3 pence in the pound, though this power has not
yet been exercised.
As of 2007, the UK's government debt was 44% of GDP.[8]
The currency of the UK is the pound sterling, represented by the symbol £. The Bank of England is the
central bank, responsible for issuing currency. Banks in Scotland and Northern Ireland retain the right to
issue their own notes, subject to retaining enough Bank of England notes in reserve to cover the issue.
The UK chose not to join the euro at the currency's launch, and the British Prime Minister, The Rt Hon
Gordon Brown MP, has ruled out membership for the foreseeable future, saying that the decision not to
join had been right for Britain and for Europe.[173] The government of former Prime Minister Tony Blair
had pledged to hold a public referendum for deciding membership should "five economic tests" be met.
In 2005, more than half (55%) of the UK were against adopting the currency, while 30% were in favour.
[174]
Education
Main article: Education in the United Kingdom
See also: Education in England, Education in Scotland, Education in Wales, and Education in
Northern Ireland
King's College, part of the University of Cambridge
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Christ Church, part of the University of Oxford
Education in the United Kingdom is a devolved matter with England, Northern Ireland, Scotland and
Wales having separate systems.
Education in England is the responsibility of the Secretary of State for Children, Schools and Families
and the Secretary of State for Innovation, Universities and Skills, though the day to day administration
and funding of state schools is the responsibility of Local Education Authorities. Universal state
education in England and Wales was introduced for primary level in 1870 and secondary level in 1900.
[175]
Education is mandatory from ages five to sixteen (15 if born in late July or August). The majority of
children are educated in state-sector schools, only a small proportion of which select on the grounds of
academic ability. Despite a fall in actual numbers, the proportion of children in England attending
private schools has risen to over 7%.[176] Just over half of students at the leading universities of
Cambridge and Oxford had attended state schools.[177] State schools which are allowed to select pupils
according to intelligence and academic ability can achieve comparable results to the most selective
private schools: out of the top ten performing schools in terms of GCSE results in 2006 two were state-
run grammar schools. England has some of the top universities in the world; University of Cambridge,
University of Oxford, and University of London are ranked among the top 20 in the 2007 THES - QS
World University Rankings.[178] There are fears, however, that a decline in the number of English
students studying a foreign language will have a negative effect on business, which has led to calls for
languages to be given greater priority.[179]
The Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (Timss) rated pupils in England 7th in the
world for Maths, and 6th for Science. The results put England's pupils ahead of other European
countries, including industrial competitors such as Germany and the traditional education powerhouses
of Scandinavia.[180]
Education in Scotland is the responsibility of the Cabinet Secretary for Education and Lifelong
Learning, with day to day administration and funding of state schools the responsibility of Local
Authorities. Two non-departmental public bodies have key roles in Scottish education: the Scottish
Qualifications Authority is responsible for the development, accreditation, assessment and certification
of qualifications other than degrees which are delivered at secondary schools, post-secondary colleges of
further education and other centres;[181] and Learning and Teaching Scotland provides advice, resources
and staff development to the education community to promote curriculum development and create a
culture of innovation, ambition and excellence.[182] Scotland first legislated for compulsory education in
1496.[183] The proportion of children in Scotland attending private schools is just over 4%, although it
has been rising slowly in recent years.[184] Scottish students who attend Scottish universities pay neither
tuition fees nor graduate endowment charges as the fees were abolished in 2001 and the graduate
endowment scheme was abolished in 2008.[185]
Education in Northern Ireland is the responsibility of the Minister for Education, currently Caitríona
Ruane (Sinn Féin),[50] although responsibility at a local level is administered by five Education and
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Library Boards, covering different geographical areas. The 'Council for the Curriculum, Examinations &
Assessment (CCEA) is the body responsible for advising the government on what should be taught in
Northern Ireland's schools, monitoring standards and awarding qualifications.[186]
The National Assembly for Wales has responsibility for education in Wales. A significant number of
Welsh students are taught either wholly or largely in the Welsh language; lessons in Welsh are
compulsory for all until the age of 16. There are plans to increase the provision of Welsh Medium
schools as part of the policy of having a fully bi-lingual Wales.
Healthcare
Main article: Healthcare in the United Kingdom
See also: Healthcare in England, Healthcare in Scotland, NHS Wales, and Health and Social
Care in Northern Ireland
Norfolk and Norwich University Hospital - a modern NHS hospital.
The Royal Aberdeen Children's Hospital is a

specialist children's hospital, part of NHS Scotland.
Healthcare in the United Kingdom is a devolved matter and England, Northern

Ireland, Scotland and Wales have separate systems with different policies and priorities[187][188] though the
degree of co-operation usually conceals the difference from cross-border users of the services. The four
systems provide public healthcare to all UK permanent residents that is free at the point of need and paid
for from general taxation. A much smaller private medical system also exists. Various regulatory bodies
are organised on a UK-wide basis such as the General Medical Council, the Nursing and Midwifery
Council and non-governmental-based (e.g. Royal Colleges). Across the UK, there is a large number of
medical schools and dental schools, and a considerable establishment for training nurses and professions
allied to medicine.
Healthcare in England is mainly provided by the National Health Service which today covers just
England though originally it covered England and Wales. It was set up by the National Health Service
Act 1946 that came into effect on 5 July 1948. The Department of Health exists to improve the health
and wellbeing of people in England,[189] and the Secretary of State for Health is answerable to the UK
Parliament for the its work and for the work of the NHS. England's NHS is one of the largest cohesive
organisations of any type in the world employing over 1.3 million people.[190] Public sector healthcare
delivery consists of primary (general practice), secondary (district general hospital) and tertiary
(teaching hospital) levels of service. There is considerable interaction and cross-flow between the
various levels. The National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence, or NICE, advises on whether
drugs or treatments should be provided by the NHS in England and Wales.
Healthcare in Scotland is mainly provided by NHS Scotland, Scotland's public healthcare system. The
service was founded by the National Health Service (Scotland) Act 1947 (later repealed by the National
Health Service (Scotland) Act 1978) that took effect on 5 July 1948 to coincide with the launch of the
NHS in England and Wales. However, even prior to 1948, half of Scotland's landmass was already
covered by state funded healthcare, provided by the Highlands and Islands Medical Service.[191] In 2006,
NHS Scotland employed around 158,000 staff including more than 47,500 nurses, midwives and health
visitors and over 3,800 consultants. In addition, there were also more than 12,000 doctors, family
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practitioners and allied health professionals, including dentists, opticians and community pharmacists,
who operate as independent contractors providing a range of services within the NHS in return for fees
and allowances.[192] The Cabinet Secretary for Health and Wellbeing is responsible to the Scottish
Parliament for the work of NHS Scotland.
Healthcare in Wales is mainly provided by NHS Wales. Originally formed as part of the same NHS
structure created by the National Health Service Act 1946, power over the NHS in Wales was
transferred to the Secretary of State for Wales in 1969.[193] In turn, responsibility for NHS Wales was
passed to the Welsh Assembly and Executive under devolution in 1999. NHS Wales provides public
healthcare in Wales and employs some 90,000 staff, making it Wales’ biggest employer.[194] The
Minister for Health and Social Services is the person within the Welsh Assembly Government who
holds cabinet responsibilities for both health and social care in Wales.
Healthcare in Northern Ireland is mainly provided by the Department of Health, Social Services and
Public Safety.
Transport
Main article: Transport in the United Kingdom
Heathrow Terminal 5. London Heathrow Airport has the most

international passenger traffic of any airport in the world.[195][196]
The Forth Railway Bridge, Scotland, is an

iconic feature of the rail network.
The Highways Agency is the executive agency responsible for trunk

roads and motorways in England apart from the privately owned and
operated M6 Toll.[197] The Department for Transport states that traffic congestion is one of the most
serious transport problems and that it could cost England an extra £22 billion in wasted time by 2025 if
left unchecked.[198] According to the government-sponsored Eddington report of 2006, congestion is in
danger of harming the economy, unless tackled by road pricing and expansion of the transport network.
[199][200]
The Scottish transport network is the responsibility of the Scottish Government's Enterprise, Transport
and Lifelong Learning Department with Transport Scotland being the Executive Agency that is
accountable to the Cabinet Secretary for Finance and Sustainable Growth for Scotland's trunk roads and
rail networks.[201] Scotland's rail network has around 340 railway stations and 3,000 kilometres of track
with over 62 million passenger journeys made each year.[202] In 2008, The Scottish Government set out
investment plans for the next 20 years, with priorities to include a new Forth Road Bridge and
electrification of the rail network.[203]
Across the UK, there is a radial road network of 46,904 kilometres (29,145 mi) of main roads with a
motorway network of 3,497 kilometres (2,173 mi). There are a further 213,750 kilometres (132,818 mi)
of paved roads. The rail network of 16,116 km (10,072 miles) in Great Britain and 303 route km (189
route mi) in Northern Ireland carries over 18,000 passenger trains and 1,000 freight trains daily. Urban
rail networks are well developed in London and other cities. There was once over 48,000 route km
(30,000 route mi) of rail network in the UK, however most of this was reduced over a time period from
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1955 to 1975, much of it after a report by a government advisor Richard Beeching in the mid 1960s
(known as the Beeching Axe). Plans are now being considered to built new high speed lines by 2025.[204]
London Heathrow Airport, located 15 miles (24 km) west of the capital, is the UK's busiest airport and
has the most international passenger traffic of any airport in the world.[195][196]
Sport
Main article: Sport in the United Kingdom
Major sports including association football, rugby football, cricket, tennis and golf originated in the
United Kingdom. A 2006 poll found that football is the most popular sport in the United Kingdom.[205]
Internationally, England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland compete separately in most team sports,
as well as at the Commonwealth Games, and in sporting contexts the four can be referred to collectively
as the Home Nations. There are national sports teams representing the United Kingdom, including Great
Britain national basketball team and Great Britain at the Olympics.
Football
Main article: Football in the United Kingdom
England's new Wembley

Stadium. It is the most expensive
stadium ever built.[206]
Hampden Park, Glasgow -

Scotland's national football
stadium.
Cardiff's Millennium Stadium, national stadium of Wales
Each of the home nations has its own football association, national team and league system, though a
few clubs play outside their country's respective systems for a variety of historical and logistical reasons.
England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland compete as separate countries in international
competition and, as a consequence, the UK does not compete as a single team in football events at the
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Olympic Games. There are proposals to have a UK team take part in the 2012 Summer Olympics but the
Scottish, Welsh and Northern Irish football associations have declined to participate, fearing that it
would undermine their independent status - a fear confirmed by FIFA president Sepp Blatter.[207]
England has been the most successful of the home nations, winning the World Cup on home soil in
1966, although there has historically been a close-fought rivalry between England and Scotland.
The English football league system includes hundreds of inter-linked leagues, consisting of thousands of
divisions. The Premiership at the top, is the most-watched football league in the world [208] and is
particularly popular in Asia.[209] Below this, The Football League has three divisions and then the
Football Conference has a national division and two feeder regional leagues. Thereafter the structure
becomes increasing regional. England is home to world-renowned football clubs such as Liverpool,
Manchester United, Chelsea, and Arsenal. English teams have been successful in European
Competitions including some who have become European Cup/UEFA Champions League winners:
Liverpool (five times), Manchester United (three times), Nottingham Forest (twice) and Aston Villa.
More clubs from England have won the European Cup than any other country (four compared to three
from Italy, Germany and the Netherlands). Moreover, England ranks second in the all time list of
European club trophies won with 35, one behind Italy's 36. The European Cup competition itself came
about as the result of the success of another English club, Wolverhampton Wanderers, against top
European sides[210] in the 1950s. The 90,000-capacity Wembley Stadium is England's principal sporting
stadium.
The Scottish football league system has two national leagues: the Scottish Premier League, the top
division, and the Scottish Football League, which has three divisions. Below this, but not connected to
the national leagues, are three regional leagues; the Highland Football League, the East of Scotland
Football League and the South of Scotland Football League. One English club, Berwick Rangers, plays
in the Scottish system. Scotland is home to two world-renowned football clubs in the Old Firm of Celtic
and Rangers. Scottish teams that have been successful in European Competitions include Celtic
(European Cup in 1967), Rangers (European Cup Winners' Cup in 1972) and Aberdeen (European Cup
Winners' Cup and European Super Cup in 1983). Celtic were the first British club to win the European
Cup.
The Welsh football league system includes the Welsh Premier League and regional leagues. Welsh
Premiership club The New Saints play their home matches on the English side of the border in
Oswestry. The Welsh clubs of Cardiff City F.C., Colwyn Bay F.C., Merthyr Tydfil F.C., Newport
County A.F.C., Swansea City A.F.C. and Wrexham F.C. play in the English system. Cardiff's 76,250
seater Millennium Stadium is the principal sporting stadium of Wales.
The Northern Ireland football league system includes the IFA Premiership. One Northern Irish club,
Derry City, plays its football outside of the UK in the Republic of Ireland football league system.
Other sports
The Wimbledon Championships, a Grand Slam tournament, is

held in Wimbledon, London every June/July.
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The Royal and Ancient Golf Club of St Andrews, generally regarded as the world's "Home of Golf".
Rugby union is organised on a separate basis for England, Scotland, Wales and Ireland with each having
a league system and an international team, though every four years a British and Irish Lions team tours
Australia, New Zealand or South Africa, composed of players selected from all the Home nations. While
England has won the Rugby Union World Cup, in 2003, Wales has achieved a best of third place and
Scotland a best of fourth place. Ireland has not progressed beyond the quarter finals. Rugby league
originates from and is generally played in Northern England and a single 'Great Britain' team had
competed in the Rugby League World Cup but this will change in 2008 when England, Scotland and
Ireland will compete as separate nations.[211]
Cricket was invented in England and the England cricket team, controlled by the England and Wales
Cricket Board,[212] is the only national team in the UK with Test status. Team members are drawn from
the main county sides, and include both English and Welsh players. Cricket is distinct from Football and
Rugby where Wales and England field separate national teams. Irish and Scottish players have played
for England because neither Scotland nor Ireland have Test status and have only recently started to play
in One Day Internationals. Scotland, England (and Wales), and Ireland (including Northern Ireland)
have competed at the Cricket World Cup, with England reaching the Final three times. There is a
professional league championship in which clubs representing 17 English counties and 1 Welsh county
compete.
Snooker is also one of the UK's sporting exports. The world championships are held annually in
Sheffield while the sport continues to expand worldwide, with huge growth in China.
The game of tennis first originated from the city of Birmingham between 1859 and 1865. The
Championships, Wimbledon are international tennis events held in Wimbledon in south London every
summer and are regarded as the most prestigious event of the global tennis calendar.[citation needed]
Thoroughbred racing, which originated under Charles II of England as the "sport of kings", is popular
throughout the UK with world-famous races including the Grand National, the Epsom Derby and Royal
Ascot. The town of Newmarket is considered the centre of English racing, largely due to the famous
Newmarket Racecourse.
The UK has proved successful in the international sporting arena in rowing. It is widely considered that
the sport's most successful rower is Steve Redgrave who won five gold medals and one bronze medal at
five consecutive Olympic Games, as well as numerous wins at the World Rowing Championships and
Henley Royal Regatta.
Golf is the sixth most popular sport, by participation, in the UK and the The Royal and Ancient Golf
Club of St Andrews, in Scotland, is the sport's home course.[213]
Shinty (or camanachd) is popular in the Scottish Highlands, sometimes attracting crowds numbering
thousands in the most sparsely populated region of the UK, especially to watch the final of its premier
tournament, the Camanachd Cup.[214]
In Northern Ireland, Gaelic football and hurling are popular team sports, both in terms of participation
and spectating.
The UK is closely associated with motorsport. Many teams and drivers in Formula One (F1) are based in
the UK and drivers from Britain have won more world titles than any other country. The country hosts
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legs of the F1 and World Rally Championship and has its own touring car racing championship, the
British Touring Car Championship (BTCC). The British Grand Prix takes place at Silverstone each July.
Dancesport or competitive Ballroom dancing has its origins in the UK when popular dancing at the time
was codified by British dance schools from the 1920s onwards. The UK remains a major centre for the
sport and Ballroom dancing in general with the Empress Ballroom at the Winter Gardens in Blackpool
being a popular venue for major competitions.
Culture
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reliable references. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (July 2008)
Main article: Culture of the United Kingdom
The culture of the United Kingdom—British culture—is informed by the UK's history as a developed
island country, monarchy, imperial power and, particularly, as a political union of four countries, which
each have their own preserved and distinctive heritage, customs and symbolism. As a result of the
British Empire, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of
its former colonies such as Canada, Australia, India, and the United States.
Cinema
Main article: Cinema of the United Kingdom
The United Kingdom has been influential in the development of cinema, with the Ealing Studios
claiming to be the oldest studios in the world. Despite a history of important and successful productions,
the industry is characterised by an ongoing debate about its identity, and the influences of American and
European cinema. Particularly between British and American film, many films are often co-produced or
share actors with many British actors now featuring regularly in Hollywood films. The BFI Top 100
British films is a poll conducted by the British Film Institute which ranks what they consider to be the
100 greatest British films of all time.
Literature
Main article: British literature
The Chandos portrait, believed to depict William Shakespeare.
Robert Burns - regarded as the national poet of Scotland
'British literature' refers to literature associated with the

United Kingdom, the Isle of Man and the Channel
Islands as well as to literature from England, Wales and
Scotland prior to the formation of the United Kingdom. Most British literature is in the English
language.
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The English playwright and poet William Shakespeare is widely regarded as the greatest dramatist of all
time.[215][216][217] Among the earliest English writers are Geoffrey of Monmouth (12th century), Geoffrey
Chaucer (14th century), and Thomas Malory (15th century). In the 18th century, Samuel Richardson is
often credited with inventing the modern novel. In the 19th century, there followed further innovation by
Jane Austen, the Brontë sisters, the social campaigner Charles Dickens, the naturalist Thomas Hardy, the
visionary poet William Blake and romantic poet William Wordsworth. Twentieth century writers
include the science fiction novelist H. G. Wells, the controversial D. H. Lawrence, the modernist
Virginia Woolf, the prophetic novelist George Orwell and the poet John Betjeman. Most recently, the
children's fantasy Harry Potter series by J. K. Rowling has recalled the popularity of J. R. R. Tolkien.
Scotland's contribution includes the detective writer Arthur Conan Doyle, romantic literature by Sir
Walter Scott and the epic adventures of Robert Louis Stevenson. It has also produced the celebrated poet
Robert Burns, as well as William McGonagall, regarded by many as one of the world's worst.[218] More
recently, the modernist and nationalist Hugh MacDiarmid and Neil M. Gunn contributed to the Scottish
Renaissance. A more grim outlook is found in Ian Rankin's stories and the psychological horror-comedy
of Iain Banks. Scotland's capital, Edinburgh, is UNESCO's first worldwide city of literature.[219]
In the early medieval period, Welsh writers composed the Mabinogion. In modern times, the poets R. S.
Thomas and Dylan Thomas have brought Welsh culture to an international audience.
Authors from other nationalities, particularly from Ireland, or from Commonwealth countries, have lived
and worked in the UK. Significant examples through the centuries include Jonathan Swift, Oscar Wilde,
Bram Stoker, George Bernard Shaw, Joseph Conrad, T. S. Eliot and Ezra Pound, and more recently
British authors born abroad such as Kazuo Ishiguro and Sir Salman Rushdie.
In theatre, Shakespeare's contemporaries Christopher Marlowe and Ben Jonson added depth. More
recently Alan Ayckbourn, Harold Pinter, Michael Frayn, Tom Stoppard and David Edgar have
combined elements of surrealism, realism and radicalism.
Media
Main article: Media in the United Kingdom
The prominence of the English language gives the UK media a widespread international dimension.
Broadcasting
Main article: Television in the United Kingdom
BBC Television Centre. The BBC is the largest and oldest broadcaster in
the world.[220]
The Channel 4 building.
There are five major nationwide television channels in the UK: BBC One,
BBC Two, ITV, Channel 4 and Five - currently transmitted by analogue
terrestrial, free-to-air signals with the latter three channels funded by
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commercial advertising. In Wales, S4C the Welsh Fourth Channel replaces Channel 4, carrying Welsh
language programmes at peak times. It also transmits Channel 4 programmes at other times.
The BBC is the UK's publicly funded radio, television and internet broadcasting corporation, and is the
oldest and largest broadcaster in the world. It operates several television channels and radio stations in
both the UK and abroad. The BBC's international television news service, BBC World News, is
broadcast throughout the world and the BBC World Service radio network is broadcast in thirty-three
languages globally, as well as services in Welsh on BBC Radio Cymru and programmes in Gaelic on
BBC Radio nan Gàidheal in Scotland and Irish in Northern Ireland.
The domestic services of the BBC are funded by the television licence, a legal requirement for any
British household with a television receiver that is in use to receive broadcasts, regardless of whether or
not the householders watch BBC channels. Households which are the principal residence of any person
over 75 are exempt[221] and the requirement does not extend to radio listeners. The BBC World Service
Radio is funded by the Foreign and Commonwealth Office and the television stations are operated by
BBC Worldwide on a commercial subscription basis over cable and satellite services. It is this
commercial arm of the BBC that forms half of UKTV along with Virgin Media.
The UK now has a large number of digital terrestrial channels including a further six from the BBC, five
from ITV and three from Channel 4, and one from S4C which is solely in Welsh, among a variety of
others.
The vast majority of digital cable television services are provided by Virgin Media with satellite
television available from Freesat or British Sky Broadcasting and free-to-air digital terrestrial television
by Freeview. The entire UK will switch to digital by 2012.
Radio in the UK is dominated by BBC Radio, which operates ten national networks and over forty local
radio stations. The most popular radio station, by number of listeners, is BBC Radio 2, closely followed
by BBC Radio 1. There are hundreds of mainly local commercial radio stations across the country
offering a variety of music or talk formats.
Internet
Main article: Internet in the United Kingdom
The Internet country code top-level domain (ccTLD) for the United Kingdom is .uk. However, a
Scottish Government working group is making preparations to bid to create a Scottish web domain -
".sco" or ".scot" - in 2009.[222]
Print
Traditionally, British newspapers could be split into quality, serious-minded newspaper (usually referred
to as "broadsheets" due to their large size) and the more populist, tabloid varieties. For convenience of
reading, many traditional broadsheets have switched to a more compact-sized format, traditionally used
by tabloids. The Sun has the highest circulation of any daily newspaper in the UK: 3.1 million,
approximately a quarter of the market.[223] Its sister paper, the News of the World has the highest
circulation in the Sunday newspaper market, and traditionally focuses on celebrity-led stories.[224] The
Daily Telegraph, a right wing broadsheet paper, is the highest-selling of the "quality" newspapers.[223]
The Guardian is a more liberal "quality" broadsheet and the Financial Times is the main business
newspaper, printed on distinctive salmon-pink broadsheet paper.
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First printed in 1737, The News Letter from Belfast, is the oldest known English-language daily
newspaper still in publication today. One of its fellow Northern Irish competitors, The Irish News, has
been twice ranked as the best regional newspaper in the United Kingdom, in 2006 and 2007.[225]
Aside from newspapers, British magazines and journals have achieved worldwide circulation including
The Economist and Nature.
Scotland has a distinct tradition of newspaper readership (see list of newspapers in Scotland). The
tabloid Daily Record has the highest circulation of any daily newspaper outselling the Scottish Sun by
four to one while its sister paper, the Sunday Mail similarly leads the Sunday newspaper market. The
leading "quality" daily newspaper in Scotland is The Herald, though it is the sister paper of The
Scotsman, the Scotland on Sunday, that leads in the Sunday newspaper market.[226]
Music
Main article: Music of the United Kingdom
The Beatles are one of the most commercially successful and critically
acclaimed bands in the history of music, selling over a billion records
internationally.[227]
Various styles of music are popular, from the indigenous folk music of
England, Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales, to Heavy metal.
Glasgow's contribution to the music scene was recognised in 2008 when it
was named a United Nations City of Music, one of only three cities in the
world to have this honour.[228]
Prominent among the UK contributors to the development of rock music in the 1960s and 1970s were
The Beatles, Pink Floyd, Eric Clapton, The Rolling Stones, Status Quo,[229] Slade,[230] Led Zeppelin, The
Who, Queen, and Black Sabbath. Heavy metal, hard rock, punk rock and New Wave were among the
variations that followed. In the early 1980s, UK bands from the New Romantic scene such as Duran
Duran, Depeche Mode, Spandau Ballet, Soft Cell and Ultravox were prominent. In the 1990s, Britpop
bands and electronica music attained international success. More recent pop acts, including The Smiths,
Oasis, Amy Winehouse, Leona Lewis, Coldplay, and the Spice Girls, have ensured the continuation of
the UK's massive contribution to popular music.
Notable composers of classical music from the United Kingdom and the countries that preceded it
include William Byrd, Henry Purcell, Sir Edward Elgar, Gustav Holst, Sir Arthur Sullivan (most famous
for working with librettist Sir W. S. Gilbert), Ralph Vaughan Williams, and Benjamin Britten, pioneer
of modern British opera.
Philosophy
The United Kingdom is famous for the tradition of "British Empiricism", a

branch of the philosophy of knowledge that states that only knowledge verified
by experience is valid. The most famous philosophers of this tradition are John
Locke, George Berkeley and David Hume. Britain is notable for a theory of
moral philosophy, Utilitarianism, first used by Jeremy Bentham and later by
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John Stuart Mill, in his short work Utilitarianism. Other eminent philosophers from the UK and the
states that preceded it include Duns Scotus, William of Ockham, Thomas Hobbes, Bertrand Russell,
Adam Smith and Alfred Ayer. Foreign-born philosophers who settled in the UK include Isaiah Berlin,
Karl Marx, Karl Popper, and Ludwig Wittgenstein.
Science, engineering and innovation
Sir Isaac Newton
Charles Darwin
The United Kingdom and the countries that preceded it have produced scientists
and engineers credited with important advances, including;
• The modern scientific method, developed by English philosopher Francis

Bacon
• The laws of motion and illumination of gravity, by English physicist,
mathematician, astronomer, natural philosopher, alchemist and theologian, Sir Isaac Newton
• The unification of electromagnetism, by James Clerk Maxwell
• The discovery of hydrogen, by Henry Cavendish
• The steam locomotive, by Richard Trevithick and Andrew Vivian
• The world's first working television system, by Scottish engineer and inventor John Logie Baird
• Evolution by natural selection, by Charles Darwin
• The Turing machine, by Alan Turing, the basis of modern computers
• The structure of DNA, by Francis Crick and others
• The development of the World Wide Web, largely attributed to Tim Berners-Lee
• The discovery of penicillin, by Scottish biologist and pharmacologist, Sir Alexander Fleming
Notable civil engineering projects, whose pioneers included Isambard Kingdom Brunel, contributed to
the world's first national railway transport system. Other advances pioneered in the UK include the
marine chronometer, the jet engine, the modern bicycle, electric lighting, the electric motor, the screw
propeller, the internal combustion engine, military radar, the electronic computer, vaccination and
antibiotics.
Scientific journals produced in the UK include Nature, the British Medical Journal and The Lancet. In
2006, it was reported that the UK provided 9% of the world's scientific research papers and a 12% share
of citations, the second highest in the world after the US.[231]
Visual art
Main article: Art of the United Kingdom
The Royal Academy is located in London. Other major schools of art include the Slade School of Fine
Art; the six-school University of the Arts London, which includes the Central Saint Martins College of
Art and Design and Chelsea College of Art and Design; the Glasgow School of Art, and Goldsmiths,
University of London. This commercial venture is one of Britain's foremost visual arts organisations.
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Major British artists include Sir Joshua Reynolds, Thomas Gainsborough, John Constable, William
Blake, J. M. W. Turner, William Morris, L. S. Lowry, Francis Bacon, Lucian Freud, David Hockney,
Gilbert and George, Richard Hamilton, Peter Blake, Howard Hodgkin, Antony Gormley, and Anish
Kapoor. During the late 1980s and 1990s, the Saatchi Gallery in London brought to public attention a
group of multigenre artists who would become known as the Young British Artists. Damien Hirst, Chris
Ofili, Rachel Whiteread, Tracey Emin, Mark Wallinger, Steve McQueen, Sam Taylor-Wood, and the
Chapman Brothers are among the better known members of this loosely affiliated movement.
Symbols
Main article: Symbols of the United Kingdom, the Channel Islands and the Isle of Man
The Statue of Britannia in Plymouth. Britannia is a national personification of

the UK.
The flag of the United Kingdom is the Union Flag. It was created by the
superimposition of the Flag of England, the Flag of Scotland and Saint Patrick's
Flag in 1801. Wales is not represented in the Union Flag as Wales had been
conquered and annexed to England prior to the formation of the United
Kingdom. However, the possibility of redesigning the Union Flag to include
representation of Wales has not been completely ruled out.[232] The national
anthem of the United Kingdom is "God Save the King", with "King" replaced with "Queen" in the lyrics
whenever the monarch is a woman. The anthem's name remains "God Save the King".
Britannia is a national personification of the United Kingdom, originating from Roman Britain.[233]
Britannia is symbolised as a young woman with brown or golden hair, wearing a Corinthian helmet and
white robes. She holds Poseidon's three-pronged trident and a shield, bearing the Union Flag. Sometimes
she is depicted as riding the back of a lion. At and since the height of the British Empire, Britannia has
often associated with maritime dominance, as in the patriotic song Rule, Britannia!. The lion symbol is
depicted behind Britannia on the British fifty pence coin and one is shown crowned on the back of the
British ten pence coin. It is also used as a symbol on the non-ceremonial flag of the British Army. The
bulldog is sometimes used as a symbol of the United Kingdom and has been associated with Winston
Churchill's defiance of Nazi Germany.[234]
Within the United Kingdom
There is no official National flag of Northern

Flag Country Patron saint Flower Ireland following the Northern Ireland
Constitution Act 1973 or any unofficial flag
universally supported in Northern Ireland. The
England St. George Tudor rose use of various flags in Northern Ireland is
contentious. However, the Ulster Banner is often
used for sporting events. See Northern Ireland
Scotland St. Andrew Thistle flags issue and The Union Flags and flags of the
United Kingdom
Wales St. David Leek/Daffodil
Northern Ireland St. Patrick

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See also
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External links
Find more about United Kingdom on
Dictionary definitions
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Source texts
Images and media
News stories
Learning resources
• Wikimedia Atlas of United Kingdom

• Official website of the British Monarchy
• Official website of the United Kingdom Government
• Official tourist guide to Britain
• Official Yearbook of the United Kingdom
• "Countries within a country" from the Official Website of the British Prime Minister
• Economic & Social Data Ranking/ United Kingdom
• United Kingdom travel guide from Wikitravel
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JAPAN
(Redirected from JAPAN)

For a topic outline on this subject, see List of basic Japan topics. For other uses, see Japan
(disambiguation).
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Japan (日本 Nihon or Nippon , officially 日本国 Nippon-
?
koku?·i or Nihon-koku) is an island country in East Asia.

Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies to the east of the Sea of
Japan, People's Republic of China, North Korea, South
Korea and Russia, stretching from the Sea of Okhotsk in the
north to the East China Sea and Taiwan in the south. The
characters which make up Japan's name mean "sun-origin
country", which is why Japan is sometimes identified as the
"Land of the Rising Sun".
Japan comprises over 3,000 islands[3] making it an

archipelago. The largest islands are Honshū, Hokkaidō,
Kyūshū and Shikoku, together accounting for 97% of Japan's
land area. Most of the islands are mountainous, many
volcanic; for example, Japan’s highest peak, Mount Fuji, is a
volcano. Japan has the world's tenth largest population, with
about 128 million people. The Greater Tokyo Area, which
includes the de facto capital city of Tokyo and several
surrounding prefectures, is the largest metropolitan area in
the world, with
over 30 million
residents.
Archaeological
research indicates
that people were
living on the
islands of Japan as early as the Upper Paleolithic period. The
first written mention of Japan begins with brief appearances
in Chinese history texts from the first century A.D. Influence
from the outside world followed by long periods of isolation
has characterized
Contents Japan's history.
Since adopting its
[hide] constitution in
1947, Japan has maintained a unitary constitutional monarchy
• 1 Etymology with an emperor and an elected parliament, the Diet.
• 2 History
• 3 Government and politics A major economic power,[4] Japan has the world's second
• 4 Foreign relations and military largest economy by nominal GDP and the third largest in
• 5 Administrative divisions purchasing power parity. It is a member of the United Nations,
• 6 Geography G8, OECD and APEC, with the world's fifth largest defense
• 7 Environment budget. It is also the world's fourth largest exporter and sixth
• 8 Economy largest importer. It is a developed country with high living
• 9 Infrastructure standards (8th highest HDI) and a world leader in technology,
• 10 Science and technology machinery, and robotics
• 11 Demographics
• 12 Education and health
Etymology
• 13 Culture and recreation
• 14 Sports Main article: Names of Japan
• 15 References
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• 16 Further reading
The English word Japan is an exonym. The Japanese names for Japan are Nippon ( にっぽん ?) and
Nihon (にほん?). They are both written in Japanese using the kanji 日本. The Japanese name Nippon is
used for most official purposes, including on Japanese money, postage stamps, and for many
international sporting events. Nihon is a more casual term and the most frequently used in contemporary
speech.
Both Nippon and Nihon literally mean "the sun's origin" and are often translated as the Land of the
Rising Sun. This nomenclature comes from Imperial correspondence with Chinese Sui Dynasty and
refers to Japan's eastward position relative to China. Before Japan had relations with China, it was
known as Yamato and Hi no moto, which means "source of the sun".[5]
The English word for Japan came to the West from early trade routes. The early Mandarin or possibly
Wu Chinese (呉語) word for Japan was recorded by Marco Polo as Cipangu. In modern Shanghainese, a
Wu dialect, the pronunciation of characters 日本 'Japan' is Zeppen [zəʔpən]; in Wu, the character 日
has two pronunciations, informal [niʔ] and formal (文讀 ?) [zəʔ]. (In some southern Wu dialects, 日本
is pronounced [niʔpən], similar to its pronunciation in Japanese.) The old Malay word for Japan,
Jepang (now spelled Jepun in Malaysia, though still spelled Jepang in Indonesia), was borrowed from a
Chinese language, and this Malay word was encountered by Portuguese traders in Malacca in the 16th
century. It is thought the Portuguese traders were the first to bring the word to Europe. It was first
recorded in English in a 1565 letter spelled Giapan; (further details).
History
Main article: History of Japan
The first signs of occupation on the Japanese Archipelago appeared with

a Paleolithic culture around 30,000 BC, followed from around
14,000 BC by the Jōmon period, a Mesolithic to Neolithic semi-
sedentary hunter-gatherer culture of pit dwelling and a rudimentary
form of agriculture. Decorated clay vessels from this period, often with
plaited patterns, are some of the oldest surviving examples of pottery in
the world.
The Yayoi period,

starting around the third
century BC, saw the
introduction of many
new practices, such as wet-
rice farming[6], iron and
bronze-making and a new style of pottery, brought by
migrants from China or Korea.
The Japanese first appear in written history in

China’s Book of Han. According to the Chinese
Records of Three Kingdoms, the most powerful
kingdom on the archipelago during the third century was
called Yamataikoku.
Buddhism was first introduced to Japan from Baekje

of the Korean Peninsula, but the subsequent
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development of Japanese Buddhism and Buddhist sculptures were primarily influenced by China.[7]
Despite early resistance, Buddhism was promoted by the ruling class and eventually gained growing
acceptance since the Asuka period.[8]
The Mongol invasions in 1274 and 1281 were successfully repelled.
The Nara period of the eighth century marked the first emergence of a
strong central Japanese state, centered around an imperial court in the
city of Heijō-kyō, or modern day Nara. In addition to the continuing adoption of Chinese administrative
practices, the Nara period is characterized by the appearance of a nascent written literature with the
completion of the massive chronicles Kojiki (712) and Nihon Shoki (720).[9] (Nara was not the first
capital city in Japan, though. Before Nara, Fujiwara-kyō and Asuka served as capitals of the Yamato
state.)
In 784, Emperor Kammu moved the capital from Nara to Nagaoka-kyō for a brief ten-year period,
before relocating it to Heian-kyō (modern day Kyoto) in 794, where it
remained for more than a millennium.[10] This marked the beginning of the
Heian period, during which time a distinctly indigenous Japanese culture
emerged, noted for its art, poetry and literature. Lady Murasaki's The Tale
of Genji and the lyrics of modern Japan's national anthem, Kimi ga Yo
were written during this time.[11]
An old Japanese painting depicting a battle during the Warring States

period (1467-1615).
Japan's feudal era was characterized by the emergence of a ruling class of

warriors, the samurai. In 1185, following the defeat of the rival Taira clan, Minamoto no Yoritomo was
appointed Shogun and established a base of power in Kamakura. After Yoritomo's death, the Hōjō clan
came to rule as regents for the shoguns. Zen Buddhism was introduced from China in the Kamakura
period (1185–1333) and became popular among the samurai class. The Kamakura shogunate managed to
repel Mongol invasions in 1274 and 1281, aided by a storm that the Japanese interpreted as a kamikaze,
or Divine Wind. The Kamakura shogunate was eventually overthrown by Emperor Go-Daigo, who was
soon himself defeated by Ashikaga Takauji in 1336.[12] The succeeding Ashikaga shogunate failed to
control the feudal warlords (daimyo), and a civil war erupted (the Ōnin War) in 1467 which opened a
century-long Sengoku period.[13]
This article contains Japanese text. Without proper rendering

support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols
instead of kanji and kana. During the sixteenth century,
traders and Jesuit missionaries
from Portugal reached Japan for the first time, initiating active commercial and cultural exchange
between Japan and the West (Nanban
trade).
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One of Japan's Red seal ships (1634), which were used for trade throughout Asia.
Samurai of the Satsuma clan during the Boshin War, circa 1867.
The 1945 atomic bombing of Nagasaki.
Skyscrapers in Shinjuku, Tokyo
Oda Nobunaga conquered numerous

other daimyo by using European
technology and firearms and had almost
unified the nation when he was
assassinated in 1582. Toyotomi
Hideyoshi succeeded Nobunaga and united the nation in 1590. Hideyoshi invaded
Korea twice, but following several defeats by Korean and Ming China forces and
Hideyoshi's death, Japanese troops were withdrawn in 1598.[14]
After Hideyoshi's death, Tokugawa Ieyasu utilized his position as regent for Hideyoshi's son Toyotomi
Hideyori to gain political and military support. When open war broke out, he defeated rival clans in the
Battle of Sekigahara in 1600. Ieyasu was appointed shōgun in 1603 and established the Tokugawa
shogunate at Edo (modern Tokyo). The Tokugawa shogunate enacted a variety of measures such as
Buke shohatto to control the autonomous daimyo. In 1639, the shogunate began the isolationist sakoku
("closed country") policy that spanned the two and a half centuries of tenuous political unity known as
the Edo period. The study of Western sciences, known as rangaku, continued during this period through
contacts with the Dutch enclave at Dejima in Nagasaki. The Edo period also gave rise to kokugaku, or
literally "national studies", the study of Japan by the Japanese themselves.[15]
On March 31, 1854, Commodore Matthew Perry and the "Black Ships" of the United States Navy forced
the opening of Japan to the outside world with the Convention of Kanagawa. Subsequent similar treaties
with the Western countries in the Bakumatsu period brought Japan into economic and political crises.
The abundance of the prerogative and the resignation of the shogunate led to the Boshin War and the
establishment of a centralized state unified under the name of the Emperor (Meiji Restoration).
Adopting Western political, judicial and military institutions, the Cabinet organized the Privy Council,
introduced the Meiji Constitution, and assembled the Imperial Diet. The Meiji Restoration transformed
the Empire of Japan into an industrialized world power that embarked on a number of military conflicts
to expand the nation's sphere of influence. After victories in the First Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895)
and the Russo-Japanese War (1904–1905), Japan gained control of Taiwan, Korea, and the southern half
of Sakhalin.[16]
The early twentieth century saw a brief period of "Taisho democracy" overshadowed by the rise of
expansionism and militarization. World War I enabled Japan, which joined the side of the victorious
Allies, to expand its influence and territorial holdings. Japan continued its expansionist policy by
occupying Manchuria in 1931. As a result of international condemnation for this occupation, Japan
resigned from the League of Nations two years later. In 1936, Japan signed the Anti-Comintern Pact
with Nazi Germany, joining the Axis powers in 1941.[17]
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In 1937, Japan invaded other parts of China, precipitating the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945),
after which the United States placed an oil embargo on Japan.[18] On December 7, 1941, Japan attacked
the United States naval base in Pearl Harbor and declared war on the United States, the United Kingdom
and the Netherlands. This act brought the United States into World War II. After the atomic bombings of
Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945, along with the Soviet Union joining the war against it, Japan agreed to
an unconditional surrender on August 15 (Victory over Japan Day).[19]
The war cost Japan and countries part of the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere millions of lives
and left much of the country's industry and infrastructure destroyed. The International Military Tribunal
for the Far East, was convened by the Allies (on May 3, 1946) to prosecute some Japanese leaders for
war crimes. However, all members of the bacteriological research units ans members of the imperial
family involved in the conduct of the war were exonerated from criminal prosecutions by the Supreme
Commander of the Allied Forces.
In 1947, Japan adopted a new pacifist constitution emphasizing liberal democratic practices. The Allied
occupation ended by the Treaty of San Francisco in 1952[20] and Japan was
granted membership in the United Nations in 1956. Japan later achieved
spectacular growth to become the second largest economy in the world,
with an annual growth rate averaging 10% for four decades. This ended in
the mid-1990s when Japan suffered a major recession. Positive growth in
the early twenty-first century has signaled a gradual recovery.[21]

Main articles: Government of Japan and Politics of Japan
Emperor Akihito and Empress Michiko.
Japan is a constitutional monarchy where the power of the Emperor is very

limited. As a ceremonial figurehead, he is defined by the constitution as
"the symbol of the state and of the unity of the people". Power is held
chiefly by the Prime Minister of Japan and other elected members of the Diet, while sovereignty is
vested in the Japanese people.[22] The Emperor effectively acts as the head of state on diplomatic
occasions. Akihito is the current Emperor of Japan. Naruhito, Crown Prince of Japan, stands as next in
line to the throne.
Japan's legislative organ is the National Diet, a bicameral parliament. The Diet consists of a House of
Representatives, containing 480 seats, elected by popular vote every four years or when dissolved and a
House of Councillors of 242 seats, whose popularly elected members serve six-year terms. There is
universal suffrage for adults over 20 years of age,[4] with a secret ballot for all elective offices.[22] The
liberal conservative Liberal Democratic Party (LDP) has been in power since 1955, except for a short-
lived coalition government formed from opposition parties in 1993.[23] The largest opposition party is the
social liberal Democratic Party of Japan.
The Prime Minister of Japan is the head of government. The position is appointed by the Emperor of
Japan after being designated by the Diet from among its members and must enjoy the confidence of the
House of Representatives to remain in office. The Prime Minister is the head of the Cabinet (the literal
translation of his Japanese title is "Prime Minister of the Cabinet") and appoints and dismisses the
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Ministers of State, a majority of whom must be Diet members. Taro Aso currently serves as the Prime
Minister of Japan.[24]
Historically influenced by Chinese law, the Japanese legal system developed independently during the
Edo period through texts such as Kujikata Osadamegaki. However, since the late nineteenth century, the
judicial system has been largely based on the civil law of Europe, notably France and Germany. For
example, in 1896, the Japanese government established a civil code based on the German model. With
post-World War II modifications, the code remains in effect in present-day Japan.[25] Statutory law
originates in Japan's legislature, the National Diet of Japan, with the rubber stamp approval of the
Emperor. The current constitution requires that the Emperor promulgates legislation passed by the Diet,
without specifically giving him the power to oppose the passing of the legislation. [22] Japan's court
system is divided into four basic tiers: the Supreme Court and three levels of lower courts.[26] The main
body of Japanese statutory law is a collection called the Six Codes.[25]
Foreign relations and military

Main articles: Foreign relations of Japan, Japan Self-Defense Forces, and Ministry of Defense
(Japan)
Japan maintains close economic and military relations with its key ally the United States, with the U.S.-
Japan security alliance serving as the cornerstone of its foreign policy.[27] A member state of the United
Nations since 1956, Japan has served as a non-permanent Security Council member for a total of 18
years, most recently in 2005–2006. It is also one of the G4 nations seeking permanent membership in
the Security Council.[28] As a member of the G8, the APEC, the "ASEAN Plus Three" and a participant
in the East Asia Summit, Japan actively participates in international affairs 　and enhances diplomatic
ties with its important partners around the world. Japan signed a security pact with Australia in March
2007 [29] and with India in October 2008.[30] It is also the world's third largest donor of official
development assistance after the United States and United Kingdom, donating US$8.86 billion in 2004.
[31]
Japan contributed non-combatant troops to the Iraq War but subsequently withdrew its forces from
Iraq.[32]
Japan is engaged in several territorial disputes with its neighbors: with Russia over the South Kuril
Islands, with South Korea over the Liancourt Rocks, with the People's Republic of China and Taiwan
over the Senkaku Islands, and with the PRC over the EEZ around Okinotorishima.
Japan also faces an ongoing dispute with North Korea over its abduction of Japanese citizens and its
nuclear weapons and missile program (see also Six-party talks). As a result of the Kuril Islands dispute,
Japan is technically still at war with Russia since no treaty resolving the issue was ever signed.[33]
Japan's military is restricted by the Article 9 of the Japanese Constitution, which renounces Japan's right
to declare war or use military force as a means of settling international disputes. Japan's military is
governed by the Ministry of Defense, and primarily consists of the Japan Ground Self-Defense Force
(JGSDF), the Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force (JMSDF) and the Japan Air Self-Defense Force
(JASDF). The forces have been recently used in peacekeeping operations and the deployment of
Japanese troops to Iraq marked the first overseas use of its military since World War II.[32]
Administrative divisions
Main articles: Prefectures of Japan, Cities of Japan, Towns of Japan, Villages of Japan, and
List of Japanese cities by population
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Map of the prefectures of Japan in ISO 3166-2:JP order and the regions of Japan.
While there exist eight commonly defined regions of Japan, administratively Japan consists of forty-
seven prefectures, each overseen by an elected governor, legislature and administrative bureaucracy.
The former city of Tokyo is further divided into twenty-three special wards, each with the same powers
as cities.
The nation is currently undergoing administrative reorganization by merging many of the cities, towns
and villages with each other. This process will reduce the number of sub-prefecture administrative
regions and is expected to cut administrative costs.[34]
Japan has dozens of major cities, which play an important role in Japan's culture, heritage and economy.
Geography
Main article: Geography of Japan
Mount Fuji with cherry blossom trees and a shinkansen in the foreground
—all three are iconic of Japan.
Japan is a country of over three thousand islands extending along the

Pacific coast of Asia. The main islands, running from north to south, are
Hokkaidō, Honshū (the main island), Shikoku and Kyūshū. The Ryukyu Islands, including Okinawa, are
a chain of islands south of Kyushū. Together they are often known as the Japanese Archipelago.
About 70% to 80% of the country is forested, mountainous,[35][36] and unsuitable for agricultural,
industrial, or residential use. This is because of the generally steep elevations, climate and risk of
landslides caused by earthquakes, soft ground and heavy rain. This has resulted in an extremely high
population density in the habitable zones that are mainly located in coastal areas. Japan is one of the
most densely populated countries in the world.[37]
Its location on the Pacific Ring of Fire, at the juncture of three tectonic plates, gives Japan frequent low-
intensity tremors and occasional volcanic activity. Destructive earthquakes, often resulting in tsunamis,
occur several times each century.[38] The most recent major quakes are the 2004 Chūetsu earthquake and
the Great Hanshin Earthquake of 1995. Hot springs are numerous and have been developed as resorts.[39]
The climate of Japan is predominantly temperate, but varies greatly from north to south.[40] Japan's
geographical features divide it into six principal climatic zones:
• Hokkaidō: The northernmost zone has a temperate climate with long, cold winters and cool
summers. Precipitation is not heavy, but the islands usually develop deep snow banks in the
winter.
• Sea of Japan: On Honshū's west coast, the northwest wind in the wintertime brings heavy
snowfall. In the summer, the region is cooler than the Pacific area, though it sometimes
experiences extremely hot temperatures, because of the foehn wind phenomenon.
• Central Highland: A typical inland climate, with large temperature differences between summer
and winter, and between day and night. Precipitation is light.
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• Seto Inland Sea: The mountains of the Chūgoku and Shikoku regions shelter the region from the
seasonal winds, bringing mild weather throughout the year.
• Pacific Ocean: The east coast experiences cold winters with little snowfall and hot, humid
summers because of the southeast seasonal wind.
• Ryukyu Islands: The Ryukyu Islands have a subtropical climate, with warm winters and hot
summers. Precipitation is very heavy, especially during the rainy season. Typhoons are common.
The hottest temperature ever measured in Japan — 40.9 degrees Celsius — was recorded on August 16,
2007.[41]
The main rainy season begins in early May in Okinawa, and the stationary rain front responsible for this
gradually works its way north until it dissipates in northern Japan before reaching Hokkaidō in late July.
In most of Honshū, the rainy season begins before the middle of June and lasts about six weeks. In late
summer and early autumn, typhoons often bring heavy rain.[40]
Japan is home to nine forest ecoregions which reflect the climate and geography of the islands. They
range from subtropical moist broadleaf forests in the Ryūkyū and Bonin islands, to temperate broadleaf
and mixed forests in the mild climate regions of the main islands, to temperate coniferous forests in the
cold, winter portions of the northern islands.[42]
Environment
Main article: Environmental issues in Japan
Japan's environmental history and current policies reflect a tenuous balance between economic
development and environmental protection. In the rapid economic growth after World War II,
environmental policies were downplayed by the government and industrial corporations. As an
inevitable consequence, some crucial environmental pollution (see Pollution in Japan) occurred in the
1950s and 1960s. In the rising concern over the problem, the government introduced many
environmental protection laws[43] in 1970 and established the Ministry of the Environment in 1971. The
Oil crisis in 1973 also encouraged the efficient use of energy due to Japan's lack of natural resources.[44]
Current priority environmental issues include urban air pollution (NOx, suspended particulate matter,
toxics), waste management, water eutrophication, nature conservation, climate change, chemical
management and international co-operation for environmental conservation.[45]
Today Japan is one of the world's leaders in the development of new environment-friendly technologies.
Honda and Toyota hybrid electric vehicles were named to have the highest fuel economy and lowest
emissions.[46] This is due to the advanced technology in hybrid systems, biofuels, use of lighter weight
material and better engineering.
Japan also takes issues surrounding climate change and global warming seriously. As a signatory of the
Kyoto Protocol, and host of the 1997 conference which created it, Japan is under treaty obligations to
reduce its carbon dioxide emissions and to take other steps related to curbing climate change. The Cool
Biz campaign introduced under former Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi was targeted at reducing
energy use through the reduction of air conditioning use in government offices. Japan is preparing to
force industry to make big cuts in greenhouse gases, taking the lead in a country struggling to meet its
Kyoto Protocol obligations.[47]
Japan is ranked 30th best in the world in the Environmental Sustainability Index.[48]
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Economy
Main article: Economy of Japan
The Tokyo Stock Exchange is the world's second largest stock exchange.
From 1868, Meiji period launched economic expansion. Meiji rulers

embraced the concept of a free market economy and adopted British and
North American forms of free enterprise capitalism. Japanese went to study
overseas and Western scholars were hired to teach in Japan. Many of today's
enterprises were founded at the time. Japan emerged as the most developed
nation in Asia.
From the 1960s to the 1980s, overall real economic growth has been called a
"Japanese miracle": a 10% average in the 1960s, a 5% average in the 1970s
and a 4% average in the 1980s.[49] Growth slowed markedly in the 1990s,
largely because of the after-effects of Japanese asset price bubble and domestic policies intended to
wring speculative excesses from the stock and real estate markets. Government efforts to revive
economic growth met with little success and were further hampered by the global slowdown in 2000.[50]
The economy showed strong signs of recovery after 2005. GDP growth for that year was 2.8%, with an
annualized fourth quarter expansion of 5.5%, surpassing the growth rates of the US and European Union
during the same period.[51]
The Minato Mirai 21 district of Yokohama. The majority of Japan's

economy is service sector based.
Japan is the second largest economy in the world,[52] after the United
States, at around US$4.5 trillion in terms of nominal GDP[52] and third
after the United States and China in terms of purchasing power parity.[53]
Banking, insurance, real estate, retailing, transportation, telecommunications and construction are all
major industries.[54] Japan has a large industrial capacity and is home to some of the largest, leading and
most technologically advanced producers of motor vehicles, electronic equipment, machine tools, steel
and nonferrous metals, ships, chemicals, textiles and processed foods.[50] The service sector accounts for
three quarters of the gross domestic product.
As of 2001, Japan's shrinking labor force consists of some 67 million workers.[55] Japan has a low
unemployment rate, around 4%. Japan's GDP per hour worked is the world's 18th highest as of 2006.[56]
Big Mac Index shows that Japanese workers get the highest salary per hour in the world. Some of the
largest enterprises in Japan include Toyota Motor, NTT DoCoMo, Canon, Honda, Takeda
Pharmaceutical, Sony, Nintendo, Nippon Steel, Tepco, Mitsubishi Estate, and 711.[57] It is home to some
of the world's largest banks and the Tokyo Stock Exchange, known for Nikkei 225, stands as the second
largest in the world by market capitalization.[58] Japan is home to 326 companies from the Forbes Global
2000 or 16.3% (as of 2006).
Japan ranks 12th of 178 countries in the Ease of Doing Business Index 2008 and it has one of the
smallest governments in the developed world. Japanese variant of capitalism has many distinct features.
Keiretsu enterprises are influential. Lifetime employment and seniority-based career advancement are
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[59][60]
relatively common in Japanese work environment. Japanese companies are known for management
methods such as "The Toyota Way". Shareholder activism is rare.[61] Recently, Japan has moved away
from some of these norms.[62][63] In the Index of Economic Freedom, Japan is the 5th most laissez-faire of
30 Asian countries.[64]
Japan's exports amounted to 4,210 U.S. dollars per capita in 2005. Japan's main export markets are the
United States 22.8%, the European Union 14.5%, China 14.3%, South Korea 7.8%, Taiwan 6.8% and
Hong Kong 5.6% (for 2006). Japan's main exports are transportation equipment, motor vehicles,
electronics, electrical machinery and chemicals.[50] Japan's main import markets are China 20.5%, U.S.
12.0%, the European Union 10.3%, Saudi Arabia 6.4%, UAE 5.5%, Australia 4.8%, South Korea 4.7%
and Indonesia 4.2% (for 2006). Japan's main imports are machinery and equipment, fossil fuels,
foodstuffs (in particular beef), chemicals, textiles and raw materials for its industries.[65] By market share
measures, domestic markets are the least open of any OECD country.[60] Junichiro Koizumi
administration commenced some pro-competition reforms and foreign investment in Japan has soared
recently.[66]
Japan's business culture has many indigenous concepts such as nemawashi, nenko system, salaryman,
and office lady. Japan's housing market is characterized by limited land supply in urban areas. This is
particularly true for Tokyo, the world's largest urban agglomeration GDP. More than half of Japanese
live in suburbs or more rural areas, where detached houses are the dominant housing type. Agricultural
businesses in Japan often utilize a system of terrace farming and crop yields are high. 13% of Japan's
land is cultivated. Japan accounts for nearly 15% of the global fish catch, second only to China.[50]
Japan's agricultural sector is protected at high cost.[67]
Infrastructure
Main articles: Energy in Japan and Transportation in Japan
High speed Shinkansen or Bullet trains are a common form of

transportation in Japan.
As of 2005, one half of energy in Japan is produced from petroleum, a fifth from coal, and 14% from
natural gas.[68] Nuclear power in Japan makes a quarter of electricity production and Japan would like to
double it in the next decades.
Japan's road spending has been large.[69] The 1.2 million kilometers of paved road are the main means of
transportation.[70] Japan has left-hand traffic. A single network of high-speed, divided, limited-access toll
roads connects major cities and are operated by toll-collecting enterprises. New and used cars are
inexpensive. Car ownership fees and fuel levies are used to promote energy-efficiency.
Dozens of Japanese railway companies compete in regional and local passenger transportation markets;
for instance, 7 JR enterprises, Kintetsu Corporation, Seibu Railway, and Keio Corporation. Often,
strategies of these enterprises contain real estate or department stores next to stations. Some 250 high-
speed Shinkansen trains connect major cities. All trains are known for punctuality.[citation needed]
There are 173 airports and flying is a popular way to travel between cities. The largest domestic airport,
Haneda Airport, is the Asia's busiest airport. The largest international gateways are Narita International
Airport (Tokyo area), Kansai International Airport (Osaka/Kobe/Kyoto area), and Chūbu Centrair
International Airport (Nagoya area). The largest ports include Port of Yokohama and Nagoya Port.
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Main article: Science and technology in Japan
Press release photo of the most recent

Honda ASIMO model.
JAXA Japanese Experiment Module.
Japan is one of the leading nations in

the fields of scientific research, particularly technology, machinery and
biomedical research. Nearly 700,000 researchers share a US$130
billion research and development budget, the third largest in the world.[71] For instance some of Japan's
more prominent technological contributions are found in the fields of electronics, automobiles,
machinery, earthquake engineering, industrial robotics, optics, chemicals, semiconductors and metals.
Japan leads the world in robotics production and use, possessing more than half (402,200 of 742,500) of
the world's industrial robots used for manufacturing.[72] It also produced QRIO, ASIMO and AIBO.
Japan is the world's largest producer of automobiles [73] and home to six of the world's fifteen largest
automobile manufacturers and seven of the world's twenty largest semiconductor sales leaders as of
today.
The Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) is Japan's space agency that conducts space and
planetary research, aviation research, and development of rockets and satellites. It is a participant in the
International Space Station and the Japanese Experiment Module (Kibo) is slated to be added to the
International Space Station during Space Shuttle assembly flights in 2008.[74] It has plans in space
exploration, such as launching the Venus Climate Orbiter (PLANET-C) in 2010 [75][76], developing the
Mercury Magnetospheric Orbiter to be launched in 2013[77][78], and building a moonbase by 2030.[79] On
September 14, 2007, it launched lunar orbit explorer "SELENE" (Selenological and Engineering
Explorer) on an H-IIA (Model H2A2022) carrier rocket from Tanegashima Space Center. SELENE is
also known as Kaguya, the lunar princess of the ancient folktale The Tale of the Bamboo Cutter.[80]
Kaguya is the largest lunar probe mission since the Apollo program. Its mission is to gather data on the
moon's origin and evolution. It entered into a lunar orbit on October 4, [81] [82] flying in a lunar orbit at an
altitude of about 100 km.[83]
Demographics
Main articles: Demographics of Japan, Japanese language, Japanese people, Racial issues in
Japan, and Religion in Japan
A view of Shibuya crossing, an example of Tokyo's often crowded streets.
Shinto Itsukushima Shrine UNESCO World

Heritage Site.
Japan's population is estimated at around 127.3 million.[84] For the most

part, Japanese society is linguistically and culturally homogeneous with
small populations of foreign workers, Zainichi Koreans, Zainichi Chinese,
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Filipinos, Japanese Brazilians and others. The most dominant native ethnic group is the Yamato people;
the primary minority groups include the indigenous Ainu and Ryukyuan, as well as social minority
groups like the burakumin.
Japan has one of the highest life expectancy rates in the world, at 81.25 years of age as of 2006.[85] The
Japanese population is rapidly aging, the effect of a post-war baby boom followed by a decrease in
births in the latter part of the twentieth century. In 2004, about 19.5% of the population was over the age
of 65.[86]
The changes in the demographic structure have created a number of social issues, particularly a potential
decline in the workforce population and increases in the cost of social security benefits such as the
public pension plan. Many Japanese youth are increasingly preferring not to marry or have families as
adults.[87] Japan's population is expected to drop to 100 million by 2050 and to 64 million by 2100.[86]
Demographers and government planners are currently in a heated debate over how to cope with this
problem.[87] Immigration and birth incentives are sometimes suggested as a solution to provide younger
workers to support the nation's aging population.[88][89]
The highest estimates for the amount of Buddhists and Shintoists in Japan is 84-96%, representing a
large number of believers in a syncretism of both religions.[4][90] However, these estimates are based on
people with an association with a temple, rather than the number of people truly following the religion.
[91]
Professor Robert Kisala (Nanzan University) suggests that only 30 percent of the population identify
themselves as belonging to a religion.[91]
Taoism and Confucianism from China have also influenced Japanese beliefs and customs. Religion in
Japan tends to be syncretic in nature, and this results in a variety of practices, such as parents and
children celebrating Shinto rituals, students praying before exams, couples holding a wedding at a
Christian church and funerals being held at Buddhist temples. A minority (2,595,397, or 2.04%) profess
to Christianity.[92] In addition, since the mid-19th century, numerous religious sects (Shinshūkyō) have
emerged in Japan, such as Tenrikyo and Aum Shinrikyo (or Aleph).
More than 99% of the population speaks Japanese as their first language.[84] It is an agglutinative
language distinguished by a system of honorifics reflecting the hierarchical nature of Japanese society,
with verb forms and particular vocabulary which indicate the relative status of speaker and listener.
According to a Japanese dictionary Shinsen-kokugojiten, Chinese-based words comprise 49.1% of the
total vocabulary, indigenous words are 33.8% and other loanwords are 8.8%.[93] The writing system uses
kanji (Chinese characters) and two sets of kana (syllabaries based on simplified Chinese characters), as
well as the Latin alphabet and Arabic numerals. The Ryukyuan languages, also part of the Japonic
language family to which Japanese belongs, are spoken in Okinawa, but few children learn these
languages.[94] The Ainu language is moribund, with only a few elderly native speakers remaining in
Hokkaidō.[95] Most public and private schools require students to take courses in both Japanese and
English.[96]
Largest cities of Japan view • talk • edit
Populatio
Core City Prefecture Core City Prefecture Population
n
1 Tokyo Tokyo 8,483,050 7 Kyoto Kyoto 1,474,764
2 Yokohama Kanagawa 3,579,133 8 Fukuoka Fukuoka 1,400,621
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3 Osaka Osaka 2,628,776 9 Kawasaki Kanagawa 1,327,009
4 Nagoya Aichi 2,215,031 10 Saitama Saitama 1,176,269
5 Sapporo Hokkaidō 1,880,875 11 Hiroshima Hiroshima 1,159,391
6 Kobe Hyōgo 1,525,389 12 Sendai Miyagi 1,028,214
Tokyo
Source: 2005 Census
Education and health

Main articles: Education in Japan and Health care in Japan
The Yasuda Auditorium of University of Tokyo, one of Japan's most

prestigious universities.
Primary, secondary schools and universities were introduced into Japan in

1872 as a result of the Meiji Restoration.[97] Since 1947, compulsory
education in Japan consists of elementary school and middle school,
which lasts for nine years (from age 6 to age 15). Almost all children continue their education at a three-
year senior high school, and, according to the MEXT, about 75.9% of high school graduates attend a
university, junior college, trade school, or other post-secondary institution in 2005. [98] Japan's education
is very competitive,[99] especially for entrance to institutions of higher education. The two top-ranking
universities in Japan are the University of Tokyo and Kyoto University.[100] The Programme for
International Student Assessment coordinated by the OECD, currently ranks Japanese knowledge and
skills of 15-year-olds as the 6th best in the world.[101]
In Japan, healthcare services are provided by national and local governments. Payment for personal
medical services is offered through a universal health care insurance system that provides relative
equality of access, with fees set by a government committee. People without insurance through
employers can participate in a national health insurance program administered by local governments.
Since 1973, all elderly persons have been covered by government-sponsored insurance.[102] Patients are
free to select physicians or facilities of their choice.[103]
Culture and recreation

Main articles: Culture of Japan and Music of Japan
The Great Wave off Kanagawa (1832), an

ukiyo-e from Thirty-Six Views of Mount Fuji
by Hokusai.
Geisha performing in traditional kimono
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Japanese culture has evolved greatly over the years, from the country's original Jōmon culture to its
contemporary culture, which combines influences from Asia, Europe and North America. Traditional
Japanese arts include crafts (ikebana, origami, ukiyo-e, dolls, lacquerware, pottery), performances
(bunraku, dance, kabuki, noh, rakugo), traditions (games, tea ceremony, Budō, architecture, gardens,
swords) and cuisine. The fusion of traditional woodblock printing and Western art led to the creation of
manga, a typically Japanese comic book format that is now popular within and outside Japan.[104] Manga-
influenced animation for television and film is called anime. Japanese-made video game consoles have
prospered since the 1980s.[105]
Japanese music is eclectic, having borrowed instruments, scales and styles from neighboring cultures.
Many instruments, such as the koto, were introduced in the ninth and tenth centuries. The accompanied
recitative of the Noh drama dates from the fourteenth century and the popular folk music, with the
guitar-like shamisen, from the sixteenth.[106] Western music, introduced in the late nineteenth century,
now forms an integral part of the culture. Post-war Japan has been heavily influenced by American and
European modern music, which has led to the evolution of popular band music called J-pop.[107]
Karaoke is the most widely practiced cultural activity. A November 1993 survey by the Cultural Affairs
Agency found that more Japanese had sung karaoke that year than had participated in traditional cultural
pursuits such as flower arranging or tea ceremony.[108]
A Japanese garden
The earliest works of Japanese literature include two history books the
Kojiki and the Nihon Shoki and the eighth century poetry book
Man'yōshū, all written in Chinese characters.[109] In the early days of the
Heian period, the system of transcription known as kana (Hiragana and
Katakana) was created as phonograms. The Tale of the Bamboo Cutter is
considered the oldest Japanese narrative.[110] An account of Heian court life is given by The Pillow Book
written by Sei Shōnagon, while The Tale of Genji by Lady Murasaki is often described as the world's
first novel. During the Edo period, literature became not so much the field of the samurai aristocracy as
that of the chōnin, the ordinary people. Yomihon, for example, became popular and reveals this
profound change in the readership and authorship.[110] The Meiji era saw the decline of traditional
literary forms, during which Japanese literature integrated Western influences. Natsume Sōseki and
Mori Ōgai were the first "modern" novelists of Japan, followed by Ryūnosuke Akutagawa, Jun'ichirō
Tanizaki, Yasunari Kawabata, Yukio Mishima and, more recently, Haruki Murakami. Japan has two
Nobel Prize-winning authors — Yasunari Kawabata (1968) and Kenzaburo Oe (1994).[110]
Sports
Main article: Sport in Japan
A sumo tournament at the Grand Tournament in Osaka.
Traditionally, sumo is considered Japan's national sport[111] and it is a

popular spectator sport in Japan. Martial arts such as judo, karate and
kendō are also widely practiced and enjoyed by spectators in the country.
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After the Meiji Restoration, many Western sports were introduced in Japan and began to spread through
the education system.[112]
The professional baseball league in Japan was established in 1936.[113] Today baseball is the most
popular spectator sport in the country. One of the most famous Japanese baseball players is Ichiro
Suzuki, who, having won Japan's Most Valuable Player award in 1994, 1995 and 1996, now plays in
North American Major League Baseball. Prior to that, Sadaharu Oh was well-known outside Japan,
having hit more home runs during his career in Japan than his contemporary, Hank Aaron, did in
America.
Since the establishment of the Japan Professional Football League in 1992, association football (soccer)
has also gained a wide following.[114] Japan was a venue of the Intercontinental Cup from 1981 to 2004
and co-hosted the 2002 FIFA World Cup with South Korea. Japan is one of the most successful soccer
teams in Asia, winning the Asian Cup three times.
Golf is also popular in Japan,[115] as are forms of auto racing, such as the Super GT sports car series and
Formula Nippon formula racing.[116] Twin Ring Motegi was completed in 1997 by Honda in order to
bring IndyCar racing to Japan.
External links
Find more about Japan on Official
• Kantei.go.jp, official prime ministerial and cabinet site
Dictionary definitions • Kunaicho.go.jp, official site of the Imperial family.
• Ministry of Foreign Affairs, papers on Japan's foreign
policy, education programs, culture and life.
Textbooks
• National Diet Library (English)
• Shugi-in.go.jp, official site of the House of
Quotations
Representatives
Source texts
Media
Images and media • Asahi Shimbun (English)
• Kyodo News
News stories • NHK Online
• The Japan Times
Learning resources • Yomiuri Shimbun (English)
Tourism
• Japan National Tourist Organization

• Japan travel guide from Wikitravel
Other
• CIA World Factbook—Japan

• EIA Energy Profile for Japan
• Encyclopaedia Britannica's Japan portal site
• Guardian Unlimited—Special Report: Japan
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• Wikimedia Atlas of Japan
• Works by Government of Japan at Project Gutenberg containing the 1889 and 1946
Constitutions
[hide]
v•d•e
Japan topics
Basic topics · Alphabetical index of topics
Paleolithic · Jōmon · Yayoi · Kofun · Nara · Heian · Kamakura · Muromachi · Azuchi-Momoyama ·

History Edo · Meiji · Taishō · Shōwa · Heisei · Economic history · Military history (Imperial Army ·
Imperial Navy · Naval history)
Emperor (list) · Prime Minister (list) · Cabinet · Ministries · Diet · House of Councillors · House of
Government
and politics Representatives · Elections · Political parties · Judiciary · Fiscal policy · Foreign policy · Foreign
relations · Human rights · Self-Defense Force (Air · Ground · Maritime)
Environment · Regions · Prefectures · Cities · Districts · Towns · Villages · Addresses · Islands ·

Geography
Lakes · Rivers
Primary sector · Manufacturing · Labor · Communications · Transport · Currency · Central bank ·

Economy
Solar power
Anime / Manga · Architecture · Art · Bonsai · Cinema · Cuisine · Festivals · Gardens · Geisha ·
Culture
Games · Ikebana · Literature · Martial arts · Music · Onsen / Sentō · Tea ceremony · Theatre
Aesthetics · Demographics · Crime · Education · Etiquette · Language · Law · Mythology · Names ·

Society
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Portal
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THE END OF JAPAN
FRANCE
This article is about the country. For a topic outline on this subject, see List of basic France
topics. For other uses, see France (disambiguation).
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France (/ˈfræns/ (help·info) or /ˈfrɑːns/; French pronunciation: [fʁɑ̃s]), officially the French Republic
(French: République française, French pronunciation: [ʁepyblik fʁɑ̃sɛz]), is a country whose metropolitan
territory is located in Western Europe and that also comprises various overseas islands and territories
located in other continents.[11] Metropolitan France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English
Channel and the North Sea, and from the Rhine to the Atlantic Ocean. French people often refer to
Metropolitan France as L’Hexagone (The “Hexagon”) because of the geometric shape of its territory.
France is a unitary semi-presidential republic. Its main ideals are expressed in the Declaration of the
Rights of Man and of the Citizen.
Metropolitan France is bordered (in clockwise direction

from the north) by Belgium, Luxembourg, Germany,
Switzerland, Italy, Monaco, Andorra, and Spain. France's
overseas departments and collectivities also share land
borders with Brazil and Suriname (bordering French
Guiana), and the Netherlands Antilles (bordering Saint-
Martin). France is linked to the United Kingdom by the
Channel Tunnel, which passes underneath the English
Channel.
France has
been one of
the world's
foremost
powers for
many
centuries.
During the
17th and
18th
centuries,
France
colonized
much of
North
America;
during the
19th and early 20th centuries, France built one of the
largest colonial empires of the time, including large
portions of North, West and Central Africa, Southeast Asia, and many Pacific islands. Today, France is
a developed country, possessing the sixth (nominal GDP) or eighth (PPP) largest economy in the world.
It is the most visited country in the world, receiving 82 million foreign tourists annually.[12] France is one
of the founding members of the European Union, and has the largest land area of all members. France is
a founding member of the United Nations, and a member of the Francophonie, the G8, NATO, and the
Latin Union. It is one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council and a
nuclear power with active warheads and nuclear power plants.
Research Trang123
Origin of the name France
Contents Main article: Name of France
[hide] See also: List of country name etymologies
• 1 Origin of the name France The name "France" comes from Latin Francia, which
• 2 Geography literally means "land of the Franks" or "Frankland". There
• 3 History are various theories as to the origin of the name of the
o 3.1 Rome to revolution Franks. One is that it is derived from the Proto-Germanic
o 3.2 Monarchy to Republic word frankon which translates as javelin or lance as the
• 4 Government throwing axe of the Franks was known as a francisca.[citation
needed]
• 5 Conventions and notations
• 6 Law
• 7 Foreign relations Another proposed etymology is that in an ancient Germanic
• 8 Military language, Frank means free as opposed to slave. This word
• 9 Transportation still exists in French as franc, it is also used as the translation
• 10 Administrative divisions of "Frank" and to name the local money, until the use of the
o 10.1 Overseas regions euro in the 2000s.
• 11 Economy
o 11.1 Labour market However, rather than the ethnic name of the Franks coming
o 11.2 Tourism from the word frank, it is also possible that the word is
• 12 Demography derived from the ethnic name of the Franks,[citation needed] the
• 13 Religion connection being that only the Franks, as the conquering
• 14 Public health class, had the status of freemen. In German, France is still
• 15 Culture called Frankreich, which literally means "Realm of the
o 15.1 Architecture Franks". In order to distinguish from the Frankish Empire of
o 15.2 Literature Charlemagne, Modern France is called Frankreich, while the
o 15.3 Sport Frankish Realm is called Frankenreich.
o 15.4 Marianne
• 16 International rankings The word "Frank" had been loosely used from the fall of
• 17 See also Rome to the Middle Ages, yet from Hugh Capet's coronation
• 18 Notes and references as "King of the Franks" ("Rex Francorum") it became usual
to strictly refer to the Kingdom of Francia, which would
• 19 External links become France. The Capetian Kings were descended from
the Robertines, who had produced two Frankish kings, and
previously held the title of "Duke of the Franks" ("dux Francorum"). This Frankish duchy encompassed
most of modern northern France but because the royal power was sapped by regional princes the term
was then applied to the royal demesne as shorthand. It was finally the name adopted for the entire
Kingdom as central power was affirmed over the entire kingdom.[13]
Geography
The Calanque of Sugiton, Marseille

Main article: Geography of France
While Metropolitan France is located in Western Europe, France also has a

number of territories in North America, the Caribbean, South America, the
southern Indian Ocean, the Pacific Ocean, and Antarctica.[14] These territories
have varying forms of government ranging from overseas department to overseas collectivity.
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Metropolitan France covers 547,030 square kilometres

(211,209 sq mi),[15] having the largest area among
European Union members and slightly larger than Spain.
France possesses a wide variety of landscapes, from
coastal plains in the north and west to mountain ranges of
the Alps in the south-east, the Massif Central in the south-
central and Pyrenees in the south-west. At 4,807 metres
(15,770 ft) above sea-level, the highest point in Western
Europe, Mont Blanc, is situated in the Alps on the border
between France and Italy.[16] Metropolitan France also has
extensive river systems such as the Loire, the Garonne,
the Seine and the Rhône, which divides the Massif
Central from the Alps and flows into the Mediterranean
sea at the Camargue, the lowest point in France (2 m /
6.5 ft below sea level).[16] Corsica lies off the
Mediterranean coast.
The Exclusive Economic Zone of France extends over 11 million km² (4 million sq miles) of ocean
across the world.[17]
France's total land area, with its overseas departments and

territories (excluding Adélie Land), is 674,843 square
kilometres (260,558 sq mi), 0.45% of the total land area
on Earth. However, France possesses the second-largest
Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) in the world, covering
11,035,000 square kilometres (4,260,000 sq mi),
approximately 8% of the total surface of all the EEZs of
the world, just behind the United States (11,351,000 km² /
4,383,000 sq mi) and ahead of Australia (8,232,000 km² /
3,178,000 sq mi).[18]
Metropolitan France is situated between 41° and 51°

North, on the western edge of Europe, and thus lies within
the northern temperate zone. The north and northwest
have a temperate climate, while a combination of
maritime influences, latitude and altitude produce a varied
climate in the rest of Metropolitan France.[19] In the south-
east a Mediterranean climate prevails. In the west, the
climate is
predominantly oceanic with a high level of rainfall, mild

winters and cool to warm summers. Inland the climate
becomes more continental with hot, stormy summers,
colder winters and less rain. The climate of the Alps and
other mountainous regions is mainly alpine, with the
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number of days with temperatures below freezing over 150 per year and snow cover lasting for up to six
months.
History
Main article: History of France
See also: Medieval demography and Economic history of France
Rome to revolution
The borders of modern France are approximately the same as those of ancient Gaul, which was
inhabited by Celtic Gauls. Gaul was conquered for Rome by Julius Caesar in the 1st century BC, and the
Gauls eventually adopted Roman speech (Latin, from which the French language evolved) and Roman
culture. Christianity first appeared in the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD, and became so firmly established by
the fourth and fifth centuries that St. Jerome wrote that Gaul was the only region “free from heresy”.
France in 1477. Red line: Boundary of the Kingdom of France; Light blue: the directly held royal
domain
In the 4th century AD, Gaul’s eastern frontier along the Rhine was overrun by Germanic tribes,
principally the Franks, from whom the ancient name of “Francie” was derived. The modern name
“France” derives from the name of the feudal domain of the Capetian Kings of France around Paris. The
Franks were the first tribe among the Germanic conquerors of Europe after the fall of the Roman Empire
to convert to Catholic Christianity rather than Arianism (their King Clovis did so in 498); thus France
obtained the title “Eldest daughter of the Church” (La fille ainée de l’Église), and the French would
adopt this as justification for calling themselves “the Most Christian Kingdom of France”.
Existence as a separate entity began with the Treaty of Verdun (843), with the division of Charlemagne's
Carolingian Empire into East Francia, Middle Francia and Western Francia. Western Francia
approximated the area occupied by modern France and was the precursor to modern France.
The Carolingian dynasty ruled France until 987, when Hugh Capet, Duke of France and Count of Paris,
was crowned King of France. His descendants, the Direct Capetians, the House of Valois and the House
of Bourbon, progressively unified the country through a series of wars and dynastic inheritance. The
monarchy reached its height during the 17th century and the reign of Louis XIV of France. At this time
France possessed the largest population in Europe (see Demographics of France) and had tremendous
influence over European politics, economy, and culture. French became, and remained for some time,
the common language of diplomacy in international affairs. Much of the Enlightenment occurred in
French intellectual circles, and major scientific breakthroughs were achieved by French scientists in the
18th century. In addition, France obtained many overseas possessions
in the Americas, Africa and Asia.
Monarchy to Republic
Storming of the Bastille on 14 July 1789
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The monarchy ruled France until the French Revolution, in 1789. Louis XVI and his wife, Marie
Antoinette, were executed (in 1793), along with thousands of other French citizens. After a series of
short-lived governmental schemes, Napoleon Bonaparte seized control of the Republic in 1799, making
himself First Consul, and later Emperor of what is now known as the First Empire (1804–1814). In the
course of several wars, his armies conquered most of continental Europe, with members of the
Bonaparte family being appointed as monarchs of newly established kingdoms.
Following Napoleon's final defeat in 1815 at the Battle of Waterloo, the French monarchy was re-
established, but with new constitutional limitations. In 1830, a civil uprising established the
constitutional July Monarchy, which lasted until 1848. The short-lived Second Republic ended in 1852
when Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte proclaimed the Second Empire. Louis-Napoléon was unseated
following defeat in the Franco-Prussian war of 1870 and his regime was replaced by the Third Republic.
France had colonial possessions, in various forms, since the beginning of the 17th century until the
1960s. In the 19th and 20th centuries, its global overseas colonial empire was the second largest in the
world behind the British Empire. At its peak, between 1919 and 1939, the second French colonial
empire extended over 12,347,000 square kilometres (4,767,000 sq mi) of land. Including metropolitan
France, the total area of land under French sovereignty reached 12,898,000 square kilometres (4,980,000
sq mi) in the 1920s and 1930s, which is 8.6% of the world's land area.
France issued the single European currency, the euro, in 2002. Together with 14 other EU member states
it forms the Eurozone.
France was a victorious nation in World War I and World War II. The human and material losses in the
first war exceeded largely those of the second, even though only a minor part of its territory was
occupied during World War I. The interbellum phase was marked by a variety of social reforms
introduced by the Popular Front government. Following the German blitzkrieg campaign in World War
II metropolitan France was divided in a occupation zone in the north and Vichy France, a puppet regime
loyal to Germany, in the south.
The Fourth Republic was established after World War II and, despite spectacular economic growth (les
Trente Glorieuses), it struggled to maintain its political status as a dominant nation state. France
attempted to hold on to its colonial empire, but soon ran into trouble. The half-hearted 1946 attempt at
regaining control of French Indochina resulted in the First Indochina War, which ended in French defeat
at the Battle of Dien Bien Phu in 1954. Only months later, France faced a new, even harsher conflict in
Algeria.
The debate over whether or not to keep control of Algeria, then home to over one million European
settlers, wracked the country and nearly led to civil war. In 1958, the weak and unstable Fourth Republic
gave way to the Fifth Republic, which contained a strengthened Presidency. In the latter role, Charles de
Gaulle managed to keep the country together while taking steps to end the war. The Algerian War and
Franco-French civil war that resulted in the capital Algiers, was concluded with peace negotiations in
1962 that led to Algerian independence.
In recent decades, France's reconciliation and cooperation with Germany have proved central to the
political and economic integration of the evolving European Union, including the introduction of the
euro in January 1999. France has been at the forefront of the European Union member states seeking to
exploit the momentum of monetary union to create a more unified and capable European Union
Research Trang127
political, defence, and security apparatus. The French electorate voted against ratification of the
European Constitutional Treaty in May 2005, but the successor Treaty of Lisbon was ratified by
Parliament in February 2008.
Government
Main articles: Government of France, Constitution of France, and Politics of France
Logo of the French republic
The French Republic is a unitary semi-presidential republic with strong democratic traditions. The
constitution of the Fifth Republic was approved by referendum on 28 September 1958. It greatly
strengthened the authority of the executive in relation to parliament. The executive branch itself has two
leaders: the President of the Republic, currently Nicolas Sarkozy, who is head of state and is elected
directly by universal adult suffrage for a 5-year term (formerly 7 years), and the Government, led by the
president-appointed Prime Minister, currently François Fillon.
The French parliament is a bicameral legislature comprising a National Assembly (Assemblée

Nationale) and a Senate. The National Assembly deputies represent local constituencies and are directly
elected for 5-year terms. The Assembly has the power to dismiss the cabinet, and thus the majority in the
Assembly determines the choice of government. Senators are chosen by an electoral college for 6-year
terms (originally 9-year terms), and one half of the seats are submitted to election every 3 years starting
in September 2008.[20] The Senate's legislative powers are limited; in the event of disagreement between
the two chambers, the National Assembly has the final say, except for constitutional laws and lois
organiques (laws that are directly provided for by the constitution) in some cases. The government has a
strong influence in shaping the agenda of Parliament.
French politics are characterised by two politically opposed groupings: one left-wing, centred around the
French Socialist Party, and the other right-wing, centred previously around the Rassemblement pour la
République (RPR) and now its successor the Union for a Popular Movement (UMP). The executive
branch is currently composed mostly of the UMP.
Conventions and notations
• France is the home of the International System of Units (the metric system). Some pre-metric
units are still used, essentially the livre (a unit of weight equal to half a kilogram) and the quintal
(a unit of weight equal to 100 kilograms).
• In mathematics, France uses the infix notation like most countries. For large numbers the long
scale is used. Thus, the French use the word billion for the number 1,000,000,000,000, which in
countries using short scale is called a trillion. However, there exists a French word, milliard, for
the number 1,000,000,000, which in countries using the short scale is called a billion. Thus,
despite the use of the long scale, one billion is called un milliard (“one milliard”) in French, and
not mille millions (“one thousand million”). It should also be noted that names of numbers above
the milliard are rarely used. Thus, one trillion will most often be called mille milliards (“one
thousand milliard”) in French, and rarely un billion.
• In the French numeral notation, the comma (,) is the Decimal separator, whereas the dot (.) is
used between each group of three digits especially for big numbers. A space can also be used to
separate each group of three digits especially for small numbers. Thus three thousand five
hundred and ten may be written as 3 510 whereas fifteen million five hundred thousand and
Research Trang128
thirty-two may be written as 15.500.032. In finance, the currency symbol is used as a decimal
separator or put after the number. For example, €25,048.05 is written either 25 048€05 or 25
048,05 € (always with an extra space between the figure and the currency symbol).
• Cars are driven on the right.
• In computing, a bit is called a bit yet a byte is called an octet (from the Latin root octo, meaning
“8”). SI prefixes are used.
• 24-hour clock time is used, with h being the separator between hours and minutes (for example
2:30 p.m. is 14h30).
• The all-numeric form for dates is in the order day-month-year, using a slash as the separator
(example: 31/12/1992 or 31/12/92).
Law
Main article: Law of France
The basic principles that the French Republic must respect are found in
the 1789 Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen
France uses a civil legal system; that is, law arises primarily from written
statutes; judges are not to make law, but merely to interpret it (though the
amount of judge interpretation in certain areas makes it equivalent to case
law). Basic principles of the rule of law were laid in the Napoleonic
Code. In agreement with the principles of the Declaration of the Rights of
Man and of the Citizen law should only prohibit actions detrimental to
society. As Guy Canivet, first president of the Court of Cassation, wrote
about the management of prisons:
Freedom is the rule, and its restriction is the exception; any restriction of Freedom must be
provided for by Law and must follow the principles of necessity and proportionality.
That is, Law should lay out prohibitions only if they are needed, and if the inconveniences caused by
this restriction do not exceed the inconveniences that the prohibition is supposed to remedy. In practice,
of course, this ideal is often lost when laws are made.
French law is divided into two principal areas: private law and public law. Private law includes, in
particular, civil law and criminal law. Public law includes, in particular, administrative law and
constitutional law. However, in practical terms, French law comprises three principal areas of law: civil
law; criminal law and administrative law.
France does not recognise religious law, nor does it recognise religious beliefs or morality as a
motivation for the enactment of prohibitions. As a consequence, France has long had neither blasphemy
laws nor sodomy laws (the latter being abolished in 1791). However “offences against public decency”
(contraires aux bonnes mœurs) or breach of the peace (trouble à l'ordre public) have been used to
repress public expressions of homosexuality or street prostitution.
Laws can only address the future and not the past (ex post facto laws are prohibited) ; and to be
applicable, laws must be officially published in the Journal Officiel de la République Française.
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Foreign relations
Main article: Foreign relations of France
See also: European Union, Latin Union, Francophonie, and United Nations Security Council
France is a member of the United Nations and serves as one of the permanent members of the U.N.
Security Council with veto rights. It is also a member of the World Trade Organisation (WTO), the
Secretariat of the Pacific Community (SPC) and the Indian Ocean Commission (COI). It is an associate
member of the Association of Caribbean States (ACS) and a leading member of the International
Francophone Organisation (OIF) of fifty-one fully or partly French-speaking countries. It hosts the
headquarters of the OECD, UNESCO, Interpol, Alliance Base and the International Bureau for Weights
and Measures. In 1953 France received a request from the United Nations to pick a coat of arms that
would represent it internationally. Thus the French emblem was adopted and is currently used on
passports.
French foreign policy has been largely shaped by membership of the European Union, of which it was a
founding member. In the 1960s, France sought to exclude the British from the organisation, seeking to
build its own standing in continental Europe. Since the 1990s, France has developed close ties with
reunified Germany to become the most influential driving force of the EU, but consequently rivaling the
UK and limiting the influence of newly inducted East European nations. France is a member of the
North Atlantic Treaty Organisation, but under President de Gaulle, it excluded itself from the joint
military command to avoid the supposed domination of its foreign and security policies by US political
and military influence. In the early 1990s, the country drew considerable criticism from other nations for
its underground nuclear tests in French Polynesia. France vigorously opposed the 2003 invasion of Iraq,
straining bilateral relations with the US and the UK. France retains strong political and economic
influence in its former African colonies and has supplied economic aid and troops for peace-keeping
missions in the Ivory Coast and Chad.
Military
Main article: Military of France
See also: Military history of France
Nuclear aircraft carrier Charles de Gaulle
The French armed forces are divided into four branches:
• Armée de Terre (Army)

• Marine Nationale (Navy)
• Armée de l'Air (Air Force)
• Gendarmerie Nationale (A military force which acts as a National Rural Police and as a Military
police for the entire French military)
Since the Algerian War, conscription was steadily reduced and was finally suspended in 2001 by
President Jacques Chirac. The total number of military personnel is approximately 359,000. France
spends 2.6% of its GDP on defence, slightly more than the United Kingdom (2.4%) and the highest in
the European Union where defence spending generally accounts to less than 1.5% of GDP. France and
the U.K. account for 40% of EU defence spending. About 10% of France's defence budget goes towards
its force de frappe, or nuclear weapons force. France has major military industries that have produced
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the Rafale fighter, the Charles de Gaulle aircraft carrier, the Exocet missile and the Leclerc tank amongst
others. Some weaponry, like the E-2 Hawkeye or the E-3 Sentry was bought from the United States.
Despite withdrawing from the Eurofighter project, France is actively investing in European joint projects
such as the Eurocopter Tiger, multipurpose frigates, the UCAV demonstrator nEUROn and the Airbus
A400M. France is a major arms seller as most of its arsenal's designs are available for the export market
with the notable exception of nuclear-powered devices. Some of the French designed equipments are
specifically designed for exports like the Franco-Spanish Scorpène class submarines. Some French
equipments have been largely modified to fit allied countries' requirements like the Formidable class
frigates (based on the La Fayette class) or the Hashmat class submarines (based on the Agosta class
submarines).
• Although it includes very competent anti-terrorist units such as the GIGN or the EPIGN the
gendarmerie is a military police force which serves for the most part as a rural and general
purpose police force. Since its creation the GIGN has taken part in roughly one thousand
operations and freed over five-hundred hostages; the Air France Flight 8969's hijacking brought
them to the world's attention.
• French intelligence constitutes of two major units: the DGSE (the external agency) and the DCRI
(domestic agency). The latter being part of the police while the former is associated to the army.
The DGSE is notorious for the Sinking of the Rainbow Warrior, but it is also known for
revealing the most extensive technological spy network uncovered in Europe and the United
States to date through the mole Vladimir Vetrov.
• The French “Force de frappe” relies on a complete independence. The current French nuclear
force consists of four submarines equipped with M45 ballistic missiles. The current Triomphant
class is currently under deployment to replace the former Redoutable class. The M51 will replace
the M45 in the future and expand the Triomphants firing range. Aside of the submarines the
French dissuasion force uses the Mirage 2000N; it is a variant of the Mirage 2000 and thus is
designed to deliver nuclear strikes. Other nuclear devices like the Plateau d'Albion's
Intermediate-range ballistic missile and the short range Hadès missiles have been disarmed. With
350 nuclear heads stockpiled France is the world's third largest nuclear power.[21]
• The Marine Nationale is regarded as one of the world's most powerful navies. The professional
compendium flottes de combats, in its 2006 edition, ranked it world's 6th biggest navy after the
American, Russian, Chinese, British and Japanese navies.[22] It is equipped with the world's only
nuclear powered Aircraft Carrier, with the exception of the American navy. Recently Mistral
class ships joined the Marine Nationale, the Mistral itself having taken part to operations in
Lebanon. For the 2004 centennial of the Entente Cordiale President Chirac announced the Future
French aircraft carrier would be jointly designed with Great Britain. The French navy is
equipped with the La Fayette class frigates, early examples of stealth ships, and several ships are
expected to be retired in the next few years and replaced by more modern ships, examples of
future surface ships are the Forbin and the Aquitaine class frigates. The attack submarines are
also part of the Force Océanique Stratégique although they do not carry the nuclear dissuasion,
the current class is the Rubis Class and will be replaced in the future by the expected Suffren
Class.
A French army soldier
• The Armée de Terre employs 133,500 people. It is famous for the

Légion Etrangère (French Foreign Legion) though the French
special forces are not the Legion but the Dragons Parachutistes and
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the Marines Parachutistes. The French assault rifle is the FAMAS and future infantry combat
system is the Félin. France uses both tracked and wheeled vehicles to a significant points,
examples of wheeled vehicles would be the Caesar or the AMX 10 RC. Although its main battle
tank is the Leclerc many older AMX 30 tanks are still operational. It uses the AMX 30 AuF1 for
artillery. Finally it is getting equipied with Eurocopter Tigers helicopters.
• The Armée de l'Air is the oldest and first professional air force worldwide. It still today retains a
significant capacity. It uses mainly two aircraft fighters: the older Mirage F1 and the more recent
Mirage 2000. The later model exists in a ground attack version called the Mirage2000D. The
modern Rafale is in deployment in both the French air force and navy.
Transportation
Main article: Transport in France
A TGV Atlantique.
The railway network of France, which stretches 31,840 kilometres

(19,784 mi) is the most extensive in Western Europe. It is operated by
the SNCF, and high-speed trains include the Thalys, the Eurostar and
TGV, which travels at 320 km/h (200 mph) in commercial use. The
Eurostar, along with the Eurotunnel Shuttle, connects with the United
Kingdom through the Channel Tunnel. Rail connections exist to all other
neighbouring countries in Europe, except Andorra. Intra-urban connections are also well developed with
both underground services and tramway services complementing bus services.
There is approximately 893,300 kilometres (555,070 mi) of serviceable roadway in France. The Paris
region is enveloped with the most dense network of roads and highways that connect it with virtually all
parts of the country. French roads also handle substantial international traffic, connecting with cities in
neighboring Belgium, Spain, Andorra, Monaco, Switzerland, Germany and Italy. There is no annual
registration fee or road tax; however, motorway usage is through tolls except in the vicinity of large
communes. The new car market is dominated by domestic brands such as Renault (27% of cars sold in
France in 2003), Peugeot (20.1%) and Citroën (13.5%).[23] Over 70% of new cars sold in 2004 had diesel
engines, far more than contained petrol or LPG engines.[24] France possesses the world's tallest road
bridge: the Millau Viaduct, and has built many important bridges such as the Pont de Normandie.
There are approximately 478 airports in France, including landing fields. The Charles de Gaulle
International Airport located in the vicinity of Paris is the largest and busiest airport in the country,
handling the vast majority of popular and commercial traffic of the country and connecting Paris with
virtually all major cities across the world. Air France is the national carrier airline, although numerous
private airline companies provide domestic and international travel services. There are ten major ports in
France, the largest of which is in Marseille, which also is the largest bordering the Mediterranean Sea.
14,932 kilometres (9,278 mi) of waterways traverse France including the Canal du Midi which connects
the Mediterranean Sea to the Atlantic Ocean through the Garonne river.
Administrative divisions
Main article: Administrative divisions of France
See also: Regions of France, Aire urbaine, and List of communes in France with over 20,000
inhabitants (1999 census)
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The lands making up the French Republic, shown at the same geographic scale.
The 22 regions and 96 departments of metropolitan France includes Corsica

(Corse, lower right). Paris area is expanded (inset at left)
France is divided into 26 administrative regions. 22 are in metropolitan France

(21 are on the continental part of metropolitan France; one is the territorial
collectivity of Corsica), and four are overseas regions. The regions are further subdivided into 100
departments which are numbered (mainly alphabetically). This number is used in postal codes and
vehicle number plates amongst others. Four of these departments are found in the overseas regions and
are simultaneously overseas regions and overseas departments and are an integral part of France (and the
European Union) and thus enjoy a status similar to metropolitan departments. The 100 departments are
subdivided into 341 arrondissements which are, in turn, subdivided into 4,032 cantons. These cantons
are then divided into 36,680 communes, which are municipalities with an elected municipal council.
There also exist 2,588 intercommunal entities grouping 33,414 of the 36,680 communes (i.e. 91.1% of
all the communes). Three communes, Paris, Lyon and Marseille are also subdivided into 45 municipal
arrondissements.
The regions, departments and communes are all known as territorial collectivities, meaning they possess
local assemblies as well as an executive. Arrondissements and cantons are merely administrative
divisions. However, this was not always the case. Until 1940, the arrondissements were also territorial
collectivities with an elected assembly, but these were suspended by the Vichy regime and definitely
abolished by the Fourth Republic in 1946. Historically, the cantons were also territorial collectivities
with their elected assemblies.
In addition to the 26 regions and 100 departments, the French Republic also has six overseas
collectivities, one sui generis collectivity (New Caledonia), and one overseas territory. Overseas
collectivities and territories form part of the French Republic, but do not form part of the European
Union or its fiscal area. The Pacific territories continue to use the Pacific franc whose value is linked to
that of the euro. In contrast, the four overseas regions used the French franc and now use the euro.
France also maintains control over a number of small non-permanently inhabited islands in the Indian
Ocean and the Pacific Ocean: Bassas da India, Clipperton Island, Europa Island, Glorioso Islands, Juan
de Nova Island, Tromelin Island.
Overseas regions
Overseas departments have the same political status as metropolitan departments.
• Guadeloupe (since 1946)

• Martinique (since 1946)
• French Guiana (since 1946)
• Réunion (since 1946)
Economy
Main articles: Economy of France and Energy in France
Further information: List of French companies and Economic history of France
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The first completed Airbus A380 at the “A380 Reveal” event in

Toulouse on 18 January 2005. Airbus is a symbol of the
globalisation of the French and European economy
A member of the G8 group of leading industrialised countries, it

is ranked as the sixth largest economy by nominal GDP. France joined 11 other EU members to launch
the euro on 1 January 1999, with euro coins and banknotes completely replacing the French franc (₣) in
early 2002.
France's economy combines extensive private enterprise (nearly 2.5 million companies registered) with
substantial (though declining) government intervention (see dirigisme). The government retains
considerable influence over key segments of infrastructure sectors, with majority ownership of railway,
electricity, aircraft, and telecommunications firms. It has been gradually relaxing its control over these
sectors since the early 1990s. The government is slowly selling off holdings in France Télécom, Air
France, as well as the insurance, banking, and defence industries. France has an important aerospace
industry led by the European consortium Airbus, and has its own national spaceport, the Centre Spatial
Guyanais.
France relies heavily on nuclear power (Golfech reactor).
According to the OECD, in 2004 France was the world's fifth-largest exporter
and the fourth-largest importer of manufactured goods. In 2003, France was the
2nd-largest recipient of foreign direct investment among OECD countries at $47
billion, ranking behind Luxembourg (where foreign direct investment was
essentially monetary transfers to banks located in that country) but above the United States ($39.9
billion), the United Kingdom ($14.6 billion), Germany ($12.9 billion), or Japan ($6.3 billion). In the
same year, French companies invested $57.3 billion outside of France, ranking France as the second
most important outward direct investor in the OECD, behind the United States ($173.8 billion) , and
ahead of the United Kingdom ($55.3 billion), Japan ($28.8 billion) and Germany ($2.6 billion).
France is also the most energy independent Western country due to heavy investment in nuclear power
(Nuclear power in France), which also makes France the smallest producer of carbon dioxide among the
seven most industrialized countries in the world. As a result of large investments in nuclear technology,
most of the electricity produced in the country is generated by 59 nuclear power plants (78% in 2006,[25]
up from only 8% in 1973, 24% in 1980, and 75% in 1990).
Large tracts of fertile land, the application of modern technology, and EU subsidies have combined to
make France the leading agricultural producer and exporter in Europe. Wheat, poultry, dairy, beef, and
pork, as well as an internationally recognised foodstuff and wine industry are primary French
agricultural exports. EU agriculture subsidies to France total almost $14 billion.
Since the end of the Second World War the government made efforts to integrate more and more with
Germany, both economically and politically. Today the two countries form what is often referred to as
the “core” countries in favour of greater integration of the European Union.
Labour market
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La Défense, Paris is the heart of the French economy.
The French GDP per capita is a bit smaller than the GDP per
capita of other comparable European countries such as Germany
and United Kingdom, and is 30% below the US level. GDP per
capita is determined by (i) productivity per hour worked, which
in France is the highest of the G8 countries in 2005, according to
the OECD,[26] (ii) the number of hours worked, which is one the
[27]
lowest of developed countries, and (iii) the employment rate. France has one of the lowest 15-64 years
employment rates of the OECD countries: in 2004, only 68.8% of the French population aged 15-64
years were in employment, compared to 80.0% in Japan, 78.9% in the UK, 77.2% in the US, and 71.0%
in Germany.[28] This gap is due to the very low employment rates at both age extremes: the employment
rate of people aged 55-64 was 38,3% in 2007, compared to 46,6% in the EU15;[29] for the 15-24 years
old, the employment rate was 31,5% in 2007, compared to 37,2% in EU25.[30] These low employment
rates are explained by the high minimum wages which prevent low productivity workers – such as
young people – from easily entering the labour market,[31] ineffective university curricula that fail to
prepare students adequately for the labour market,[citation needed] and, concerning the older workers,
restrictive legislation on work and incentives for premature retirement.[citation needed]
France is a member state of the European Union and part of

its single market.
The unemployment rate has recently decreased from 9.0% in

2006 to 7.2% in 2008 but remains one of the highest in
Europe.[32][33] Both the low employment rate (people at work
are the more productive of the society) and the short working
duration explain the artificially high productivity.[34]
Shorter working hours and the reluctance to reform the labour market are mentioned as weak spots of
the French economy in the view of the right, when the left mentions the lack of government policies
fostering social justice. Many liberal economists[who?] have stressed repeatedly over the years that the
main issue of the French economy is an issue of structural reforms, in order to increase the size of the
working population in the overall population, reduce the taxes' level and the administrative burden.
Keynesian economists have different answers to the unemployment issue, and their theories led to the
35-hour workweek law in the early 2000s, which turned out to be failure in reducing unemployment.
Afterwards, between 2004 and 2008, the Government made some supply-oriented reforms to combat
unemployment but met with fierce resistance, especially with the contrat nouvelle embauche and the
contrat première embauche which both were eventually repealed. The current Government is
experiencing the Revenu de solidarité active.
Tourism
Main article: Tourism in France
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The Palace of Versailles is one of the most popular tourist destinations in France.
With 81.9 million foreign tourists in 2007,[12] France is ranked as the first tourist destination in the
world, ahead of Spain (58.5 million in 2006) and the United States (51.1 million in 2006). This 81.9
million figure excludes people staying less than 24 hours in France, such as northern Europeans crossing
France on their way to Spain or Italy during the Summer. France features cities of high cultural interest
(Paris being the foremost), beaches and seaside resorts, ski resorts, and rural regions that many enjoy for
their beauty and tranquillity (green tourism). Aside of casual tourism France attracts a lot of religious
pilgrims to Lourdes, a town in the Hautes-Pyrénées département, that hosts a few million tourists a year.
Popular tourist sites include: (according to a 2003 ranking[35] visitors per year): Eiffel Tower (6.2
million), Louvre Museum (5.7 million), Palace of Versailles (2.8 million), Musée d'Orsay (2.1 million),
Arc de Triomphe (1.2 million), Centre Pompidou (1.2 million), Mont-Saint-Michel (1 million), Château
de Chambord (711,000),Sainte-Chapelle (683,000), Château du Haut-Kœnigsbourg (549,000), Puy de
Dôme (500,000), Musée Picasso (441,000), Carcassonne (362,000).
Population density in the French Republic at the 1999 census.
Demography
Main articles: Demography of France, Languages of France, and French people
Metropolitan French cities with over 100,000 inhabitants
With an estimated population of 64.5 million people, France is the 19th most populous country in the
world. France's largest cities are Paris, Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Toulouse, Nice, and Nantes.
In 2003, France's natural population growth (excluding immigration) was responsible for almost all
natural population growth in the European Union. In 2004, population growth was 0.68% and then in
2005 birth and fertility rates continued to increase. The natural increase of births over deaths rose to
299,800 in 2006. The lifetime fertility rate rose to 2.00 in 2007, from 1.92 in 2004.[5]
France's legacy: a map of the Francophone world native language administrative language
secondary or non-official language francophone minorities
In 2004, a total of 140,033 people immigrated to France. Of them, 90,250 were from Africa and 13,710
from Europe.[36] In 2005, immigration level fell slightly to 135,890. [37] France is an ethnically diverse
nation. According to the French National Institute for Statistics and Economic Studies, it has an
estimated 4.9 million foreign-born immigrants, of which 2 million have acquired French citizenship.[38]
France is the leading asylum destination in Western Europe with an estimated 50,000 applications in
2005 (a 15% decrease from 2004).[39] The European Union allows free movement between the member
states. While the UK (along with Ireland) did not impose restrictions, France put in place controls to
curb Eastern European migration.
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A perennial political issue concerns rural depopulation. Over the period 1960-1999 fifteen rural
départements experienced a decline in population. In the most extreme case, the population of Creuse
fell by 24%.
According to Article 2 of the Constitution, French is the sole official language of France since 1992.
This makes France the only Western European nation (excluding microstates) to have only one officially
recognised language. However, 77 regional languages are also spoken, in metropolitan France as well as
in the overseas departments and territories. Until recently, the French government and state school
system discouraged the use of any of these languages, but they are now taught to varying degrees at
some schools.[40] Other languages, such as Portuguese, Italian, Maghrebi Arabic and several Berber
languages are spoken by immigrants.
Religion
Main article: Religion in France
France religiosity
religion percent
Christianity 54%
Not religious 31%
Islam 4%
Buddhism 1.2%
Judaism 1%
Other religions or no opinion 10%
France is a secular country as freedom of religion is a constitutional right, although some religious
organisations such as Scientology, Children of God, the Unification Church, and the Order of the Solar
Temple are considered cults.[41] According to a January 2007 poll by the Catholic World News:[42][43]
51% identified as being Catholics, 31% identified as being agnostics or atheists (another poll[44] gives
atheists proportion equal to 27%), 10% identified as being from other religions or being without
opinion, 4% identified as Muslim, 3% identified as Protestant, 1% identified as Jewish.
According to the most recent Eurobarometer Poll 2005,[45] 34% of French citizens responded that “they
believe there is a god”, whereas 27% answered that “they believe there is some sort of spirit or life
force” and 33% that “they do not believe there is any sort of spirit, god, or life force”. One other study
gives 32% of people in France declaring themselves to be atheists, and another 32% declaring
themselves “sceptical about the existence of God but not an atheist”.[46]
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The current Jewish community in France numbers around 600,000 according to the World Jewish
Congress and is the largest in Europe. Estimates of the number of Muslims in France vary widely.
According to the 1999 French census returns, there were only 3.7 million people of “possible Muslim
faith” in France (6.3% of the total population). In 2003, the French Ministry of the Interior estimated the
total number of Muslims as 5-6 millions.[47][48]
The concept of laïcité exists in France and because of this, since 1905, the French government is legally
prohibited from recognising any religion (except for legacy statutes like those of military chaplains and
Alsace-Moselle). Instead, it merely recognises religious organisations, according to formal legal criteria
that do not address religious doctrine. Conversely, religious organisations should refrain from
intervening in policy-making. Tensions occasionally erupt about alleged discrimination against
minorities, especially against Muslims (see Islam in France).
Public health
The French healthcare system was ranked first worldwide by the World Health Organisation in 1997.[49]
It is almost entirely free for people affected by chronic diseases (Affections de longues durées) such as
cancers, AIDS or Cystic Fibrosis. Average life expectancy at birth is 79.73 years.
As of 2003, there are approximately 120,000 inhabitants of France who are living with AIDS.[50]
France, as all EU countries, is under an EU directive to reduce sewage discharge to sensitive areas. As
of 2006, France is only 40% in compliance with this directive, placing it as one of the lowest achieving
countries within the EU with regard to this wastewater treatment standard.[51]
The death of Chantal Sébire revived the debate over euthanasia in France. It was reported on March 21,
2008.[52]
Culture
Claude Monet, founder of the Impressionist movement

This article is in a list format that may be better presented using prose. You can help by
converting this section to prose, if appropriate. Editing help is available. (October 2008)
Main article: Culture of France
• Académie française
• French art
• Cuisine of France
• Cinema of France
• Gardens of France
• Music of France
• Social structure of France
• Education in France
• Holidays in France
• List of French people
• Franco-Belgian comics
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Architecture
Main article: French architecture
There is, technically speaking, no architecture named French Architecture, although that has not always
been true. Gothic Architecture's old name was French Architecture (or Opus Francigenum). The term
“Gothic” appeared later as a stylistic insult and was widely adopted. Northern France is the home of
some of the most important Gothic cathedrals and basilicas, the first of these being the Saint Denis
Basilica (used as the royal necropolis); other important French Gothic cathedrals are Notre-Dame de
Chartres and Notre-Dame d'Amiens. The kings were crowned in another important Gothic church:
Notre-Dame de Reims. Aside from churches, Gothic Architecture had been used for many religious
palaces, the most important one being the Palais des Papes in Avignon.
Saint Louis' Sainte Chapelle represents the French impact on

religious architecture.
During the Middle Ages, fortified castles were built by feudal

nobles to mark their powers against their rivals. When King
Philip II took Rouen from King John, for example, he
demolished the ducal castle to build a bigger one. Fortified cities
were also common, unfortunately most French castles did not survive the passage of time. This is why
Richard the Lionheart's Château-Gaillard was demolished, as well as the Château de Lusignan. Some
important French castles that survived are Chinon, Château d'Angers, the massive Château de Vincennes
and the so called Cathar castles.
Before the appearance of this architecture France had been using Romanesque architecture like most of
Western Europe (with the exception of the Iberian Peninsula, which used Mooresque architecture).
Some of the greatest examples of Romanesque churches in France are the Saint Sernin Basilica in
Toulouse and the remains of the Cluniac Abbey (largely destroyed during the Revolution and the
Napoleonic Wars).
The end of the Hundred Years' War marked an important stage in the evolution of French architecture. It
was the time of the French Renaissance and several artists from Italy and Spain were invited to the
French court; many residential palaces, Italian-inspired, were built, mainly in the Loire Valley. Such
residential castles were the Château de Chambord, the Château de Chenonceau, or the Château
d'Amboise. Following the renaissance and the end of the Middle Ages, Baroque Architecture replaced
the gothic one. However, in France, baroque architecture found a greater success in the secular domain
than in the religious one.[53] In the secular domain the Palace of Versailles has
many baroque features. Jules Hardouin Mansart can be said to be the most
influential French architect of the baroque style, with his very famous baroque
dome of Les Invalides. Some of the most impressive provincial baroque
architecture is found in places that were not yet French such as the Place
Stanislas in Nancy. On the military architectural side Vauban designed some of
the most efficient fortresses of Europe and became a very influential military
architect.
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The Eiffel Tower is an icon of both Paris and France
After the Revolution the Republicans favoured Neoclassicism although neoclassicism was introduced in
France prior to the revolution with such building as the Parisian Pantheon or the Capitole de Toulouse.
Built during the French Empire the Arc de Triomphe and Sainte Marie-Madeleine represent this trend
the best.
Under Napoleon III a new wave of urbanism and architecture was given birth. If some very extravagant
buildings such as the neo-baroque Palais Garnier were built, the urban planing of the time was very
organised and rigorous. For example Baron Haussmann rebuilt Paris. The architecture associated to this
era is named Second Empire in the English speaking world, the term being taken from the Second
French Empire. These times also saw a strong Gothic-Revival trend across Europe, in France the
associated architect was Eugène Viollet-le-Duc. In the late 19th century Gustave Eiffel designed many
bridges (like the Garabit viaduct) and remains one of the most influential bridge designer of his time,
although he is best remembered for the Eiffel Tower.
In the 20th century the Swiss Architect Le Corbusier designed several buildings in France. More
recently French architects have combined both modern and old architectural styles. The Louvre Pyramid
is a good example of modern architecture added to an older building. Certainly the most difficult
buildings to integrate within French cities are skyscrapers, as they are visible from afar. France's largest
financial district is La Defense, where a significant number of skyscrapers are located. Other massive
buildings that are a challenge to integrate into their environment are large bridges; a good example of
the way this has been done is the Millau Viaduct. Some famous modern French architects include Jean
Nouvel or Paul Andreu.
Molière is the most played author in the Comédie-Française
Literature
Main article: French literature
The earliest French literature dates from the Middle Ages when the area that is
modern France did not have a single, uniform language. There were several
languages and dialects and each writer used his own spelling and grammar. The author of many French
mediaeval texts is unknown, for example Tristan and Iseult and Lancelot and the Holy Grail. Much
mediaeval French poetry and literature was inspired by the legends of the Matter of France, such as the
The Song of Roland and the various Chansons de geste. The “Roman de Renart”, written in 1175 by
Perrout de Saint Cloude tells the story of the mediaeval character Reynard ('the Fox') and is another
example of early French writing. The names of some authors from this period are known, for example
Chrétien de Troyes and Duke William IX of Aquitaine, who wrote in Occitan.
An important 16th century writer was François Rabelais who influenced modern French vocabulary and
metaphor. During the 17th century Pierre Corneille, Jean Racine and Molière's plays, Blaise Pascal and
René Descartes's moral and philosophical books deeply influenced the aristocracy leaving an important
heritage for the authors of the following decades. Jean de La Fontaine was an important poet from this
century.
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19th century poet, writer, and translator Charles Baudelaire.
French literature and poetry flourished in the 18th and 19th centuries. The 18th
century saw the works of writers, essayists and moralists such as Voltaire, Denis
Diderot and Jean-Jacques Rousseau. Charles Perrault was a prolific writer of
children's stories such as: “Puss in Boots”, “Cinderella”, “Sleeping Beauty” and
“Bluebeard”.
At the turn of the 19th century symbolist poetry was an important movement in French literature, with
poets such as Charles Baudelaire, Paul Verlaine and Stéphane Mallarmé. The 19th century saw the
writing of many French novels of world renown with Victor Hugo (Les Misérables), Alexandre Dumas
(The Three Musketeers and The Count of Monte-Cristo), and Jules Verne (Twenty Thousand Leagues
Under the Sea) among the most well-known in France and beyond. Other 19th century fiction writers
include Emile Zola, Guy de Maupassant, Théophile Gautier and Stendhal.
The Prix Goncourt is a French literary prize first awarded in 1903. Important writers of the 20th century
include Louis-Ferdinand Céline, Albert Camus, and Jean-Paul Sartre. Antoine de Saint Exupéry wrote
Little Prince which has remained popular for decades with children and adults around the world.
Sport
Main article: Sport in France
Tour de France
Popular sports include football, both codes of rugby football and in certain
regions basketball and handball. France has hosted events such as the 1938
and 1998 FIFA World Cups, and hosted the 2007 Rugby Union World
Cup. Stade de France in Paris is the largest stadium in France and was the
venue for the 1998 FIFA World Cup final, and hosted the 2007 Rugby World Cup final in October 2007.
France also hosts the annual Tour de France, the most famous road bicycle race in the world. France is
also famous for its 24 Hours of Le Mans sports car endurance race held in the Sarthe department.
Several major tennis tournaments take place in France, including the Paris Masters and the French Open,
one of the four Grand Slam tournaments.
France has a close association with the Modern Olympic Games; it was a French aristocrat, Baron Pierre
de Coubertin, who suggested the Games' revival, at the end of the 19th century. After Athens was
awarded the first Games, in reference to the Greek origins of the ancient Olympics, Paris hosted the
second Games in 1900. Paris was also the first home of the International Olympic Committee, before it
moved to Lausanne. Since that 1900 Games, France has hosted the Olympics on four further occasions:
the 1924 Summer Olympics, again in Paris and three Winter Games (1924 in Chamonix, 1968 in
Grenoble and 1992 in Albertville).
Both the national football team and the national rugby union team are nicknamed “Les Bleus” in
reference to the team’s shirt color as well as the national French tricolor flag. The football team is
among the most successful in the world, particularly at the turn of the 21st century, with one FIFA
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World Cup victory in 1998, one FIFA World Cup second place in 2006, and two European
Championships in 1984 and 2000. The top national football club competition is the Ligue 1. Rugby is
also very popular, particularly in Paris and the southwest of France. The national rugby team has
competed at every Rugby World Cup, and takes part in the annual Six Nations Championship.
Following from a strong domestic tournament the French rugby team has won sixteen Six Nations
Championships, including eight grand slams; and have reached the semi-finals and final of the Rugby
World Cup.
Marianne
Main article: Marianne
Masonic Marianne bronze
Marianne is a symbol of the French Republic. She is an allegorical figure of

liberty and the Republic and first appeared at the time of the French Revolution.
The earliest representations of Marianne are of a woman wearing a Phrygian
cap. The origins of the name Marianne are unknown, but Marie-Anne was a very
common first name in the 18th century. Anti-revolutionaries of the time
derisively called her La Gueuse (the Commoner). It is believed that
revolutionaries from the South of France adopted the Phrygian cap as it
symbolised liberty, having been worn by freed slaves in both Greece and Rome.
Mediterranean seamen and convicts manning the galleys also wore a similar type
of cap.
Under the Third Republic, statues, and especially busts, of Marianne began to proliferate, particularly in
town halls. She was represented in several different manners, depending on whether the aim was to
emphasise her revolutionary nature or her “wisdom”. Over time, the Phrygian cap was felt to be too
seditious, and was replaced by a diadem or a crown. In recent times, famous French women have been
used as the model for those busts. Recent ones include Sophie Marceau, and Laetitia Casta. She also
features on everyday articles such as postage stamps and coins.
International rankings
• Total GDP, 2007: 6th (out of 179) (IMF data)

• Total value of foreign trade (imports and exports) , 2002: 4th (out of 185)
• Reporters Without Borders worldwide press freedom index 2005: Rank 30 out of 167 countries
• Transparency International Corruption Perceptions Index 2006 - 18th of 163 countries
See also
Main list: List of basic France topics
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SPAIN
Spain /ˈspeɪn/ (help·info) (Spanish: España?·i, Spanish pronunciation: [esˈpaɲa]) or the Kingdom of Spain
(Spanish: Reino de España), is a country located in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula.[note 6]
Its mainland is bordered to the south and east by the Mediterranean Sea except for a small land boundary
with Gibraltar; to the north by France, Andorra, and the Bay of Biscay; and to the west by the Atlantic
Ocean and Portugal. Spanish territory also includes the Balearic Islands in the Mediterranean, the
Canary Islands in the Atlantic Ocean off the African coast, and two autonomous cities in North Africa,
Ceuta and Melilla, that border Morocco. With an area of 504,030 km², Spain is the second largest
country in Western Europe after France.
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Because of its location, Spain has been subject to many external influences, often simultaneously, since
prehistoric times. At certain times, the country itself has been an important source of influence to other
regions. Archaeological and genetic evidence strongly suggests that the Iberian Peninsula acted as one
of three major refugia from which northern Europe was repopulated following the end of the last ice age.
It was also the seat of of a global empire that has left a legacy of over 400 million Spanish speakers
today. The combination of external influences with the interactions of the culturally and politically
differentiated regions of the rugged peninsula has
produced a dramatic history; typified by alternating
periods of unity and disunity, under very different regimes.
Spain is a democracy organised in the form of a

parliamentary government under a constitutional
monarchy. It is a developed country with the eighth largest
economy in the world based on nominal GDP.[note 7] It is a
member of the European Union and NATO.
• Geography
Main article: Geography of Spain
Spanish countryside in
Huesca.
At 195,884 mi²
(504,782 km²), Spain is the
world's 51st-largest country.
It is some 47,000 km² smaller than France and 81,000 km²
larger than the U.S. state of California.
On the west, Spain borders Portugal, on the south, it

borders
Gibraltar (a
British
overseas
territory) and
Morocco,
through its
cities in North Africa (Ceuta and Melilla). On the
northeast, along the Pyrenees mountain range, it borders
France and the tiny principality of Andorra. Spain also
includes the Balearic Islands in the Mediterranean Sea, the
Canary Islands in the Atlantic Ocean and a number of
uninhabited islands on the Mediterranean side of the strait
of Gibraltar, known as Plazas de soberanía, such as the
Chafarine islands, the isle of Alborán, the "rocks"
(peñones) of Vélez and Alhucemas, and the tiny Isla
Perejil. Along the Pyrenees in Catalonia, a small exclave
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town called Llívia is surrounded by France. The little Pheasant Island in the River Bidasoa is a Spanish-
French condominium.
Mainland Spain is dominated by high plateaus and

mountain ranges, such as the Sierra Nevada. Running from
these heights are several major rivers such as the Tagus, the
Ebro, the Duero, the Guadiana and the Guadalquivir.
Alluvial plains are found along the coast, the largest of
which is that of the Guadalquivir in Andalusia.
Climate
Due to Spain's geographical situation and orographic

conditions, the climate is extremely diverse; it can be
roughly divided into four areas:
• A Continental Mediterranean climate in the inland

areas of the Peninsula (largest city, Madrid).
• A Mediterranean climate region extends from the
Andalusian plain along the southern and eastern coasts up to the Pyrenees, on the seaward side of
the mountain ranges that run near the coast (largest city, Barcelona). They get warm winds from
the Saharas called Leveche, also known as Sirocco.
• An Oceanic climate in Galicia and the coastal strip near the Bay of Biscay or (largest city,)
Bilbao. This area is often called Green Spain.
• A Subtropical climate in Canary Islands is a very humid place and the islands have palm trees
and beaches.
History
Main article: History of Spain
After a long and hard conquest, the Iberian Peninsula

became a region of the Roman Empire known as Hispania.
During the early Middle Ages it came under Germanic rule.
Later it was conquered by Muslim invaders. Through a very
long and fitful process, the Christian kingdoms in the north
gradually rolled back Muslim rule, finally extinguishing its
last remnant in Granada in 1492, the same year Columbus
reached the Americas. A global empire began. Spain became
the strongest kingdom in Europe and the leading world
power during the 16th century and first half of the 17th
century; but continued wars and other problems eventually
led to a diminished status. The French invasion of Spain in
the early 19th century led to chaos; triggering independence
movements that tore apart most of the empire and left the
country politically unstable. In the 20th century it suffered a
devastating civil war and came under the rule of an
authoritarian government, leading to years of stagnation, but finishing in an impressive economic surge.
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Democracy was restored in 1978 in the form of a parliamentry constitutional monarchy. In 1986, Spain
joined the European Union; experiencing a cultural
renaissance and steady economic growth.
Prehistory and pre-Roman peoples
Main article: Prehistoric Iberia
Replica of the
Altamira Cave
paintings
Archeological
research at
Atapuerca
indicates the
Iberian Peninsula
was peopled 1.2 million years ago.[4] Modern humans in
the form of Cro-Magnons began arriving in the Iberian
Peninsula through the Pyrenees some 35,000 years ago.
The best known artifacts of these prehistoric human settlements are the famous paintings in the Altamira
cave of Cantabria in northern Spain, which were created about 15,000 BCE.
The two main historical peoples of the peninsula were the Iberians and the Celts, the former inhabiting
the Mediterranean side from the northeast to the southwest, the latter inhabiting the Atlantic side, in the
north and northwest part of the peninsula. In the inner part of the peninsula, where both groups were in
contact, a mixed, distinctive culture—known as Celtiberian—was present. In addition, Basques
occupied the western area of the Pyrenees mountains. Other ethnic groups existed along the southern
coastal areas of present day Andalusia. Among these southern groups there grew the earliest urban
culture in the Iberian Peninsula, that of the semi-mythical southern city of Tartessos (perhaps pre-1100
BC) near the location of present-day Cádiz. The flourishing trade in gold and silver between the people
of Tartessos and Phoenicians and Greeks is documented in the history of Strabo and in the biblical book
of king Solomon. Between about 500 BC and 300 BC, the seafaring Phoenicians and Greeks founded
trading colonies all along the Spanish Mediterranean coast. Carthaginians briefly took control of much
of the Mediterranean coast in the course of the Punic Wars, until they were eventually defeated and
replaced by the Romans.[5]
Roman Empire and the Germanic Kingdoms
Main article: Hispania
Roman Theatre of Mérida
During the Second Punic War, an expanding Roman Empire

captured Carthaginian trading colonies along the Mediterranean
coast from roughly 210 BC to 205 BC, leading to eventual
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Roman control of nearly the entire Iberian Peninsula; this lasted over 500 years, bound together by law,
language, and the Roman road.[6]
The base Celt and Iberian population remained in various stages of Romanisation, and local leaders were
admitted into the Roman aristocratic class.[note 8][5] Hispania served as a granary for the Roman market,
and its harbors exported gold, wool, olive oil, and wine. Agricultural production increased with the
introduction of irrigation projects, some of which remain in use. Emperors Trajan, Theodosius I, and the
philosopher Seneca were born in Hispania.[note 9] Christianity was introduced into Hispania in the
1st century CE and it became popular in the cities in the 2nd century CE.[5] Most of Spain's present
languages and religion, and the basis of its laws, originate from this period.[6] Rome's loss of jurisdiction
in Hispania began in 409, when the Germanic Suevi and Vandals, together with the Sarmatian Alans
crossed the Rhine and ravaged Gaul until the Visigoths drove them into Iberia that same year. The Suevi
established a kingdom in what is today modern Galicia and northern Portugal. The Alans' allies, the
Hasdingi Vandals, established a kingdom in Gallaecia, too, occupying largely the same region but
extending further south to the Duero river. The Silingi Vandals occupied the region that still bears a
form of their name - Vandalusia, modern Andalusia, in Spain. The Byzantines tried to revive the Roman
empire in Iberia by establishing an enclave in southern Spain. Eventually, however, Hispania was finally
reunited under Visigoth rule.
Muslim Iberia
Main article: Al-Andalus
View from a room inside the Alhambra palace complex.
In the 8th century, nearly all of the Iberian Peninsula was conquered
(711-718) by Muslim armies (see Moors) from North Africa. These
conquests were part of the expansion of the Umayyad Islamic Empire.
[note 10]
Only a number of areas in the north of the Iberian Peninsula
managed to resist the initial invasion and they were the starters of the
Reconquista. These areas roughly corresponding to modern Asturias,
Cantabria, Navarre and northern Aragon.
Under Islam, Christians and Jews were recognised as "peoples of the

book", and were free to practice their religion, but faced a number of
mandatory discriminations and penalties as dhimmis.[7] Conversion to Islam proceeded at a steadily
increasing pace. Following the mass conversions in the 10th and 11th centuries it is believed that
Muslims came to outnumber Christians in the remaining Muslim controlled areas.[8] [9]
The Muslim community in the Iberian peninsula was itself diverse and beset by social tensions. The
Berber people of North Africa, who had provided the bulk of the invading armies, clashed with the Arab
leadership from the Middle East.[note 11] Over time, large Moorish populations became established,
especially in the Guadalquivir River valley, the coastal plain of Valencia, and (towards the end of this
period) in the mountainous region of Granada.[8]
Córdoba, the capital of the caliphate, was the largest, richest and most sophisticated city of medieval
western Europe.[note 12] Mediterranean trade and cultural exchange flourished. Muslims imported a rich
intellectual tradition from the Middle East and North Africa. Muslim and Jewish scholars played an
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important part in reviving and expanding classical Greek learning in Western Europe. The Romanized
cultures of the Iberian peninsula interacted with Muslim and Jewish cultures in complex ways, thus
giving the region a distinctive culture.[8] Outside the cities, where the vast majority lived, the land
ownership system from Roman times remained largely intact as Muslim leaders rarely dispossessed
landowners, and the introduction of new crops and techniques led to a remarkable expansion of
agriculture.
However, by the 11th century, Muslim holdings had fractured into rival Taifa kingdoms, allowing the
small Christian states the opportunity to greatly enlarge their territories and consolidate their positions.[8]
The arrival of the North African Muslim ruling sects of the Almoravids and the Almohads restored unity
upon Muslim holdings, with a stricter, less tolerant application of Islam, but ultimately, after some
successes in invading the north, proved unable to resist the increasing military strength of the Christian
states.[5]
Fall of Muslim rule and unification
Main article: Reconquista
Catholic Monarchs, Ferdinand II and Isabella I.
The Reconquista ("Reconquest") is the centuries-long period of

expansion of Spain's Christian kingdoms; Reconquista is
viewed as beginning with the battle of Covadonga in 722 and
being concurrent with the period of Muslim rule on the Iberian
peninsula. The Christian army's victory over the Muslim forces
led to the creation of the Christian Kingdom of Asturias along the northern coastal mountains. Muslim
armies had also moved north of the Pyrenees, but they were defeated at the Battle of Poitiers in France.
Subsequently, they retreated to more secure positions south of the Pyrenees with a frontier marked by
the Ebro and Duero rivers in Spain. As early as 739 Muslim forces were driven from Galicia, which was
to host one of medieval Europe's holiest sites, Santiago de Compostela. A little later Frankish forces
established Christian counties south of the Pyrenees; these areas were to grow into kingdoms, in the
north-east and the western part of the Pyrenees. These territories included Navarre, Aragon and
Catalonia.[10]
The breakup of Al-Andalus into the competing Taifa kingdoms helped the expanding Christian
kingdoms. The capture of the central city of Toledo in 1085 largely completed the reconquest of the
northern half of Spain.[note 13] After a Muslim resurgence in the 12th century, the great Moorish
strongholds in the south fell to Christian Spain in the 13th century—Córdoba in 1236 and Seville in
1248—leaving only the Muslim enclave of Granada as a tributary state in the south.[11] Marinid
invasions from north Africa in the 13th and 14th centuries failed to re-establish Muslim rule. Also in the
13th century, the kingdom of Aragon, formed by Aragon, Catalonia and Valencia expanded its reach
across the Mediterranean to Sicily.[12] Around this time the universities of Palencia (1212/1263) and
Salamanca (1218/1254) were established; among the earliest in Europe. The Black Death of 1348 and
1349 devastated Spain.[13]
In 1469, the crowns of the Christian kingdoms of Castile and Aragon were united by the marriage of
Isabella and Ferdinand. In 1478 began the final stage of the conquest of Canary Islands and in 1492,
these united kingdoms captured Granada, ending the last remnant of a 781-year presence of Islamic rule
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in Iberia. The Treaty of Granada guaranteed religious tolerance toward Muslims.[14] The year 1492 also
marked the arrival in the New World of Christopher Columbus, during a voyage funded by Isabella.
That same year, Spain's Jews were ordered to convert to Catholicism or face expulsion from Spanish
territories during the Spanish Inquisition. Not long after, Muslims were also expelled under the same
conditions.[note 14][15]
As Renaissance New Monarchs, Isabella and Ferdinand centralized royal power at the expense of local
nobility, and the word España - whose root is the ancient name Hispania - began to be used commonly
to designate the whole of the two kingdoms.[15] With their wide-ranging political, legal, religious and
military reforms, Spain emerged as the first world power.
An anachronous map of the Spanish Empire (1492-1975). Red - actual possessions; Pink - explorations,
areas of influence and trade and claims of sovereignty.
Spanish Empire
Main article: Spanish Empire
The unification of the kingdoms of Aragon, Castile, León, and Navarre laid the basis for modern Spain
and the Spanish Empire.[16] Spain was Europe's leading power throughout the 16th century and most of
the 17th century, a position reinforced by trade and wealth from colonial possessions. Spain reached its
apogee during the reigns of the first two Spanish Habsburgs - Charles I (1516–1556) and Philip II
(1556–1598). This period also saw the Italian Wars, the revolt of the
comuneros, the Dutch revolt, the Morisco revolt, clashes with the Ottomans,
the Anglo-Spanish war and wars with France,[17].
The Spanish Empire expanded to include most parts of South and Central
America, Mexico, southern and western portions of today's United States,
the Philippines, Guam and the Mariana Islands in Eastern Asia, parts of
northern Italy, southern Italy, Sicily, cities in Northern Africa, as well as
parts of France, modern Germany, Belgium, Luxembourg, and the
Netherlands.
Philip II of Spain
It was the first empire about which it was said that the sun never set. This was an age of discovery, with
daring explorations by sea and by land, the opening-up of new trade routes across oceans, conquests and
the beginnings of European colonialism. Along with the arrival of precious metals, [note 15] spices, luxuries,
and new agricultural plants, Spanish and other explorers brought back knowledge from the New World,
playing a leading part in transforming Europeans understanding of the globe. [18] The cultural
efflorescence witnessed is now referred to as the Spanish Golden Age.
In the 16th and 17th centuries, Spain was confronted by unrelenting challenges from all sides. Barbary
pirates under the aegis of the rapidly growing Ottoman empire, disrupted life in many coastal areas
through their slave raids and renewed the threat of an Islamic invasion.[note 16] This at a time when Spain
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was often at war with France in Italy and elsewhere. Later the Protestant Reformation schism from the
Catholic Church dragged the kingdom ever more deeply into the mire of religiously charged wars. The
result was a country forced into ever expanding military efforts across Europe and in the Mediterranean.
[19]
The rise of humanism, the Protestant Reformation and new geographical discoveries raised issues
addressed by an intellectual movement known as the School of Salamanca.
The galleon became synonymous with the riches of the Spanish Empire.
By the middle decades of a war and plague ridden 17th century Europe,
the effects of the strain began to show. The Spanish Habsburgs had
enmeshed the country in the continent wide religious-political conflicts.
These conflicts drained it of resources and undermined the European
economy generally. Spain managed to hold on to most of the scattered
Habsburg empire, and help the imperial forces of the Holy Roman Empire
reverse a large part of the advances made by Protestant forces, but it was
finally forced to recognise the separation of Portugal (with whom it had
been united in a personal union of the crowns from 1580 to 1640) and the
Netherlands, and eventually suffered some serious military reverses to
France in the latter stages of the immensely destructive, Europe-wide Thirty Years War.[20]
In the latter half of the 17th century, Spain went into a gradual relative decline, during which it
surrendered a number of small territories to France. However Spain maintained and enlarged its vast
overseas empire, which remained intact until the beginning of the 19th century.
The decline culminated in a controversy over succession to the throne which consumed the first years of
the 18th century. The War of Spanish Succession, a wide ranging international conflict combined with a
civil war, cost Spain its European possessions and its position as one of the leading powers on the
Continent.[21]
During this war, a new dynasty—the French Bourbons—was installed. Long united only by the Crown,
a true Spanish state was established when the first Bourbon king Philip V of Spain united Castile and
Aragon into a single state, abolishing many of the regional privileges (fueros).[22]
The 18th century saw a gradual recovery and an increase in prosperity through much of the empire. The
new Bourbon monarchy drew on the French system of modernising the administration and the economy.
Enlightenment ideas began to gain ground among some of the kingdom's elite and monarchy. Towards
the end of the century trade finally began growing strongly. Military assistance for the rebellious British
colonies in the American War of Independence improved Spain's
international standing.[23]
Napoleonic rule and its consequences
Main article: Mid-nineteenth century Spain
The Second of May 1808
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In 1793, Spain went to war against the new French Republic, which had overthrown and executed its
Bourbon king, Louis XVI. The war polarised the country in an apparent reaction against the gallicised
elites. Defeated in the field, Spain made peace with France in 1795 and effectively became a client state
of that country; the following year, it declared war against Britain and Portugal. A disastrous economic
situation, along with other factors, led to the abdication of the Spanish king in favour of Napoleon's
brother, Joseph Bonaparte.
This foreign puppet monarch was widely regarded with scorn. On 2 May 1808, the people of Madrid
began a nationalist uprising against the French army, one of many across the country, marking the
beginning of what is known to the Spanish as the War of Independence, and to the English as the
Peninsular War.[24] Napoleon was forced to intervene personally, defeating several badly coordinated
Spanish armies and forcing a British Army to retreat to Corunna. However, further military action by
Spanish guerrillas and Wellington's Anglo-Portuguese army, combined with Napoleon's disastrous
invasion of Russia, led to the ousting of the French from Spain in 1814, and the return of King
Ferdinand VII.[25]
The French invasion proved disastrous for Spain's economy, and left a deeply divided country that was
prone to political instability for more than a century. The power struggles of the early 19th century led to
the loss of all of Spain's colonies in Latin America, with the exception of Cuba and Puerto Rico.
Spanish-American War
Main article: Spanish–American War
Amid the instability and economic crisis that afflicted Spain in the 19th century there arose nationalist
movements in the Philippines and Cuba. Wars of independence ensued in those colonies and eventually
the United States became involved. Despite the commitment and ability shown by some military units,
they were so mismanaged by the highest levels of command that the Spanish-American war of 1898 was
soon over. "El Desastre" (The Disaster), as the war became known in Spain, helped give impetus to the
Generation of 98 who were already conducting much critical analysis concerning the country. It also
weakened the stability that had been established during Alfonso XII's reign.
20th century
The 20th century brought little peace; Spain played a minor part in the scramble for Africa, with the
colonisation of Western Sahara, Spanish Morocco and Equatorial Guinea. The heavy losses suffered
during the Rif war in Morocco helped to undermine the monarchy. A period of authoritarian rule under
General Miguel Primo de Rivera (1923-1931) ended with the establishment of the Second Spanish
Republic. The Republic offered political autonomy to the Basque Country, Catalonia and Galicia and
gave voting rights to women.
The bitterly fought Spanish Civil War (1936-39) ensued. Three

years later the Nationalist forces, led by General Francisco Franco,
emerged victorious with the support of Nazi Germany and Fascist
Italy. The Republican side was supported by the Soviet Union and
Mexico and international brigades , most famously the american
'Abraham Lincon Brigade', but it was not supported officially by
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the Western powers due to the British-led policy of Non-Intervention. The Spanish Civil War has been
called the first battle of the Second World War; under Franco, Spain was neutral in the Second World
War though sympathetic to the Axis.[note 17]
The only legal party under Franco's regime was the Falange española tradicionalista y de las JONS,
formed in 1937; the party emphasised anti-Communism, Catholicism and nationalism. Nonetheless,
since Franco's anti-democratic ideology was opposed to the idea of political parties, the new party was
renamed officially a National Movement (Movimiento Nacional) in 1949.
Francisco Franco
After World War II, Spain was politically and economically isolated, and was kept out of the United
Nations until 1955, when due to the Cold War it became strategically important for the U.S. to create a
military presence on the Iberian peninsula, next to the Mediterranean Sea and the Strait of Gibraltar, in
order to protect southern Europe. In the 1960s, Spain registered an unprecedented economic growth in
what was called the Spanish miracle, which rapidly resumed the long interrupted transition towards a
modern industrial economy with a thriving tourism sector and a high degree of human development.
Upon the death of General Franco in November 1975, Prince Juan Carlos assumed the position of king
and head of state. With the approval of the new Spanish Constitution of 1978 and the arrival of
democracy, the State devolved autonomy to the regions and created an internal organization based on
autonomous communities. In the Basque Country, moderate Basque nationalism coexisted with a radical
nationalism supportive of the separatist group ETA.
On 23 February 1981, rebel elements among the security forces seized the Cortes and tried to impose a
military-backed government. However, the great majority of the military forces remained loyal to King
Juan Carlos, who used his personal authority and addressed the usurpers via national TV as commander
in chief to put down the bloodless coup attempt.
On 30 May 1982, NATO gained a new member when, following a referendum, the newly democratic
Spain joined the alliance. Also in 1982, the Spanish Socialist Workers Party (PSOE) came to power,
representing the return of a left-wing government after 43 years. In 1986, Spain joined the European
Community - what has now become the European Union. The PSOE was replaced in government by the
Partido Popular (PP) after the latter won the 1996 General Elections; at that point the PSOE had served
almost 14 consecutive years in office.
The Government of Spain has been involved in a long-running campaign against the separatist and
terrorist organization ETA ("Basque Homeland and Freedom"), founded in 1959 in opposition to Franco
and dedicated to promoting Basque independence through violent means. They consider themselves a
guerrilla organization while they are listed as a terrorist organization by both the European Union and
the United States on their respective watchlists. The current nationalist-led Basque Autonomous
government does not endorse ETA's nationalist violence, which has caused over 800 deaths in the past
40 years.
21st century
Further information: Spanish society after the democratic transition
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Euro banknotes
On 1 January 2002, Spain terminated its peseta currency and replaced it with the euro, which it shares
with 14 other countries in the Eurozone. Spain has also seen strong economic growth, well above the EU
average, but concerns are growing that the extraordinary property boom and high foreign trade deficits
of recent years may bring this to an end.[26]
A series of bombs exploded in commuter trains in Madrid, Spain on 11 March 2004. After a five month
trial in 2007 it was concluded the bombings were perpetrated by a local Islamist militant group inspired
by al-Qaeda.[27] The bombings killed 191 people and wounded more than 1800, and the intention of the
perpetrators may have been to influence the outcome of the Spanish general election, held three days
later.[28] Though initial suspicions focused on the Basque group ETA, evidence soon emerged indicating
possible Islamist involvement. Because of the proximity of the election, the issue of responsibility
quickly became a political controversy, with the main competing parties PP and PSOE exchanging
accusations over the handling of the aftermath.[29] At the 14 March elections, PSOE, led by José Luis
Rodríguez Zapatero, obtained a relative majority, enough to form a new cabinet with Rodríguez
Zapatero as the new Presidente del Gobierno or prime minister of Spain, thus succeeding the former PP
administration.[30]
THE END OF SPAIN
HUMAN
Human
From Wikipedia, the free
encyclopedia
This
article is about modern humans.
For other human species, see
Homo (genus). For other
uses, see Human
(disambiguation).
"Homo sapiens" redirects here.
For other uses, see Homo sapiens
(disambiguation).
Human beings, humans or man

(Origin: 1590–1600; < L homō
man; OL hemō the earthly one (see
humus),[3] also Homo sapiens —
Latin: "wise human" or "knowing
human"),[4] are bipedal primates in
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[5][6]
the family Hominidae. DNA evidence indicates that modern humans originated in Africa about
200,000 years ago. Humans have a highly developed brain, capable of abstract reasoning, language,
introspection and problem solving. This mental capability, combined with an erect body carriage that
frees the forelimbs (arms) for manipulating objects, has allowed humans to make far greater use of tools
than any other species. Humans are distributed worldwide, large populations inhabiting every continent
on Earth except Antarctica. The human population on Earth is greater than 6.7 billion, as of July, 2008.[7]
There is only one extant subspecies, Homo sapiens sapiens. As of 2008, humans are listed as a species
of least concern for extinction by the International Union for Conservation of Nature.[2]
Like most higher primates, humans are social by nature. Humans are
particularly adept at utilizing systems of communication for self-
expression, exchanging of ideas, and organization. Humans create
complex social structures composed of many cooperating and
competing groups, from families to nations. Social interactions between humans have established an
extremely wide variety of traditions, rituals, ethics, values, social norms, and laws, which together form
the basis of human society. Humans have a marked appreciation for beauty and aesthetics, which,
combined with the desire for self-expression, has led to cultural innovations such as art, writing,
literature and music.
Humans are notable for their desire to understand and influence the world around them, seeking to
explain and manipulate natural phenomena through philosophy, art, science, mythology and religion.
This natural curiosity has led to the development of advanced tools and skills; humans are the only
species known to build fires, cook their food, clothe themselves; they also manipulate and develop
numerous other technologies. Humans pass down
their skills and knowledge to the next generations
Contents through education.
[hide]
History
• 1 History
o 1.1 Origin Origin
o 1.2 Transition to civilization
• 2 Habitat and population For more details on this topic, see
• 3 Biology Anthropology, Human evolution, Recent
o 3.1 Physiology and genetics African Origin, and Archaic Homo
o 3.2 Life cycle sapiens.
o 3.3 Diet
• 4 Psychology
o 4.1 Consciousness and thought A reconstruction of Australopithecus afarensis, a
o 4.2 Motivation and emotion human ancestor that had developed bipedalism,
o 4.3 Sexuality and love but which lacked the
• 5 Culture large brain of modern
o 5.1 Language humans.
o 5.2 Spirituality and religion
o 5.3 Philosophy and self-reflection The scientific
o 5.4 Art, music, and literature study of human
o 5.5 Tool use and technology evolution
o 5.6 Race and ethnicity
o 5.7 Society, government, and politics
o 5.8 War
o 5.9 Trade and economics
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• 6 References
encompasses the development of the genus Homo, but usually involves studying other hominids and
hominines as well, such as Australopithecus. "Modern humans" are defined as the Homo sapiens
species, of which the only extant subspecies is known as Homo sapiens sapiens. Homo sapiens idaltu
(roughly translated as "elder wise human"), the other known subspecies, is now extinct.[8] Homo
neanderthalensis, which became extinct 30,000 years ago, has sometimes been classified as a
subspecies, "Homo sapiens neanderthalensis", but genetic studies now suggest a divergence of the
Neanderthal species from Homo sapiens about 500,000 years ago[9]. Similarly, the few specimens of
Homo rhodesiensis have also occasionally been classified as a subspecies, but this is not widely
accepted. Anatomically modern humans first appear in the fossil record in Africa about 130,000 years
ago, although studies of molecular biology give evidence that the approximate time of divergence from
the common ancestor of all modern human populations was 200,000 years ago.[10][11][12]
The closest living relatives of Homo sapiens are two chimpanzee species: the Common Chimpanzee and
the Bonobo. Full genome sequencing has resulted in the conclusion that "after 6.5 [million] years of
separate evolution, the differences between chimpanzee and human are just ten times greater than those
between two unrelated people and ten times less than those between rats and mice". Suggested
concurrence between human and chimpanzee DNA sequences range between 95% and 99%. [13][14][15][16] It
has been estimated that the human lineage diverged from that of chimpanzees about five million years
ago, and from that of gorillas about eight million years ago. However, a hominid skull discovered in
Chad in 2001, classified as Sahelanthropus tchadensis, is approximately seven million years old, which
may indicate an earlier divergence.[17]
The Recent African Origin (RAO), or "out-of-Africa", hypothesis proposes that modern humans evolved
in Africa before later migrating outwards to replace hominids in other parts of the world. Evidence from
archaeogenetics accumulating since the 1990s has lent strong support to RAO, and has marginalized the
competing multiregional hypothesis, which proposed that modern humans evolved, at least in part, from
independent hominid populations.[18] Geneticists Lynn Jorde and Henry Harpending of the University of
Utah propose that the variation in human DNA is minute compared to that of other species. They also
propose that during the Late Pleistocene, the human population was reduced to a small number of
breeding pairs – no more than 10,000, and possibly as few as 1,000 – resulting in a very small residual
gene pool. Various reasons for this hypothetical bottleneck have been postulated, one being the Toba
catastrophe theory.
Human evolution is characterized by a number of important morphological, developmental,

physiological and behavioural changes, which have taken place since the split between the last common
ancestor of humans and chimpanzees. The first major morphological change was the evolution of a
bipedal locomotor adaptation from an arboreal or semi-arboreal one,[19] with all its attendant adaptations,
such as a valgus knee, low intermembral index (long legs relative to the arms), and reduced upper-body
strength.
Later, ancestral humans developed a much larger brain – typically 1,400 cm³ in modern humans, over
twice the size of that of a chimpanzee or gorilla. The pattern of human postnatal brain growth differs
from that of other apes (heterochrony), and allows for extended periods of social learning and language
acquisition in juvenile humans. Physical anthropologists argue that the differences between the structure
of human brains and those of other apes are even more significant than their differences in size.
Other significant morphological changes included: the evolution of a power and precision grip;[20] a
reduced masticatory system; a reduction of the canine tooth; and the descent of the larynx and hyoid
bone, making speech possible. An important physiological change in humans was the evolution of
hidden oestrus, or concealed ovulation, which may have coincided with the evolution of important
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behavioural changes, such as pair bonding. Another significant behavioural change was the development
of material culture, with human-made objects becoming increasingly common and diversified over time.
The relationship between all these changes is the subject of ongoing debate.[21][22]
The forces of natural selection have continued to operate on human populations, with evidence that
certain regions of the genome display directional selection in the past 15,000 years.[23]
Transition to civilization
For more details on this topic, see History of the world.
The rise of agriculture, and domestication of animals, led to stable

human settlements.
The most widely accepted view among current anthropologists is

that Homo sapiens originated in the African savanna around 200,000
BP (Before Present), descending from Homo erectus, had inhabited
Eurasia and Oceania by 40,000 BP, and inhabited the Americas at
least 14,500 years ago.[24] They displaced Homo neanderthalensis
and other species descended from Homo erectus (which had
inhabited Eurasia as early as 2 million years ago) through more successful reproduction and competition
for resources.
Until c. 10,000 years ago, most humans lived as hunter-gatherers. They generally lived in small nomadic
groups known as band societies. The advent of agriculture prompted the Neolithic Revolution, when
access to food surplus led to the formation of permanent human settlements, the domestication of
animals and the use of metal tools. Agriculture encouraged trade and cooperation, and led to complex
society. Because of the significance of this date for human society, it is the epoch of the Holocene
calendar or Human Era.
About 6,000 years ago, the first proto-states developed in Mesopotamia, and in the Sahara/Nile and the
Indus Valleys. Military forces were formed for protection, and government bureaucracies for
administration. States cooperated and competed for resources, in some cases waging wars. Around
2,000–3,000 years ago, some states, such as Persia, India, China, Rome, and Greece, developed through
conquest into the first expansive empires. Influential religions, such as Judaism, originating in the
Middle East, and Hinduism, a religious tradition that originated in South Asia, also rose to prominence
at this time.
The late Middle Ages saw the rise of revolutionary ideas and technologies. In China, an advanced and
urbanized society promoted innovations and sciences, such as printing and seed drilling. The Islamic
Golden Age saw major scientific advancements in Muslim empires. In Europe, the rediscovery of
classical learning and inventions such as the printing press led to the Renaissance in the 14th century.
Over the next 500 years, exploration and colonialism brought much of the Americas, Asia, and Africa
under European control, leading to later struggles for independence. The Scientific Revolution in the
17th century and the Industrial Revolution in the 18th – 19th centuries promoted major innovations in
transport, such as the railway and automobile; energy development, such as coal and electricity; and
government, such as representative democracy and Communism.
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With the advent of the Information Age at the end of the 20th century, modern humans live in a world
that has become increasingly globalized and interconnected. As of 2008, over 1.4 billion humans are
connected to each other via the Internet,[25] and 3.3 billion by mobile phone subscriptions.[26]
Although interconnection between humans has encouraged the growth of science, art, discussion, and
technology, it has also led to culture clashes, the development and use of weapons of mass destruction,
and increased environmental destruction and pollution, affecting not only themselves but also most other
life forms on the planet.
Habitat and population

For more details on this topic, see Demography and World
population.
Humans often live in family-based social structures and create artificial

shelter
Early human settlements were dependent on proximity to water and,

depending on the lifestyle, other natural resources, such as arable land
for growing crops and grazing livestock, or seasonally by hunting
populations of prey. However, humans have a great capacity for altering
their habitats by various methods, such as through irrigation, urban
planning, construction, transport, manufacturing goods, deforestation
and desertification. With the advent of large-scale trade and transport infrastructure, proximity to these
resources has become unnecessary, and in many places, these factors are no longer a driving force
behind the growth and decline of a population. Nonetheless, the manner in which a habitat is altered is
often a major determinant in population change.
Technology has allowed humans to colonize all of the continents and adapt to almost all climates.
Within the last few decades, humans have explored Antarctica, the ocean depths, and space, although
long-term habitation of these environments is not yet possible. With a population of over six billion,
humans are among the most numerous of the large mammals. Most humans (61%) live in Asia. The
remainder live in the Americas (14%), Africa (14%), Europe (11%), and Oceania (0.5%).
Human habitation within closed ecological systems in hostile environments, such as Antarctica and
outer space, is expensive, typically limited in duration, and restricted to scientific, military, or industrial
expeditions. Life in space has been very sporadic, with no more than thirteen humans in space at any
given time. Between 1969 and 1972, two humans at a time spent brief intervals on the Moon. As of early
2008, no other celestial body has been visited by human beings, although there has been a continuous
human presence in space since the launch of the initial crew to inhabit the International Space Station on
October 31, 2000. Other celestial bodies have, however, been visited by human-made objects.
Since 1800, the human population has increased from one billion to over six billion. [27] In 2004, some
2.5 billion out of 6.3 billion people (39.7%) lived in urban areas, and this percentage is expected to
continue to rise throughout the 21st century. In February 2008, the U.N. estimated that half the world's
population will live in urban areas by the end of the year.[28] Problems for humans living in cities include
various forms of pollution and crime,[29] especially in inner city and suburban slums. Benefits of urban
living include increased literacy, access to the global canon of human knowledge and decreased
susceptibility to rural famines.
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Humans have had a dramatic effect on the environment. It has been hypothesized that human predation
has contributed to the extinction of numerous species. As humans are rarely preyed upon, they have
been described as superpredators.[30] Currently, through land development and pollution, humans are
thought to be the main contributor to global climate change.[31] This is believed to be a major contributor
to the ongoing Holocene extinction event, a mass extinction which, if it continues at its current rate, is
predicted to wipe out half of all species over the next century.[32][33]
Biology
For more details on this topic, see Human biology.
Physiology and genetics
For more details on this topic, see Human anatomy, Human physical appearance, and Human
genetics.
A diagram of a male human skeleton.
Human body types vary substantially. Although body size is largely determined by genes, it is also
significantly influenced by environmental factors such as diet and exercise. The average height of an
adult human is about 1.5 to 1.8 m (5 to 6 feet) tall, although this varies significantly from place to place.
[34][35]
The average weight for a human is 76–83 kg (168–183 lbs) for males and 54–64 kg (120–140 lbs)
for females.[36] Weight can also vary greatly (e.g. obesity). Unlike most other primates, humans are
capable of fully bipedal locomotion, thus leaving their arms available for manipulating objects using
their hands, aided especially by opposable thumbs.
Although humans appear relatively hairless compared to other primates, with notable hair growth
occurring chiefly on the top of the head, underarms and pubic area, the average human has more hair
follicles on his or her body than the average chimpanzee. The main distinction is that human hairs are
shorter, finer, and less heavily pigmented than the average chimpanzee's, thus making them harder to
see.[37]
The hue of human hair and skin is determined by the presence of pigments called melanins. Human skin
hues can range from very dark brown to very pale pink, while human hair ranges from blond to brown to
red to, most commonly, black,[38] depending on the amount of melanin (an effective sun blocking
pigment) in the skin and hair, with hair melanin concentrations in hair fading with increase age, leading
to grey or even white hair. Most researchers believe that skin darkening was an adaptation that evolved
as a protection against ultraviolet solar radiation. More recently, however, it has been argued that
particular skin colors are an adaptation to balance folate, which is destroyed by ultraviolet radiation, and
vitamin D, which requires sunlight to form.[39] The skin pigmentation of contemporary humans is
geographically stratified, and in general correlates with the level of ultraviolet radiation. Human skin
also has a capacity to darken (sun tanning) in response to exposure to ultraviolet radiation. [40][41] Humans
tend to be physically weaker than other similarly sized primates, with young, conditioned male humans
having been shown to be unable to match the strength of female orangutans which are at least three
times stronger.[42]
Humans have proportionately shorter palates and much smaller teeth than other primates. They are the
only primates to have short 'flush' canine teeth. Humans have characteristically crowded teeth, with gaps
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from lost teeth usually closing up quickly in young specimens. Humans are gradually losing their
wisdom teeth, with some individuals having them congenitally absent.[43]
The average sleep requirement is between seven and eight hours a day for an adult and nine to ten hours
for a child; elderly people usually sleep for six to seven hours. Experiencing less sleep than this is
common in modern societies; this sleep deprivation can have negative effects. A sustained restriction of
adult sleep to four hours per day has been shown to correlate with changes in physiology and mental
state, including fatigue, aggression, and bodily discomfort.
Humans are a eukaryotic species. Each diploid cell has two sets of 23 chromosomes, each set received
from one parent. There are 22 pairs of autosomes and one pair of sex chromosomes. By present
estimates, humans have approximately 20,000 – 25,000 genes. Like other mammals, humans have an
XY sex-determination system, so that females have the sex chromosomes XX and males have XY. The
X chromosome carries many genes not on the Y chromosome, which means that recessive diseases
associated with X-linked genes, such as haemophilia, affect men more often than
women.
Life cycle
A 10mm human embryo at 5 weeks
The human life cycle is similar to that of other placental mammals. The fertilized egg divides inside the
female's uterus to become an embryo, which over a period of thirty-eight weeks (9 months) of gestation
becomes a human fetus. After this span of time, the fully grown fetus is birthed from the woman's body
and breathes independently as an infant for the first time. At this point, most modern cultures recognize
the baby as a person entitled to the full protection of the law, though some jurisdictions extend
personhood earlier to human fetuses while they remain in the uterus.
Compared with other species, human childbirth is dangerous. Painful labors lasting twenty-four hours or
more are not uncommon and often leads to the death of the mother, or the child. [44] This is because of
both the relatively large fetal head circumference (for housing the brain) and the mother's relatively
narrow pelvis (a trait required for successful bipedalism, by way of natural selection).[45][46] The chances
of a successful labor increased significantly during the 20th century in wealthier countries with the
advent of new medical technologies. In contrast, pregnancy and natural childbirth remain relatively
hazardous ordeals in developing regions of the world, with maternal death rates approximately 100
times more common than in developed countries.[47]
Two young human females
In developed countries, infants are typically 3 – 4 kg (6 – 9 pounds) in

weight and 50 – 60 cm (20 – 24 inches) in height at birth.[48] However,
low birth weight is common in developing countries, and contributes
to the high levels of infant mortality in these regions.[49] Helpless at
birth, humans continue to grow for some years, typically reaching
sexual maturity at 12 to 15 years of age. Females continue to develop
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physically until around the age of 18, whereas male development continues until around age 21. The
human life span can be split into a number of stages: infancy, childhood, adolescence, young adulthood,
adulthood and old age. The lengths of these stages, however, have varied across cultures and time
periods. Compared to other primates, humans experience an unusually rapid growth spurt during
adolescence, where the body grows 25% in size. Chimpanzees, for example, grow only 14%.[50]
There are significant differences in life expectancy around the world. The developed world is generally
aging, with the median age around 40 years (highest in Monaco at 45.1 years). In the developing world
the median age is between 15 and 20 years. Life expectancy at birth in Hong Kong is 84.8 years for a
female and 78.9 for a male, while in Swaziland, primarily because of AIDS, it is 31.3 years for both
sexes.[51] While one in five Europeans is 60 years of age or older, only one in twenty Africans is 60 years
of age or older.[52] The number of centenarians (humans of age 100 years or older) in the world was
estimated by the United Nations at 210,000 in 2002.[53] At least one person, Jeanne Calment, is known to
have reached the age of 122 years; higher ages have been claimed but they are not well substantiated.
Worldwide, there are 81 men aged 60 or older for every 100 women of that age group, and among the
oldest, there are 53 men for every 100 women.
Humans are unique in the widespread onset of female menopause during the latter stage of life.
Menopause is believed to have arisen due to the Grandmother hypothesis, in which it is in the mother's
reproductive interest to forego the risks of death from childbirth at older ages in exchange for investing
in the viability of her already living offspring.[54]
The philosophical questions of when human personhood begins and whether it persists after death are
the subject of considerable debate. Awareness of their own mortality causes unease or fear for most
humans, distinct from the immediate awareness of a threat. Burial ceremonies are characteristic of
human societies, often accompanied by beliefs in an afterlife.
Diet
For more details on this topic, see Diet (nutrition).
For hundreds of thousands of years Homo sapiens employed (and some tribes still do depend on) a
hunter-gatherer method as their primary means of food collection, involving combining stationary food
sources (such as fruits, grains, tubers, and mushrooms, insect larvae and aquatic molluscs) with wild
game, which must be hunted and killed in order to be consumed. It is believed that humans have used
fire to prepare and cook food prior to eating since the time of their divergence from Homo erectus.[citation
needed]
Humans are omnivorous, capable of consuming both plant and animal products. Varying with available
food sources in regions of habitation, and also varying with cultural and religious norms, human groups
have adopted a range of diets, from purely vegetarian to primarily carnivorous. In some cases, dietary
restrictions in humans can lead to deficiency diseases; however, stable human groups have adapted to
many dietary patterns through both genetic specialization and cultural conventions to utilize nutritionally
balanced food sources.[55] The human diet is prominently reflected in human culture, and has led to the
development of food science.
In general, humans can survive for two to eight weeks without food, depending on stored body fat.
Survival without water is usually limited to three or four days. Lack of food remains a serious problem,
with about 300,000 people starving to death every year.[56] Childhood malnutrition is also common and
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[57]
contributes to the global burden of disease. However global food distribution is not even, and obesity
among some human populations has increased to almost epidemic proportions, leading to health
complications and increased mortality in some developed, and a few developing countries. The United
States Centers for Disease Control (CDC) state that 32% of American adults over the age of 20 are
obese, while 66.5% are obese or overweight. Obesity is caused by consuming more calories than are
expended, with many attributing excessive weight gain to a combination of overeating and insufficient
exercise.
At least ten thousand years ago, humans developed agriculture,[58] which has substantially altered the
kind of food people eat. This has led to increased populations, the development of cities, and because of
increased population density, the wider spread of infectious diseases. The types of food consumed, and
the way in which they are prepared, has varied widely by time, location, and culture.
Psychology
A sketch of the human brain imposed upon the profile of Michelangelo's

David. Sketch by Priyan Weerappuli.
For more details on this topic, see Human brain and Mind.
The human brain is the center of the central nervous system in humans, and
acts as the primary control center for the peripheral nervous system. The
brain controls "lower", or involuntary autonomic activities such as respiration and digestion, as well as
"higher" order, conscious activities such as thought, reasoning, and abstraction.[59] These cognitive
processes constitute the mind, and, along with their behavioral consequences, are studied in the field of
psychology.
Generally regarded as more capable of these higher order activities, the human brain is believed to be
more "intelligent" in general than that of any other known species. While many animals are capable of
creating structures and using simple tools — mostly through instinct and mimicry — human technology
is vastly more complex, and is constantly evolving and improving through time. Even the most ancient
human tools and structures are far more advanced than any structure or tool created by any other animal.
[60]
Although being vastly more advanced than many species in cognitive abilities, most of these abilities are
known in primitive form among other species. Modern anthropology has tended to bear out Darwin's
proposition that "the difference in mind between man and the higher animals, great as it is, certainly is
one of degree and not of kind".[61]
Consciousness and thought
For more details on this topic, see Consciousness and Cognition.
Humans are one of only six species to pass the mirror test — which tests whether an animal recognizes
its reflection as an image of itself — along with chimpanzees, orangutans, Bottlenose dolphins, Asian
elephants and European Magpies. (It has also been argued that pigeons have passed the test.)[62] Most
human children will pass the mirror test at 18 months old.[63] However, the usefulness of this test as a
true test of consciousness has been disputed (see mirror test), and this may be a matter of degree rather
than a sharp divide. Monkeys have been trained to apply abstract rules in tasks.[64]
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The human brain perceives the external world through the senses, and each individual human is
influenced greatly by his or her experiences, leading to subjective views of existence and the passage of
time. Humans are variously said to possess consciousness, self-awareness, and a mind, which
correspond roughly to the mental processes of thought. These are said to possess qualities such as self-
awareness, sentience, sapience, and the ability to perceive the relationship between oneself and one's
environment. The extent to which the mind constructs or experiences the outer world is a matter of
debate, as are the definitions and validity of many of the terms used above. The philosopher of cognitive
science Daniel Dennett, for example, argues that there is no such thing as a narrative centre called the
"mind", but that instead there is simply a collection of sensory inputs and outputs: different kinds of
"software" running in parallel.[65] Psychologist B.F. Skinner has argued that the mind is an explanatory
fiction that diverts attention from environmental causes of behavior,[66] and that what are commonly seen
as mental processes may be better conceived of as forms of covert verbal behavior.[67]
Humans study the more physical aspects of the mind and brain, and by extension of the nervous system,
in the field of neurology, the more behavioral in the field of psychology, and a sometimes loosely
defined area between in the field of psychiatry, which treats mental illness and behavioral disorders.
Psychology does not necessarily refer to the brain or nervous system, and can be framed purely in terms
of phenomenological or information processing theories of the mind. Increasingly, however, an
understanding of brain functions is being included in psychological theory and practice, particularly in
areas such as artificial intelligence, neuropsychology, and cognitive neuroscience.
The nature of thought is central to psychology and related fields. Cognitive psychology studies
cognition, the mental processes underlying behavior. It uses information processing as a framework for
understanding the mind. Perception, learning, problem solving, memory, attention, language and
emotion are all well researched areas as well. Cognitive psychology is associated with a school of
thought known as cognitivism, whose adherents argue for an information processing model of mental
function, informed by positivism and experimental psychology. Techniques and models from cognitive
psychology are widely applied and form the mainstay of psychological theories in many areas of both
research and applied psychology. Largely focusing on the development of the human mind through the
life span, developmental psychology seeks to understand how people come to perceive, understand, and
act within the world and how these processes change as they age. This may focus on intellectual,
cognitive, neural, social, or moral development.
Some philosophers divide consciousness into phenomenal consciousness, which is experience itself, and
access consciousness, which is the processing of the things in experience. [68] Phenomenal consciousness
is the state of being conscious, such as when they say "I am conscious." Access consciousness is being
conscious of something in relation to abstract concepts, such as when one says "I am conscious of these
words." Various forms of access consciousness include awareness, self-awareness, conscience, stream of
consciousness, Husserl's phenomenology, and intentionality. The concept of phenomenal consciousness,
in modern history, according to some, is closely related to the concept of qualia. Social psychology links
sociology with psychology in their shared study of the nature and causes of human social interaction,
with an emphasis on how people think towards each other and how they relate to each other. The
behavior and mental processes, both human and non-human, can be described through animal cognition,
ethology, evolutionary psychology, and comparative psychology as well. Human ecology is an academic
discipline that investigates how humans and human societies interact with both their natural
environment and the human social environment.
Motivation and emotion
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For more details on this topic, see Motivation and Emotion.
Motivation is the driving force of desire behind all deliberate actions of human beings. Motivation is
based on emotion — specifically, on the search for satisfaction (positive emotional experiences), and the
avoidance of conflict. Positive and negative is defined by the individual brain state, which may be
influenced by social norms: a person may be driven to self-injury or violence because their brain is
conditioned to create a positive response to these actions. Motivation is important because it is involved
in the performance of all learned responses. Within psychology, conflict avoidance and the libido are
seen to be primary motivators. Within economics motivation is often seen to be based on financial
incentives, moral incentives, or coercive incentives. Religions generally posit divine or demonic
influences.
Happiness, or the state of being happy, is a human emotional condition. The definition of happiness is a
common philosophical topic. Some people might define it as the best condition that a human can have
— a condition of mental and physical health. Others define it as freedom from want and distress;
consciousness of the good order of things; assurance of one's place in the universe or society.
Emotion has a significant influence on, or can even be said to control, human behavior, though
historically many cultures and philosophers have for various reasons discouraged allowing this influence
to go unchecked. Emotional experiences perceived as pleasant, such as love, admiration, or joy, contrast
with those perceived as unpleasant, like hate, envy, or sorrow. There is often a distinction made between
refined emotions that are socially learned and survival oriented emotions, which are thought to be
innate. Human exploration of emotions as separate from other neurological phenomena is worthy of
note, particularly in cultures where emotion is considered separate from physiological state. In some
cultural medical theories emotion is considered so synonymous with certain forms of physical health
that no difference is thought to exist. The Stoics believed excessive emotion was harmful, while some
Sufi teachers (in particular, the poet and astronomer Omar Khayyám) felt certain extreme emotions
could yield a conceptual perfection, what is often translated as ecstasy.
In modern scientific thought, certain refined emotions are considered a complex neural trait innate in a
variety of domesticated and non-domesticated mammals. These were commonly developed in reaction
to superior survival mechanisms and intelligent interaction with each other and the environment; as
such, refined emotion is not in all cases as discrete and separate from natural neural function as was
once assumed. However, when humans function in civilized tandem, it has been noted that uninhibited
acting on extreme emotion can lead to social disorder and crime.
Sexuality and love
For more details on this topic, see Love and Human sexuality.
Human sexuality, besides ensuring biological reproduction, has important social functions: it creates
physical intimacy, bonds, and hierarchies among individuals; may be directed to spiritual transcendence
(according to some traditions); and in a hedonistic sense to the enjoyment of activity involving sexual
gratification. Sexual desire, or libido, is experienced as a bodily urge, often accompanied by strong
emotions such as love, ecstasy and jealousy. The extreme importance of sexuality in the human species
can be seen in a number of physical features, among them hidden ovulation, external scrotum and penile
design suggesting sperm competition, the absence of an os penis, permanent secondary sexual
characteristics, the forming of pair bonds based on sexual attraction as a common social structure and
sexual ability in females outside of ovulation. These adaptations indicate that the importance of
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sexuality in humans is on a par with that found in the Bonobo, and that the complex human sexual
behaviour has a long evolutionary history.
As with other human self-descriptions, humans propose that it is high intelligence and complex societies
of humans that have produced the most complex sexual behaviors of any animal, including a great many
behaviors that are indirectly connected with reproduction.
Human sexual choices are usually made in reference to cultural norms, which vary widely. Restrictions
are sometimes determined by religious beliefs or social customs. The pioneering researcher Sigmund
Freud believed that humans are born polymorphously perverse, which means that any number of objects
could be a source of pleasure. According to Freud, humans then pass through five stages of
psychosexual development (and can fixate on any stage because of various traumas during the process).
For Alfred Kinsey, another influential sex researcher, people can fall anywhere along a continuous scale
of sexual orientation (with only small minorities fully heterosexual or homosexual). Recent studies of
neurology and genetics suggest people may be born
edit
with one sexual orientation or another.[69][70]
Human society statistics
Culture
World population World 6,742,108,340 For more details on this topic, see Culture. Culture
is defined here as a set of distinctive material,
12.7 per km² (4.9 mi²) by intellectual, emotional, and spiritual features of a
Population density
total area social group, including art, literature, sport,
43.6 per km² (16.8 mi²) by lifestyles, value systems, traditions, rituals, and
land area beliefs. The link between human biology and human
behavior and culture is often very close, making it
Largest Tokyo, Mexico City, Sao difficult to clearly divide topics into one area or the
agglomerations Paulo, Buenos Aires, other; as such, the placement of some subjects may
Istanbul, Jakarta, Shanghai, be based primarily on convention. Culture consists
Hong Kong, Manila, Cairo,
of values, social norms, and artifacts. A culture's
Karachi, New York City, Los
Angeles, Seoul, Mumbai, values define what it holds to be important or
Moscow, London, Paris, ethical. Closely linked are norms, expectations of
Berlin how people ought to behave, bound by tradition.
Artifacts, or material culture, are objects derived
Major languages by Chinese 1.7 billion (2008 from the culture's values, norms, and understanding
number of native est.) of the world. The mainstream anthropological view
and secondary English 480 million of culture implies that most experience a strong
speakers (2000 est.) Spanish 320 million resistance when reminded that there is an animal as
Russian 285 million well as a spiritual aspect to human nature.[61]
French 265 million
Hindi 250 million
Arabic/urdu 221 million
Language
United States dollar, Euro, For more details on this topic, see
Japanese yen, Pound sterling, Language.
Pakistani Rupee, Indian
Currencies The capacity humans have to transfer concepts,
Rupee, Australian Dollar,
Russian Ruble, Canadian ideas and notions through speech and writing is
unrivaled in known species. Unlike the call systems
Dollar, Chinese Yuan among
many others. of other primates that are closed, human language is
$36,356,240 million USD
far more open, and gains variety in different
GDP (nominal)
Research ($5,797 USD per capita) Trang166
$51,656,251 million IND
GDP (PPP)
($8,236 per capita)
situations. The human language has the quality of displacement, using words to represent things and
happenings that are not presently or locally occurring, but elsewhere or at a different time. [43] In this way
data networks are important to the continuing development of language. The faculty of speech is a
defining feature of humanity, possibly predating phylogenetic separation of the modern population.
Language is central to the communication between humans, as well as being central to the sense of
identity that unites nations, cultures and ethnic groups. The invention of writing systems at least 5,000
years ago allowed the preservation of language on material objects, and was a major step in cultural
evolution. The science of linguistics describes the structure of language and the relationship between
languages. There are approximately 6,000 different languages currently in use, including sign languages,
and many thousands more that are considered extinct.
Spirituality and religion
For more details on this topic, see Spirituality and Religion.
Religion — a word sometimes used interchangeably with "faith" — is generally defined as a belief
system concerning the supernatural, sacred or divine, and moral codes, practices, values, institutions and
rituals associated with such belief. In the course of its development, religion has taken on many forms
that vary by culture and individual perspective. Some of the chief questions and issues religions are
concerned with include life after death (commonly involving belief in an afterlife), the origin of life (the
source of a variety of creation myths), the nature of the universe (religious cosmology) and its ultimate
fate (eschatology), and what is moral or immoral. A common source in religions for answers to these
questions are transcendent divine beings such as deities or a singular God, although not all religions are
theistic — many are nontheistic or ambiguous on the topic, particularly among the Eastern religions.
Spirituality, belief or involvement in matters of the soul or spirit, is one of the many different
approaches humans take in trying to answer fundamental questions about humankind's place in the
universe, the meaning of life, and the ideal way to live one's life. Though these topics have also been
addressed by philosophy, and to some extent by science, spirituality is unique in that it focuses on
mystical or supernatural concepts such as karma and God.
Although a majority of humans professes some variety of religious or spiritual belief, some are
irreligious, that is lacking or rejecting belief in the supernatural or spiritual. Additionally, although most
religions and spiritual beliefs are clearly distinct from science on both a philosophical and
methodological level, the two are not generally considered mutually exclusive; a majority of humans
holds a mix of both scientific and religious views. The distinction between philosophy and religion, on
the other hand, is at times less clear, and the two are linked in such fields as the philosophy of religion
and theology. Other humans have no religious beliefs and are atheists, scientific skeptics, agnostics or
simply non-religious.
Statue of Confucius on Chongming Island in Shanghai
Philosophy and self-reflection
For more details on this topic, see Philosophy, Human self-

reflection, and Human nature.
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Philosophy is a discipline or field of study involving the investigation, analysis, and development of
ideas at a general, abstract, or fundamental level. It is the discipline searching for a general
understanding of values and reality by chiefly speculative means. The core philosophical disciplines are
logic, ontology or metaphysics, epistemology, and axiology, which includes the branches of ethics and
aesthetics. Philosophy covers a very wide range of approaches, and is used to refer to a worldview, to a
perspective on an issue, or to the positions argued for by a particular philosopher or school of
philosophy.
Metaphysics is a branch of philosophy concerned with the study of first principles, being and existence
(ontology). In between the doctrines of religion and science, stands the philosophical perspective of
metaphysical cosmology. This ancient field of study seeks to draw logical conclusions about the nature
of the universe, humanity, god, and/or their connections based on the extension of some set of presumed
facts borrowed from religion and/or observation. Humans often consider themselves the dominant
species on Earth, and the most advanced in intelligence and ability to manage their environment. This
belief is especially strong in modern Western culture. Alongside such claims of dominance is often
found radical pessimism because of the frailty and brevity of human life.
Humanism is a philosophy that defines a socio-political doctrine the bounds of which are not
constrained by those of locally developed cultures, but which seeks to include all of humanity and all
issues common to human beings. Because spiritual beliefs of a community often manifests as religious
doctrine, the history of which is as factious as it is unitive, secular humanism grew as an answer to the
need for a common philosophy that transcended the cultural boundaries of local moral codes and
religions. Many humanists are religious, however, and see humanism as simply a mature expression of a
common truth present in most religions. Humanists affirm the possibility of an objective truth and accept
that human perception of that truth is imperfect. The most basic tenets of humanism are that humans
matter and can solve human problems, and that science, freedom of speech, rational thought, democracy,
and freedom in the arts are worthy pursuits or goals for all peoples. Humanism depends chiefly on
reason and logic without consideration for the supernatural.
Art, music, and literature
For more details on this topic, see Art, Music, and Literature.
Allegory of Music (ca. 1594), a painting of a woman writing sheet music by

Lorenzo Lippi.
Artistic works have existed for almost as long as humankind, from early pre-
historic art to contemporary art. Art is one of the most unusual aspects of
human behaviour and a key distinguishing feature of humans from other
species.
As a form of cultural expression by humans, art may be defined by the pursuit of diversity and the usage
of narratives of liberation and exploration (i.e. art history, art criticism, and art theory) to mediate its
boundaries. This distinction may be applied to objects or performances, current or historical, and its
prestige extends to those who made, found, exhibit, or own them. In the modern use of the word, art is
commonly understood to be the process or result of making material works that, from concept to
creation, adhere to the "creative impulse" of human beings. Art is distinguished from other works by
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being in large part unprompted by necessity, by biological drive, or by any undisciplined pursuit of
recreation.
Music is a natural intuitive phenomenon based on the three distinct and interrelated organization
structures of rhythm, harmony, and melody. Listening to music is perhaps the most common and
universal form of entertainment for humans, while learning and understanding it are popular disciplines.
There are a wide variety of music genres and ethnic musics. Literature, the body of written — and
possibly oral — works, especially creative ones, includes prose, poetry and drama, both fiction and non-
fiction. Literature includes such genres as epic, legend, myth, ballad, and folklore.
Tool use and technology
For more details on this topic, see Tool and Technology.
A Oldowan stone tool
Stone tools were used by proto-humans at least 2.5 million years ago. [71] The controlled use of fire began
around 1.5 million years ago.
Archaeology attempts to tell the story of past or lost cultures in part by close examination of the artifacts
they produced. Early humans left stone tools, pottery and jewelry that are particular to various regions
and times.
Race and ethnicity
For more details on this topic, see Race (classification of human beings), Race and genetics,
Historical definitions of race, and Ethnic group.
Humans often categorize themselves in terms of race or ethnicity, sometimes on the basis of differences
in appearance. Human racial categories have been based on both ancestry and visible traits, especially
skin color and facial features. The patterns of human genetic variation, however, correspond poorly with
visible morphological differences.[72] Most current genetic and archaeological evidence supports a recent
single origin of modern humans in East Africa.[73] Current genetic studies have demonstrated that
humans on the African continent are most genetically diverse.[74] However, compared to many other
animals, human gene sequences are remarkably homogeneous.[75][76][77][78] The predominance of genetic
variation occurs within "racial groups", with only 5 to 15% of total variation occurring between groups.
[79]
Ethnic groups, on the other hand, are more often linked by linguistic, cultural, ancestral, and national
or regional ties. Self-identification with an ethnic group is based on kinship and descent. Race and
ethnicity can lead to variant treatment and impact social identity, giving rise to racism and the theory of
identity politics.
Society, government, and politics
The United Nations complex in New York City, which houses one of the
largest human political organizations in the world.
For more details on this topic, see Society.
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For more details on this topic, see Government, Politics, and State.
Society is the system of organizations and institutions arising from interaction between humans. A state
is an organized political community occupying a definite territory, having an organized government, and
possessing internal and external sovereignty. Recognition of the state's claim to independence by other
states, enabling it to enter into international agreements, is often important to the establishment of its
statehood. The "state" can also be defined in terms of domestic conditions, specifically, as
conceptualized by Max Weber, "a state is a human community that (successfully) claims the monopoly
of the 'legitimate' use of physical force within a given territory."[80]
Government can be defined as the political means of creating and enforcing laws; typically via a
bureaucratic hierarchy. Politics is the process by which decisions are made within groups. Although the
term is generally applied to behavior within governments, politics is also observed in all human group
interactions, including corporate, academic, and religious institutions. Many different political systems
exist, as do many different ways of understanding them, and many definitions overlap. The most
common form of government worldwide is a republic[citation needed], however other examples include
monarchy, Communist state, military dictatorship and theocracy. All of these issues have a direct
relationship with economics.
War
For more details on this topic, see War.
The atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki immediately killed over

120,000 humans.
War is a state of widespread conflict between states, organizations, or

relatively large groups of people, which is characterized by the use of lethal
violence between combatants or upon civilians. It is estimated that during the
20th century between 167 and 188 million humans died as a result of war. [81] A
common perception of war is a series of military campaigns between at least
two opposing sides involving a dispute over sovereignty, territory, resources,
religion or other issues. A war between internal elements of a state is a civil war.
There have been a wide variety of rapidly advancing tactics throughout the history of war, ranging from
conventional war to asymmetric warfare to total war and unconventional warfare. Techniques include
hand to hand combat, the use of ranged weapons, and ethnic cleansing. Military intelligence has often
played a key role in determining victory and defeat. Propaganda, which often includes information,
slanted opinion and disinformation, plays a key role in maintaining unity within a warring group, and/or
sowing discord among opponents. In modern warfare, soldiers and armoured fighting vehicles are used
to control the land, warships the sea, and air power the sky. These fields have also overlapped in the
forms of marines, paratroopers, naval aircraft carriers, and surface-to-air missiles, among others.
Satellites in low Earth orbit have made outer space a factor in warfare as well, although no actual
warfare is currently carried out in space.
Trade and economics
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Buyers and sellers bargain in Chichicastenango Market, Guatemala.

For more details on this topic, see Trade and Economics.
Trade is the voluntary exchange of goods, services and a form of economics. A mechanism that allows
trade is called a market. The original form of trade was barter, the direct exchange of goods and
services. Modern traders instead generally negotiate through a medium of exchange, such as money. As
a result, buying can be separated from selling, or earning. The invention of money (and later credit,
paper money and non-physical money) greatly simplified and promoted trade. Because of specialization
and division of labor, most people concentrate on a small aspect of manufacturing or service, trading
their labour for products. Trade exists between regions because different regions have an absolute or
comparative advantage in the production of some tradable commodity, or because different regions' size
allows for the benefits of mass production.
Economics is a social science which studies the production, distribution, trade and consumption of
goods and services. Economics focuses on measurable variables, and is broadly divided into two main
branches: microeconomics, which deals with individual agents, such as households and businesses, and
macroeconomics, which considers the economy as a whole, in which case it considers aggregate supply
and demand for money, capital and commodities. Aspects receiving particular attention in economics
are resource allocation, production, distribution, trade, and competition. Economic logic is increasingly
applied to any problem that involves choice under scarcity or determining economic value. Mainstream
economics focuses on how prices reflect supply and demand, and uses equations to predict
consequences of decisions.
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Law

For other uses, see Law (disambiguation).
Lady Justice depicts justice as a goddess equipped with three symbols of the rule of law: a sword
symbolizing the court's coercive power; scales representing the weighing of competing claims; and a
blindfold indicating impartiality.[1]
Law[2] is a system of rules, enforced through a set of institutions,[3] used as an instrument to underpin
civil obedience, politics, economics and society. Law serves as the foremost social mediator in relations
between people. Writing in 350 BC, the Greek philosopher Aristotle declared, "The rule of law is better
than the rule of any individual."[4]
Law consists of a wide variety of separate disciplines. Contract law regulates binding agreements which
may relate to everything from civil purchase to trading on
derivatives markets. Property law defines rights and obligations
related to the transfer and title of personal and real property.
Trust law applies to assets held for investment and financial
security, while Tort law allows claims for compensation an
individual or their property is injured or harmed. If the harm is
criminalised in penal code, criminal law offers means by which
the state can prosecute the perpetrator. Constitutional law
provides a framework for the creation of law, the protection of
human rights and the election of political representatives.
Administrative law regulates the activities the administrative
agencies of government, while International law governs
affairs between sovereign nation states in activities ranging
from trade, environmental regulation or military action.
Legal systems elaborate rights and responsibilities in a variety

of ways. A basic distinction is generally made between civil
law jurisdictions and systems using common law. In some
countries, religion informs the law. Scholars investigate the
nature of law through many perspectives, including legal
history and philosophy, or social sciences such as economics
and sociology. The study of law raises important and complex issues concerning equality, fairness,
liberty and justice. "In its majestic equality", said the author Anatole France in 1894, "the law forbids
rich and poor alike to sleep under bridges, beg in the streets and steal loaves of bread."[5] The central
institutions for interpreting and creating law are the three main branches of government, namely an
impartial judiciary, a democratic legislature, and an accountable executive. To implement and enforce
the law and provide services to the public, a government's bureaucracy, the military and police are vital.
While all these organs of the state are creatures created and bound by law, an independent legal
profession and a vibrant civil society inform and support their progress.
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Legal subject
Contents
All legal systems deal with similar issues and
• 1 Legal subject behaviors, but each country categorises and
o 1.1 International law identifies its legal standards and principals in
o 1.2 Constitutional and administrative law different ways. A common distinction is that
o 1.3 Criminal law between "public law" (a term related closely
o 1.4 Contract law to the state, and including constitutional,
o 1.5 Tort law administrative and criminal law), and "private
o 1.6 Property law law" (which covers contract, tort and
o 1.7 Equity and Trusts property).[6] In civil law systems, contract
o 1.8 Further disciplines and tort fall under a general law of
• 2 Legal systems obligations, while trusts law is dealt with
o 2.1 Civil law under statutory regimes or international
o 2.2 Common law and equity conventions. International, constitutional and
o 2.3 Religious law administrative law, criminal law, contract,
• 3 Legal theory tort, property law and trusts are regarded as
o 3.1 History of law the "traditional core subjects",[7] although
o 3.2 Philosophy of law there are many further disciplines which may
o 3.3 Economic analysis of law be of greater practical importance.
o 3.4 Sociology of law
• 4 Legal institutions International law
o 4.1 Judiciary
o 4.2 Legislature Main articles: Public international
o 4.3 Executive law, Conflict of laws, and European
o 4.4 Military and police Union law
o 4.5 Bureaucracy
o 4.6 Legal profession Providing a constitution for public
o 4.7 Civil society international law, the United Nations system
• 5 Notes was agreed during World War II.
• 6 References
o 6.1 Printed sources International law can refer to three things:
o 6.2 Online sources public international law, private international
law or conflict
• 7 External links of laws and the
law of supranational organisations.
• Public international law concerns relationships between sovereign

nations. The sources for public international law development are
custom, practice and treaties between sovereign nations, such as
the Geneva Conventions. Public international law can be formed
by international organisations, such as the United Nations (which
was established after the failure of the League of Nations to
prevent the Second World War),[8] the International Labour
Organisation, the World Trade Organisation, or the International
Monetary Fund. Public international law has a special status as law
because there is no international police force, and courts (e.g. the
International Court of Justice as the primary UN judicial organ)
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lack the capacity to penalise disobedience.[9] However, a few bodies, such as the WTO, have
effective systems of binding arbitration and dispute resolution backed up by trade sanctions.[10]
• Conflict of laws (or "private international law" in civil law countries) concerns which jurisdiction
a legal dispute between private parties should be heard in and which jurisdiction's law should be
applied. Today, businesses are increasingly capable of shifting capital and labour supply chains
across borders, as well as trading with overseas businesses. Increasing numbers of businesses opt
for commercial arbitration under the New York Convention 1958.[11]
• European Union law is the first, and so far, only example of a supranational legal framework.
Given the trend of increasing global economic integration, many regional agreements—
especially the Union of South American Nations—are on track to follow the same model. In the
EU, sovereign nations have gathered their authority in a system of courts and political
institutions. These institutions are allowed the ability to enforce
legal norms both against or for member states and citizens in a
manner which is not possible through public international law.[12]
As the European Court of Justice said in the 1960s, European
Union law constitutes "a new legal order of international law" for
the mutual social and economic benefit of the member states.[13]
Constitutional and administrative law
Main articles: Constitutional law and Administrative law
The French Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, whose
principles still have constitutional value.
Constitutional and administrative law govern the affairs of the state. Constitutional law concerns both
the relationships between the executive, legislature and judiciary and the human rights or civil liberties
of individuals against the state. Most jurisdictions, like the United States and France, have a single
codified constitution, with a Bill of Rights. A few, like the United Kingdom, have no such document. A
"constitution" is simply those laws which constitute the body politic, from statute, case law and
convention. A case named Entick v. Carrington[14] illustrates a constitutional principle deriving from
the common law. Mr Entick's house was searched and ransacked by Sheriff Carrington. When Mr Entick
complained in court, Sheriff Carrington argued that a warrant from a Government minister, the Earl of
Halifax, was valid authority. However, there was no written statutory provision or court authority. The
leading judge, Lord Camden, stated that,
"The great end, for which men entered into society, was to secure their property. That right is preserved
sacred and incommunicable in all instances, where it has not been taken away or abridged by some
public law for the good of the whole ... If no excuse can be found or produced, the silence of the books
is an authority against the defendant, and the plaintiff must have judgment."[15]
The fundamental constitutional principle, inspired by John Locke, holds that the individual can do
anything but that which is forbidden by law, and the state may do nothing but that which is authorised
by law.[16] Administrative law is the chief method for people to hold state bodies to account. People
can apply for judicial review of actions or decisions by local councils, public services or government
ministries, to ensure that they comply with the law. The first specialist administrative court was the
Conseil d'État set up in 1799, as Napoleon assumed power in France.[17]
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Criminal law
Main article: Criminal law
Criminal law (also known as penal law) pertains to crimes and punishment.[18] It thus regulates the
definition of and penalties for offences found to have a sufficiently deleterious social impact.[19]
Investigating, apprehending, charging, and trying suspected offenders is regulated by the law of criminal
procedure.[20] The paradigm case of a crime lies in the proof, in the concept of beyond reasonable
doubt, the judgement that a person is guilty of two things. First, the accused must commit an act which
is deemed by society to be criminal, or actus reus (guilty act).[21] Second, the accused must have the
requisite malicious intent to do a criminal act, or mens rea (guilty mind). However for so called "strict
liability" crimes, an actus reus is enough.[22] Criminal systems of the civil law tradition distinguish
between intention in the broad sense (dolus directus and dolus eventualis), and negligence. Negligence
does not carry criminal responsibility unless a particular crime provides for its punishment.[23]
A depiction of a 1600s criminal trial, for witchcraft in Salem
Acts of crime include murder, assault, fraud and theft. In exceptional

circumstances defences can apply to specific acts, such as killing in self
defence, or pleading insanity. Another example is in the 19th century
English case of R. v. Dudley and Stephens, which tested a defence of
"necessity". The Mignotte, sailing from Southampton to Sydney, sank. Three crew members and a cabin
boy were stranded on a raft. They were starving and the cabin boy was close to death. Driven to extreme
hunger, the crew killed and ate the cabin boy. The crew survived and were rescued, but put on trial for
murder. They argued it was necessary to kill the cabin boy to preserve their own lives. Lord Coleridge,
expressing immense disapproval, ruled, "to preserve one's life is generally speaking a duty, but it may be
the plainest and the highest duty to sacrifice it." The men were sentenced to hang, but public opinion
was overwhelmingly supportive of the crew's right to preserve their own lives. In the end, the Crown
commuted their sentences to six months in jail.[24]
Criminal law offences are viewed as offences against not just individual victims, but the community as
well.[19] The state, usually with the help of police, takes the lead in prosecution, which is why in
common law countries cases are cited as "The People v. …" or "R. (for Rex or Regina) v. …" Also, lay
juries are often used to determine the guilt of defendants on points of fact: juries cannot change legal
rules. Some developed countries still condone capital punishment for criminal activity, but the normal
punishment for a crime will be imprisonment, fines, state supervision (such as probation), or community
service. Modern criminal law has been affected considerably by the social sciences, especially with
respect to sentencing, legal research, legislation, and rehabilitation.[25] On the international field, 108
are members of the International Criminal Court, which was established to
try people for crimes against humanity.[26]
Contract law
Main article: Contract
The famous Carbolic Smoke Ball advertisement to cure influenza was held
to be a unilateral contract.
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Contract law regulates the exchange of promises between parties to perform or refrain from performing
an act enforceable in a court of law. Contracts can be formed from oral or written agreements. The
concept of a "contract" is based on the Latin phrase pacta sunt servanda (agreements must be kept).[27]
In common law jurisdictions, three key elements to the creation of a contract are necessary: offer and
acceptance, consideration and the intention to create legal relations. In Carlill v. Carbolic Smoke Ball
Company a medical firm advertised that its new wonder drug, the smokeball, would cure people's flu,
and if it did not, the buyers would get £100. Many people sued for their £100 when the drug did not
work. Fearing bankruptcy, Carbolic argued the advert was not to be taken as a serious, legally binding
offer. It was an invitation to treat, mere puff, a gimmick. But the court of appeal held that to a reasonable
man Carbolic had made a serious offer. People had given good consideration for it by going to the
"distinct inconvenience" of using a faulty product. "Read the advertisement how you will, and twist it
about as you will", said Lord Justice Lindley, "here is a distinct promise expressed in language which is
perfectly unmistakable".[28]
"Consideration" indicates the fact that all parties to a contract have exchanged something of value. Some
common law systems, including Australia, are moving away from the idea of consideration as a
requirement. The idea of estoppel or culpa in contrahendo, can be used to create obligations during pre-
contractual negotiations.[29] In civil law jurisdictions, consideration is not required for a contract to be
binding.[30] In France, an ordinary contract is said to form simply on the basis of a "meeting of the
minds" or a "concurrence of wills". Germany has a special approach to contracts, which ties into
property law. Their 'abstraction principle' (Abstraktionsprinzip) means that the personal obligation of
contract forms separately from the title of property being conferred. When contracts are invalidated for
some reason (e.g. a car buyer is so drunk that he lacks legal capacity to contract)[31] the contractual
obligation to pay can be invalidated separately from the proprietary title of the car. Unjust enrichment
law, rather than contract law, is then used to restore title to the rightful owner.[32]
Tort law
Main article: Tort
The "McLibel" two were involved in the longest running case in UK

history for publishing a pamphlet criticising McDonald's restaurants.
Torts, sometimes called delicts, are civil wrongs. To have acted tortiously,
one must have breached a duty to another person, or infringed some pre-
existing legal right. A simple example might be accidentally hitting
someone with a cricket ball.[33] Under negligence law, the most common form of tort, the injured party
could potentially claim compensation for his injuries from the party responsible. The principles of
negligence are illustrated by Donoghue v. Stevenson.[34] A friend of Mrs Donoghue ordered an opaque
bottle of ginger beer (intended for the consumption of Mrs Donoghue) in a café in Paisley. Having
consumed half of it, Mrs Donoghue poured the remainder into a tumbler. The decomposing remains of a
snail floated out. She claimed to have suffered from shock, fell ill with gastroenteritis and sued the
manufacturer for carelessly allowing the drink to be contaminated. The House of Lords decided that the
manufacturer was liable for Mrs Donoghue's illness. Lord Atkin took a distinctly moral approach, and
said,
"The liability for negligence ... is no doubt based upon a general public sentiment of moral wrongdoing
for which the offender must pay ... The rule that you are to love your neighbour becomes in law, you
must not injure your neighbour; and the lawyer's question, Who is my neighbour? receives a restricted
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reply. You must take reasonable care to avoid acts or omissions which you can reasonably foresee
would be likely to injure your neighbour."[35]
This became the basis for the four principles of negligence; (1) Mr Stevenson owed Mrs Donoghue a
duty of care to provide safe drinks (2) he breached his duty of care (3) the harm would not have occurred
but for his breach and (4) his act was the proximate cause, or not too remote a consequence, of her harm.
[34] Another example of tort might be a neighbour making excessively loud noises with machinery on
his property.[36] Under a nuisance claim the noise could be stopped. Torts can also involve intentional
acts, such as assault, battery or trespass. A better known tort is defamation, which occurs, for example,
when a newspaper makes unsupportable allegations that damage a politician's reputation.[37] More
infamous are economic torts, which form the basis of labour law in some countries by making trade
unions liable for strikes,[38] when statute does not provide immunity.[39]
Property law
Main article: Property law
A painting of the South Sea Bubble, one of the world's first ever
speculations and crashes, led to strict regulation on share trading.[40]
Property law governs valuable things that people call 'theirs'. Real
property, sometimes called 'real estate' refers to ownership of land and
things attached to it.[41] Personal property, refers to everything else;
movable objects, such as computers, cars, jewelry, and sandwiches, or intangible rights, such as stocks
and shares. A right in rem is a right to a specific piece of property, contrasting to a right in personam
which allows compensation for a loss, but not a particular thing back. Land law forms the basis for most
kinds of property law, and is the most complex. It concerns mortgages, rental agreements, licences,
covenants, easements and the statutory systems for land registration. Regulations on the use of personal
property fall under intellectual property, company law, trusts and commercial law. An example of a
basic case of most property law is Armory v. Delamirie.[42] A chimney sweep's boy found a jewel
encrusted with precious stones. He took it to a goldsmith to have it valued. The goldsmith's apprentice
looked at it, sneakily removed the stones, told the boy it was worth three halfpence and that he would
buy it. The boy said he would prefer the jewel back, so the apprentice gave it to him, but without the
stones. The boy sued the goldsmith for his apprentice's attempt to cheat him. Lord Chief Justice Pratt
ruled that even though the boy could not be said to own the jewel, he should be considered the rightful
keeper ("finders keeper") until the original owner is found. In fact the apprentice and the boy both had a
right of possession in the jewel (a technical concept, meaning evidence that something could belong to
someone), but the boy's possessory interest was considered better, because it could be shown to be first
in time. Physical possession is nine tenths of the law, but not all.
This case is used to support the view of property in common law jurisdictions, that the person who can
show the best claim to a piece of property, against any contesting party, is the owner.[43] By contrast,
the classic civil law approach to property, propounded by Friedrich Carl von Savigny, is that it is a right
good against the world. Obligations, like contracts and torts are conceptualised as rights good between
individuals.[44] The idea of property raises many further philosophical and political issues. Locke
argued that our "lives, liberties and estates" are our property because we own our bodies and mix our
labour with our surroundings.[45]
Equity and Trusts

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Main articles: Equity (law) and Trust law
The Court of Chancery, London, early 19th century
Equity is a body of rules that developed in England separately from the

"common law". The common law was administered by judges. The Lord
Chancellor on the other hand, as the King's keeper of conscience, could
overrule the judge made law if he thought it equitable to do so.[46] This
meant equity came to operate more through principles than rigid rules. For instance, whereas neither the
common law nor civil law systems allow people to split the ownership from the control of one piece of
property, equity allows this through an arrangement known as a 'trust'. 'Trustees' control property,
whereas the 'beneficial' (or 'equitable') ownership of trust property is held by people known as
'beneficiaries'. Trustees owe duties to their beneficiaries to take good care of the entrusted property.[47]
In the early case of Keech v. Sandford[48] a child had inherited the lease on a market in Romford,
London. Mr Sandford was entrusted to look after this property until the child matured. But before then,
the lease expired. The landlord had (apparently) told Mr Sandford that he did not want the child to have
the renewed lease. Yet the landlord was happy (apparently) to give Mr Sandford the opportunity of the
lease instead. Mr Sandford took it. When the child (now Mr Keech) grew up, he sued Mr Sandford for
the profit that he had been making by getting the market's lease. Mr Sandford was meant to be trusted,
but he put himself in a position of conflict of interest. The Lord Chancellor, Lord King, agreed and
ordered Mr Sandford should disgorge his profits. He wrote,
"I very well see, if a trustee, on the refusal to renew, might have a lease to himself few trust-estates
would be renewed ... This may seem very hard, that the trustee is the only person of all mankind who
might not have the lease; but it is very proper that the rule should be strictly pursued and not at all
relaxed."[49]
Of course, Lord King LC was worried that trustees might exploit opportunities to use trust property for
themselves instead of looking after it. Business speculators using trusts had just recently caused a stock
market crash. Strict duties for trustees made their way into company law and were applied to directors
and chief executive officers. Another example of a trustee's duty might be to invest property wisely or
sell it.[50] This is especially the case for pension funds, the most important form of trust, where
investors are trustees for people's savings until retirement. But trusts can also be set up for charitable
purposes, famous examples being the British Museum or the Rockefeller Foundation.
Further disciplines
Law spreads far beyond the core subjects into virtually every area of life. Three categories are presented
for convenience, though the subjects intertwine and overlap.
Law and society
A trade union protest by UNISON while on strike
•Labour law is the study of a tripartite industrial relationship

between worker, employer and trade union. This involves
collective bargaining regulation, and the right to strike. Individual
employment law refers to workplace rights, such as health and safety or a minimum wage.
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• Human rights, civil rights and human rights law are important fields to guarantee everyone basic
freedoms and entitlements. These are laid down in codes such as the Universal Declaration of
Human Rights, the European Convention on Human Rights (which founded the European Court
of Human Rights) and the U.S. Bill of Rights. The Treaty of Lisbon makes the Charter of
Fundamental Rights of the European Union legally binding in all member states except Poland
and the United Kingdom.[51]
• Civil procedure and criminal procedure concern the rules that courts must follow as a trial and
appeals proceed. Both concern a citizen's right to a fair trial or hearing.
• Evidence law involves which materials are admissible in courts for a case to be built.
• Immigration law and nationality law concern the rights of foreigners to live and work in a nation-
state that is not their own and to acquire or lose citizenship. Both also involve the right of asylum
and the problem of stateless individuals.
• Social security law refers to the rights people have to social insurance, such as jobseekers'
allowances or housing benefits.
• Family law covers marriage and divorce proceedings, the rights of children and rights to property
and money in the event of separation.
Law and commerce
• Commercial law covers complex contract and property law. The law of agency, insurance law,
bills of exchange, insolvency and bankruptcy law and sales law are all important, and trace back
to the mediæval Lex Mercatoria. The UK Sale of Goods Acts and the US Uniform Commercial
Code are examples of codified common law commercial principles.
• Admiralty law and the Law of the Sea lay a basic framework for free trade and commerce across
the world's oceans and seas, where outside of a country's zone of control. Shipping companies
operate through ordinary principles of commercial law, generalised for a global market.
Admiralty law also encompasses specialized issues such as salvage, maritime liens, and injuries
to passengers.
• Company law sprang from the law of trusts, on the principle of separating ownership of property
and control.[52] The law of the modern company began with the Joint Stock Companies Act,
passed in the United Kingdom in 1865, which protected investors with limited liability and
conferred separate legal personality.
• Intellectual property law aims at safeguarding creators and other producers of intellectual goods
and services. These are legal rights (copyrights, trademarks, patents, and related rights) which
result from intellectual activity in the industrial, literary and artistic fields.[53]
• Restitution deals with the recovery of someone else's gain, rather than compensation for one's
own loss.
• Unjust enrichment is law covering a right to retrieve property from someone that has profited
unjustly at another's expense.
Law and regulation
The New York Stock Exchange trading floor after the Wall Street Crash of
1929, before tougher banking regulation was introduced.
• Tax law involves regulations that concern value added tax,

corporate tax, income tax.
• Banking law and financial regulation set minimum standards on
the amounts of capital banks must hold, and rules about best
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practice for investment. This is to insure against the risk of economic crises, such as the Wall
Street Crash of 1929.
• Regulation deals with the provision of public services and utilities. Water law is one example.
Especially since privatisation became popular, private companies doing the jobs previously
controlled by government have been bound by social responsibilities. Energy, gas telecomms and
water are regulated industries in most OECD countries.
• Competition law, known in the U.S. as antitrust law, is an evolving field that traces as far back as
Roman decrees against price fixing and the English restraint of trade doctrine. Modern
competition law derives from the U.S. anti-cartel and anti-monopoly statutes (the Sherman Act
and Clayton Act) of the turn of the 20th century. It is used to control businesses who attempt to
use their economic influence to distort market prices at the expense of consumer welfare.
• Consumer law could include anything from regulations on unfair contractual terms and clauses
to directives on airline baggage insurance.
• Environmental law is increasingly important, especially in light of the Kyoto Protocol and the
potential danger of climate change. Environmental protection also serves to penalise polluters
within domestic legal systems.
Legal systems
Main article: Legal systems of the world
In general, legal systems can be split between civil law and common law systems.[54] The term civil
law should not be confused with civil law as a group of legal subjects, as distinct from criminal or public
law. A third type of legal system—still accepted by some countries—is religious law, based on
scriptures and interpretations thereof. The specific system that a country is
ruled by is often determined by its history, connections with other
countries, or its adherence to international standards. The sources that
jurisdictions adopt as authoritatively binding are the defining features of
any legal system. Yet classification is a matter of form rather than
substance, since similar rules often prevail.
Civil law
Main article: Civil law (legal system)
First page of the 1804 edition of the Napoleonic Code
Civil law is the legal system used in most countries around the world today. In civil law the sources
recognised as authoritative are, primarily, legislation—especially codifications in constitutions or
statutes passed by government—and custom.[55] Codifications date back millennia, with one early
example being the Babylonian Codex Hammurabi. Modern civil law systems essentially derive from the
legal practice of the Roman Empire whose texts were rediscovered in medieval Europe. Roman law in
the days of the Roman Republic and Empire was heavily procedural, and lacked a professional legal
class.[56] Instead a lay person, iudex, was chosen to adjudicate. Precedents were not reported, so any
case law that developed was disguised and almost unrecognised.[57] Each case was to be decided afresh
from the laws of the state, which mirrors the (theoretical) unimportance of judges' decisions for future
cases in civil law systems today. During the 6th century AD in the Eastern Roman Empire, the Emperor
Justinian I codified and consolidated the laws that had existed in Rome, so that what remained was one-
twentieth of the mass of legal texts from before.[58] This became known as the Corpus Juris Civilis. As
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one legal historian wrote, "Justinian consciously looked back to the golden age of Roman law and aimed
to restore it to the peak it had reached three centuries before."[59] Western Europe, meanwhile, slowly
slipped into the Dark Ages, and it was not until the 11th century that scholars in the University of
Bologna rediscovered the texts and used them to interpret their own laws.[60] Civil law codifications
based closely on Roman law, alongside some influences from religious laws such as Canon law and
Islamic law,[61] continued to spread throughout Europe until the Enlightenment; then, in the 19th
century, both France, with the Code Civil, and Germany, with the Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch, modernised
their legal codes. Both these codes influenced heavily not only the law systems of the countries in
continental Europe (e.g. Greece), but also the Japanese and Korean legal traditions.[62] Today countries
that have civil law systems range from Russia and China to most of Central and Latin America.[63]
Common law and equity
Main article: Common law
King John of England signs Magna Carta.
Common law and equity are systems of whose distinction derives from the
doctrine of precedent, or stare decisis (Latin for "to stand by decisions"). In
addition to precedent, common law systems are codified by governments
enabled to pass new laws and statutes. Common law originated from
England and has been adapted by almost every country once tied to the
British Empire; with the exceptions of Malta, Scotland, South Africa, the
U.S. state of Louisiana and the Canadian province of Quebec. Common
law's roots are to be found in in medieval England, and was influenced by
the Norman conquest of England which introduced legal concepts and institutions from its own and
possibly also Islamic law.[64] Common law further developed when the English monarchy had been
weakened by the enormous cost of fighting for control over large parts of France. King John had been
forced by his barons to sign a document limiting his authority to pass laws. This "great charter" or
Magna Carta of 1215 also required that the King's entourage of judges hold their courts and judgments
at "a certain place" rather than dispensing autocratic justice in unpredictable places about the country.
[65] A concentrated and elite group of judges acquired a dominant role in law-making under this system,
and compared to its European counterparts the English judiciary became highly centralised. In 1297, for
instance, while the highest court in France had fifty-one judges, the English Court of Common Pleas had
five.[66] This powerful and tight-knit judiciary gave rise to a rigid and inflexible system of common
law.[67] As a result, as time went on, increasing numbers of citizens petitioned the King to override the
common law, and on the King's behalf the Lord Chancellor gave judgment to do what was equitable in a
case. From the time of Sir Thomas More, the first lawyer to be appointed as Lord Chancellor, a
systematic body of equity grew up alongside the rigid common law, and developed its own Court of
Chancery. At first, equity was often criticised as erratic, that it "varies like the Chancellor's foot". But
over time it developed solid principles, especially under Lord Eldon.[68] In the 19th century the two
systems were fused into one another. In developing the common law and equity, academic authors have
always played an important part. William Blackstone, from around 1760, was the first scholar to
describe and teach it.[69] But merely in describing, scholars who sought explanations and underlying
structures slowly changed the way the law actually worked.[70]
Religious law
Main article: Religious law

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Religious law is explicitly based on religious precepts. Examples include the Jewish Halakha and
Islamic Sharia—both of which translate as the "path to follow"—while Christian canon law also
survives in some church communities. Often the implication of religion for law is unalterability, because
the word of God cannot be amended or legislated against by judges or governments. However a
thorough and detailed legal system generally requires human elaboration. For instance, the Quran has
some law, and it acts as a source of further law through interpretation,[71] Qiyas (reasoning by analogy),
Ijma (consensus) and precedent. This is mainly contained in a body of law and jurisprudence known as
Sharia and Fiqh respectively, which at least one scholar has claimed had an influence on the early
development of the common law,[64] as well as some influence on civil law.[72] Another example is the
Torah or Old Testament, in the Pentateuch or Five Books of Moses. This contains the basic code of
Jewish law, which some Israeli communities choose to use. The Halakha is a code of Jewish law which
summarises some of the Talmud's interpretations. Nevertheless, Israeli law allows litigants to use
religious laws only if they choose. Canon law is only in use by members of the clergy in the Roman
Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Anglican Communion.
A trial in the Ottoman Empire, 1879, when religious law applied under the Mecelle.
Until the 18th century, Sharia law was practiced throughout the Muslim
world in a non-codified form, with the Ottoman Empire's Mecelle code
in the 19th century being first attempt at codifying elements of Sharia
law. Since the mid-1940s, efforts have been made, in country after
country, to bring Sharia law more into line with modern conditions and
conceptions.[73] In modern times, the legal systems of many muslim
countries draw upon both civil and common law traditions as well as Islamic law and custom. The
constitutions of certain muslim states, such as Egypt and Afghanistan, recognise Islam as the religion of
the state, obliging legislature to adhere to Sharia.[74] Saudi Arabia recognises Quran as its constitution,
and is governed on the basis of Islamic law.[75] Iran has also witnessed a reiteration of Islamic law into
its legal system after 1979.[76] During the last few decades, one of the fundamental features of the
movement of Islamic resurgence has been the call to restore the Sharia, which has generated a vast
amount of literature and affected world politics.[77]
Legal theory
History of law
Main article: Legal history
King Hammurabi is revealed the code of laws by the Mesopotamian sun

god Shamash, also revered as the god of justice.
The history of law is closely connected to the development of civilization.

Ancient Egyptian law, dating as far back as 3000 BC, contained a civil
code that was probably broken into twelve books. It was based on the
concept of Ma'at, characterised by tradition, rhetorical speech, social
equality and impartiality.[78] By the 22nd century BC, the ancient
Sumerian ruler Ur-Nammu had formulated the first law code, which
consisted of casuistic statements ("if ... then ..."). Around 1760 BC, King
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Hammurabi further developed Babylonian law, by codifying and inscribing it in stone. Hammurabi
placed several copies of his law code throughout the kingdom of Babylon as stelae, for the entire public
to see; this became known as the Codex Hammurabi. The most intact copy of these stelae was
discovered in the 19th century by British Assyriologists, and has since been fully transliterated and
translated into various languages, including English, German, and French.[79]
The Old Testament is likely the oldest surviving body of law still relevant to modern legal systems. It
dates back to 1280 BC, and takes the form of moral imperatives as recommendations for a good society.
The small Greek city-state, Ancient Athens, and from about 8th century BC was the first society to be
based on broad inclusion of its citizenry; excluding women and the slave class. However. Athens had no
legal science, and no word for "law" as an abstract concept.[80] Yet Ancient Greek law contained major
constitutional innovations in the development of democracy.[81]
Roman law was heavily influenced by Greek philosophy, but its detailed rules were developed by
professional jurists, and were highly sophisticated.[82] Over the centuries between the rise and decline
of the Roman Empire, law was adapted to cope with the changing social situations, and underwent major
codification during Justinian I.[83] Although it declined in significance during the Dark Ages, Roman
law was rediscovered around the 11th century when mediæval legal scholars began to research Roman
codes and adapt their concepts. In mediæval England, the King's judges developed a body of precedent,
which later became the common law. A Europe-wide Lex Mercatoria was formed so that merchants
could trade with common standards of practice; rather than with the many
splintered facets of local laws. The Lex Mercatoria, a precursor to modern
commercial law, emphasised the freedom of contract and alienability of
property.[84] As nationalism grew in the 18th and 19th centuries, Lex
Mercatoria was incorporated into countries' local law under new civil
codes. The French Napoleonic Code and the German became the most
influential. In contrast to English common law, which consists of
enormous tomes of case law, codes in small books are easy to export and
easy for judges to apply. However, today there are signs that civil and
common law are converging.[85] EU law is codified in treaties, but
develops through the precedent laid down by the European Court of
Justice.
The Constitution of India is the longest written constitution for a country, containing 444 articles, 12
schedules, numerous amendments and 117,369 words.
Islamic law and jurisprudence developed during the Middle Ages.[86] The methodology of legal
precedent and reasoning by analogy (Qiyas) used in early Islamic law was similar to that of the later
English common law system.[87] This was particularly the case for the Maliki school of Islamic law
active in North Africa, Islamic Spain and the Emirate of Sicily. Between the 8th and 11th centuries,
Maliki law developed several legal institutions that were parallel with later common law institutions.[88]
Ancient India and China represent distinct traditions of law, and have historically had independent
schools of legal theory and practice. The Arthashastra, probably compiled around 100 AD (although it
contains older material), and the Manusmriti (c. 100–300 AD) were foundational treatises in India, and
comprise texts considered authoritative legal guidance.[89] Manu's central philosophy was tolerance and
Pluralism, and was cited across Southeast Asia.[90] This Hindu tradition, along with Islamic law, was
supplanted by the common law when India became part of the British Empire.[91] Malaysia, Brunei,
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Singapore and Hong Kong also adopted the common law. The eastern Asia legal tradition reflects a
unique blend of secular and religious influences.[92] Japan was the first country to begin modernising its
legal system along western lines, by importing bits of the French, but mostly the German Civil Code.
[93] This partly reflected Germany's status as a rising power in the late 19th century. Similarly,
traditional Chinese law gave way to westernisation towards the final years of the Ch'ing dynasty in the
form of six private law codes based mainly on the Japanese model of German law.[94] Today
Taiwanese law retains the closest affinity to the codifications from that period, because of the split
between Chiang Kai-shek's nationalists, who fled there, and Mao Zedong's communists who won control
of the mainland in 1949. The current legal infrastructure in the People's Republic of China was heavily
influenced by Soviet Socialist law, which essentially inflates administrative law at the expense of private
law rights.[95] Due to rapid industrialisation, today China undergoing a process of reform, at least in
terms of economic, if not social and political, rights. A new contract code in 1999 represented a move
away from administrative domination.[96] Furthermore, after negotiations lasting fifteen years, in 2001
China joined the World Trade Organisation.[97]
Philosophy of law
Main article: Jurisprudence

"But what, after all, is a law? […] When I say that the object of laws is
always general, I mean that law considers subjects en masse and actions The philosophy of law is
in the abstract, and never a particular person or action. […] On this view, commonly known as
we at once see that it can no longer be asked whose business it is to make jurisprudence. Normative
laws, since they are acts of the general will; nor whether the prince is jurisprudence is essentially
above the law, since he is a member of the State; nor whether the law can political philosophy, and
be unjust, since no one is unjust to himself; nor how we can be both free asks "what should law
and subject to the laws, since they are but registers of our wills." be?", while analytic
jurisprudence is asks
Jean-Jacques Rousseau, The Social Contract, II, 6.[98] "what is law?". John
Austin's utilitarian answer
was that law is "commands, backed by threat of sanctions, from a sovereign, to whom people have a
habit of obedience".[99] Natural lawyers on the other side, such as Jean-Jacques Rousseau, argue that
law reflects essentially moral and unchangeable laws of nature. The concept of "natural law" emerged in
ancient Greek philosophy concurrently and in entanglement with the notion of justice, and re-entered the
mainstream of Western culture through the writings of Thomas Aquinas and the commentaries of
Islamic philosopher and jurist Averroes.[100]
Hugo Grotius, the founder of a purely rationalistic system of natural law, argued that law arises from
both a social impulse—as Aristotle had indicated—and reason.[101] Immanuel Kant believed a moral
imperative requires laws "be chosen as though they should hold as universal laws of nature".[102]
Jeremy Bentham and his student Austin, following David Hume, believed that this conflated the "is" and
what "ought to be" problem. Bentham and Austin argued for law's positivism; that real law is entirely
separate from "morality".[103] Kant was also criticised by Friedrich Nietzsche, who rejected the
principle of equality, and believed that law emanates from the will to power, and cannot be labelled as
"moral" or "immoral".[104]
In 1934, the Austrian philosopher Hans Kelsen continued the positivist tradition in his book the Pure
Theory of Law.[105] Kelsen believed that although law is separate from morality, it is endowed with
"normativity"; meaning we ought to obey it. While laws are positive "is" statements (e.g. the fine for
reversing on a highway is €500); law tells us what we "should" do. Thus, each legal system can be
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hypothesised to have a basic norm (Grundnorm) instructing us to obey. Kelsen's major opponent, Carl
Schmitt, rejected both positivism and the idea of the rule of law because he did not accept the primacy of
abstract normative principles over concrete political positions and decisions.[106] Therefore, Schmitt
advocated a jurisprudence of the exception (state of emergency), which denied that legal norms could
encompass of all political experience.[107]
Bentham's utilitarian theories remained dominant in law until the 20th century.
Later in the 20th century, H. L. A. Hart attacked Austin for his simplifications
and Kelsen for his fictions in The Concept of Law.[108] Hart argued law is a
system of rules, divided into primary (rules of conduct) and secondary ones
(rules addressed to officials to administer primary rules). Secondary rules are
further divided into rules of adjudication (to resolve legal disputes), rules of
change (allowing laws to be varied) and the rule of recognition (allowing laws
to be identified as valid). Two of Hart's students continued the debate: In his
book Law's Empire, Ronald Dworkin attacked Hart and the positivists for their
refusal to treat law as a moral issue. Dworkin argues that law is an "interpretive
concept",[109] that requires judges to find the best fitting and most just solution to a legal dispute, given
their constitutional traditions. Joseph Raz, on the other hand, defended the positivist outlook and
criticised Hart's "soft social thesis" approach in The Authority of Law.[110] Raz argues that law is
authority, identifiable purely through social sources and without reference to moral reasoning. In his
view, any categorisation of rules beyond their role as authoritative instruments in mediation are best left
to sociology, rather than jurisprudence.[111]
Economic analysis of law
Main article: Law and economics
In the 18th century Adam Smith presented a philosophical foundation for explaining the relationship
between law and economics.[112] The discipline arose partly out of a critique of trade unions and U.S.
antitrust law. The most influential proponents, such as Richard Posner and Oliver Williamson and the
so-called Chicago School of economists and lawyers including Milton
Friedman and Gary Becker, are generally advocates of deregulation and
privatisation, and are hostile to state regulation or what they see as restrictions
on the operation of free markets.[113]
Richard Posner, one of the Chicago School, runs a blog with Bank of Sweden
Prize winning economist Gary Becker.[114]
The most prominent economic analyst of law is 1991 Nobel Prize winner Ronald Coase, whose first
major article, The Nature of the Firm (1937), argued that the reason for the existence of firms
(companies, partnerships, etc.) is the existence of transaction costs.[115] Rational individuals trade
through bilateral contracts on open markets until the costs of transactions mean that using corporations
to produce things is more cost-effective. His second major article, The Problem of Social Cost (1960),
argued that if we lived in a world without transaction costs, people would bargain with one another to
create the same allocation of resources, regardless of the way a court might rule in property disputes.
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[116] Coase used the example of a nuisance case named Sturges v. Bridgman, where a noisy
sweetmaker and a quiet doctor were neighbours and went to court to see who should have to move.[36]
Coase said that regardless of whether the judge ruled that the sweetmaker had to stop using his
machinery, or that the doctor had to put up with it, they could strike a mutually beneficial bargain about
who moves house that reaches the same outcome of resource distribution. Only the existence of
transaction costs may prevent this.[117] So the law ought to pre-empt what would happen, and be
guided by the most efficient solution. The idea is that law and regulation are not as important or
effective at helping people as lawyers and government planners believe.[118] Coase and others like him
wanted a change of approach, to put the burden of proof for positive effects on a government that was
intervening in the market, by analysing the costs of action.[119]
Sociology of law
Main article: Sociology of law
Sociology of law is a diverse field of study that examines the interaction of law with society and
overlaps with jurisprudence, economic analysis of law and more specialised subjects such as
criminology.[120] The institutions of social construction and legal frameworks are the relevant areas for
the discipline's inquiry. At first, legal theorists were suspicious of the discipline. Kelsen attacked one of
its founders, Eugen Ehrlich, who sought to make distinct the differences between positive law, which
lawyers learn and apply, and other forms of 'law' or social norms that regulate everyday life, generally
preventing conflicts from reaching lawyers and courts.[121]
Max Weber in 1917 – Weber began his career as a lawyer, and is regarded
as one of the founders of sociology and sociology of law.
Around 1900 Max Weber defined his "scientific" approach to law,

identifying the "legal rational form" as a type of domination, not
attributable to people but to abstract norms.[122] Legal rationalism was his term for a body of coherent
and calculable law which formed a precondition for modern political developments and the modern
bureaucratic state and developed in parallel with the growth of capitalism.[120] Another sociologist,
Émile Durkheim, wrote in The Division of Labour in Society that as society becomes more complex, the
body of civil law concerned primarily with restitution and compensation grows at the expense of
criminal laws and penal sanctions.[123] Other notable early legal sociologists included Hugo
Sinzheimer, Theodor Geiger, Georges Gurvitch and Leon Petrażycki in Europe, and William Graham
Sumner in the U.S.[124]
Legal institutions
"It is a real unity of them all in one and the same person,
Law is less a body of static rules than a
made by covenant of every man with every man, in such
"dynamic process by which rules are
manner as if every man should say to every man: I authorise
constantly changed, created, and
and give up my right of governing myself to this man, or to
molded to fit particular
this assembly of men, on this condition; that thou givest up,
situations."[125] Law's main
thy right to him, and authorise all his actions in like manner.
institutions in liberal democracies are
Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan, XVII the independent judiciaries, the justice
systems, the representative legislatures
or parliaments, an accountable executive, a competent and non-corrupt bureaucracy, a police force, a
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civilian control of the military and a robust legal profession ensuring people's access to justice and a
pluralistic civil society—a term used to refer to the social institutions, communities and partnerships that
form law's political basis.[126]
John Locke, in his Two Treatises of Government, and Baron de Montesquieu in The Spirit of the Laws,
advocated for a separation of powers between the political, legislature and executive bodies.[127] Their
principle was that no person should be able to usurp all powers of the state, in contrast to the absolutist
theory of Thomas Hobbes' Leviathan.[128] Max Weber and others reshaped thinking on the extension of
state. Modern military, policing and bureaucratic power over ordinary citizens' daily lives pose special
problems for accountability that earlier writers such as Locke or Montesquieu could not have foreseen.
Modern international organisations tend to focus on the importance of rule of law and good governance,
while other authors explore the relation of rule of law and efficient governance in modern states.[129]
Judiciary
Main article: Judiciary
A judiciary is a number of judges mediating disputes to determine

outcome. Most countries have systems of appeal courts, answering up to a
supreme legal authority. In the United States, this is the Supreme Court;
[130] in Australia, the High Court; in the UK, the House of Lords;[131] in
Germany, the Bundesverfassungsgericht; in France, the Cour de
Cassation.[132] For most European countries the European Court of
Justice in Luxembourg can overrule national law, when EU law is
relevant. The European Court of Human Rights in Strasbourg allows
citizens of the Council of Europe member states to bring cases relating to
human rights issues before it.[133]
The judges of the International Court of Justice in the Hague
Some countries allow their highest judicial authority to over-rule legislation they determined as
unconstitutional. In in Roe v. Wade, the U.S. Supreme Court overturned a Texan law which forbade the
granding of assistance to women seeking abortion.[134] The U.S.'s constitution's fourteenth amendment
was interpreted to give Americans a right to privacy, and thus a woman's right to choose abortion.
A judiciary is theoretically bound by the constitution, much as legislative bodies are. In most countries
judges may only interpret the constitution and all other laws. But in common law countries, where
matters are not constitutional, the judiciary may also create law under the doctrine of precedent. The
UK, Finland and New Zealand assert the ideal of parliamentary sovereignty, whereby the unelected
judiciary may not overturn law passed by a democratic legislature.[135] In communist states, such as
China, the courts are often regarded as parts of the executive, or subservient to the legislature;
governmental institutions and actors exert thus various forms of influence on the judiciary.[136] In
muslim countries, courts often examine whether state laws adhere to the Sharia: the Supreme
Constitutional Court of Egypt may invalidate such laws,[137] and in Iran the Guardian Council ensures
the compatibility of the legislation with the "criteria of Islam".[138]
Legislature
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Main article: Legislature
The debating chamber of the European Parliament
Prominent examples of legislatures are the Houses of Parliament in

London, the Congress in Washington D.C., the Bundestag in Berlin, the
Duma in Moscow, the Parlamento Italiano in Rome and the Assemblée
nationale in Paris. By the principle of representative government people
vote for politicians to carry out their wishes. Although countries like Israel, Greece, Sweden and China
are unicameral, most countries are bicameral, meaning they have two separately appointed legislative
houses. In the 'lower house' politicians are elected to represent smaller constituencies. The 'upper house'
is usually elected to represent states in a federal system (as in Australia, Germany or the United States)
or different voting configuration in a unitary system (as in France). In the UK the upper house is
appointed by the government as a house of review. One criticism of bicameral systems with two elected
chambers is that the upper and lower houses may simply mirror one another. The traditional justification
of bicameralism is that an upper chamber acts as a house of review. This can minimise arbitrariness and
injustice in governmental action.[139]
To pass legislation, a majority of Members of Parliament must vote for a bill (proposed law) in each
house. Normally there will be several readings and amendments proposed by the different political
factions. If a country has an entrenched constitution, a special majority for changes to the constitution
will be required, making changes to the law more difficult. A government usually leads the process,
which can be formed from Members of Parliament (e.g. the UK or Germany). But in a presidential
system, an executive appoints a cabinet to govern from his or her political allies whether or not they are
elected (e.g. the United States or Brazil), and the legislature's role is reduced to either ratification or
veto.[140]
Executive
Main article: Executive (government)
The G8 meetings are composed of representatives of each country's

executive branch.
The executive in a legal system serve as a government's centre of

political authority. In a parliamentary system, as with Britain, Italy,
Germany, India, and Japan, the executive is known as the cabinet, and
composed of members of the legislature. The executive is chosen by the Prime Minister or Chancellor,
whoes office holds power under the confidence of the legislature. Because popular elections appoint
political parties to govern, the leader of a party can change in between elections. The head of state is
apart from the executive, and he/she usually lacks formal political power yet symbolically enacts laws
and acts as representative of the nation. Examples include the German president (appointed by the
Parliament); the Queen of the United Kingdom (a hereditary title), and the Austrian president (elected by
popular vote). The other important model is the presidential system, found in France, the U.S. and
Russia. In presidential systems, the executive acts as both head of state and head of government, and has
power to appoint an unelected cabinet. Under a presidential system, the executive branch is separate
from the legislature to which is not accountable.[141]
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Although the role of the executive varies from country to country, usually it will propose the majority of
legislation, and propose government agenda. In presidential systems, the executive often has the power
to veto legislation. Most executives in both systems are responsible for foreign relations, the military
and police, and the bureaucracy. Ministers or other officials head a country's public offices, such as a
foreign ministry or interior ministry. The election of a different executive is therefore capable of
revolutionising an entire country's approach to government.
Military and police
Main articles: Military and Police
U.S. Customs and Border Protection officers
While military organizations have existed as long as government itself, the

idea of a standing police force is relatively modern concept. Mediæval
England's system of traveling criminal courts, or assizes, used show trials
and public executions to instill communities with fear to maintain control.
[142] The first modern police were probably those in 17th century Paris, in the court of Louis XIV,[143]
although the Paris Prefecture of Police claim they were the world's first uniformed policemen.[144]
Weber famously argued that the state is that which controls the legitimate monopoly of the means of
violence.[145] The military and police carry out enforcement at the request of the government or the
courts. The term failed state refers to states that cannot implement or enforce policies; their police and
military no longer control security and order and society moves into anarchy, the absence of
government.[146]
[edit] Bureaucracy
Main article: Bureaucracy
The United Nations' New York headquarters houses civil servants that
serve its 192 member states.
The etymology of "bureaucracy" derives from the French word for

"office" (bureau) and the Ancient Greek for word "power" (kratos).[147]
Like the military and police, a legal system's government servants and
bodies that make up its bureaucracy carry out the directives of the
executive. One of the earliest references to the concept was made by
Baron de Grimm, a German author who lived in France. In 1765 he wrote,
"The real spirit of the laws in France is that bureaucracy of which the late
Monsieur de Gournay used to complain so greatly; here the offices, clerks,
secretaries, inspectors and intendants are not appointed to benefit the public interest, indeed the public
interest appears to have been established so that offices might exist."[148]
Cynicism over "officialdom" is still common, and the workings of public servants is typically contrasted
to private enterprise motivated by profit.[149] In fact private companies, especially large ones, also have
bureaucracies.[150] Negative perceptions of "red tape" aside, public services such as schooling, health
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care, policing or public transport are a crucial state function making public bureaucratic action the locus
of government power.[150] Writing in the early 20th century, Max Weber believed that a definitive
feature of a developed state had come to be its bureaucratic support.[151] Weber wrote that the typical
characteristics of modern bureaucracy are that officials define its mission, the scope of work is bound by
rules, management is composed of career experts, who manage top down, communicating through
writing and binding public servants' discretion with rules.[152]
[edit] Legal profession
Main article: Legal profession
In civil law systems such as those of France, Germany, Italy, Spain and
Greece, there is a distinct category of notary, a legally trained public
official, compensated by the parties to a transaction.[153] This is a 16th
century painting of such a notary by Flemish painter Quentin Massys.
A corollary of the rule of law is the existence of a legal profession

sufficiently autonomous to be able to invoke the authority of the
independent judiciary; the right to assistance of an advocate in a court
proceeding emanates from this corollary—in England the function of
barrister or advocate is distinguished from legal counselor (solicitor).[154]
As the European Court of Human Rights has stated, the law should be
adequately accessible to everyone and people should be able to foresee how the law affects them.[155]
In order to maintain professionalism, the practice of law is typically overseen by either a government or
independent regulating body such as a bar association, bar council or law society. Modern lawyers
achieve distinct professional identity through specified legal procedures (e.g. successfully passing a
qualifying examination), are required by law to have a special qualification (a legal education earning
the student a Bachelor of Laws, a Bachelor of Civil Law or a Juris Doctor degree[156]), and are
constituted in office by legal forms of appointment (being admitted to the bar). Most Muslim countries
have developed similar rules about legal education and the legal profession, but some of them still allow
lawyers with training in traditional Islamic law to practice law before personal status law courts.[157] In
China and other developing countries there are not enough law-trained people to staff the existing
judicial systems, and, accordingly, formal standards are more relaxed.[158]
Once accredited, a lawyer will often work in a law firm, in a chambers as a sole practitioner, in a
government post or in a private corporation as an internal counsel. In addition a lawyer may become a
legal researcher who provides on-demand legal research through a library, a commercial service or
through freelance work. Many people trained in law put their skills to use outside the legal field entirely.
Significant to the practice of law in the common law tradition is the legal research to determine the
current state of the law. This usually entails exploring case-law reports, legal periodicals and legislation.
Law practice also involves drafting documents such as court pleadings, persuasive briefs, contracts, or
wills and trusts. Negotiation and dispute resolution skills (including ADR techniques) are also important
to legal practice, depending on the field.[159]
[edit] Civil society
Main article: Civil society
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A march in Washington D.C. during the U.S. Civil Rights Movement in 1963
The modern concept of "civil society" dates back to Locke.[160] He saw civil society as people who
have "a common established law and judicature to appeal to, with authority to decide controversies
between them."[161] German philosopher Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel also distinguished the "state"
from "civil society" (Zivilgesellschaft) in Elements of the Philosophy of Right.[162] Hegel believed that
civil society and the state were polar opposites, within the scheme of his dialectic theory of history.[163]
Civil society is necessarily a source of law, by being the basis from which people form opinions and
lobby for what they believe law should be. As Australian barrister and author Geoffrey Robertson QC
wrote of international law,
"one of its primary modern sources is found in the responses of ordinary men and women, and of the
non-governmental organizations which many of them support, to the human rights abuses they see on
the television screen in their living rooms."[164]
Freedom of speech, freedom of association and many other individual rights allow people to gather,
discuss, criticise and hold to account their governments, from which the basis of a deliberative
democracy is formed. The more people are involved with, concerned by and capable of changing how
political power is exercised over their lives, the more acceptable and legitimate the law becomes to the
people. The most familiar institutions of civil society include economic markets, profit-oriented firms,
families, trade unions, hospitals, universities, schools, charities, debating clubs, non-governmental
organisations, neighbourhouds, churches and religious associations.[165]
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Time

For other uses, see Time (disambiguation)
Sunrise shown in time lapse. The motions of Sun and Moon have
demonstrated and symbolized time throughout humanity's existence.[1]
The flow of sand in an hourglass can be used to keep track of elapsed time. It also concretely represents
the present as being between the past and the future.
Time is a component of a measuring system used to sequence events, to compare the durations of events
and the intervals between them, and to quantify the motions of objects. Time has been a major subject of
religion, philosophy, and science, but defining time in a non-controversial manner applicable to all fields
of study has consistently eluded the greatest scholars.
In physics and other sciences, time is considered one of the few fundamental quantities.[2] Time is used to
define other quantities – such as velocity – and defining time in terms of such quantities would result in
circularity of definition.[3] An operational definition of time, wherein one says that observing a certain
number of repetitions of one or another standard cyclical event (such as the passage of a free-swinging
pendulum) constitutes one standard unit such as the second, is highly useful in the conduct of both
advanced experiments and everyday affairs of life. The operational definition leaves aside the question
whether there is something called time, apart from the counting activity just mentioned, that flows and
that can be measured. Investigations of a single continuum called space-time brings the nature of time
into association with related questions into the nature of space, questions that have their roots in the
works of early students of natural philosophy.
Among prominent philosophers, there are two distinct viewpoints on time. One view is that time is part
of the fundamental structure of the universe, a dimension in which events occur in sequence. Time
travel, in this view, becomes a possibility as other "times" persist like frames of a film strip, spread out
across the time line. Sir Isaac Newton subscribed to this realist view, and hence it is sometimes referred
to as Newtonian time.[4][5] The opposing view is that time does not refer to any kind of "container" that
events and objects "move through", nor to any entity that "flows", but that it is instead part of a
fundamental intellectual structure (together with space and number) within which humans sequence and
compare events. This second view, in the tradition of Gottfried Leibniz[6] and Immanuel Kant,[7][8] holds
that time is neither an event nor a thing, and thus is not itself measurable nor can it be travelled.
Temporal measurement has occupied scientists and technologists, and was a prime motivation in
navigation and astronomy. Periodic events and periodic motion have long served as standards for units
of time. Examples include the apparent motion of the sun across the sky, the phases of the moon, the
swing of a pendulum, and the beat of a heart. Currently, the international unit of time, the second, is
defined in terms of radiation emitted by caesium atoms (see below). Time is also of significant social
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importance, having economic value ("time is money") as well as personal value, due to an awareness of
the limited time in each day and in human life spans.
Contents
• 1 Temporal measurement
o 1.1 History of the calendar
o 1.2 History of time measurement devices
• 2 Definitions and standards
o 2.1 World time
o 2.2 Sidereal time
o 2.3 Chronology
• 3 Religion and mythology
o 3.1 Linear and cyclical time
• 4 Philosophy
o 4.1 Time as "unreal"
• 5 Physical definition
o 5.1 Classical mechanics
o 5.2 Modern physics
o 5.3 Spacetime
o 5.4 Time dilation
o 5.5 Relativistic time versus Newtonian time
o 5.6 Arrow of time
o 5.7 Quantised time
• 6 Time and the Big Bang
o 6.1 Speculative physics beyond the Big Bang
• 7 Time travel
• 8 Perception of time
o 8.1 Psychology
o 8.2 Altered states of consciousness
o 8.3 Culture
• 9 Use of time
• 10 See also
o 10.1 Books
o 10.2 Organizations
o 10.3 Miscellaneous arts and sciences
o 10.4 Miscellaneous units of time
o 13.1 Perception of time
o 13.2 Physics
o 13.3 Philosophy
o 13.4 Timekeeping
o 13.5 Miscellaneous
• 14 Navigation templates
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[edit] Temporal measurement
Temporal measurement, or chronometry, takes two distinct period forms: the calendar, a mathematical
abstraction for calculating extensive periods of time,[9] and the clock, a concrete mechanism that counts
the ongoing passage of time. In day-to-day life, the clock is consulted for periods less than a day, the
calendar, for periods longer than a day. The number (as on a clock dial or calendar) that marks the
occurrence of a specified event as to hour or date is obtained by counting from a fiducial epoch—a
central reference point.
[edit] History of the calendar
Main article: Calendar
Artifacts from the Palaeolithic suggest that the moon was used to calculate time as early as 12,000, and
possibly even 30,000 BP.[1]
The Sumerian civilization of approximately 2000 BC introduced the sexagesimal system based on the
number 60. 60 seconds in a minute, 60 minutes in an hour – and possibly a calendar with 360 (60x6)
days in a year (with a few more days added on). Twelve also features prominently, with roughly 12
hours of day and 12 of night, and 12 months in a year (with 12 being 1/5 of 60).
The reforms of Julius Caesar in 45 BC put the Roman world on a solar calendar. This Julian calendar
was faulty in that its intercalation still allowed the astronomical solstices and equinoxes to advance
against it by about 11 minutes per year. Pope Gregory XIII introduced a correction in 1582; the
Gregorian calendar was only slowly adopted by different nations over a period of centuries, but is today
the one in most common use around the world.
[edit] History of time measurement devices
Horizontal sundial in Taganrog (1833)

Main article: History of timekeeping devices
See also: Clock
A large variety of devices have been invented to measure time. The study
of these devices is called horology.
An Egyptian device dating to c.1500 BC, similar in shape to a bent T-square, measured the passage of
time from the shadow cast by its crossbar on a non-linear rule. The T was oriented eastward in the
mornings. At noon, the device was turned around so that it could cast its shadow in the evening
direction.[10]
A sundial uses a gnomon to cast a shadow on a set of markings which were calibrated to the hour. The
position of the shadow marked the hour in local time.
The most precise timekeeping devices of the ancient world were the water clock or clepsydra, one of
which was found in the tomb of Egyptian pharaoh Amenhotep I (1525–1504 BC). They could be used to
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measure the hours even at night, but required manual timekeeping to replenish the flow of water. The
Greeks and Chaldeans regularly maintained timekeeping records as an essential part of their
astronomical observations. Arab inventors and engineers in particular made improvements on the use of
water clocks up to the Middle Ages.[11]
The Arab engineers also invented the first mechanical clocks to be driven by weights and gears in the
11th century.[12][13][14] Also in the 11th century, the Chinese inventors and engineers invented the first
mechanical clocks to be driven by an escapement mechanism.
A contemporary quartz watch
The hourglass uses the flow of sand to measure the flow of time. They
were used in navigation. Ferdinand Magellan used 18 glasses on each ship
for his circumnavigation of the globe (1522).[15]
Incense sticks and candles were, and are, commonly used to measure time in temples and churches
across the globe. Waterclocks, and later, mechanical clocks, were used to mark the events of the abbeys
and monasteries of the Middle Ages. Richard of Wallingford (1292–1336), abbot of St. Alban's abbey,
famously built a mechanical clock as an astronomical orrery about 1330.[16][17]
The English word clock probably comes from the Middle Dutch word "klocke" which is in turn derived
from the mediaeval Latin word "clocca", which is ultimately derived from Celtic, and is cognate with
French, Latin, and German words that mean bell. The passage of the hours at sea were marked by bells,
and denoted the time (see ship's bells). The hours were marked by bells in the abbeys as well as at sea.
A chip-scale atomic clock
Clocks can range from watches, to more exotic varieties such as the Clock
of the Long Now. They can be driven by a variety of means, including
gravity, springs, and various forms of electrical power, and regulated by a
variety of means such as a pendulum.
A chronometer is a portable timekeeper that meets certain precision

standards. Initially, the term was used to refer to the marine chronometer,
a timepiece used to determine longitude by means of celestial navigation. More recently, the term has
also been applied to the chronometer watch, a wristwatch that meets precision standards set by the Swiss
agency COSC.
The most accurate timekeeping devices are atomic clocks, which are accurate to seconds in many
millions of years,[18] and are used to calibrate other clocks and timekeeping instruments. Atomic clocks
use the spin property of atoms as their basis, and since 1967, the International System of Measurements
bases its unit of time, the second, on the properties of caesium atoms. SI defines the second as
9,192,631,770 cycles of that radiation which corresponds to the transition between two electron spin
energy levels of the ground state of the 133Cs atom.
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Common units of time
Unit Size Notes
Hanoi 191208 Wikipedia attosecond 1/1018 s SyHung2020
smallest measured time
Today, the Global Positioning System in femtosecond 1/1015 s
coordination with the Network Time Protocol
can be used to synchronize timekeeping picosecond 1/1012 s
systems across the globe. nanosecond 1/109 s
microsecond 1/106 s
millisecond 0.001 s
As of 2006, the smallest unit of time that has
been directly measured is on the attosecond second SI base unit
(10−18 s) time scale, or around 1026 Planck minute 60 s
times.[19][20][21]
hour 60 minutes
[edit] Definitions and standards day 24 hours
See also: Time standard and Orders of week 7 days Also called sennight
magnitude (time) fortnight 14 days 2 weeks
month 28 to 31 days
The SI base unit for time is the SI second.
quarter 3 months
From the second, larger units such as the
minute, hour and day are defined, though they year 12 months
are "non-SI" units because they do not use the common year 365 days 52 weeks + 1 day
decimal system, and also because of the
leap year 366 days 52 weeks + 2 days
occasional need for a leap second. They are,
however, officially accepted for use with the tropical year 365.24219 days average
International System. There are no fixed ratios Gregorian year 365.2425 days average
between seconds and months or years as Olympiad 4 year cycle
months and years have significant variations in
length.[22] lustrum 5 years
decade 10 years
The official SI definition of the second is as Indiction 15 year cycle
follows:[22][23]
score 20 years
The second is the duration of 9,192,631,770 generation 17 - 25 years approximate
periods of the radiation corresponding to the jubilee
transition between the two hyperfine levels of the 50 years
(Biblical)
ground state of the caesium 133 atom.
century 100 years
millennium 1,000 years
At its 1997 meeting, the CIPM affirmed that this definition refers to a caesium atom in its ground state at
a temperature of 0 K.[22] Previous to 1967, the second was defined as:
the fraction 1/31,556,925.9747 of the tropical year for 1900 January 0 at 12 hours ephemeris time.
The current definition of the second, coupled with the current definition of the metre, is based on the
special theory of relativity, which affirms our space-time to be a Minkowski space.
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[edit] World time
The measurement of time is so critical to the functioning of modern societies that it is coordinated at an
international level. The basis for scientific time is a continuous count of seconds based on atomic clocks
around the world, known as the International Atomic Time (TAI). This is the yardstick for other time
scales, including Coordinated Universal Time (UTC), which is the basis for civil time.
Earth is split up into a number of time zones. Most time zones are exactly one hour apart, and by
convention compute their local time as an offset from UTC or Greenwich Mean Time. In many locations
these offsets vary twice yearly due to daylight saving time transitions.
[edit] Sidereal time
Sidereal time is the measurement of time relative to a distant star (instead of solar time that is relative to
the sun). It is used in astronomy to predict when a star will be overhead. Due to the rotation of the earth
around the sun a sidereal day is 1/366 (4 minutes) less than a solar day.
[edit] Chronology
Main article: Chronology
Another form of time measurement consists of studying the past. Events in the past can be ordered in a
sequence (creating a chronology), and can be put into chronological groups (periodization). One of the
most important systems of periodization is geologic time, which is a system of periodizing the events
that shaped the Earth and its life. Chronology, periodization, and interpretation of the
past are together known as the study of history.
[edit] Religion and mythology

Further information: Category:Time and fate deities
In the Old Testament book Ecclesiastes, traditionally ascribed to Solomon (970–928

BC), time (as the Hebrew word ‫ זמן‬,‫` עדן‬iddan(time) zĕman(season) is often
translated) was traditionally regarded as a medium for the passage of predestined
events. (Another word, ‫ זמן‬zman, was current as meaning time fit for an event, and is
used as the modern Hebrew equivalent to the English word "time".)
Hindu units of time shown logarithmically
There is an appointed time (zman) for everything. And there is a time (’êth) for every event
under heaven–
A time (’êth) to give birth, and a time to die; A time to plant, and a time to uproot what is
planted.
A time to kill, and a time to heal; A time to tear down, and a time to build up.
A time to weep, and a time to laugh; A time to mourn, and a time to dance.
A time to throw stones, and a time to gather stones; A time to embrace, and a time to shun
embracing.
A time to search, and a time to give up as lost; A time to keep, and a time to throw away.
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A time to tear apart, and a time to sew together; A time to be silent, and a time to speak.
A time to love, and a time to hate; A time for war, and a time for peace. – Ecclesiastes 3:1–8
[edit] Linear and cyclical time
See also: Time Cycles and Wheel of time
In general, the Judaeo-Christian concept, based on the Bible, is that time is linear, with a beginning, the
act of creation by God. The Christian view assumes also an end, the eschaton, expected to happen when
Christ returns to earth in the Second Coming to judge the living and the dead. This will be the
consummation of the world and time. St Augustine's City of God was the first developed application of
this concept to world history. The Christian view is that God is uncreated and eternal so that He and the
supernatural world are outside time and exist in eternity.
Ancient cultures such as Incan, Mayan, Hopi, and other Native American Tribes, plus the Babylonian,
Ancient Greek, Hindu, Buddhist, Jainist, and others have a concept of a wheel of time, that regards time
as cyclical and quantic consisting of repeating ages that happen to every being of the Universe between
birth and extinction.
[edit] Philosophy
Main articles: Philosophy of space and time and Temporal finitism
The earliest recorded African philosophy of time was expounded by the ancient Egyptian thinker
Ptahhotep (c. 2650–2600 BC), who said: "Do not lessen the time of following desire, for the wasting of
time is an abomination to the spirit." [citation needed] The Vedas, the earliest texts on Indian philosophy and
Hindu philosophy dating back to the late 2nd millennium BC, describe ancient Hindu cosmology, in
which the universe goes through repeated cycles of creation, destruction and rebirth, with each cycle
lasting 4,320,000 years. Ancient Greek philosophers, including Parmenides and Heraclitus, wrote essays
on the nature of time.[24]
In Book 11 of St. Augustine's Confessions, he ruminates on the nature of time, asking, "What then is
time? If no one asks me, I know: if I wish to explain it to one that asketh, I know not." He settles on time
being defined more by what it is not than what it is,[25] an approach similar to that taken in other negative
definitions.
In contrast to ancient Greek philosophers who believed that the universe had an infinite past with no
beginning, medieval philosophers and theologians developed the concept of the universe having a finite
past with a beginning. This view was inspired by the creation myth shared by the three Abrahamic
religions: Judaism, Christianity and Islam. The Christian philosopher, John Philoponus, presented the
first such argument against the ancient Greek notion of an infinite past. However, the most sophisticated
medieval arguments against an infinite past were developed by the early Muslim philosopher, Al-Kindi
(Alkindus); the Jewish philosopher, Saadia Gaon (Saadia ben Joseph); and the Muslim theologian, Al-
Ghazali (Algazel). They developed two logical arguments against an infinite past, the first being the
"argument from the impossibility of the existence of an actual infinite", which states:[26]
"An actual infinite cannot exist."

"An infinite temporal regress of events is an actual infinite."
"∴ An infinite temporal regress of events cannot exist."
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The second argument, the "argument from the impossibility of completing an actual infinite by
successive addition", states:[26]
"An actual infinite cannot be completed by successive addition."

"The temporal series of past events has been completed by successive addition."
"∴ The temporal series of past events cannot be an actual infinite."
Both arguments were adopted by later Christian philosophers and theologians, and the second argument
in particular became more famous after it was adopted by Immanuel Kant in his thesis of the first
antimony concerning time.[26]
Isaac Newton believed time and space form a container for events, which is as real as the objects it
contains.
Absolute, true, and mathematical time, in and of itself and of its own nature, without reference to anything
external, flows uniformly and by another name is called duration. Relative, apparent, and common time is any
sensible and external measure (precise or imprecise) of duration by means of motion; such a measure – for
example, an hour, a day, a month, a year – is commonly used instead of true time.
– Principia[27]
In contrast to Newton's belief in absolute space, and a precursor to Kantian time, Leibniz believed that
time and space are relational.[28] The differences between Leibniz's and Newton's interpretations came to
a head in the famous Leibniz-Clarke Correspondence. Leibniz thought of time as a fundamental part of
an abstract conceptual framework, together with space and number, within which we sequence events,
quantify their duration, and compare the motions of objects. In this view, time does not refer to any kind
of entity that "flows," that objects "move through," or that is a "container" for events.
Immanuel Kant, in the Critique of Pure Reason, described time as an a priori intuition that allows us
(together with the other a priori intuition, space) to comprehend sense experience.[29] With Kant, neither
space nor time are conceived as substances, but rather both are elements of a systematic mental
framework that necessarily structures the experiences of any rational agent, or observing subject. Spatial
measurements are used to quantify how far apart objects are, and temporal measurements are used to
quantify how far apart events occur.
In Existentialism, time is considered fundamental to the question of being,[citation needed] in particular by the
philosopher Martin Heidegger.[citation needed] (See Ontology).
Henri Bergson believed that time was neither a real homogeneous medium nor a mental construct, but
possesses what he referred to as Duration. Duration, in Bergson's view, was creativity and memory as an
essential component of reality.[30]
[edit] Time as "unreal"
In 5th century BC Greece, Antiphon the Sophist, in a fragment preserved from his chief work On Truth
held that: "Time is not a reality (hypostasis), but a concept (noêma) or a measure (metron)." Parmenides
went further, maintaining that time, motion, and change were illusions, leading to the paradoxes of his
follower Zeno.[31] Time as illusion is also a common theme in Buddhist thought,[32] and some modern
philosophers have carried on with this theme. J. M. E. McTaggart's 1908 The Unreality of Time, for
example, argues that time is unreal (see also The flow of time).
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However, these arguments often center around what it means for something to be "real". Modern
physicists generally consider time to be as "real" as space, though others such as Julian Barbour in his
The End of Time argue that quantum equations of the universe take their true form when expressed in the
timeless configuration spacerealm containing every possible "Now" or momentary configuration of the
universe, which he terms 'platonia'.[33] (See also: Eternalism (philosophy of time).)
[edit] Physical definition

Main article: Time in physics
From the age of Newton up until Einstein's profound reinterpretation of the physical concepts associated
with time and space, time was considered to be "absolute" and to flow "equably" (to use the words of
Newton) for all observers.[34] The science of classical mechanics is based on this Newtonian idea of time.
Einstein, in his special theory of relativity,[35] postulated the constancy and finiteness of the speed of
light for all observers. He showed that this postulate, together with a reasonable definition for what it
means for two events to be simultaneous, requires that distances
Classical mechanics appear compressed and time intervals appear lengthened for events
associated with objects in motion relative to an inertial observer.
Einstein showed that if time and space is measured using

electromagnetic phenomena (like light bouncing between mirrors)
Newton's Second Law then due to the constancy of the speed of light, time and space
become mathematically entangled together in a certain way (called
Minkowski space) which in turn results in Lorentz transformation
History of ...
and in entanglement of all other important derivative physical
Fundamental concepts quantities (like energy, momentum, mass, force, etc) in a certain 4-
Space · Time · Mass · Force vectorial way (see special relativity for more details).
Energy · Momentum
[edit] Classical mechanics
Formulations
Newtonian mechanics In classical mechanics Newton's concept of "relative, apparent, and
Lagrangian mechanics common time" can be used in the formulation of a prescription for
Hamiltonian mechanics the synchronization of clocks. Events seen by two different
Branches observers in motion relative to each other produce a mathematical
Dynamics concept of time that works pretty well for describing the everyday
phenomena of most people's experience.
Kinematics
Applied mechanics [edit] Modern physics
Celestial mechanics
In the late nineteenth century, physicists encountered problems with
Continuum mechanics the classical understanding of time, in connection with the behavior
Statistical mechanics of electricity and magnetism. Einstein resolved these problems by
Scientists invoking a method of synchronizing clocks using the constant, finite
Newton · Euler · d'Alembert · speed of light as the maximum signal velocity. This led directly to
the result that time appears to elapse at different rates relative to
Clairaut
different observers in motion relative to one another.
Lagrange · Laplace · Hamilton ·
Poisson
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This box: view • talk • edit

Two-dimensional space depicted in three-dimensional

spacetime. The past and future light cones are absolute, the
"present" is a relative concept different for observers in relative
motion.
[edit] Spacetime
Main article: Spacetime
Modern physics views the curvature of spacetime around an

object as much a feature of that object as are its mass and
volume.[citation needed]
Time has historically been closely related with space, the two together comprising spacetime in
Einstein's special relativity and general relativity. According to these theories, the concept of time
depends on the spatial reference frame of the observer, and the human perception as well as the
measurement by instruments such as clocks are different for observers in relative motion. Even the
temporal order of events can change, but the past and future are defined by the backward and forward
light cones, which never change.[citation needed] The past is the set of events that can send light signals to the
observer, the future the events to which the observer can send light
signals. All else is non-observable and within that set of events the very
time-order differs for different observers.[citation needed]
[edit] Time dilation
Relativity of simultaneity: Event B is simultaneous with A in the green

reference frame, but it occurred before in the blue frame, and will occur
later in the red frame.
Main article: Time dilation
"Time is nature's way of keeping everything from happening at once". This quote, attributed variously to
Einstein, John Archibald Wheeler, and Woody Allen, says that time is what separates cause and effect.
Einstein showed that people travelling at different speeds, whilst agreeing on cause and effect, will
measure different time separations between events and can even observe different chronological
orderings between non-causally related events. Though these effects are minute unless one is travelling
at a speed close to that of light, the effect becomes pronounced for objects moving at speeds
approaching the speed of light. Many subatomic particles exist for only a fixed fraction of a second in a
lab relatively at rest, but some that travel close to the speed of light can be measured to travel further and
survive much longer than expected (a muon is one example). According to the special theory of
relativity, in the high-speed particle's frame of reference, it exists, on the average, for a standard amount
of time known as its mean lifetime, and the distance it travels in that time is zero, because its velocity is
zero. Relative to a frame of reference at rest, time seems to "slow down" for the particle. Relative to the
high-speed particle, distances seems to shorten. Even in Newtonian terms time may be considered the
fourth dimension of motion; but Einstein showed how both temporal and spatial dimensions can be
altered (or "warped") by high-speed motion.
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Einstein (The Meaning of Relativity): "Two events taking place at the points A and B of a system K are
simultaneous if they appear at the same instant when observed from the middle point, M, of the interval
AB. Time is then defined as the ensemble of the indications of similar clocks, at rest relatively to K,
which register the same simultaneously."
Einstein wrote in his book, Relativity, that simultaneity is also relative, i.e., two events that appear
simultaneous to an observer in a particular inertial reference frame need not be judged as simultaneous
by a second observer in a different inertial frame of reference.
[edit] Relativistic time versus Newtonian time
Views of spacetime along the world line of a rapidly accelerating

observer in a Newtonian universe. The events ("dots") that pass the
horizontal line are the events current to the observer.
The animations on the left and the right visualise the different
treatments of time in the Newtonian and the relativistic descriptions. At
heart of these differences are the Galilean and Lorentz transformations
applicable in the Newtonian and relativistic theories, respectively.
In both figures, the vertical direction indicates time. The horizontal

direction indicates distance (only one spatial dimension is taken into account), and the thick dashed
curve is the spacetime trajectory ("world line") of the observer. The small dots indicate specific (past
and future) events in spacetime.
The slope of the world line (deviation from being vertical) gives the relative velocity to the observer.
Note how in both pictures the view of spacetime changes when the observer accelerates.
In the Newtonian description these changes are such that time is absolute: the movements of the
observer do not influence whether an event occurs in the 'now' (i.e. whether an event passes the
horizontal line through the observer).
However, in the relativistic description the observability of events is absolute: the movements of the
observer do not influence whether an event passes the "light cone" of the observer. Notice that with the
change from a Newtonian to a relativistic description, the concept of absolute time is no longer
applicable: events move up-and-down in the figure depending on the acceleration of the observer.
[edit] Arrow of time
Main article: Arrow of time
Time appears to have a direction – the past lies behind, fixed and incommutable, while the future lies
ahead and is not necessarily fixed. Yet the majority of the laws of physics don't provide this arrow of
time. The exceptions include the Second law of thermodynamics, which states that entropy must
increase over time (see Entropy); the cosmological arrow of time, which points away from the Big Bang,
and the radiative arrow of time, caused by light only traveling forwards in time. In particle physics, there
is also the weak arrow of time, from CPT symmetry, and also measurement in quantum mechanics (see
Measurement in quantum mechanics).
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[edit] Quantised time
See also: Chronon
Time quantization is a hypothetical concept. In the modern established physical theories (the Standard
Model of Particles and Interactions and General Relativity) time is not quantized.
Planck time (~ 5.4 × 10−44 seconds) is the unit of time in the system of natural units known as Planck
units. Current established physical theories are believed to fail at this time scale, and many physicists
expect that the Planck time might be the smallest unit of time that could ever be measured, even in
principle. Tentative physical theories that describe this time scale exist; see for instance loop quantum
gravity.
[edit] Time and the Big Bang
Stephen Hawking in particular has addressed a connection between time and the Big Bang. In A Brief
History of Time and elsewhere, Hawking says that even if time did not begin with the Big Bang and
there were another time frame before the Big Bang, no information from events then would be
accessible to us, and nothing that happened then would have any effect upon the present time-frame. [36]
Upon occasion, Hawking has stated that time actually began with the Big Bang, and that questions about
what happened before the Big Bang are meaningless.[37][38][39] This less-nuanced, but commonly repeated
formulation has received criticisms from philosophers such as Aristotelian philosopher Mortimer J.
Adler.[40][41]
Scientists have come to some agreement on descriptions of events that happened 10−35 seconds after the
Big Bang, but generally agree that descriptions about what happened before one Planck time (5 × 10−44
seconds) after the Big Bang will likely remain pure speculation.
[edit] Speculative physics beyond the Big Bang
A graphical representation of the expansion of the

universe with the inflationary epoch represented as the
dramatic expansion of the metric seen on the left. Image
from WMAP press release, 2006.
While the Big Bang model is well established in

cosmology, it is likely to be refined in the future. Little
is known about the earliest moments of the universe's
history. The Penrose-Hawking singularity theorems
require the existence of a singularity at the beginning of cosmic time. However, these theorems assume
that general relativity is correct, but general relativity must break down before the universe reaches the
Planck temperature, and a correct treatment of quantum gravity may avoid the singularity.[42]
There may also be parts of the universe well beyond what can be observed in principle. If inflation
occurred this is likely, for exponential expansion would push large regions of space beyond our
observable horizon.
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Some proposals, each of which entails untested hypotheses, are:
• models including the Hartle-Hawking boundary condition in which the whole of space-time is
finite; the Big Bang does represent the limit of time, but without the need for a singularity.[43]
• brane cosmology models[44] in which inflation is due to the movement of branes in string theory;
the pre-big bang model; the ekpyrotic model, in which the Big Bang is the result of a collision
between branes; and the cyclic model, a variant of the ekpyrotic model in which collisions occur
periodically.[45][46][47]
• chaotic inflation, in which inflation events start here and there in a random quantum-gravity
foam, each leading to a bubble universe expanding from its own big bang.[48]
Proposals in the last two categories see the Big Bang as an event in a much larger and older universe, or
multiverse, and not the literal beginning.
[edit] Time travel

Main article: Time travel
See also: Time travel in fiction and Grandfather paradox
Time travel is the concept of moving backwards and/or forwards to different points in time, in a manner
analogous to moving through space and different than the "normal" flow of time to an earthbound
observer. Although time travel has been a plot device in fiction since the 19th century, and one-way
travel into the future is arguably possible given the phenomenon of time dilation in the theory of
relativity, it is currently unknown whether the laws of physics would allow time travel to the past. Any
technological device, whether fictional or hypothetical, that is used to achieve time travel is known as a
time machine.
A central problem with time travel to the past is the violation of causality; should an effect precede its
cause, it would give rise to the possibility of temporal paradox. Some interpretations of time travel
resolve this by accepting the possibility of travel between parallel realities or universes.
Theory would point toward there having to be a physical dimension in which one could travel to, where
the present (i.e. the point that which you are leaving) would be present at a point fixed in either the past
or future. Seeing as this theory would be dependent upon the theory of a multiverse, it is uncertain how
or if it would be possible to just prove the possibility of time travel.
[edit] Perception of time
[edit] Psychology
See also: Mental chronometry and Sense of time
Even in the presence of timepieces, different individuals may judge an identical length of time to be
passing at different rates.[citation needed] Commonly, this is referred to as time seeming to "fly" (a period of
time seeming to pass faster than possible) or time seeming to "drag" (a period of time seeming to pass
slower than possible). The psychologist Jean Piaget called this form of time perception "lived
time."[citation needed]
This common experience was used to familiarize the general public to the ideas presented by Einstein's
theory of relativity in a 1930 cartoon by Sidney "George" Strube:[49][50]
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Man: Well, it's like this,—supposing I were to sit next to a pretty girl for half an hour it would seem like half a
minute,—
Einstein: Braffo! You haf zee ideah! [sic]
Man: But if I were to sit on a hot stove for two seconds then it would seem like two hours.
A form of temporal illusion verifiable by experiment is the kappa effect,[51] whereby time intervals
between visual events are perceived as relatively longer or shorter depending on the relative spatial
positions of the events. In other words: the perception of temporal intervals appears to be directly
affected, in these cases, by the perception of spatial intervals.
Time also appears to pass more quickly as one gets older.[citation needed] Stephen Hawking suggests that the
perception of time is a ratio: Unit of Time : Time Lived.[citation needed] For example, one hour to a six-month-
old person would be approximately "1:4368", while one hour to a 40-year-old would be "1:349,440".
Therefore an hour appears much longer to a young child than to an aged adult, even though the measure
of time is the same.
[edit] Altered states of consciousness
Altered states of consciousness are sometimes characterized by a different estimation of time. Some
psychoactive substances – such as entheogens – may also dramatically alter a person's temporal
judgement. When viewed under the influence of such substances as LSD, psychedelic mushrooms, and
peyote, a clock may appear to be a strange reference point and a useless tool for measuring the passage
of events as it does not correlate with the user's experience. At higher doses, time may appear to slow
down, stop, speed up, go backwards and even seem out of sequence. A typical thought might be "I can't
believe it's only 8 o'clock, but then again, what does 8 o'clock mean?" As the boundaries for
experiencing time are removed, so is its relevance. Many users claim this unbounded timelessness feels
like a glimpse into spiritual infinity. To imagine that one exists somewhere "outside" of time is one of
the hallmark experiences of a psychedelic voyage.[citation needed] Marijuana, a milder psychedelic, may also
distort the perception of time to a lesser degree.[52]
The practice of meditation, central to all Buddhist traditions, takes as its goal the reflection of the mind
back upon itself, thus altering the subjective experience of time; the so called, 'entering the now', or 'the
moment'.[citation needed]
[edit] Culture
Culture is another variable contributing to the perception of time. Anthropologist Benjamin Lee Whorf
reported after studying the Hopi cultures that: "… the Hopi language is seen to contain no words,
grammatical forms, construction or expressions or that refer directly to what we call “time”, or to past,
present, or future…"[53]
An interesting fact is that in Hindi (official language of India), there is only one word kal for both
yesterday and tomorrow. The Hindi word kal could mean yesterday or it could mean tomorrow,
depending on the context.
[edit] Use of time

See also: Time management and Time discipline
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In sociology and anthropology, time discipline is the general name given to social and economic rules,
conventions, customs, and expectations governing the measurement of time, the social currency and
awareness of time measurements, and people's expectations concerning the observance of these customs
by others.
The use of time is an important issue in understanding human behaviour, education, and travel
behaviour. Time use research is a developing field of study. The question concerns how time is allocated
across a number of activities (such as time spent at home, at work, shopping, etc.). Time use changes
with technology, as the television or the Internet created new opportunities to use time in different ways.
However, some aspects of time use are relatively stable over long periods of time, such as the amount of
time spent traveling to work, which despite major changes in transport, has been observed to be about
20-30 minutes one-way for a large number of cities over a long period of time. This has led to the
disputed time budget hypothesis.
Time management is the organization of tasks or events by first estimating

how much time a task will take to be completed, when it must be
completed, and then adjusting events that would interfere with its
completion so that completion is reached in the appropriate amount of
time. Calendars and day planners are common examples of time
management tools.
Arlie Russell Hochschild and Norbert Elias have written on the use of time
from a sociological perspective.
[edit] See also

Time portal
Time's mortal aspect is personified in this bronze statue by Charles van der Stappen
See the Time navigation templates below for an exhaustive list of related articles.
[edit] Books
• A Brief History of Time

• About Time
• An Experiment with Time
[edit] Organizations
Leading scholarly organizations for researchers on the history and technology of time and timekeeping
• Antiquarian Horological Society - AHS (United Kingdom)

• Association Française des Amateurs d'Horlogerie Ancienne - AFAHA (France)
• Chronometrophilia (Switzerland)
• Deutsche Gesellschaft für Chronometrie - DGC (Germany)
• HORA Associazione Italiana Cultori di Orologeria Antica (Italy)
• National Association of Watch and Clock Collectors - NAWCC (United States of America)
[edit] Miscellaneous arts and sciences [edit] Miscellaneous units of time

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• Anachronistic
• Change • Fiscal year
• Date and time notation by country • Half-life
• List of cycles • Hexadecimal time
• Network Time Protocol (NTP) • Season
• Nonlinear (arts) • Tithi
• Philosophy of physics
• Unix epoch
• Rate (mathematics)
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Space
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For the space beyond Earth's atmosphere, see Outer space. For all other uses, see Space
(disambiguation).
Space is a boundless, three-dimensional extent in which objects and events occur and have relative
position and direction.[1] Physical space is often conceived in three linear dimensions, although modern
physicists usually consider it, with time, to be part of the boundless four-dimensional continuum known
as spacetime. In mathematics spaces with different numbers of dimensions and with different underlying
structures can be examined. The concept of space is considered to be of fundamental importance to an
understanding of the universe although disagreement continues between philosophers over whether it is
itself an entity, a relationship between entities, or part of a conceptual framework.
Many of the philosophical questions arose in the 17th century, during the early development of classical
mechanics. In Isaac Newton's view, space was absolute - in the sense that it existed permanently and
independently of whether there were any matter in the space.[2] Other natural philosophers, notably
Gottfried Leibniz, thought instead that space was a collection of relations between objects, given by
their distance and direction from one another. In the 18th century, Immanuel Kant described space and
time as elements of a systematic framework which humans use to structure their experience.
In the 19th and 20th centuries mathematicians began to examine non-Euclidean geometries, in which
space can be said to be curved, rather than flat. According to Albert Einstein's theory of general
relativity, space around gravitational fields deviates from Euclidean space.[3] Experimental tests of
general relativity have confirmed that non-Euclidean space provides a better model for explaining the
existing laws of mechanics and optics.
Philosophy of space
Contents
[hide] In the early 11th century, the Islamic philosopher and
physicist, Ibn al-Haytham (also known as Alhacen or
• 1 Philosophy of space Alhazen), discussed space perception and its
o 1.1 Leibniz and Newton epistemological implications in his Book of Optics (1021).
o 1.2 Kant His experimental proof of the intromission model of
o 1.3 Non-Euclidean geometry vision led to changes in the way the visual perception of
o 1.4 Gauss and Poincaré space was understood, contrary to the previous emission
o 1.5 Einstein theory of vision supported by Euclid and Ptolemy. In
• 2 Mathematics "tying the visual perception of
• 3 Physics space to prior bodily
o 3.1 Classical mechanics experience, Alhacen
o 3.2 Astronomy unequivocally rejected the
o 3.3 Relativity intuitiveness of spatial
o 3.4 Cosmology
perception and, therefore, the
• 4 Spatial measurement autonomy of vision. Without
• 5 Geography tangible notions of distance and
• 6 In psychology size for correlation, sight can
• 7 See also tell us next to nothing about
such things."[4]
• 8 References
Leibniz and Newton
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Gottfried Leibniz
In the seventeenth century, the philosophy of space and time emerged as a central issue in epistemology
and metaphysics. At its heart, Gottfried Leibniz, the German philosopher-mathematician, and Isaac
Newton, the English physicist-mathematician, set out two opposing theories of what space is. Rather
than being an entity which independently exists over and above other matter, Leibniz held that space is
no more than the collection of spatial relations between objects in the world: "space is that which results
from places taken together".[5] Unoccupied regions are those which could have objects in them and thus
spatial relations with other places. For Leibniz, then, space was an idealised abstraction from the
relations between individual entities or their possible locations and therefore could not be continuous but
must be discrete.[6] Space could be thought of in a similar way to the relations between family members.
Although people in the family are related to one another, the relations do not exist independently of the
people.[7] Leibniz argued that space could not exist independently of objects in the world because that
would imply that there would be a difference between two universes exactly alike except for the location
of the material world in each universe. But since there would be no observational way of telling these
universes apart then, according to the identity of indiscernibles, there would be no real difference
between them. According to the principle of sufficient reason, any theory of space which implied that
there could be these two possible universes, must therefore be wrong.[8]
Isaac Newton
Newton took space to be more than relations between material objects and
based his position on observation and experimentation. For a relationist there
can be no real difference between inertial motion, in which the object travels
with constant velocity, and non-inertial motion, in which the velocity changes
with time, since all spatial measurements are relative to other objects and their
motions. But Newton argued that since non-inertial motion generates forces, it
[9]
must be absolute. He used the example of water in a spinning bucket to demonstrate his argument.
Water in a bucket is hung from a rope and set to spin, starts with a flat surface. After a while, as the
bucket continues to spin, the surface of the water becomes concave. If the bucket's spinning is stopped
then the surface of the water remains concave as it continues to spin. The concave surface is therefore
apparently not the result of relative motion between the bucket and the water [10]. Instead, Newton argued,
it must be a result of non-inertial motion relative to space itself. For several centuries the bucket
argument was decisive in showing that space must exist independently of
matter.
Kant
Immanuel Kant
In the eighteenth century the German philosopher Immanuel Kant developed a

theory of knowledge in which knowledge about space can be both a priori and
synthetic.[11] According to Kant, knowledge about space is synthetic, in that
statements about space are not simply true by virtue of the meaning of the words in the statement. In his
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work, Kant rejected the view that space must be either a substance or relation. Instead he came to the
conclusion that space and time are not discovered by humans to be objective features of the world, but
are part of an unavoidable systematic framework for organizing our experiences.[12]
Non-Euclidean geometry
Spherical geometry is similar to elliptical geometry. On the surface of a sphere there are no parallel
lines.
Euclid's Elements contained five postulates which form the basis for Euclidean geometry. One of these,
the parallel postulate has been the subject of debate among mathematicians for many centuries. It states
that on any plane on which there is a straight line L1 and a point P not on L1, there is only one straight
line L2 on the plane which passes through the point P and is parallel to the straight line L1. Until the 19th
century, few doubted the truth of the postulate; instead debate centered over whether it was necessary as
an axiom, or whether it was a theory which could be derived from the other axioms. [13] Around 1830
though, the Hungarian János Bolyai and the Russian Nikolai Ivanovich Lobachevsky separately
published treatises on a type of geometry which does not include the parallel postulate, called hyperbolic
geometry. In this geometry, there are an infinite number of parallel lines which pass through the point P.
Consequently the sum of angles in a triangle is less than 180 o and the ratio of a circle's circumference to
its diameter is greater than pi. In the 1850s, Bernhard Riemann developed an equivalent theory of
elliptical geometry, in which there are no parallel lines which pass through P. In this geometry, triangles
have more than 180o and circles have a ratio of circumference to diameter which is less than pi.
Gauss and Poincaré

Ratio of
Type of Number of Sum of angles circumference to Measure of
geometry parallels in a triangle diameter of curvature
circle
Hyperbolic Infinite < 180o >π <0
Euclidean 1 180o π 0
Elliptical 0 > 180o <π >0 Carl Friedrich Gauss
Although there was a prevailing Kantian consensus at the time, once non-Euclidean geometries had been
formalised, some began to wonder whether or not physical space is curved.
Carl Friedrich Gauss, the German mathematician, was the first to consider an
empirical investigation of the geometrical structure of space. He thought of
making a test of the sum of the angles of an enormous stellar triangle and there
are reports he actually carried out a test, on a small scale, by triangulating
mountain tops in Germany.[14]
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Henri Poincaré
Henri Poincaré, a French mathematician and physicist of the late 19th century introduced an important
insight which attempted to demonstrate the futility of any attempt to discover by experiment which
geometry applies to space.[15] He considered the predicament which would face scientists if they were
confined to the surface of an imaginary large sphere with particular properties, known as a sphere-world.
In this world, the temperature is taken to vary in such a way that all objects expand and contract in
similar proportions in different places on the sphere. With a suitable falloff in temperature, if the
scientists try to use measuring rods to determine the sum of the angles in a triangle, they can be deceived
into thinking that they inhabit a plane, rather than a spherical surface.[16] In fact, the scientists cannot in
principle determine whether they inhabit a plane or sphere and, Poincaré argued, the same is true for the
debate over whether real space is Euclidean or not. For him, it was a matter of convention which
geometry was used to describe space.[17] Since Euclidean geometry is simpler than non-Euclidean
geometry, he assumed the former would always be used to describe the 'true' geometry of the world.[18]
Einstein
Albert Einstein
In 1905, Albert Einstein published a paper on a special theory of relativity, in

which he proposed that space and time be combined into a single construct
known as spacetime. In this theory, the speed of light in a vacuum is the same
for all observers - which has the result that two events that appear simultaneous
to one particular observer will not be simultaneous to another observer if the
observers are moving with respect to one another. Moreover, an observer will
measure a moving clock to tick more slowly than one which is stationary with
respect to them; and objects are measured to be shortened in the direction that they are moving with
respect to the observer.
Over the following ten years Einstein worked on a general theory of relativity, which is a theory of how
gravity interacts with spacetime. Instead of viewing gravity as a force field acting in spacetime, Einstein
suggested that it modifies the geometric structure of spacetime itself. [19] According to the general theory,
time goes more slowly at places with lower gravitational potentials and rays of light bend in the
presence of a gravitational field. Scientists have studied the behaviour of binary pulsars, confirming the
predictions of Einstein's theories and Non-Euclidean geometry is usually used to describe spacetime.
Mathematics
In modern mathematics, spaces are frequently described as different types of manifolds which are spaces
that locally approximate to Euclidean space and where the properties are defined largely on local
connectedness of points that lie on the manifold.
Physics
Classical mechanics
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Space is one of the few fundamental quantities in physics, meaning
Classical mechanics that it cannot be defined via other quantities because nothing more
fundamental is known at the present. On the other hand, it can be
related to other fundamental quantities. Thus, similar to other
Newton's Second Law
fundamental quantities (like time and mass), space can be explored
via measurement and experiment.
History of ... Astronomy

[hide]Fundamental concepts
Main article: Astronomy
Space · Time · Mass · Force
Energy · Momentum Astronomy is the science involved with the observation, explanation
[show]Formulations and measuring of objects in outer space.
[show]Branches
[show]Scientists Relativity
Main article: Theory of relativity

Before Einstein's work on relativistic physics, time and space were
viewed as independent dimensions. Einstein's discoveries have
shown that due to relativity of motion our space and time can be mathematically combined into one
object — spacetime. It turns out that distances in space or in time separately are not invariant with
respect to Lorentz coordinate transformations, but distances in Minkowski space-time along space-time
intervals are — which justifies the name.
In addition, time and space dimensions should not be viewed as exactly equivalent in Minkowski space-
time. One can freely move in space but not in time. Thus, time and space coordinates are treated
differently both in special relativity (where time is sometimes considered an imaginary coordinate) and
in general relativity (where different signs are assigned to time and space components of spacetime
metric).
Furthermore, from Einstein's general theory of relativity, it has been shown that space-time is
geometrically distorted- curved -near to gravitationally significant masses.[20]
Experiments are ongoing to attempt to directly measure gravitational waves. This is essentially solutions
to the equations of general relativity which describe moving ripples of spacetime. Indirect evidence for
this has been found in the motions of the Hulse-Taylor binary system.
Cosmology
Main article: Shape of the universe
Relativity theory lead to the cosmological question of what shape the universe is, and where space came
from. It appears that space was created in the Big Bang and has been expanding ever since. The overall
shape of space is not known, but space is known to be expanding very rapidly which is evident due to
the Hubble expansion.
Spatial measurement
Main article: Measurement
Research Trang216
The measurement of physical space has long been important. Although earlier societies had developed
measuring systems, the International System of Units, (SI), is now the most common system of units
used in the measuring of space, and is almost universally used within science.
Currently, the standard space interval, called a standard meter or simply meter, is defined as the distance
traveled by light in a vacuum during a time interval of exactly 1/299,792,458 of a second. This
definition coupled with present definition of the second is based on the special theory of relativity, that
our space-time is a Minkowski space.[citation needed]
Geography
Geography is the branch of science concerned with identifying and

describing the Earth, utilizing spatial awareness to try and understand
why things exist in specific locations. Cartography is the mapping of
spaces to allow better navigation, for visualization purposes and to
act as a locational device. Geostatistics apply statistical concepts to
collected spatial data in order to create an estimate for unobserved
phenomena.
Geographical space is often considered as land, and can have a

relation to ownership usage (in which space is seen as property or
territory). While some cultures assert the rights of the individual in
terms of ownership, other cultures will identify with a communal
approach to land ownership, while still other cultures such as
Australian Aboriginals, rather than asserting ownership rights to land,
invert the relationship and consider that they are in fact owned by the
land. Spatial planning is a method of regulating the use of space at
land-level, with decisions made at regional, national and international
levels. Space can also impact on human and cultural behavior, being
an important factor in architecture, where it will impact on the design
of buildings and structures, and on farming.
Ownership of space is not restricted to land. Ownership of airspace

and of waters is decided internationally. Other forms of ownership
have been recently asserted to other spaces — for example to the
radio bands of the electromagnetic spectrum or to cyberspace.
Public space is a term used to define areas of land as collectively owned by the community, and
managed in their name by delegated bodies; such spaces are open to all. While private property is the
land culturally owned by an individual or company, for their own use and pleasure.
Abstract space is a term used in geography to refer to a hypothetical space characterized by complete
homogeneity. When modeling activity or behavior, it is a conceptual tool used to limit extraneous
variables such as terrain.
In psychology
The way in which space is perceived is an area which psychologists first began to study in the middle of
the 19th century, and it is now thought by those concerned with such studies to be a distinct branch
Research Trang217
within psychology. Psychologists analyzing the perception of space are concerned with how recognition
of an object's physical appearance or its interactions are perceived.
Other, more specialized topics studied include amodal perception and object permanence. The
perception of surroundings is important due to its necessary relevance to survival, especially with
regards to hunting and self preservation as well as simply one's idea of personal space.
Several space-related phobias have been identified, including agoraphobia (the fear of open spaces),
astrophobia (the fear of celestial space), claustrophobia (the fear of enclosed spaces), and cenophobia
(the fear of empty spaces).
See also
Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Space
Look up Space in
Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
• Aether theories
• Cosmology
• Curvature of space
• Personal space
• Shape of the universe
• Space exploration
• Spatial analysis
Marriage
(Redirected from Married)

For the music record label, see Marriage Records.

"Married" redirects here. For the radio comedy programme, see Married (radio series).
"Matrimony" redirects here. For the sacrament or liturgical rite in Christianity, see Christian views of
marriage. For the card game, see Matrimony (solitaire).
Family law
Research Trang218
Entering into marriage
Prenuptial agreement
Marriage
Common-law marriage
Same-sex marriage
Legal states similar

to marriage
Cohabitation · Civil union

Domestic partnership
Registered partnership
Putative marriage
Dissolution of marriage
Annulment · Divorce · Alimony
Issues affecting children
Paternity · Legitimacy
Adoption · Legal guardian
Ward · Emancipation of minors
Foster care
Child Protective Services

(United States)
Parental responsibility
Contact (including visitation)
Residence in English law
Custody · Child support
Related areas
Spousal abuse · Child abuse

Child abduction · Child marriage
Adultery · Bigamy · Incest
Research Trang219
Conflict of laws
Marriage · Nullity · Divorce
v•d•e
Editors are currently in dispute concerning points of view expressed in this NPOV-dispute
tag. Please help to discuss and resolve the dispute before removing this message. (September
2008)
Marriage is a social, religious, spiritual, or legal union of individuals. This union may also be called
matrimony, while the ceremony that marks its beginning is usually called a wedding and the married
status created is sometimes called wedlock.
Marriage is an institution in which interpersonal relationships (usually intimate and sexual) are
acknowledged by the state, by religious authority, or both. It is often viewed as a contract. Civil
marriage is the legal concept of marriage as a governmental institution, in accordance with marriage
laws of the jurisdiction. If recognized by the state, by the religion(s) to which the parties belong or by
society in general, the act of marriage changes the personal and social status of the individuals who enter
into it.
People marry for many reasons, but usually one or more of the following: legal, social, and economic
stability; the formation of a family unit; procreation and the education and nurturing of children;
legitimizing sexual relations; public declaration of love; or to obtain citizenship.[1][2]
Marriage may take many forms: for example, a union between one man and one woman as husband and
wife is a monogamous heterosexual marriage; polygamy – in which a person takes more than one
spouse – is common in some societies.[3] Recently, some jurisdictions[4] and denominations[5][6][7] have
begun to recognize same-sex marriage, uniting people of the same sex.
A marriage is often formalized during a marriage ceremony,[8] which may be performed either by a
religious officiant, by a secular State authorised officiator, or (in weddings that have no church or state
affiliation) by a trusted friend of the wedding participants. The act of marriage usually creates normative
or legal obligations between the individuals involved and, in many societies, their extended families.
Article 16 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights declares that "Men and women of full age,
without any limitation due to race, nationality or religion, have the right to marry and to found a family.
They are entitled to equal rights as to marriage, during marriage and at its dissolution. Marriage shall be
entered into only with the free and full consent of the intending spouses." The Cairo Declaration on
Human Rights in Islam gives men and women the "right to marriage" regardless of their race, colour or
nationality, but not religion.
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Contents
• 1 History
o 1.1 European marriages
 1.1.1 State recognition
o 1.2 Chinese marriage
• 2 Selection of a partner
• 3 Marriage ceremony
• 4 Cohabitation
• 5 Sex and procreation
• 6 Marriage law
o 6.1 Rights and obligations
o 6.2 Marriage restrictions
o 6.3 State recognition
• 7 Marriage and religion
• 8 Financial considerations
o 8.1 Dowry
o 8.2 Bride price and dower
o 8.3 Modern customs
o 8.4 Taxation
o 8.5 Other considerations
• 9 Termination
• 10 Contemporary views on marriage
o 10.1 Criticisms
o 10.2 Controversial views
• 11 See also
o 11.1 Related concepts
• 12 References
History
See also: History of civil marriage in the U.S. and Timeline of same-sex marriage
Please help improve this article or section by expanding it. Further information might be
found on the talk page. (July 2008)
The way in which a marriage is conducted has changed over time, as has the institution itself. Although
the institution of marriage pre-dates reliable recorded history, many cultures have legends or religious
beliefs concerning the origins of marriage.[9]
European marriages
A woodcut of a medieval wedding ceremony from Germany.
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For most of European history, marriage was more or less a business agreement between two families
who arranged the marriages of their children. Romantic love, and even simple affection, were not
considered essential.[10] In fact at some times, too much affection in a marriage was considered a sin [citation
needed]
. Stress about the neccessity of marriage has historically been a nearly universal source of stress.[11]
In Ancient Greece, no specific civil ceremony was required for the creation of a marriage - only mutual
agreement and the fact that the couple must regard each other as husband and wife accordingly.[12] Men
usually married when they were in their 20s or 30s [13] and expected their wives to be in their early teens.
It has been suggested that these ages made sense for the Greek because men were generally done with
military service by age 30, and marrying a young girl ensured her virginity.[14] Married Greek women
had few rights in ancient Greek society and were expected to take care of the house and children.[15]
Time was an important factor in Greek marriage. For example there were superstitions that being
married during a full moon was good luck and, according to Robert Flacelière, Greeks married in the
winter.[14]
Like with the Greeks, Roman marriage and divorce required no specific government or religious
approval.[11] Both marriage and divorce could happen by simple mutual agreement.[11] There were several
types of marriages in Roman society. The traditional ("conventional") form called conventio in manum
required a ceremony with witnesses and was also dissolved with a ceremony.[11] In this type of marriage,
a woman lost her family rights of inheritance of her old family and gained them with her new one. She
now was subject to the authority of her husband.[16] There was the free marriage known as sine manu. In
this arrangement, the wife remained a member of her original family; she stayed under the authority of
her father, kept her family rights of inheritance with her old family and didn't gain any with the new
family. [16]
The first recorded use of the word "marriage" for the union of same-sex couples also occurs during the
Roman Empire. The term, however, was rarely associated with same-sex relationships, even though the
relationships themselves were common.[17] In the year 342, the Christian emperors Constantius and
Constans declared same-sex marriage to be illegal.[citation needed]
From the early Christian era (30 to 325 CE), marriage was thought of as primarily a private matter, with
no religious or other ceremony being required. Until 1545, Christian marriages in Europe were by
mutual consent, declaration of intention to marry and upon the subsequent physical union of the parties.
[18][19]
The couple would promise verbally to each other that they would be married to each other; the
presence of a priest or witnesses was not required.[20] This promise was known as the "verbum." If freely
given and made in the present tense (e.g., "I marry you"), it was unquestionably binding; [18] if made in
the future tense ("I will marry you"), it would constitute a betrothal. One of the functions of churches
from the Middle Ages was to register marriages, which was not obligatory. There was no state
involvement in marriage and personal status, with these issues being adjudicated in ecclesiastical courts.
Whereas the rape of male citizens was outlawed in the 100s CE, gay marriage was outlawed in the mid-
300s by two of Constantine the Great's sons, Constantius II and Constans. While Constans was later
denounced for having male lovers, emperors continued the condemnation of homosexuality. For
example, a law decreed in 390 required any man "taking a women's role" in sex was to be burned to
death.[21]
In the 12th century, aristocrats believed love was incompatible with marriage and sought romance in
adultery.[10] Troubadors invented courtly love which involved secret but chaste trysts between a lover
and a beloved.
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The average age of marriage in the late 1200s into the 1500s was around 25 years of age. [22] Beginning
in the 1500s it was unlawful for a woman younger than 20 years of age to marry.[23][19]
As part of the Counter-Reformation, in 1545 the Council of Trent decreed that a Roman Catholic
marriage would be recognized only if the marriage ceremony was officiated by a priest with two
witnesses. The Council also authorized a Catechism, issued in 1566, which defined marriage as, "The
conjugal union of man and woman, contracted between two qualified persons, which obliges them to
live together throughout life."[24] Since England broke with Rome in 1534, this change did not extend to
the regions affected by the Protestant Reformation, where marriage by consent continued to be the norm.
As part of the Reformation, the role of recording marriages and setting the rules for marriage passed to
the state. By the 1600s many of the Protestant European countries had a state involvement in marriage.
State recognition
In the early modern period, John Calvin and his Protestant colleagues reformulated Christian marriage
by enacting the Marriage Ordinance of Geneva, which imposed "The dual requirements of state
registration and church consecration to constitute marriage"[25] for recognition.
In England and Wales, Lord Hardwicke's Marriage Act 1753 required a formal ceremony of marriage,
thereby curtailing the practice of Fleet Marriage.[26] These were clandestine or irregular marriages
performed at Fleet Prison, and at hundreds of other places. From the 1690s until the Marriage Act of
1753 as many as 300,000 clandestine marriages were performed at Fleet Prison alone.[27] The Act
required a marriage ceremony to be officiated by an Anglican priest in the Anglican Church with two
witnesses and registration. The Act did not apply to Jewish marriages or those of Quakers, whose
marriages continued to be governed by their own customs.
In England and Wales, since 1837, civil marriages have been recognised as a legal alternative to church
marriages under the Marriage Act 1836. In Germany, civil marriages were recognised in 1875. This law
permitted a declaration of the marriage before an official clerk of the civil administration, when both
spouses affirm their will to marry, to constitute a legally recognised valid and effective marriage, and
allowed an optional private clerical marriage ceremony.
Chinese marriage
Main article: Chinese marriage
The mythological origin of Chinese marriage is a story about Nüwa and Fu Xi who invented proper
marriage procedures after becoming married.
In ancient Chinese society, people of the same surname were not supposed to marry and doing so was
seen as incest. However, because marriage to one's maternal relatives was not thought of as incest,
families sometimes intermarried from one generation to another. Over time, Chinese people became
more geographically mobile. Couples were married in what is called an extra-clan marriage, better
known as antithetic marriage. This occurred around 5000 BC. According to modern Chinese scholars of
a Marxist persuasion, matriarchy prevailed in society at that time, therefore husbands needed to move to,
and live with, their wives’ families. Yet individuals remained members of their biological families.
When a couple died, the husband and the wife were buried separately in the respective clans’ graveyard.
In a maternal marriage, a male would become a son-in-law who lived in the wife’s home. This happened
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in the transformation of antithetic marriage into monogamy, which signifies the decline of matriarchy
and the growing dominance of patriarchy in the ancient China.
Selection of a partner
Main articles: Arranged marriage and Forced marriage
An arranged marriage between Louis XIV of France and Maria Theresa

of Spain
The selection of a marriage partner may involve either the couple going
through a selection process of courtship or the marriage may be
arranged by the couple's parents or an outside party, a matchmaker.
A pragmatic (or 'arranged') marriage is made easier by formal procedures of family or group politics. A
responsible authority sets up or encourages the marriage; they may, indeed, engage a professional
matchmaker to find a suitable spouse for an unmarried person. The authority figure could be parents,
family, a religious official, or a group consensus.
In some cases, the authority figure may choose a match for purposes other than marital harmony. Some
of the most popular uses of arranged marriage are for dowry or immigration.
In rural Indian villages, child marriage is also practiced, with parents at times arranging the wedding,
sometimes even before the child is born. This practice is now illegal under the Child Marriage Restraint
Act.
In some societies ranging from Central Asia to the Caucasus to Africa,

the custom of bride kidnapping still exists, in which a woman is
captured by a man and his friends. Sometimes this covers an
elopement, but sometimes it depends on sexual violence. In previous
times, raptio was a larger-scale version of this, with groups of women
captured by groups of men, sometimes in war; the most famous
example is The Rape of the Sabine Women, which provided the first
citizens of Rome with their wives.
Other marriage partners are more or less imposed on an individual. For

example, widow inheritance provides a widow with another man from
her late husband's brothers.
Marriage ceremony
Main article: Wedding
Couple married in a Shinto ceremony in Takayama, Gifu prefecture.
A marriage is usually formalised at a wedding or marriage ceremony.[28] The ceremony may be

officiated either by a religious official, by a government official or by a state approved celebrant. In
many European and some Latin American countries, any religious ceremony must be held separately
from the required civil ceremony. Some countries – such as Belgium, Bulgaria, the Netherlands and
Turkey[29] – require that a civil ceremony take place before any religious one. In some countries –
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notably the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, the Republic of Ireland, Norway and Spain –
both ceremonies can be held together; the officiant at the religious and civil ceremony also serving as
agent of the state to perform the civil ceremony. To avoid any implication that the state is "recognizing"
a religious marriage (which is prohibited in some countries) – the "civil" ceremony is said to be taking
place at the same time as the religious ceremony. Often this involves simply signing a register during the
religious ceremony. If the civil element of the religious ceremony is omitted, the marriage is not
recognised by government under the law.
While some countries, such as Australia, permit marriages to be held in private and at any location,
others, including England and Wales, require that the civil ceremony be conducted in a place open to the
public and specially sanctioned by law. In England, the place of marriage need no longer be a church or
registry office, but could also be a hotel, historic building or other venue that has obtained the necessary
licence. An exception can be made in the case of marriage by special emergency license, which is
normally granted only when one of the parties is terminally ill. Rules about where and when persons can
marry vary from place to place. Some regulations require that one of the parties reside in the locality of
the registry office.
Within the parameters set by the law of the jurisdiction in which a marriage or wedding takes place,
each religious authority has rules for the manner in which weddings are to be conducted by their
officials and members.
Cohabitation
See also: cohabitation
Marriage is an institution which can join together people's lives in a variety of emotional and economic
ways. In many Western cultures, marriage usually leads to the formation of a new household comprising
the married couple, with the married couple living together in the same home, often sharing the same
bed, but in some other cultures this is not the tradition. [30] Among the Minangkabau of West Sumatra,
residency after marriage is matrilocal, with the husband moving into the household of his wife's mother.
[31]
Residency after marriage can also be patrilocal or avunculocal. Also, in southwestern China, walking
marriages, in which the husband and wife do not live together, have been a traditional part of the Mosuo
culture.[32] Walking marriages have also been increasingly common in modern Beijing. Guo Jianmei,
director of the center for women's studies at Beijing University, told a Newsday correspondent,
"Walking marriages reflect sweeping changes in Chinese society."[33] A similar arrangement in Saudi
Arabia, called misyar marriage, also involves the husband and wife living separately but meeting
regularly.[34]
Conversely, marriage is not a prerequisite for cohabitation. In some cases couples living together do not
wish to be recognised as married, such as when pension or alimony rights are adversely affected, or
because of taxation consideration, or because of immigration issues, and for many other reasons.
In some cases cohabitation may constitute a common-law marriage, and in some countries the laws
recognise cohabitation in preference to the formality of marriage for taxation and social security
benefits. This is the case, for example, in Australia.[35]
Sex and procreation
Marriage typically requires consummation by sexual intercourse, and non-consummation (that is, failure
or refusal to engage in sex) may be grounds for an annulment.[36]
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There are some married couples who remain childless either by choice or due to infertility or other
factors preventing conception or bearing of children. In some cultures, marriage imposes an obligation
on women to bear children. In northern Ghana, for example, payment of bridewealth signifies a woman's
requirement to bear children, and women using birth control face substantial threats of physical abuse
and reprisals.[37]
On the other hand, marriage is not a prerequisite for having children, and having children outside of
marriage is today not as uncommon as it used to be. In the United States, the National Center for Health
Statistics reported that in 1992, 30.1 percent of births were to unmarried women.[38][39] In 2006, that
number had risen to 38.5 percent.[40] Until recently, children born outside of marriage were termed
illegitimate and suffered legal disadvantages and social stigma. In recent years the legal relevance of
illegitimacy has declined and social acceptance increased, especially in western countries.
Many of the world's major religions look with disfavor on sexual relations outside of marriage.[41] Sexual
relations by a married person with someone other than his/her spouse is normally called adultery, and is
also frequently disapproved by the major world religions (some calling it a sin), and has often been - in
some jurisdictions continues to be - a crime and grounds for divorce. (See adultery.)
Marriage law
Main article: marriage law
Rights and obligations
A Ketubah in Aramaic, a Jewish marriage-contract outlining the duties of each

partner.
See also: Rights and responsibilities of marriages in the United States
A marriage, by definition, bestows rights and obligations on the married

parties, and sometimes on relatives as well, being the sole mechanism for the
creation of affinal ties (in-laws). These may include:
• giving a husband/wife or his/her family control over a spouse’s sexual

services, labor, and property.
• giving a husband/wife responsibility for a spouse’s debts.
• giving a husband/wife visitation rights when his/her spouse is incarcerated or hospitalized.
• giving a husband/wife control over his/her spouse’s affairs when the spouse is incapacitated.
• establishing the second legal guardian of a parent’s child.
• establishing a joint fund of property for the benefit of children.
• establishing a relationship between the families of the spouses.
These rights and obligations vary considerably between societies, and between groups within society.[42]
Marriage restrictions
Main article: Marriage law#Marriage restrictions
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Marriage is an institution that is historically filled with restrictions. From age, to gender, to social status,
restrictions are placed on marriage by society for reasons of passing on healthy genes, to keep property
concentrated, or (in some historical cases) because of prejudice and fear.
Some legal, social, or religious restrictions apply in some countries on the genders of the couple. In
response to changing social and political attitudes, some jurisdictions and religious denominations now
recognize marriages between people of the same sex. In some jurisdictions these are sometimes called
civil unions or domestic partnerships, while some others explicitly prohibit same-sex marriages.
Societies have often placed restrictions on marriage to relatives, though the degree of prohibited
relationship varies widely. In most societies, marriage between brothers and sisters has been forbidden.
All mainstream religions prohibit some marriages on the basis of the consanguinity (lineal descent) and
affinity (kinship by marriage) of the prospective marriage partners, though the standards vary.
Historically, there have been countless restrictions placed on marriage by different societies. Restrictions
against polygamy and marrying within a particular group or race have been common. Many societies,
even some with a cultural tradition of polygamy, recognize monogamy as the only valid form of
marriage. Many societies have also adopted other restrictions on whom one can marry, such as
prohibitions of marrying persons with the same surname, or persons with the same sacred animal.
Societies have also at times required marriage from within a certain group. Anthropologists refer to
these restrictions as endogamy. An example of such restrictions would be a requirement to marry
someone from the same tribe.
State recognition
Main article: Marriage law#State recognition
In many jurisdictions, a civil marriage may take place as part of the religious marriage ceremony,
although they are theoretically distinct. Some jurisdictions allow civil marriages in circumstances which
are notably not allowed by particular religions, such as same-sex marriages or civil unions.
Marriage relationships may also be created by the operation of the law alone, as in common-law
marriage, sometimes called "marriage by habit and repute."
The status in the eyes of one authority may not be the same as for another, e.g., a marriage may be
recognised civilly, but not by a church, and vice versa.[citation needed]
Marriage and religion

See also: Christian views of
marriage, Islamic marital
jurisprudence, Buddhist view of
marriage, Marriage in
Hinduism, and Jewish views of
marriage
Christian wedding in Kyoto, Japan.
A Jewish wedding, painting by Jozef Israëls, 1903.

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All mainstream religions have strong views relating to marriage. Most religions perform a wedding
ceremony to solemnize the beginning of a marriage. Some regard marriage as simply a contract, while
others regard it as a sacred institution.
Liturgical Christian communions - notably Anglicanism, Catholicism, and Orthodoxy - consider

marriage (sometimes termed holy matrimony) to be an expression of divine grace, termed a sacrament or
mystery. In Western ritual, the ministers of the sacrament are the husband and wife themselves, with a
bishop, priest, or deacon merely witnessing the union on behalf of the church, and adding a blessing. In
Eastern ritual churches, the bishop or priest functions as the actual minister of the Sacred Mystery
(Eastern Orthodox deacons may not perform marriages). Western Christians commonly refer to
marriage a vocation, while Eastern Christians consider it an ordination and a martyrdom, though the
theological emphases indicated by the various names are not excluded by the teachings of either
tradition. Marriage is commonly celebrated in the context of a Eucharistic service (a nuptial Mass or
Divine Liturgy). The sacrament of marriage is indicative of the relationship between Christ and the
Church (Ephesians 5:29-32), yet most Reformed Christians would deny the elevation of marriage to the
status of a sacrament, nevertheless it is considered a covenant between spouses before God. (cf.
Ephesians 5:31-33)
In Judaism, marriage is viewed as a contractual bond commanded by God in which a man and a woman
come together to create a relationship in which God is directly involved.[43] Though procreation is not the
sole purpose, a Jewish marriage is also expected to fulfill the commandment to have children. [44] The
main focus centers around the relationship between the husband and wife. Kabbalistically, marriage is
understood to mean that the husband and wife are merging together into a single soul. This is why a man
is considered "incomplete" if he is not married, as his soul is only one part of a larger whole that remains
to be unified.[45] See Jewish views of marriage.
A Muslim couple being wed alongside the Tungabhadra River at

Hampi, India.
Hindu marriage ceremony from a

Rajput wedding.
Islam also commends marriage, with the age of marriage being

whenever the individuals feel ready, financially and emotionally,
for marriage. According to Shia Islam marriage doesn't require any
witness or official statement or presence in a definite place.[46] To create a religious contract between
them, it is sufficient that a man and a woman indicate an intention to marry each other and recite the
requisite words.[47][48] A couple can live with each other as a family without an official contract. Of
course there are some criteria which should be observed; for example, the woman should be single.[49][50]
In the Bahá'í Faith marriage is encouraged and viewed as a mutually strengthening bond, but is not
obligatory. A Bahá'í marriage requires the couple to choose each other, and then the consent of all living
parents.[51]
Hinduism sees marriage as a sacred duty that entails both religious and social obligations. Old Hindu
literature in Sanskrit gives many different types of marriages and their categorization ranging from
"Gandharva Vivaha" (instant marriage by mutual consent of participants only, without any need for even
Research Trang228
a single third person as witness) to normal (present day) marriages, to "Rakshasa Vivaha" (marriage
performed by abduction of one participant by the other participant, usually, but not always, with the help
of other persons).
For the most part, religious traditions in the world reserve marriage to heterosexual unions, but there are
exceptions including Unitarian Universalist, Metropolitan Community Church, and Quaker, United
Church of Canada and Reform Jewish congregations.[52][53]
Financial considerations
The financial aspects of marriage vary between cultures and have changed over time.
In some cultures, dowries and bride prices continue to be required today. In both cases, the financial
arrangements are usually made between the groom (or his family) and the bride's family; with the bride
in many cases not being involved in the arrangement, and often not having a choice in whether to
participate in the marriage.
In Early Modern Britain, the social status of the couple was supposed to be equal. After the marriage, all
the property (called "fortune") and expected inheritances of the wife belonged to the husband.
Dowry
Main article: dowry
A dowry was not an unconditional gift, but was usually a part of a wider marriage settlement. For
example, if the groom had other children, they could not inherit the dowry, which had to go to the
bride's children. In the event of her childlessness, the dowry had to be returned to her family, but
sometimes not until the groom's death or remarriage. Often the bride was entitled to inherit at least as
much as her dowry from her husband's estate.[citation needed]
In some cultures, dowries continue to be required today, while some countries impose restrictions on the
payment of dowry.
Bride price and dower
In other cultures, the groom or his family were expected to pay a bride price to the bride's family for the
right to marry the daughter, or dower, which was payable to the bride. This required the groom to work
for the bride's family for a set period of time.
In the Jewish tradition, the rabbis in ancient times insisted on the marriage couple entering into a
marriage contact, called a ketubah. Besides other things, the ketubah provided for an amount to be paid
by the husband in the event of a divorce or his estate in the event of his death. This amount was a
replacement of the biblical dower or bride price, which was payable at the time of the marriage by the
groom to the bride or her parents.[citation needed][54] This innovation was put in place because the biblical
bride price created a major social problem: many young prospective husbands could not raise the bride
price at the time when they would normally be expected to marry. So, to enable these young men to
marry, the rabbis, in effect, delayed the time that the amount would be payable, when they would be
more likely to have the sum. It may also be noted that both the dower and the ketubah amounts served
the same purpose: the protection for the wife should her support cease, either by death or divorce. The
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only difference between the two systems was the timing of the payment. It is the predecessor to the
wife's present-day entitlement to maintenance in the event of the breakup of marriage, and family
maintenance in the event of the husband not providing adequately for the wife in his will. Another
function performed by the ketubah amount was to provide a disincentive for the husband contemplating
divorcing his wife: he would need to have the amount to be able to pay to the wife.
Morning gifts, which might also be arranged by the bride's father rather than the bride, are given to the
bride herself; the name derives from the Germanic tribal custom of giving them the morning after the
wedding night. She might have control of this morning gift during the lifetime of her husband, but is
entitled to it when widowed. If the amount of her inheritance is settled by law rather than agreement, it
may be called dower. Depending on legal systems and the exact arrangement, she may not be entitled to
dispose of it after her death, and may lose the property if she remarries. Morning gifts were preserved
for many centuries in morganatic marriage, a union where the wife's inferior social status was held to
prohibit her children from inheriting a noble's titles or estates. In this case, the morning gift would
support the wife and children. Another legal provision for widowhood was jointure, in which property,
often land, would be held in joint tenancy, so that it would automatically go to the widow on her
husband's death. Islamic tradition has similar practices. A 'mahr', either immediate or deferred, is the
woman's portion of the groom's wealth (divorce) or estate (death). These amounts are usually set based
on the groom's own and family wealth and incomes, but in some parts these are set very high so as to
provide a disincentive for the groom exercising the divorce, or the husband's family 'inheriting' a large
portion of the estate, especially if there are no male offspring from the marriage. In some countries,
including Iran, the mahr or alimony can amount to more than a man can ever hope to earn, sometimes up
to US$ 1000,000 (4000 official Iranian gold coins). If the husband cannot pay the mahr, either in case of
a divorce or on demand, according to the current laws in Iran, he will have to pay it by installments.
Failure to pay the mahr might even lead to imprisonment.[55]
Modern customs
In many countries today, each marriage partner has the choice of keeping his or her property separate or
combining properties. In the latter case, called community property, when the marriage ends by divorce
each owns half. In many legal jurisdictions, laws related to property and inheritance provide by default
for property to pass upon the death of one party in a marriage firstly to the spouse and secondly to the
children. Wills and trusts can make alternative provisions for property succession.
In some legal systems, the partners in a marriage are "jointly liable" for the debts of the marriage. This
has a basis in a traditional legal notion called the "Doctrine of Necessities" whereby a husband was
responsible to provide necessary things for his wife. Where this is the case, one partner may be sued to
collect a debt for which they did not expressly contract. Critics of this practice note that debt collection
agencies can abuse this by claiming an unreasonably wide range of debts to be expenses of the marriage.
The cost of defence and the burden of proof is then placed on the non-contracting party to prove that the
expense is not a debt of the family. The respective maintenance obligations, both during and eventually
after a marriage, are regulated in most jurisdictions; alimony is one such method.
Some have attempted to analyse the institution of marriage using economic theory; for example,
anarcho-capitalist economist David Friedman has written a lengthy and controversial study of marriage
as a market transaction (the market for husbands and wives).[56]
Taxation
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In some countries, spouses are allowed to average their incomes; this is advantageous to a married
couple with disparate incomes. To compensate for this somewhat, many countries provide a higher tax
bracket for the averaged income of a married couple. While income averaging might still benefit a
married couple with a stay-at-home spouse, such averaging would cause a married couple with roughly
equal personal incomes to pay more total tax than they would as two single persons. This is commonly
called the marriage penalty.
Moreover, when the rates applied by the tax code are not based on averaging the incomes, but rather on
the sum of individuals' incomes, higher rates will definitely apply to each individual in a two-earner
households in progressive tax systems. This is most often the case with high-income taxpayers and is
another situation where some consider there to be a marriage penalty.
Conversely, when progressive tax is levied on the individual with no consideration for the partnership,
dual-income couples fare much better than single-income couples with similar household incomes. The
effect can be increased when the welfare system treats the same income as a shared income thereby
denying welfare access to the non-earning spouse. Such systems apply in Australia and Canada, for
example.
Other considerations
Sometimes people marry for purely pragmatic reasons, sometimes called a marriage of convenience or
sham marriage. For example, according to one publisher of information about "green card" marriages,
"Every year over 450,000 United States citizens marry foreign-born individuals and petition for them to
obtain a permanent residency (Green Card) in the United States."[57] While this is likely an over-
estimate, in 2003 alone 184,741 immigrants were admitted to the U.S. as spouses of U.S. citizens.[58]
Termination
In most societies, the death of one of the partners terminates the marriage, and in monogamous societies
this allows the other partner to remarry, though sometimes after a waiting or mourning period.
Many societies also provide for the termination of marriage through divorce. Marriages can also be
annulled in some societies, where an authority declares that a marriage never happened. In either event
the people concerned are free to remarry (or marry). After divorce, one spouse may have to pay alimony.
Several cultures have practiced temporary and conditional marriages. Examples include the Celtic
practice of handfasting and fixed-term marriages in the Muslim community. Pre-Islamic Arabs practiced
a form of temporary marriage that carries on today in the practice of Nikah Mut'ah, a fixed-term
marriage contract. Muslim controversies related to Nikah Mut'ah have resulted in the practice being
confined mostly to Shi'ite communities.
Contemporary views on marriage
Criticisms
Main article: Criticism of marriage
Research Trang231
Many people have proposed arguments against marriage for various reasons. These include political and
religious criticisms, pragmatic reference to the divorce rate, as well as celibacy for religious or
philosophical reasons.
Controversial views
Some views about marriage are controversial. Advocates of same-sex rights criticize the exclusion of
homosexual relationships from legal and social recognition and the rights and obligations it provides. At
the same time advocates of the traditional marriage movement oppose any attempt to define marriage to
include anything other than the union of one man and one woman, claiming that to do so would "deprive
the term of its fundamental and defining meaning."[59]
See also
Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Marriage
• Types of marriages
• Age at first marriage
• List of people with longest marriages
• Age disparity in sexual relationships
• Misandry
• Feminism
• Radical Feminism
• Men's Rights
• Sexual conflict
• Marriage privatization
Related concepts
• Adultery - Sexual intercourse between a married person and a partner other than the lawful
spouse.
• Aufruf - A ceremony in which Jews pelt the couple to be married with candy on the Shabbat
before the wedding.
• Alimony - obligation of support.
• Annulment - legal procedure for declaring a marriage null and void.
• Betrothal - formal state of engagement to be married.
• Brideservice
• Child marriage
• Chinese marriage
• Christian views of marriage - views of Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Protestant, and others
• Civil marriage - marriages which are constituted by a government official and not a religious
congregation.
• Divorce - ending of a marriage.
• Engagement
• Family therapy/Relationship counseling
• Free love - a social movement opposed to marriage
• Head and Master laws
• Husband/Wife
Research Trang232
• Human sexuality
• Human sexual behavior
• Inheritance
• Islamic marital jurisprudence
• Marriage (conflict)
• Marriage gap
• Marriage in the United States
• Marriage law
• Marriageable age
• Mail-order bride
• Monogamy/Polygamy
• Nikah urfi
• Separation - a step in the ending of a marriage.
• Social unit
• Wedding
• Wedding ring
• Living apart together
Male

This article is about the Male sex. For the city, see Malé. For other uses, see Male (disambiguation).
The shield and spear of the Roman god Mars, which is also the alchemical symbol for iron, represents
the male sex.
Male (♂) refers to the sex of an organism, or part of an organism, which produces small mobile
gametes, called spermatozoa. Each spermatozoon can fuse with a larger female gamete or ovum, in the
process of fertilization. A male cannot reproduce sexually without access to at least one ovum from a
female, but some organisms can reproduce both sexually and asexually.
Not all species share a common sex-determination system. In humans and most animals, sex is
determined genetically but in other species it can be determined due to social, environmental, or other
factors. The existence of two sexes seems to have been selected independently across different
evolutionary lineages (see Convergent Evolution). Accordingly, sex is defined operationally across
species by the type of gametes produced (ie: spermatozoa vs. ova) and differences between males and
females in one lineage are not always predictive of differences in another.
Male/Female dimorphism between organisms or reproductive organs of different sexes is not limited to
animals; male gametes are produced by chytrids, diatoms and land plants, among others. In land plants,
female and male designate not only the female and male gamete-producing organisms and structures but
also the structures of the sporophytes that give rise to male and female plants.
Research Trang233
[edit] Anatomy
Contents
[hide] All males, regardless of independent origin, kingdom,
or other phylogenetic subdivision, share at least the
• 1 Anatomy anatomy to produce male gametes. Some have
• 2 Symbol sophisticated organs and organ systems evolved to
• 3 Sex determination produce, dispense, and deliver the gamete to a
o 3.1 Genetic determination location suitable for ovum fertilization.
o 3.2 Environmental determination
• 4 Secondary sex characteristics Even where structures and cell types have arisen
• 5 See also independently, "sperm" is ordinarily used to refer to
the male gamete. Among animals that undergo
• 6 References internal fertilization, "penis" is often used to refer to
an organ inserted into the female for insemination.
This process is called sexual intercourse.
[edit] Symbol
A common symbol used to represent the male gender is the Mars symbol, ♂
(Unicode: U+2642 Alt
codes: Alt+11)—a circle with an arrow pointing northeast. This is often called a stylized representation
of the Roman god Mars' shield and spear.[citation needed]
[edit] Sex determination

Main article: Sex-determination system
The sex of particular organism may be determined by a number of factors. These may be genetic or
environmental, or may naturally change during the course of an organism's life. Although most species
with male and female sexes have individuals that are either male or female, hermaphroditic animals,
such as worms, have both male and female reproductive organs.
[edit] Genetic determination
Most mammals, including humans, are genetically determined as such by the XY sex-determination
system where males have an XY (as opposed to XX) sex chromosome. It is also possible in a variety of
species, including human beings, to be XXY or have other intersex/hermaphroditic qualities. These
qualities are widely reported to be as common as redheadedness (about 2% of the population). [1]During
reproduction, a male can give either an X sperm or a Y sperm, while a female can only give an X egg. A
Y sperm and an X egg produce a boy, while an X sperm and an X egg produce a girl. The ZW sex-
determination system, where males have a ZZ (as opposed to ZW) sex chromosome may be found in
birds and some insects (mostly butterflies and moths) and other organisms. Members of Hymenoptera,
such as ants and bees, are determined by haplodiploidy, where most males are haploid and females and
some sterile males are diploid.
[edit] Environmental determination
In some species of reptiles, including alligators, sex is determined by the temperature at which the egg is
incubated. Other species, such as some snails, practise sex change: adults start out male, then become
Research Trang234
female. In tropical clown fish, the dominant individual in a group becomes female while the other ones
are male.
In some arthropods, sex is determined by infection. Bacteria of the genus Wolbachia alter their
sexuality; some species consist entirely of ZZ individuals, with sex determined by the presence of
Wolbachia.
[edit] Secondary sex characteristics

Main article: Secondary sex characteristic
In those species with two sexes, males may differ from females in ways other than production of
spermatozoa. Males are generally smaller than females in seed plants (the pollen grain is the male plant)
and many fishes and birds, but larger in many mammals, including humans. In birds, the male often
exhibits a colorful plumage that attracts females.
[edit] See also

Look up Male in
[edit] References
1. ^ See, Dallas Denny, Current Concepts in Transgender Identity
• Man
• Masculinity
• Boy
• Male pregnancy
• Gender
• Transwoman
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Male"

Categories: Gender | Sex
Hidden categories: All articles with unsourced statements | Articles with unsourced statements since July
2008
Terrain

For other uses, see Terrain (disambiguation).
Present day Earth altimetry (and bathymetry). Data from the National
Geophysical Data Center's TerrainBase Digital Terrain Model.
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A Jam-packed terrain: Shaded and colored image (i.e. terrain is enhanced) from the Shuttle Radar
Topography Mission—shows elevation model of New Zealand's Alpine Fault running about 500 km
(300 mi) long. The escarpment is flanked by a vast chain of hills squeezed between the fault and the
mountains of New Zealand's Southern Alps. Southwest is towards the top.
Terrain, or relief, is the third or vertical dimension of land surface. When relief is described
underwater, the term bathymetry is used. Topography has recently become an additional synonym,
though in many parts of the world it retains its original more general meaning of description of place.
Terrain is used as a general term in physical geography, referring to the lie of the land. This is usually
expressed in terms of the elevation, slope, and orientation of terrain features. Terrain affects surface
water flow and distribution. Over a large area, it can affect weather and climate patterns.
[edit] Importance of terrain
The understanding of terrain is critical for many of reasons.
• The terrain of a region largely determines its suitability for human settlement: flatter, alluvial
plains tend to be better farming soils than steeper, rockier uplands.
• In terms of environmental quality, agriculture, and hydrology, understanding the terrain of an

area enables the understanding of watershed boundaries, drainage characteristics, water
movement, and impacts on water quality. Complex arrays of relief data are used as input
parameters for hydrology transport models (such as the SWMM or DSSAM Models) to allow
prediction of river water quality.
• Understanding terrain also supports on soil conservation, especially in agriculture. Contour

plowing is an established practice enabling sustainable agriculture on sloping land; it is the
practice of plowing along lines of equal elevation instead of up and down a slope.
• Terrain is militarily critical because it determines the ability of armed forces to take and hold
areas, and to move troops and material into and through areas. An understanding of terrain is
basic to both defensive and offensive strategy.
• Terrain is important in determining weather patterns. Two areas close to each other
geographically may differ radically in precipitation levels or timing because of elevation
differences or a "rain shadow" effect.
[edit] Geomorphology
Geomorphology is in large part the study of the formation of terrain or topography. Terrain is formed by
intersecting processes:
• Geological processes: migration of tectonic plates, faulting and folding, volcanic eruptions
• Erosional processes: water and wind erosion, landslides
• Extraterrestrial: meteorite impacts
Research Trang236
Tectonic processes such as orogenies cause land to be elevated, and erosional (and weathering)
processes cause land to be worn away to lower elevations.
Land surface parameters are quantitative measures of various morphometric properties of a surface. The
most common examples are used to derive slope or aspect of a terrain or curvatures at each location.
These measures can also be used to derive hydrological parameters that reflect flow/erosion processes.
Climatic parameters are based on the modelling of solar radiation or air flow.
Land surface objects or landforms are definite physical objects (lines, points, areas) that differ from the
surrounding objects. The most typical examples are lines of watersheds, stream patterns, ridges, break-
lines, pools, borders of specific landforms etc.
[edit] See also
Look up terrain in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
• Geomorphometry
• Cartographic relief depiction (2-D relief map)
• Raised-relief map (3-D relief map)
• Relief ratio
• Subterranea
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terrain"

Categories: Physical geography | Topography
Resource

For other uses, see resource (disambiguation).
A resource is any physical or virtual entity of limited availability, or anything used to help one earn a
living.[citation needed] In most cases, commercial or even ethic factors require resource allocation through
resource management.
[edit] Types of values attached to

Contents resources
[hide]
• 1 Types of values attached to resources Clean drinking water is a resource required by all
• 2 Characteristics of resources people.
• 3 Value of a resource
• 4 Types of resources As resources are very useful, we attach some
o 4.1 Natural resources information value to them. Resources help to
o 4.2 Human resources produce goods so they have economic value.
• 5 Resource use and sustainable development Natural resources like forests, mountains etc. are
• 6 See also very beautiful so they have aesthetic value. Gifts
Research Trang237
• 7 References
of nature such as water also have a legal value because it is our right to enjoy them. On the other hand,
resources have an ethical value as well because it is our moral duty to protect and conserve them for the
future generations.
[edit] Characteristics of resources
Resources have three main characteristics: utility, quantity (often in terms of availability), and use in
producing other resources. However, this definition is not accepted by some, for example deep
ecologists who believe that non-human elements are independent of human values.
The quantity of a resource refers to the total amount of a given raw material, rather than reserve which is
an economic term.[citation needed] Bottlenecks may form, making some resources unavailable, producing
supply shocks. Resource prices are prone to increases as speculators add commodity value to a resource
or when risk, such as from geopolitical issues, are seen as an influencing factor in relation to the security
of resource supply.
Resources are those things that can be physically combine to produce goods and services.
See also: Infrastructure
[edit] Value of a resource
The value or the importance of the gifts of nature depends upon several factors:
The needs of the people
Human needs are not uniform all over the world. Over the years, they have grown and become more
complex with the progress of human society. In very developed societies, people use a variety of
products which are highly processed. On the other hand, in developing countries, the consumption of
processed items is much less; while primitive communities like the Pygmies in Africa hardly use any
processed items.
The level of technology possessed by the people
The level of technology also influences the utilization of resources. For example, the Prairies of North
America were inhabited by the American Indians who used the Prairies as hunting grounds. Later when
the European settlers arrived, they used the Prairies for agriculture. Today the Prairies are famous for the
cultivation of wheat and the rearing of animals on a commercial basis.
Time
The value of the resource changes with time as well. For example, water was used by early man purely
for his personal needs. As time went on, water was used by humans for agricultural purposes namely
irrigation. Later, water was also used as a means of transportation and humans built boats to travel on
water. Nowadays, water is also used to generate electricity.
According to Walter Youngquist, during periods of economic growth supply demands on a resource will
typically rise due to increasing consumption from not only population growth but also higher living
standards and the increased uses found for a given resource.[citation needed]
Research Trang238
[edit] Types of resources
[edit] Natural resources
Main article: Natural resource

water
Natural resources are derived from the environment. Many of them are essential for our survival while
others are used for satisfying our wants. Natural resources may be further classified in different ways.
On the basis of origin, resources may be divided into:
• Biotic - Biotic resources are the ones which are obtained from the biosphere. Forests and their
products, animals, birds and their products, fish and other marine organisms are important
examples. Minerals such as coal and petroleum are also included in this category because they
were formed from decayed organic matter.
• Abiotic - Abiotic resources comprise of non-living things. Examples include land, water, air and
minerals such as gold, iron, copper, silver etc.
On the basis of the stage of development, natural resources may be called:
• Potential Resources - Potential resources are those which exist in a region and may be used in
the future. For example, mineral oil may exist in many parts of India having sedimentary rocks
but till the time it is actually drilled out and put into use, it remains a potential resource.
• Actual Resources are those which have been surveyed, their quantity and quality determined
and are being used in present times. For example, the petroleum and the natural gas which is
obtained from the Bombay High Fields. The development of an actual resource, such as wood
processing depends upon the technology available and the cost involved. That part of the actual
resource which can be developed profitably with available technology is called a reserve.
On the basis of renewability, natural resources can be categorized into:
• Renewable Resources - Renewable resources are the ones which can be replenished or
reproduced easily. Some of them, like sunlight, air, wind, etc., are continuously available and
their quantity is not affected by human consumption. Many renewable resources can be depleted
by human use, but may also be replenished, thus maintaining a flow. Some of these, like
agricultural crops, take a short time for renewal; others, like water, take a comparatively longer
time, while still others, like forests, take even longer.
• Non-renewable Resources - Non-renewable resources are formed over very long geological
periods. Minerals and fossils are included in this category. Since their rate of formation is
extremely slow, they cannot be replenished once they get depleted. Out of these, the metallic
minerals can be re-used by recycling them. But coal and petroleum cannot be recycled.
On the basis of ownership,resources can be classified into:individual,community,national,and

international Individual resources:
[edit] Human resources
Research Trang239
Human beings are also considered to be resources because they have the ability to change raw materials
into valuable resources. The term Human resources can also be defined as the skills, energies, talents,
abilities and knowledge that are used for the production of goods or the rendering of services. While
taking into account human beings as resources, the following things have to be kept in mind:
• The size of the population

• The capabilities of the individuals in that population
[edit] Resource use and sustainable development
Many resources cannot be consumed in their original form. They have to be processed in order to
change them into more usable commodities. This is known as resource development. With the rise in
human numbers all over the world, the demand for resources has also increased. However, there is a
difference in distribution of resources to different regions or countries. Developed countries use more
resources than developing countries.
Smog covering Los Angeles.
The rising demand coupled with the over-

consumption of resources has led to several
problems:
• Resource depletion
• Accumulation of resources in the hands of a few
• Environmental degradation
• Tragedy of the commons
• Resource curse
[edit] See also

Look up resource in
• Natural resource management

• Resource-based view
• World energy resources and consumption
Energy

This article is about the scalar physical quantity. For other uses, see
Energy (disambiguation).
Research Trang240
Lightning is the electric breakdown of air by strong electric fields and is a flow of energy. The electric
potential energy in the atmosphere changes into heat, light and sound which are other forms of energy.
Energy (from the Latin ἐνέργεια - energeia, "activity, operation", from ἐνεργός - energos, "active,
working"[1]) is a scalar physical quantity that is an attribute of objects and systems that is conserved in
nature. In physics textbooks, energy is often defined as the ability to do work or to cause change.
Several different forms of energy exist to explain all known natural phenomena. These forms include
(but are not limited to) kinetic, potential, thermal, gravitational, sound, light, elastic, and electromagnetic
energy. Any form of energy can be transformed into another form, but the total energy always remains
the same. This principle, the conservation of energy, was first postulated in the early 19th century, and
applies to any isolated system. According to Noether's theorem, the conservation of energy is a
consequence of the fact that the laws of physics do not change over time.[2]
Although the total energy of a system does not change with time, its value may depend on the frame of
reference. For example, a seated passenger in a moving airplane has zero kinetic energy relative to the
airplane, but non-zero kinetic energy relative to the Earth.
Research Trang241
Contents
[hide]
• 1 History
• 2 Energy in various contexts since the beginning of the universe
• 3 Regarding applications of the concept of energy
o 3.1 Energy transfer
o 3.2 Energy and the laws of motion
o 3.3 The Hamiltonian
o 3.4 The Lagrangian
o 3.5 Energy and thermodynamics
 3.5.1 Internal energy
 3.5.2 The laws of thermodynamics
o 3.6 Equipartition of energy
o 3.7 Oscillators, phonons, and photons
o 3.8 Work and virtual work
o 3.9 Quantum mechanics
o 3.10 Relativity
• 4 Measurement
o 4.1 Methods
o 4.2 Units
• 5 Forms of energy
o 5.1 Potential energy
 5.1.1 Gravitational potential energy
 5.1.2 Elastic potential energy
o 5.2 Kinetic energy
o 5.3 Thermal energy
o 5.4 Electric energy
 5.4.1 Magnetic energy
 5.4.2 Electromagnetic fields
o 5.5 Chemical energy
o 5.6 Nuclear energy
o 5.7 Surface energy
• 6 Transformations of energy
• 7 Law of conservation of energy
• 8 Energy and life
• 9 See also
[edit] History
Main articles: History of energy and Timeline of thermodynamics, statistical mechanics, and
random processes
Research Trang242
The word energy derives from Greek ἐνέργεια (energeia), which appears for the first time in the work
Nicomachean Ethics[3] of Aristotle in the 4th century BC. In 1021 AD, the Arabian physicist, Alhazen, in
the Book of Optics, held light rays to be streams of minute energy particles, stating that "the smallest
parts of light" retain "only properties that can be treated by geometry and verified by experiment" and
that "they lack all sensible qualities except energy."[4] In 1121, Al-Khazini, in The Book of the Balance
of Wisdom, proposed that the gravitational potential energy of a body varies depending on its distance
from the centre of the Earth.[5]
The concept of energy emerged out of the idea of vis viva, which Leibniz defined as the product of the
mass of an object and its velocity squared; he believed that total vis viva was conserved. To account for
slowing due to friction, Leibniz claimed that heat consisted of the random motion of the constituent
parts of matter — a view shared by Isaac Newton, although it would be more than a century until this
was generally accepted. In 1807, Thomas Young was the first to use the term "energy" instead of vis
viva, in its modern sense.[6] Gustave-Gaspard Coriolis described "kinetic energy" in 1829 in its modern
sense, and in 1853, William Rankine coined the term "potential energy." It was argued for some years
whether energy was a substance (the caloric) or merely a physical quantity, such as momentum.
William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) amalgamated all of these laws into the laws of thermodynamics, which
aided in the rapid development of explanations of chemical processes using the concept of energy by
Rudolf Clausius, Josiah Willard Gibbs, and Walther Nernst. It also led to a mathematical formulation of
the concept of entropy by Clausius and to the introduction of laws of radiant energy by Jožef Stefan.
During a 1961 lecture[7] for undergraduate students at the California Institute of Technology, Richard
Feynman, a celebrated physics teacher and Nobel Laureate, said this about the concept of energy:
There is a fact, or if you wish, a law, governing natural phenomena that are known to date.
“ There is no known exception to this law; it is exact, so far we know. The law is called
conservation of energy; it states that there is a certain quantity, which we call energy, that
does not change in manifold changes which nature undergoes. That is a most abstract idea,
because it is a mathematical principle; it says that there is a numerical quantity, which does
not change when something happens. It is not a description of a mechanism, or anything
concrete; it is just a strange fact that we can calculate some number, and when we finish
watching nature go through her tricks and calculate the number again, it is the same. ”
—The Feynman Lectures on Physics[7]
Since 1918 it has been known that the law of conservation of energy is the direct mathematical
consequence of the translational symmetry of the quantity conjugate to energy, namely time. That is,
energy is conserved because the laws of physics do not distinguish between different moments of time
(see Noether's theorem).
[edit] Energy in various contexts since the beginning of the universe
The concept of energy and its transformations is useful in explaining and predicting most natural
phenomena. The direction of transformations in energy (what kind of energy is transformed to what
other kind) is often described by entropy (equal energy spread among all available degrees of freedom)
considerations, since in practice all energy transformations are permitted on a small scale, but certain
larger transformations are not permitted because it is statistically unlikely that energy or matter will
randomly move into more concentrated forms or smaller spaces.
Research Trang243
The concept of energy is widespread in all sciences.
• In biology, energy is an attribute of all biological systems from the biosphere to the smallest
living process. In an individual organism it is responsible for growth and development of a
biological cell or an organelle of a biological organism. Energy is thus often said to be stored by
cells in the structures of molecules of substances such as carbohydrates (including sugars) and
lipids, which release energy when reacted with oxygen. In human terms, the human equivalent
(H-e)[8] indicates, for a given amount of energy expenditure, the relative quantity of energy
needed for human metabolism, assuming an average human energy expenditure of 12,500 kJ per
day and a basal metabolic rate of 80 watts. The human equivalent assists understanding of energy
flows in physical and biological systems by expressing energy units in human terms: it provides
a “feel” for the use of a given amount of energy. A professional cyclist can maintain a rate of
energy use of 400 watts, or 5 H-e, for a prolonged period.
• In chemistry, energy is an attribute of a substance as a consequence of its atomic, molecular or
aggregate structure. Since a chemical transformation is accompanied by a change in one or more
of these kinds of structure, it is invariably accompanied by an increase or decrease of energy of
the substances involved.
• In geology, continental drift, mountain ranges, volcanoes, and earthquakes are phenomena that
can be explained in terms of energy transformations in the Earth's interior.[9] While
meteorological phenomena like wind, rain, hail, snow, lightning, tornadoes and hurricanes, are
all a result of energy transformations brought about by solar energy on the planet Earth.
• In cosmology and astronomy the phenomena of stars, nova, supernova, quasars and gamma ray
bursts are the universe's highest-output energy transformations of matter. All stellar phenomena
(including solar activity) are driven by various kinds of energy transformations. Energy in such
transformations is either from gravitational collapse of matter (usually molecular hydrogen) into
various classes of astronomical objects (stars, black holes, etc.), or from nuclear fusion (of lighter
elements, primarily hydrogen).
Energy transformations in the universe over time are characterized by various kinds of potential energy
which has been available since the Big Bang, later being "released" (transformed to more active types of
energy such as kinetic or radiant energy), when a triggering mechanism is available.
Familiar examples of such processes include nuclear decay, in which energy is released which was
originally "stored" in heavy isotopes (such as uranium and thorium), by nucleosynthesis, a process
which ultimately uses the gravitational potential energy released from the gravitational collapse of
supernovae, to store energy in the creation of these heavy elements before they were incorporated into
the solar system and the Earth. This energy is triggered and released in nuclear fission bombs. In a
slower process, heat from nuclear decay of these atoms in the core of the Earth releases heat, which in
turn may lift mountains, via orogenesis. This slow lifting represents a kind of gravitational potential
energy storage of the heat energy, which may be released to active kinetic energy in landslides, after a
triggering event. Earthquakes also release stored elastic potential energy in rocks, a store which has been
produced ultimately from the same radioactive heat sources. Thus, according to present understanding,
familiar events such as landslides and earthquakes release energy which has been stored as potential
energy in the Earth's gravitational field or elastic strain (mechanical potential energy) in rocks; but prior
to this, represents energy that has been stored in heavy atoms since the collapse of long-destroyed stars
created these atoms.
In another similar chain of transformations beginning at the dawn of the universe, nuclear fusion of
hydrogen in the Sun releases another store of potential energy which was created at the time of the Big
Bang. At that time, according to theory, space expanded and the universe cooled too rapidly for
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hydrogen to completely fuse into heavier elements. This meant that hydrogen represents a store of
potential energy which can be released by fusion. Such a fusion process is triggered by heat and pressure
generated from gravitational collapse of hydrogen clouds when they produce stars, and some of the
fusion energy is then transformed into sunlight. Such sunlight from our Sun may again be stored as
gravitational potential energy after it strikes the Earth, as (for example) water evaporates from oceans
and is deposited upon mountains (where, after being released at a hydroelectric dam, it can be used to
drive turbine/generators to produce electricity). Sunlight also drives many weather phenomena, save
those generated by volcanic events. An example of a solar-mediated weather event is a hurricane, which
occurs when large unstable areas of warm ocean, heated over months, give up some of their thermal
energy suddenly to power a few days of violent air movement. Sunlight is also captured by plants as
chemical potential energy, when carbon dioxide and water are converted into a combustible combination
of carbohydrates, lipids, and oxygen. Release of this energy as heat and light may be triggered suddenly
by a spark, in a forest fire; or it may be available more slowly for animal or human metabolism, when
these molecules are ingested, and catabolism is triggered by enzyme action. Through all of these
transformation chains, potential energy stored at the time of the Big Bang is later released by
intermediate events, sometimes being stored in a number of ways over time between releases, as more
active energy. In all these events, one kind of energy is converted to other types of energy, including
heat.
[edit] Regarding applications of the concept of energy
Energy is subject to a strict global conservation law; that is, whenever one measures (or calculates) the
total energy of a system of particles whose interactions do not depend explicitly on time, it is found that
the total energy of the system always remains constant.[10]
• The total energy of a system can be subdivided and classified in various ways. For example, it is
sometimes convenient to distinguish potential energy (which is a function of coordinates only)
from kinetic energy (which is a function of coordinate time derivatives only). It may also be
convenient to distinguish gravitational energy, electric energy, thermal energy, and other forms.
These classifications overlap; for instance thermal energy usually consists partly of kinetic and
partly of potential energy.
• The transfer of energy can take various forms; familiar examples include work, heat flow, and
advection, as discussed below.
• The word "energy" is also used outside of physics in many ways, which can lead to ambiguity
and inconsistency. The vernacular terminology is not consistent with technical terminology. For
example, the important public-service announcement, "Please conserve energy" uses vernacular
notions of "conservation" and "energy" which make sense in their own context but are utterly
incompatible with the technical notions of "conservation" and "energy" (such as are used in the
law of conservation of energy).[11]
In classical physics energy is considered a scalar quantity, the canonical conjugate to time. In special
relativity energy is also a scalar (although not a Lorentz scalar but a time component of the energy-
momentum 4-vector).[12] In other words, energy is invariant with respect to rotations of space, but not
invariant with respect to rotations of space-time (= boosts).
[edit] Energy transfer
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Because energy is strictly conserved and is also locally conserved (wherever it can be defined), it is
important to remember that by definition of energy the transfer of energy between the "system" and
adjacent regions is work. A familiar example is mechanical work. In simple cases this is written as:
ΔE = W (1)
if there are no other energy-transfer processes involved. Here ΔE is the amount of energy transferred,
and W represents the work done on the system.
More generally, the energy transfer can be split into two categories:
ΔE = W + Q (2)
where Q represents the heat flow into the system.
There are other ways in which an open system can gain or lose energy. In chemical systems, energy can
be added to a system by means of adding substances with different chemical potentials, which potentials
are then extracted (both of these process are illustrated by fueling an auto, a system which gains in
energy thereby, without addition of either work or heat). Winding a clock would be adding energy to a
mechanical system. These terms may be added to the above equation, or they can generally be subsumed
into a quantity called "energy addition term E" which refers to any type of energy carried over the
surface of a control volume or system volume. Examples may be seen above, and many others can be
imagined (for example, the kinetic energy of a stream of particles entering a system, or energy from a
laser beam adds to system energy, without either being either work-done or heat-added, in the classic
senses).
ΔE = W + Q + E (3)
Where E in this general equation represents other additional advected energy terms not covered by work
done on a system, or heat added to it.
Energy is also transferred from potential energy (Ep) to kinetic energy (Ek) and then back to potential
energy constantly. This is referred to as conservation of energy. In this closed system, energy can not be
created or destroyed, so the initial energy and the final energy will
Classical mechanics be equal to each other. This can be demonstrated by the following:
Epi + Eki = EpF + EkF'''

Newton's Second Law
The equation can then be simplified further since Ep = mgh (mass
times acceleration due to gravity times the height) and (half times
History of ... mass times velocity squared). Then the total amount of energy can
be found by adding Ep + Ek = Etotal.
[hide]Fundamental concepts
Space · Time · Mass · Force [edit] Energy and the laws of motion
Energy · Momentum
[show]Formulations In classical mechanics, energy is a conceptually and mathematically
useful property since it is a conserved quantity.
[show]Branches
[show]Scientists
[edit] The Hamiltonian
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The total energy of a system is sometimes called the Hamiltonian, after William Rowan Hamilton. The
classical equations of motion can be written in terms of the Hamiltonian, even for highly complex or
abstract systems. These classical equations have remarkably direct analogs in nonrelativistic quantum
mechanics.[13]
[edit] The Lagrangian
Another energy-related concept is called the Lagrangian, after Joseph Louis Lagrange. This is even more
fundamental than the Hamiltonian, and can be used to derive the equations of motion. In non-relativistic
physics, the Lagrangian is the kinetic energy minus potential energy.
Usually, the Lagrange formalism is mathematically more convenient than the Hamiltonian for non-
conservative systems (like systems with friction).
[edit] Energy and thermodynamics
[edit] Internal energy
Internal energy – the sum of all microscopic forms of energy of a system. It is related to the molecular
structure and the degree of molecular activity and may be viewed as the sum of kinetic and potential
energies of the molecules; it comprises the following types of energy:[14]
Type Composition of Internal Energy (U)

the portion of the internal energy of a system associated with kinetic energies (molecular
Sensible
translation, rotation, and vibration; electron translation and spin; and nuclear spin) of the
energy
molecules.
Latent
the internal energy associated with the phase of a system.
energy
Chemical
the internal energy associated with the different kinds of aggregation of atoms in matter.
energy
Nuclear the tremendous amount of energy associated with the strong bonds within the nucleus of the
energy atom itself.
those types of energies not stored in the system (e.g. heat transfer, mass transfer, and work),
Energy
but which are recognized at the system boundary as they cross it, which represent gains or
interactions
losses by a system during a process.
Thermal
the sum of sensible and latent forms of internal energy.
energy
[edit] The laws of thermodynamics
According to the second law of thermodynamics, work can be totally converted into heat, but not vice
versa.This is a mathematical consequence of statistical mechanics. The first law of thermodynamics
simply asserts that energy is conserved,[15] and that heat is included as a form of energy transfer. A
commonly-used corollary of the first law is that for a "system" subject only to pressure forces and heat
transfer (e.g. a cylinder-full of gas), the differential change in energy of the system (with a gain in
energy signified by a positive quantity) is given by:
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,
where the first term on the right is the heat transfer into the system, defined in terms of temperature T
and entropy S (in which entropy increases and the change dS is positive when the system is heated); and
the last term on the right hand side is identified as "work" done on the system, where pressure is P and
volume V (the negative sign results since compression of the system requires work to be done on it and
so the volume change, dV, is negative when work is done on the system). Although this equation is the
standard text-book example of energy conservation in classical thermodynamics, it is highly specific,
ignoring all chemical, electric, nuclear, and gravitational forces, effects such as advection of any form of
energy other than heat, and because it contains a term that depends on temperature. The most general
statement of the first law (i.e., conservation of energy) is valid even in situations in which temperature is
undefinable.
Energy is sometimes expressed as:
which is unsatisfactory[11] because there cannot exist any thermodynamic state functions W or Q that are
meaningful on the right hand side of this equation, except perhaps in trivial cases.
[edit] Equipartition of energy
The energy of a mechanical harmonic oscillator (a mass on a spring) is alternatively kinetic and
potential. At two points in the oscillation cycle it is entirely kinetic, and alternatively at two other points
it is entirely potential. Over the whole cycle, or over many cycles net energy is thus equally split
between kinetic and potential. This is called equipartition principle - total energy of a system with many
degrees of freedom is equally split among all available degrees of freedom.
This principle is vitally important to understanding the behavior of a quantity closely related to energy,
called entropy. Entropy is a measure of evenness of a distribution of energy between parts of a system.
When an isolated system is given more degrees of freedom (= is given new available energy states
which are the same as existing states), then total energy spreads over all available degrees equally
without distinction between "new" and "old" degrees. This mathematical result is called the second law
of thermodynamics.
[edit] Oscillators, phonons, and photons
In an ensemble (connected collection) of unsynchronized oscillators, the average energy is spread

equally between kinetic and potential types.
In a solid, thermal energy (often referred to loosely as heat content) can be accurately described by an
ensemble of thermal phonons that act as mechanical oscillators. In this model, thermal energy is equally
kinetic and potential.
In an ideal gas, the interaction potential between particles is essentially the delta function which stores
no energy: thus, all of the thermal energy is kinetic.
Because an electric oscillator (LC circuit) is analogous to a mechanical oscillator, its energy must be, on
average, equally kinetic and potential. It is entirely arbitrary whether the magnetic energy is considered
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kinetic and the electric energy considered potential, or vice versa. That is, either the inductor is
analogous to the mass while the capacitor is analogous to the spring, or vice versa.
1. By extension of the previous line of thought, in free space the electromagnetic field can be
considered an ensemble of oscillators, meaning that radiation energy can be considered equally
potential and kinetic. This model is useful, for example, when the electromagnetic Lagrangian is
of primary interest and is interpreted in terms of potential and kinetic energy.
1. On the other hand, in the key equation m2c4 = E2 − p2c2, the contribution mc2 is called the rest
energy, and all other contributions to the energy are called kinetic energy. For a particle that has
mass, this implies that the kinetic energy is 0.5p2 / m at speeds much smaller than c, as can be
proved by writing E = mc2 √(1 + p2m − 2c − 2) and expanding the square root to lowest order. By
this line of reasoning, the energy of a photon is entirely kinetic, because the photon is massless
and has no rest energy. This expression is useful, for example, when the energy-versus-
momentum relationship is of primary interest.
The two analyses are entirely consistent. The electric and magnetic degrees of freedom in item 1 are
transverse to the direction of motion, while the speed in item 2 is along the direction of motion. For
non-relativistic particles these two notions of potential versus kinetic energy are numerically equal, so
the ambiguity is harmless, but not so for relativistic particles.
[edit] Work and virtual work
Main articles: Mechanics, Mechanical work, Thermodynamics, and Quantum mechanics
Work is roughly force times distance. But more precisely, it is
This says that the work (W) is equal to the integral (along a certain path) of the force; for details see the
mechanical work article.
Work and thus energy is frame dependent. For example, consider a ball being hit by a bat. In the center-
of-mass reference frame, the bat does no work on the ball. But, in the reference frame of the person
swinging the bat, considerable work is done on the ball.
[edit] Quantum mechanics
In quantum mechanics energy is defined in terms of the energy operator as a time derivative of the wave
function. The Schrödinger equation equates the energy operator to the full energy of a particle or a
system. It thus can be considered as a definition of measurement of energy in quantum mechanics. The
Schrödinger equation describes the space- and time-dependence of slow changing (non-relativistic)
wave function of quantum systems. The solution of this equation for bound system is discrete (a set of
permitted states, each characterized by an energy level) which results in the concept of quanta. In the
solution of the Schrödinger equation for any oscillator (vibrator) and for electromagnetic waves in a
vacuum, the resulting energy states are related to the frequency by the Planck equation E = hν (where h
is the Planck's constant and ν the frequency). In the case of electromagnetic wave these energy states are
called quanta of light or photons.
[edit] Relativity
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When calculating kinetic energy (= work to accelerate a mass from zero speed to some finite speed)
relativistically - using Lorentz transformations instead of Newtonian mechanics, Einstein discovered
unexpected by-product of these calculations to be an energy term which does not vanish at zero speed.
He called it rest mass energy - energy which every mass must possess even when being at rest. The
amount of energy is directly proportional to the mass of body:
E = mc2,
where
m is the mass,
c is the speed of light in vacuum,
E is the rest mass energy.
For example, consider electron-positron annihilation, in which the rest mass of individual particles is
destroyed, but the inertia equivalent of the system of the two particles (its invariant mass) remains (since
all energy is associated with mass), and this inertia and invariant mass is carried off by photons which
individually are massless, but as a system retain their mass. This is a reversible process - the inverse
process is called pair creation - in which the rest mass of particles is created from energy of two (or
more) annihilating photons.
In general relativity, the stress-energy tensor serves as the source term for the gravitational field, in
rough analogy to the way mass serves as the source term in the non-relativistic Newtonian
approximation.[12]
It is not uncommon to hear that energy is "equivalent" to mass. It would be more accurate to state that
every energy has inertia and gravity equivalent, and because mass is a form of energy, then mass too has
inertia and gravity associated with it.
[edit] Measurement
There is no absolute measure of energy, because energy is defined as the work that one system does (or
can do) on another. Thus, only of the transition of a system from one state into another can be defined
and thus measured.
[edit] Methods
The methods for the measurement of energy often deploy methods for the measurement of still more
fundamental concepts of science, namely mass, distance, radiation, temperature, time, electric charge
and electric current.
A Calorimeter - An instrument used by physicists to

measure energy
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Conventionally the technique most often employed is calorimetry, a thermodynamic technique that
relies on the measurement of temperature using a thermometer or of intensity of radiation using a
bolometer.
[edit] Units
Main article: Units of energy
Throughout the history of science, energy has been expressed in several different units such as ergs and
calories. At present, the accepted unit of measurement for energy is the SI unit of energy, the joule.
[edit] Forms of energy
Heat, a form of energy, is partly potential energy and partly kinetic

energy.
Classical mechanics distinguishes between potential energy, which is a

function of the position of an object, and kinetic energy, which is a
function of its movement. Both position and movement are relative to a
frame of reference, which must be specified: this is often (and originally) an arbitrary fixed point on the
surface of the Earth, the terrestrial frame of reference. It has been attempted to categorize all forms of
energy as either kinetic or potential: this is not incorrect, but neither is it
clear that it is a real simplification, as Feynman points out:
Examples of the
These notions of potential and kinetic energy depend on a notion of length interconversion of energy
scale. For example, one can speak of macroscopic potential and kinetic
Mechanical energy is
energy, which do not include thermal potential and kinetic energy. Also what
is called chemical potential energy (below) is a macroscopic notion, and closer converted
examination shows that it is really the sum of the potential and kinetic energy into by
on the atomic and subatomic scale. Similar remarks apply to nuclear
"potential" energy and most other forms of energy. This dependence on length Mechanical
Lever
scale is non-problematic if the various length scales are decoupled, as is often energy
the case ... but confusion can arise when different length scales are coupled, Thermal energy Brakes
for instance when friction converts macroscopic work into microscopic
thermal energy. Electric energy Dynamo
Electromagnetic
Synchrotron
[edit] Potential energy radiation
Chemical
Main article: Potential energy Matches
energy
Potential energy, symbols Ep, V or Φ, is defined as the work done Nuclear energy Particle
against a given force (= work of given force with minus sign) in accelerator
changing the position of an object with respect to a reference position
(often taken to be infinite separation). If F is the force and s is the displacement,
with the dot representing the scalar product of the two vectors.
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The name "potential" energy originally signified the idea that the energy could readily be transferred as
work—at least in an idealized system (reversible process, see below). This is not completely true for any
real system, but is often a reasonable first approximation in classical mechanics.
The general equation above can be simplified in a number of common cases, notably when dealing with
gravity or with elastic forces.
[edit] Gravitational potential energy
Main article: Gravitational potential energy
The gravitational force near the Earth's surface varies very little with the height, h, and is equal to the
mass, m, multiplied by the gravitational acceleration, g = 9.81 m/s². In these cases, the gravitational
potential energy is given by
Ep,g = mgh
A more general expression for the potential energy due to Newtonian gravitation between two bodies of
masses m1 and m2, useful in astronomy, is
where r is the separation between the two bodies and G is the gravitational constant,
6.6742(10)×10−11 m³kg−1s−2.[16] In this case, the reference point is the infinite separation of the two
bodies.
[edit] Elastic potential energy
As a ball falls freely under the influence of gravity, it

accelerates downward, its initial potential energy converting
into kinetic energy. On impact with a hard surface the ball
deforms, converting the kinetic energy into elastic potential
energy. As the ball springs back, the energy converts back
firstly to kinetic energy and then as the ball re-gains height
into potential energy. Energy conversion to heat due to
inelastic deformation and air resistance cause each successive
bounce to be lower than the last.
Main article: Elastic potential energy
Elastic potential energy is defined as a work needed to compress (or expand) a spring. The force, F, in a
spring or any other system which obeys Hooke's law is proportional to the extension or compression, x,
F = − kx
where k is the force constant of the particular spring (or system). In this case, the calculated work
becomes
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.
Only when k is constant. Hooke's law is a good approximation for behaviour of chemical bonds under
normal conditions, i.e. when they are not being broken or formed.
[edit] Kinetic energy
Main article: Kinetic energy
Kinetic energy, symbols Ek, T or K, is the work required to accelerate an object to a given speed. Indeed,
calculating this work one easily obtains the following:
At speeds approaching the speed of light, c, this work must be calculated using Lorentz transformations,
which results in the following:
This equation reduces to the one above it, at small (compared to c) speed. A mathematical by-product of
this work (which is immediately seen in the last equation) is that even
at rest a mass has the amount of energy equal to: Examples of the
interconversion of energy
Erest = mc2
Thermal energy is converted
This energy is thus called rest mass energy. into by
Mechanical
[edit] Thermal energy Steam turbine
energy
Heat
Main article: Thermal energy Thermal energy
exchanger
Thermal energy (of some media - gas, plasma, solid, etc) is the Electric energy Thermocouple
energy associated with the microscopical random motion of particles Electromagnetic
constituting the media. For example, in case of monoatomic gas it is Hot objects
radiation
just a kinetic energy of motion of atoms of gas as measured in the
reference frame of the center of mass of gas. In case of many-atomic Chemical
Blast furnace
gas rotational and vibrational energy is involved. In the case of energy
liquids and solids there is also potential energy (of interaction of Nuclear energy Supernova
atoms) involved, and so on.
A heat is defined as a transfer (flow) of thermal energy across certain boundary (for example, from a hot
body to cold via the area of their contact. A practical definition for small transfers of heat is
where Cv is the heat capacity of the system. This definition will fail if the system undergoes a phase
transition—e.g. if ice is melting to water—as in these cases the system can absorb heat without
increasing its temperature. In more complex systems, it is preferable to use the concept of internal
energy rather than that of thermal energy (see Chemical energy below).
Despite the theoretical problems, the above definition is useful in the experimental measurement of
energy changes. In a wide variety of situations, it is possible to use the energy released by a system to
raise the temperature of another object, e.g. a bath of water. It is also possible to measure the amount of
electric energy required to raise the temperature of the object by the same amount. The calorie was
originally defined as the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of one gram of water by
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1 °C (approximately 4.1855 J, although the definition later changed), Examples of the
and the British thermal unit was defined as the energy required to heat interconversion of energy
one pound of water by 1 °F (later fixed as 1055.06 J).
Electric energy is converted
[edit] Electric energy into by
Mechanical Electric
Main articles: Electromagnetism and Electricity energy motor
Thermal energy Resistor
The electric potential energy of given configuration of charges is
defined as the work which must be done against the Coulomb force to Electric energy Transformer
rearrange charges from infinite separation to this configuration (or the Light-
work done by the Coulomb force separating the charges from this Electromagnetic emitting
configuration to infinity). For two point-like charges Q1 and Q2 at a radiation diode
distance r this work, and hence electric potential energy is equal to:
Chemical
Electrolysis
where ε is the electric constant of a vacuum, 107/4πc ² or 8.854188… energy
0 0
−12 [16]
×10 F/m. If the charge is accumulated in a capacitor (of Nuclear energy Synchrotron
capacitance C), the reference configuration is usually selected not to be
infinite separation of charges, but vice versa - charges at an extremely
close proximity to each other (so there is zero net charge on each plate of a capacitor). The justification
for this choice is purely practical - it is easier to measure both voltage difference and magnitude of
charges on a capacitor plates not versus infinite separation of charges but rather versus discharged
capacitor where charges return to close proximity to each other (electrons and ions recombine making
the plates neutral). In this case the work and thus the electric potential energy becomes
If an electric current passes through a resistor, electric energy is converted to heat; if the current passes
through an electric appliance, some of the electric energy will be converted into other forms of energy
(although some will always be lost as heat). The amount of electric energy due to an electric current can
be expressed in a number of different ways:
E = UQ = UIt = Pt = U2t / R = I2Rt
where U is the electric potential difference (in volts), Q is the charge (in coulombs), I is the current (in
amperes), t is the time for which the current flows (in seconds), P is the power (in watts) and R is the
electric resistance (in ohms). The last of these expressions is important in the practical measurement of
energy, as potential difference, resistance and time can all be measured with considerable accuracy.
[edit] Magnetic energy
There is no fundamental difference between magnetic energy and electric energy: the two phenomena
are related by Maxwell's equations. The potential energy of a magnet of magnetic moment m in a
magnetic field B is defined as the work of magnetic force (actually of magnetic torque) on re-alignment
of the vector of the magnetic dipole moment, and is equal:
while the energy stored in a inductor (of inductance L) when current I is passing via it is
This second expression forms the basis for superconducting magnetic energy storage.
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Examples of the
Hanoi 191208 Wikipedia Electromagnetic
SyHung2020 radiation is
[edit] Electromagnetic fields converted
into by
Calculating work needed to create an electric or magnetic field in
unit volume (say, in a capacitor or an inductor) results in the electric Mechanical Solar sail
and magnetic fields energy densities: energy
Thermal energy Solar collector
and
Electric energy Solar cell
, Electromagnetic Non-linear
radiation optics
in SI units. Chemical
Photosynthesis
energy
Electromagnetic radiation, such as microwaves, visible light or
gamma rays, represents a flow of electromagnetic energy. Applying Nuclear energy Mössbauer
spectroscopy
the above expressions to magnetic and electric components of
electromagnetic field both the volumetric density and the flow of
energy in e/m field can be calculated. The resulting Poynting vector, which is expressed as
in SI units, gives the density of the flow of energy and its direction.
The energy of electromagnetic radiation is quantized (has discrete energy levels). The spacing between
these levels is equal to
E = hν
where h is the Planck constant, 6.6260693(11)×10−34 Js,[16] and ν is the frequency of the radiation. This
quantity of electromagnetic energy is usually called a photon. The photons which make up visible light
have energies of 270–520 yJ, equivalent to 160–310 kJ/mol, the
strength of weaker chemical bonds. Examples of the
[edit] Chemical energy
Chemical energy is
converted
Main article: Chemical thermodynamics
into by
Chemical energy is the energy due to associations of atoms in Mechanical
molecules and various other kinds of aggregates of matter. It may be Muscle
energy
defined as a work done by electric forces during re-arrangement of
electric charges, electrons and protons, in the process of aggregation. If Thermal energy Fire
the chemical energy of a system decreases during a chemical reaction, Electric energy Fuel cell
the difference is transferred to the surroundings in some form (often Electromagnetic
heat or light); on the other hand if the chemical energy of a system Glowworms
radiation
increases as a result of a chemical reaction - the difference then is
supplied by the surroundings (usually again in form of heat or light). Chemical Chemical
For example, energy reaction
when two hydrogen atoms react to form a dihydrogen molecule, the chemical energy decreases
by 724 zJ (the bond energy of the H–H bond);
when the electron is completely removed from a hydrogen atom, forming a hydrogen ion (in the
gas phase), the chemical energy increases by 2.18 aJ (the ionization energy of hydrogen).
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It is common to quote the changes in chemical energy for one mole of the substance in question: typical
values for the change in molar chemical energy during a chemical reaction range from tens to hundreds
of kilojoules per mole.
The chemical energy as defined above is also referred to by chemists as the internal energy, U:
technically, this is measured by keeping the volume of the system constant. However, most practical
chemistry is performed at constant pressure and, if the volume changes during the reaction (e.g. a gas is
given off), a correction must be applied to take account of the work done by or on the atmosphere to
obtain the enthalpy, H:
ΔH = ΔU + pΔV
A second correction, for the change in entropy, S, must also be performed to determine whether a
chemical reaction will take place or not, giving the Gibbs free energy, G:
ΔG = ΔH − TΔS
These corrections are sometimes negligible, but often not (especially in reactions involving gases).
Since the industrial revolution, the burning of coal, oil, natural gas or products derived from them has
been a socially significant transformation of chemical energy into other forms of energy. the energy
"consumption" (one should really speak of "energy transformation") of a society or country is often
quoted in reference to the average energy released by the combustion of these fossil fuels:
1 tonne of coal equivalent (TCE) = 29 GJ

1 tonne of oil equivalent (TOE) = 41.87 GJ
On the same basis, a tank-full of gasoline (45 litres, 12 gallons) is equivalent to about 1.6 GJ of chemical
energy. Another chemically-based unit of measurement for energy is the "tonne of TNT", taken as
4.184 GJ. Hence, burning a tonne of oil releases about ten times as much energy as the explosion of
one tonne of TNT: fortunately, the energy is usually released in a slower, more controlled manner.
Simple examples of storage of chemical energy are batteries and food. Examples of the
When food is digested and metabolized (often with oxygen), chemical interconversion of energy
energy is released, which can in turn be transformed into heat, or by
Nuclear binding energy is
muscles into kinetic energy.
converted
[edit] Nuclear energy into by
Mechanical Alpha
Main article: Nuclear binding energy energy radiation
Thermal energy Sun
Nuclear potential energy, along with electric potential energy, provides
the energy released from nuclear fission and nuclear fusion processes. Electrical Beta
The result of both these processes are nuclei in which the more-optimal energy radiation
size of the nucleus allows the nuclear force (which is opposed by the Electromagnetic Gamma
electromagnetic force) to bind nuclear particles more tightly together radiation radiation
than before the reaction.
Chemical Radioactive
energy decay
Nuclear
Research Nuclear energy
Trang256 isomerism
The Weak nuclear force (different from the strong force) provides the potential energy for certain kinds
of radioactive decay, such as beta decay.
The energy released in nuclear processes is so large that the relativistic change in mass (after the energy
has been removed) can be as much as several parts per thousand.
Nuclear particles (nucleons) like protons and neutrons are not destroyed (law of conservation of baryon
number) in fission and fusion processes. A few lighter particles may be created or destroyed (example:
beta minus and beta plus decay, or electron capture decay), but these minor processes are not important
to the immediate energy release in fission and fusion. Rather, fission and fusion release energy when
collections of baryons become more tightly bound, and it is the energy associated with a fraction of the
mass of the nucleons (but not the whole particles) which appears as the heat and electromagnetic
radiation generated by nuclear reactions. This heat and radiation retains the "missing" mass, but the mass
is missing only because it escapes in the form of heat and light, which retain the mass and conduct it out
of the system where it is not measured.
The energy from the Sun, also called solar energy, is an example of this form of energy conversion. In
the Sun, the process of hydrogen fusion converts about 4 million metric tons of solar matter per second
into light, which is radiated into space, but during this process, the number of total protons and neutrons
in the sun does not change. In this system, the light itself retains the inertial equivalent of this mass, and
indeed the mass itself (as a system), which represents 4 million tons per second of electromagnetic
radiation, moving into space. Each of the helium nuclei which are formed in the process are less massive
than the four protons from they were formed, but (to a good approximation), no particles or atoms are
destroyed in the process of turning the sun's nuclear potential energy into light.
[edit] Surface energy
If there is any kind of tension in a surface, such as a stretched sheet of rubber or material interfaces, it is
possible to define surface energy. In particular, any meeting of dissimilar materials that don't mix will
result in some kind of surface tension, if there is freedom for the surfaces to move then, as seen in
capillary surfaces for example, the minimum energy will as usual be sought.
A minimal surface, for example, represents the smallest possible energy that a surface can have if its
energy is proportional to the area of the surface. For this reason, (open) soap films of small size are
minimal surfaces (small size reduces gravity effects, and openness prevents pressure from building up.
Note that a bubble is a minimum energy surface but not a minimal surface by definition).
[edit] Transformations of energy

Main article: Energy conversion
One form of energy can often be readily transformed into another with the help of a device- for instance,
a battery, from chemical energy to electric energy; a dam: gravitational potential energy to kinetic
energy of moving water (and the blades of a turbine) and ultimately to electric energy through an
electric generator. Similarly, in the case of a chemical explosion, chemical potential energy is
transformed to kinetic energy and thermal energy in a very short time. Yet another example is that of a
pendulum. At its highest points the kinetic energy is zero and the gravitational potential energy is at
maximum. At its lowest point the kinetic energy is at maximum and is equal to the decrease of potential
energy. If one (unrealistically) assumes that there is no friction, the conversion of energy between these
processes is perfect, and the pendulum will continue swinging forever.
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Energy can be converted into matter and vice versa. The formula E = mc², derived by Albert Einstein
(1905) quantifies the relationship between mass and rest energy within the concept of special relativity.
In different theoretical frameworks, similar formulas were derived by J. J. Thomson (1881), Henri
Poincaré (1900), Friedrich Hasenöhrl (1904) and others (see Mass-energy equivalence#History for
further information). Since c2 is extremely large relative to ordinary human scales, the conversion of
ordinary amount of mass (say, 1 kg) to other forms of energy can liberate tremendous amounts of energy
(~9x1016 Joules), as can be seen in nuclear reactors and nuclear weapons. Conversely, the mass
equivalent of a unit of energy is minuscule, which is why a loss of energy from most systems is difficult
to measure by weight, unless the energy loss is very large. Examples of energy transformation into
matter (particles) are found in high energy nuclear physics.
In nature, transformations of energy can be fundamentally classed into two kinds: those that are
thermodynamically reversible, and those that are thermodynamically irreversible. A reversible process
in thermodynamics is one in which no energy is dissipated (spread) into empty energy states available in
a volume, from which it cannot be recovered into more concentrated forms (fewer quantum states),
without degradation of even more energy. A reversible process is one in which this sort of dissipation
does not happen. For example, conversion of energy from one type of potential field to another, is
reversible, as in the pendulum system described above. In processes where heat is generated, however,
quantum states of lower energy, present as possible exitations in fields between atoms, act as a reservoir
for part of the energy, from which it cannot be recovered, in order to be converted with 100% efficiency
into other forms of energy. In this case, the energy must partly stay as heat, and cannot be completely
recovered as usable energy, except at the price of an increase in some other kind of heat-like increase in
disorder in quantum states, in the universe (such as an expansion of matter, or a randomization in a
crystal).
As the universe evolves in time, more and more of its energy becomes trapped in irreversible states (i.e.,
as heat or other kinds of increases in disorder). This has been referred to as the inevitable
thermodynamic heat death of the universe. In this heat death the energy of the universe does not change,
but the fraction of energy which is available to do produce work through a heat engine, or be
transformed to other usable forms of energy (through the use of generators attached to heat engines),
grows less and less.
[edit] Law of conservation of energy

Main article: Conservation of energy
Energy is subject to the law of conservation of energy. According to this law, energy can neither be
created (produced) nor destroyed by itself. It can only be transformed.
Most kinds of energy (with gravitational energy being a notable exception)[17] are also subject to strict
local conservation laws, as well. In this case, energy can only be exchanged between adjacent regions of
space, and all observers agree as to the volumetric density of energy in any given space. There is also a
global law of conservation of energy, stating that the total energy of the universe cannot change; this is a
corollary of the local law, but not vice versa.[7][11] Conservation of energy is the mathematical
consequence of translational symmetry of time (that is, the indistinguishability of time intervals taken at
different time)[18] - see Noether's theorem.
According to energy conservation law the total inflow of energy into a system must equal the total
outflow of energy from the system, plus the change in the energy contained within the system.
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This law is a fundamental principle of physics. It follows from the translational symmetry of time, a
property of most phenomena below the cosmic scale that makes them independent of their locations on
the time coordinate. Put differently, yesterday, today, and tomorrow are physically indistinguishable.
Thus is because energy is the quantity which is canonical conjugate to time. This mathematical
entanglement of energy and time also results in the uncertainty principle - it is impossible to define the
exact amount of energy during any definite time interval. The uncertainty principle should not be
confused with energy conservation - rather it provides mathematical limits to which energy can in
principle be defined and measured.
In quantum mechanics energy is expressed using the Hamiltonian operator. On any time scales, the
uncertainty in the energy is by
which is similar in form to the Heisenberg uncertainty principle (but not really mathematically
equivalent thereto, since H and t are not dynamically conjugate variables, neither in classical nor in
quantum mechanics).
In particle physics, this inequality permits a qualitative understanding of virtual particles which carry
momentum, exchange by which and with real particles, is responsible for the creation of all known
fundamental forces (more accurately known as fundamental interactions). Virtual photons (which are
simply lowest quantum mechanical energy state of photons) are also responsible for electrostatic
interaction between electric charges (which results in Coulomb law), for spontaneous radiative decay of
exited atomic and nuclear states, for the Casimir force, for van der Waals bond forces and some other
observable phenomena.
[edit] Energy and life

Main article: Bioenergetics
Any living organism relies on an external source of energy—radiation from the Sun in the case of green
plants; chemical energy in some form in the case of animals—to be able to grow and reproduce. The
daily 1500–2000 Calories (6–8 MJ) recommended for a human adult are taken as a combination of
oxygen and food molecules, the latter mostly carbohydrates and fats, of which glucose (C6H12O6) and
stearin (C57H110O6) are convenient examples. The food molecules are oxidised to carbon dioxide and
water in the mitochondria
C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O

C57H110O6 + 81.5O2 → 57CO2 + 55H2O
and some of the energy is used to convert ADP into ATP
ADP + HPO42− → ATP + H2O
The rest of the chemical energy in the carbohydrate or fat is converted into heat: the ATP is used as a
sort of "energy currency", and some of the chemical energy it contains when split and reacted with
water, is used for other metabolism (at each stage of a metabolic pathway, some chemical energy is
converted into heat). Only a tiny fraction of the original chemical energy is used for work:[19]
gain in kinetic energy of a sprinter during a 100 m race: 4 kJ

gain in gravitational potential energy of a 150 kg weight lifted through 2 metres: 3kJ
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Daily food intake of a normal adult: 6–8 MJ
It would appear that living organisms are remarkably inefficient (in the physical sense) in their use of
the energy they receive (chemical energy or radiation), and it is true that most real machines manage
higher efficiencies. However, in growing organisms the energy that is converted to heat serves a vital
purpose, as it allows the organism tissue to be highly ordered with regard to the molecules it is built
from. The second law of thermodynamics states that energy (and matter) tends to become more evenly
spread out across the universe: to concentrate energy (or matter) in one specific place, it is necessary to
spread out a greater amount of energy (as heat) across the remainder of the universe ("the
surroundings").[20] Simpler organisms can achieve higher energy efficiencies than more complex ones,
but the complex organisms can occupy ecological niches that are not available to their simpler brethren.
The conversion of a portion of the chemical energy to heat at each step in a metabolic pathway is the
physical reason behind the pyramid of biomass observed in ecology: to take just the first step in the food
chain, of the estimated 124.7 Pg/a of carbon that is fixed by photosynthesis, 64.3 Pg/a (52%) are used
for the metabolism of green plants,[21] i.e. reconverted into carbon dioxide and heat.
[edit] See also

Energy portal
Physics portal
• Activation energy
• American Museum of Science and Energy (AMSE)
• Americans for Balanced Energy Choices (ABEC)
• Energy carrier and energyware
• Energy emergency
• Energy conservation
• Enthalpy
• Entropy
• free energy
• Interaction energy
• Internal energy
• List of books about energy issues
• List of energy topics
• Orders of magnitude (energy)
• Power (physics)
• Renewable energy
• Solar radiation
• Thermodynamics
• Units of energy
• Negative energy
• World energy resources and consumption
• Zero-point energy
Weather
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For other uses, see Weather (disambiguation).
For the geological process, see Weathering and Erosion.
Thunderstorm near Garajau, Madeira
Weather is a set of all the phenomena occurring in a given

atmosphere at a given time.[1] Weather phenomena lie in the
hydrosphere and troposphere.[2][3] Weather refers to current
activity, as opposed to the term climate, which refers to the
average atmospheric conditions over longer periods of time.[4]
When used without qualification, "weather" is understood to be
the weather of Earth.
Weather occurs due to density (temperature and moisture) differences between one place to another.
These differences can occur due to the sun angle at any particular spot, which varies by latitude from the
tropics. The strong temperature contrast between polar and tropical air gives rise to the jet stream.
Weather systems in the mid-latitudes, such as extratropical cyclones, are caused by instabilities of the jet
stream flow. Because the Earth's axis is tilted relative to its orbital plane, sunlight is incident at different
angles at different times of the year. On Earth's surface, temperatures usually range ±40 °C (100 °F to
−40 °F) annually. Over thousands to hundreds of thousands of years, changes in Earth's orbit affect the
amount and distribution of solar energy received by the Earth and influence long-term climate.
Surface temperature differences in turn cause pressure differences. Higher altitudes are cooler than
lower altitudes due to differences in compressional heating. Weather forecasting is the application of
science and technology to predict the state of the atmosphere for a future time and a given location. The
atmosphere is a chaotic system, so small changes to one part of the system can grow to have large
effects on the system as a whole. Human attempts to control the weather have occurred throughout
human history, and there is evidence that human activity such as agriculture and industry has
inadvertently modified weather patterns.
Studying how the weather works on other planets has been helpful in understanding how weather works
on Earth. A famous landmark in the Solar System, Jupiter's Great Red Spot, is an anticyclonic storm
known to have existed for at least 300 years. However, weather is not limited to planetary bodies. A
star's corona is constantly being lost to space, creating what is essentially a very thin atmosphere
throughout the Solar System. The movement of mass ejected from the Sun is known as the solar wind.
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Contents
[hide]
• 1 Cause
• 2 Shaping the planet Earth
• 3 Effect on humans
• 4 Forecasting
• 5 Modification
• 6 Extremes on Earth
• 7 Extraterrestrial within the Solar System
• 8 Space weather
• 9 See also
• 10 References
[edit] Cause
Stratocumulus perlucidus clouds
On Earth, common weather phenomena include wind, cloud,

rain, snow, fog and dust storms. Less common events include
natural disasters such as tornadoes, hurricanes and ice storms.
Almost all familiar weather phenomena occur in the
troposphere (the lower part of the atmosphere).[3] Weather does
occur in the stratosphere and can affect weather lower down in
the troposphere, but the exact mechanisms are poorly understood.[5]
Weather occurs primarily due to density (temperature and moisture) differences between one place to
another. These differences can occur due to the sun angle at any particular spot, which varies by latitude
from the tropics. In other words, the farther from the tropics you lie, the lower the sun angle is, which
causes those locations to be cooler due to the indirect sunlight.[6] The strong temperature contrast
between polar and tropical air gives rise to the jet stream.[7] Weather systems in the mid-latitudes, such
as extratropical cyclones, are caused by instabilities of the jet stream flow (see baroclinity).[8] Weather
systems in the tropics, such as monsoons or organized thunderstorm systems, are caused by different
processes.
Because the Earth's axis is tilted relative to its orbital plane, sunlight is incident at different angles at
different times of the year. In June the Northern Hemisphere is tilted towards the sun, so at any given
Northern Hemisphere latitude sunlight falls more directly on that spot than in December (see Effect of
sun angle on climate).[9] This effect causes seasons. Over thousands to hundreds of thousands of years,
changes in Earth's orbital parameters affect the amount and distribution of solar energy received by the
Earth and influence long-term climate (see Milankovitch cycles).[10]
Uneven solar heating (the formation of zones of temperature and moisture gradients, or frontogenesis)
can also be due to the weather itself in the form of cloudiness and precipitation. [11] Higher altitudes are
cooler than lower altitudes, which is explained by the lapse rate.[12][13] On local scales, temperature
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differences can occur because different surfaces (such as oceans, forests, ice sheets, or man-made
objects) have differing physical characteristics such as reflectivity, roughness, or moisture content.
Surface temperature differences in turn cause pressure differences. A hot surface heats the air above it
and the air expands, lowering the air pressure and its density.[14] The resulting horizontal pressure
gradient accelerates the air from high to low pressure, creating wind, and Earth's rotation then causes
curvature of the flow via the Coriolis effect.[15] The simple systems thus formed can then display
emergent behaviour to produce more complex systems and thus other weather phenomena. Large scale
examples include the Hadley cell while a smaller scale example would be coastal breezes.
The atmosphere is a chaotic system, so small changes to one part of the system can grow to have large
effects on the system as a whole.[16] This makes it difficult to accurately predict weather more than a few
days in advance, though weather forecasters are continually working to extend this limit through the
scientific study of weather, meteorology. It is theoretically impossible to make useful day-to-day
predictions more than about two weeks ahead, imposing an upper limit to potential for improved
prediction skill.[17] Chaos theory says that the slightest variation in the motion of the ground can grow
with time. This idea is sometimes called the butterfly effect, from the idea that the motions caused by the
flapping wings of a butterfly eventually could produce marked changes in the state of the atmosphere.
Because of this sensitivity to small changes it will never be possible to make perfect forecasts, although
there still is much potential for improvement.
The sun and oceans can also affect the weather of land. If the sun heats up ocean waters for a period of
time, water can evaporate. Once evaporated into the air, the moisture can spread throughout nearby land,
thus making it cooler.
[edit] Shaping the planet Earth

Main article: Weathering
Weather is one of the fundamental processes that shape the Earth. The process of weathering breaks
down rocks and soils into smaller fragments and then into their constituent substances.[18] These are then
free to take part in chemical reactions that can affect the surface further (such as acid rain) or are
reformed into other rocks and soils. In this way, weather plays a major role in erosion of the surface.[19]
[edit] Effect on humans
New Orleans, Louisiana, after being struck by Hurricane

Katrina. Katrina was a Category 3 hurricane when it struck
although it had been a category 5 hurricane in the Gulf of
Mexico.
Weather has played a large and sometimes direct part in human

history. Aside from climatic changes that have caused the
gradual drift of populations (for example the desertification of the Middle East, and the formation of
land bridges during glacial periods), extreme weather events have caused smaller scale population
movements and intruded directly in historical events. One such event is the saving of Japan from
invasion by the Mongol fleet of Kublai Khan by the Kamikaze winds in 1281.[20] French claims to
Florida came to an end in 1565 when a hurricane destroyed the French fleet, allowing Spain to conquer
Fort Caroline.[21] More recently, Hurricane Katrina redistributed over one million people from the central
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Gulf coast elsewhere across the United States, becoming the largest diaspora in the history of the United
States.[22]
Though weather affects people in drastic ways, it can also affect the human race in simpler ways. The
human body is negatively affected by extremes in temperature, humidity, and wind.[23] Mood is also
affected by the weather.[24]
[edit] Forecasting
Main article: Weather forecasting
Forecast of surface pressures five days into the future for the
north Pacific, North America, and north Atlantic ocean.
Weather forecasting is the application of science and

technology to predict the state of the atmosphere for a future
time and a given location. Human beings have attempted to
predict the weather informally for millennia, and formally since
at least the nineteenth century.[25][26] Weather forecasts are made by collecting quantitative data about the
current state of the atmosphere and using scientific understanding of atmospheric processes to project
how the atmosphere will evolve.[27]
Once an all-human endeavor based mainly upon changes in barometric pressure, current weather
conditions, and sky condition,[28][29] forecast models are now used to determine future conditions. Human
input is still required to pick the best possible forecast model to base the forecast upon, which involves
pattern recognition skills, teleconnections, knowledge of model performance, and knowledge of model
biases. The chaotic nature of the atmosphere, the massive computational power required to solve the
equations that describe the atmosphere, error involved in measuring the initial conditions, and an
incomplete understanding of atmospheric processes mean that forecasts become less accurate as the
difference in current time and the time for which the forecast is being made (the range of the forecast)
increases. The use of ensembles and model consensus helps to narrow the error and pick the most likely
outcome.[30][31][32]
There are a variety of end users to weather forecasts. Weather warnings are important forecasts because
they are used to protect life and property.[33] Forecasts based on temperature and precipitation are
important to agriculture,[34][35][36][37] and therefore to commodity traders within stock markets.
Temperature forecasts are used by utility companies to estimate demand over coming days.[38][39][40] On
an everyday basis, people use weather forecasts to determine what to wear on a given day. Since outdoor
activities are severely curtailed by heavy rain, snow and the wind chill, forecasts can be used to plan
activities around these events, and to plan ahead and survive them.
[edit] Modification
The wish to control the weather is evident throughout human history: from ancient rituals intended to
bring rain for crops to the U.S. Military Operation Popeye, an attempt to disrupt supply lines by
lengthening the North Vietnamese monsoon. The most successful attempts at influencing weather
involve cloud seeding; they include the fog- and low stratus dispersion techniques employed by major
airports, techniques used to increase winter precipitation over mountains, and techniques to suppress
hail.[41] A recent example of weather control was China's preparation for the 2008 Summer Olympic
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Games. China shot 1,104 rain dispersal rockets from 21 sites in the city of Beijing in an effort to keep
rain away from the opening ceremony of the games on Aug 8, 2008. Guo Hu, head of the Beijing
Municipal Meteorological Bureau (BMB), confirmed the success of the operation with 100 millimeters
falling in Baoding City of Hebei Province, to the southwest and Beijing's Fangshan District recording a
rainfall of 25 millimeters. [42]
Whereas there is inconclusive evidence for these techniques' efficacy, there is extensive evidence that
human activity such as agriculture and industry results in inadvertent weather modification:[41]
• Acid rain, caused by industrial emission of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides into the
atmosphere, adversely effects freshwater lakes, vegetation, and structures.
• Anthropogenic pollutants reduce air quality and visibility.
• Climate change caused by human activities that emit greenhouse gases into the air is expected to
affect the frequency of extreme weather events such as drought, extreme temperatures, flooding,
high winds, and severe storms.[43]
The effects of inadvertent weather modification may pose serious threats to many aspects of civilization,
including ecosystems, natural resources, food and fiber production, economic development, and human
health.[44].
[edit] Extremes on Earth

Main articles: Extremes on Earth and List of weather records
Early morning
sunshine over
Bratislava, Slovakia.
The same area, just three hours later, after heavy snowfall.
On Earth, temperatures usually range ±40 °C (100 °F to −40 °F) annually. The range of climates and
latitudes across the planet can offer extremes of temperature
outside this range. The coldest air temperature ever recorded on
Earth is −89.2 °C (−129 °F), at Vostok Station, Antarctica on
21 July 1983. The hottest air temperature ever recorded was
57.7 °C (135.9 °F) at Al 'Aziziyah, Libya, on 13 September
1922.[45] The highest recorded average annual temperature was
34.4 °C (93.9 °F) at Dallol, Ethiopia.[46] The coldest recorded
average annual temperature was −55.1 °C (−67 °F) at Vostok
Station, Antarctica.[47] The coldest average annual temperature
in a permanently inhabited location is at Eureka, Nunavut, in
Canada, where the annual average temperature is −19.7 °C
(−3 °F).[48]
[edit] Extraterrestrial within the Solar System
Jupiter's Great Red Spot

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Studying how the weather works on other planets has been seen as helpful in understanding how it
works on Earth.[49] Weather on other planets follows many of the same physical principles as weather on
Earth, but occurs on different scales and in atmospheres having different chemical composition. The
Cassini–Huygens mission to Titan discovered clouds formed from methane or ethane which deposit rain
composed of liquid methane and other organic compounds.[50] Earth's atmosphere includes six latitudinal
circulation zones, three in each hemisphere.[51] In contrast, Jupiter's banded appearance shows many such
zones,[52] Titan has a single jet stream near the 50th parallel north latitude, [53] and Venus has a single jet
near the equator.[54]
One of the most famous landmarks in the Solar System, Jupiter's Great Red Spot, is an anticyclonic
storm known to have existed for at least 300 years.[55] On other gas giants, the lack of a surface allows
the wind to reach enormous speeds: gusts of up to 600 metres per second (about 2,100 kilometres per
hour (1,300 mph)) have been measured on the planet Neptune.[56] This has created a puzzle for planetary
scientists. The weather is ultimately created by solar energy and the amount of energy received by
Neptune is only about 1/900th of that received by Earth, yet the intensity of weather phenomena on
Neptune is far greater than on Earth.[57] The strongest planetary winds discovered so far are on the
extrasolar planet HD 189733 b, which is thought to have easterly winds moving at more than
9,600 kilometres per hour (6,000 mph).[58]
[edit] Space weather
Aurora Borealis
Main article: Space weather
Weather is not limited to planetary bodies. A star's corona is

constantly being lost to space, creating what is essentially a
very thin atmosphere throughout the Solar System. The
movement of mass ejected from the Sun is known as the solar
wind. Inconsistencies in this wind and larger events on the surface of the star, such as coronal mass
ejections, form a system that has features analogous to conventional weather systems (such as pressure
and wind) and is generally known as space weather. Coronal mass ejections have been tracked as far out
in the solar system as Saturn.[59] The activity of this system can affect planetary atmospheres and
occasionally surfaces. The interaction of the solar wind with the terrestrial atmosphere can produce
spectacular aurorae,[60] and can play havoc with electrically sensitive systems such as electricity grids
and radio signals.[61]
[edit] See also
• Weather station
• Personal weather station
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Climate

For other uses, see Climate (disambiguation).
Worldwide climate classifications
Climate encompasses the temperatures, humidity, rainfall, atmospheric particle count and numerous
other meteorological factors in a given region over long periods of time, as opposed to the term weather,
which refers to current activity. The climate of a location is affected by its latitude, terrain, altitude,
persistent ice or snow cover, as well as nearby oceans and their currents. Climates can be classified
using parameters such as temperature and rainfall to define specific climate types. The most commonly
used classification scheme is the one originally developed by Wladimir Koeppen. The Thornthwaite
system,[1] in use since 1948, incorporates evapotranspiration in addition to temperature and precipitation
information and is used in studying animal species diversity and potential impacts of climate changes.
The Bergeron and Spatial Synoptic Classification systems focus on the origin of air masses defining the
climate for certain areas.
Paleoclimatology is the study and description of ancient climates using information from both non-biotic
factors such as sediments found in lake beds and ice cores, and biotic factors such as tree rings and
coral, and can be used to extend back the temperature or rainfall information for particular locations to a
time before various weather instruments were used to monitor weather conditions. Climate models are
mathematical models of past, present and future climates and can be used to describe the likely patterns
of future changes.
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[edit] Definition
Contents
Part of the Nature series on
[hide]
Weather
• 1 Definition
• 2 Climate classification
o 2.1 Bergeron and Spatial Synoptic
o 2.2 Köppen
Seasons
o 2.3 Thornthwaite Temperate
• 3 Record
o 3.1 Modern Spring · Summer
o 3.2 Paleoclimatology Autumn · Winter
• 4 Climate change
Tropical
o 4.1 Climate models
• 5 See also Dry season
• 6 References Wet season
• 7 External links Storms

Thunderstorm · Tornado
Tropical cyclone (Hurricane)
Extratropical cyclone
Winter storm · Blizzard
Ice storm
Precipitation
Fog · Drizzle · Rain
Freezing rain · Ice pellets
Hail · Snow · Graupel
Topics
Meteorology
Weather forecasting
Climate · Air pollution
Weather Portal
v•d•e
Climate (from Ancient Greek klima, meaning inclination) is commonly defined as the weather averaged
over a long period of time.[2] The standard averaging period is 30 years,[3] but other periods may be used
depending on the purpose. Climate also includes statistics other than the average, such as the magnitudes
of day-to-day or year-to-year variations. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
glossary definition is:
Climate in a narrow sense is usually defined as the “average weather”, or more rigorously, as
the statistical description in terms of the mean and variability of relevant quantities over a
period of time ranging from months to thousands or millions of years. The classical period is
30 years, as defined by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO). These quantities are
most often surface variables such as temperature, precipitation, and wind. Climate in a wider
sense is the state, including a statistical description, of the climate system.[4]
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The difference between climate and weather is usefully summarized by the popular phrase "Climate is
what you expect, weather is what you get."[5] Over historical time spans there are a number of static
variables that determine climate, including latitude, altitude, proportion of land to water, and proximity
to oceans and mountains. Other climate determinants are more dynamic: for example, the thermohaline
circulation of the ocean leads to a 5 °C (9 °F) warming of the northern Atlantic ocean compared to other
ocean basins.[6] Other ocean currents redistribute heat between land and water on a more regional scale.
The density and type of vegetation coverage affects solar heat absorption,[7] water retention, and rainfall
on a regional level. Alterations in the quantity of atmospheric greenhouse gases determines the amount
of solar energy retained by the planet, leading to global warming or global cooling. The variables which
determine climate are numerous and the interactions complex, but there is general agreement that the
broad outlines are understood, at least insofar as the determinants of historical climate change are
concerned.[8]
[edit] Climate classification
There are several ways to classify climates into similar regimes. Originally, climes were defined in
Ancient Greece to describe the weather depending upon a location's latitude. Modern climate
classification methods can be broadly divided into genetic methods, which focus on the causes of
climate, and empiric methods, which focus on the effects of climate. Examples of genetic classification
include methods based on the relative frequency of different air mass types or locations within synoptic
weather disturbances. Examples of empiric classifications include climate zones defined by plant
hardiness,[9] evapotranspiration,[10] air mass origin, or more generally the Köppen climate classification
which was originally designed to identify the climates associated with certain biomes. A common
shortcoming of these classification schemes is that they produce distinct boundaries between the zones
they define, rather than the gradual transition of climate properties more common in nature.
[edit] Bergeron and Spatial Synoptic
Source regions of global air masses

Main article: Air mass
The most generic classification is that involving the concept of

air masses. The Bergeron classification is the most widely
accepted form of air mass classification. Air mass classification
involves three letters. The first letter describes its moisture properties, with c used for continental air
masses (dry) and m for maritime air masses (moist). The second letter describes the thermal
characteristic of its source region: T for tropical, P for polar, A for Arctic or Antarctic, M for monsoon,
E for equatorial, and S for superior air (dry air formed by significant downward motion in the
atmosphere). The third letter is used to designate the stability of the atmosphere. If the air mass is colder
than the ground below it, it is labeled k. If the air mass is warmer than the ground below it, it is labeled
w.[11] While air mass identification was originally used in weather forecasting during the 1950s,
climatologists began to establish synoptic climatologies based on this idea in 1973.[12]
Based upon the Bergeron classification scheme is the Spatial Synoptic Classification system (SSC).
There are six categories within the SSC scheme: Dry Polar (similar to continental polar), Dry Moderate
(similar to maritime superior), Dry Tropical (similar to continental tropical), Moist Polar (similar to
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maritime polar), Moist Moderate (a hybrid between maritime polar and maritime tropical), and Moist
Tropical (similar to maritime tropical, maritime monsoon, or maritime equatorial).[13]
[edit] Köppen
Annual average surface temperatures from 1961–1990. This is

an example of how climate varies with location.
Main article: Köppen climate classification
The Köppen classification includes climate regimes such as

Rain forest, monsoon, tropical savanna, humid subtropical,
humid continental, oceanic climate, Mediterranean climate,
continental steppe, subarctic climate, tundra, polar ice cap, and
desert.
Rain forests are characterized by high rainfall, with definitions setting minimum normal annual rainfall
between 1,750 millimetres (69 in) and 2,000 millimetres (79 in). Mean monthly temperatures exceed
18 °C (64 °F) during all months of the year.[14]
A monsoon is a seasonal prevailing wind which lasts for several months, ushering in a region's rainy
season.[15] Regions such as within North America, South America. Sub-Saharan Africa, Australia and
East Asia to qualify as monsoon regimes.[16]
A tropical savanna is a grassland biome located in semi-arid to semi-humid climate regions of
subtropical and tropical latitudes, with average temperatures remain at or above 18 °C (64 °F) year
round and rainfall between 750 millimetres (30 in) and 1,270 millimetres (50 in) a year. They are
widespread on Africa, and are also found in India, the northern parts of South America, Malaysia, and
Australia.[17]
The humid subtropical climate zone where winter rainfall (and sometimes snowfall) is associated with
large storms that the westerlies steer from west to east. Most summer rainfall occurs during
thunderstorms and from occasional tropical cyclones.[18] Humid subtropical climates lie on the east side
continents, roughly between latitudes 20° and 40° degress away from the equator.[19]
Humid continental climate worldwide
Humid continental climate is marked by variable weather patterns and a large seasonal temperature
variance. Places with a hottest monthly temperature above 10 °C (50 °F) and a coldest month
temperature below −3 °C (26.6 °F) and which do not meet the criteria for an arid climate, are classified
as continental.[20]
An oceanic climate is typically found along the west coasts at the middle latitudes of all the world's
continents, and in southeastern Australia, and is accompanied by plentiful precipitation year round.[21]
The Mediterranean climate regime resembles the climate of the lands in the Mediterranean Basin,
parts of western North America, parts of Western and South Australia, in southwestern South Africa and
in parts of central Chile. The climate is characterized by hot, dry summers and cool, wet winters. [22]
A steppe is a dry grassland with an annual temperature range in the summer of up to 40 °C (104 °F) and
during the winter down to −40 °C (−40.0 °F).[23]
[24]
A subarctic climate has little precipitation, and monthly temperatures which are above 10 °C (50 °F)
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for one to three months of the year, with continuous permafrost due to the very cold winters. Winters
within subarctic climates include up to six months of temperatures averaging below 0 °C (32 °F).[25]
Map of arctic tundra
Arctic tundra occurs in the far Northern Hemisphere, north of the taiga belt, including vast areas of
[26]
northern Russia and Canada .
A polar ice cap, or polar ice sheet, is a high-latitude region of a planet or moon that is covered in ice.
Ice caps form because high-latitude regions receive less energy in the form of solar radiation from the
sun than equatorial regions, resulting in lower surface temperatures.[27]
A desert is a landscape form or region that receives very little precipitation. Deserts usually have a large
diurnal and seasonal temperature range, with high daytime temperatures (in summer up to 45 °C or 113
°F), and low night-time temperatures (in winter down to 0 °C; 32 °F) due to extremely low humidity.
Many deserts are formed by rain shadows, as mountains block the path of moisture and precipitation to
the desert.[28]
[edit] Thornthwaite
See also: Microthermal, Mesothermal, and Megathermal
This climate classification method monitors the soil water budget using the concept of
evapotranspiration.[10] It monitors the portion of total precipitation used to nourish vegetation over a
certain area.[29] It uses indices such as a humidity index and an aridity index to determine an area's
moisture regime based upon its average temperature, average rainfall, and average vegetation type.[30]
The lower the value of the index is any given area, the drier the area is.
The moisture classification includes climatic classes with descriptors such as hyperhumid, humid,
subhumid, subarid, semi-arid (values of -20 to -40), and arid (values below -40).[31] Humid regions
experience more precipitation than evaporation each year, while arid regions experience greater
evaporation than precipitation on an annual basis. A total of 33 percent of the earth's landmass is
considered either arid of semi-arid, including southwest North America, southwest South America, most
of northern and a small part of southern Africa, southwest and portions of eastern Asia, as well as much
of Australia.[32] Studies suggest that precipitation effectiveness (PE) within the Thornthwaite moisture
index is overestimated in the summer and underestimated in the winter.[33] This index can be effectively
used to determine the number of herbivore and mammal species numbers within a given area.[34] The
index is also used in studies of climate change.[33]
Thermal classifications within the Thornthwaite scheme include microthermal, mesothermal, and
megathermal regimes. A mircothermal climate is one of low annual mean temperatures, generally
between 0 °C (32 °F) and 14 °C (57 °F) which experiences short summers and has a potential
evaporation between 14 centimetres (5.5 in) and 43 centimetres (17 in).[35] A mesothermal climate lacks
persistent heat or persistent cold, with potential evaporation between 57 centimetres (22 in) and
114 centimetres (45 in).[36] A megathermal climate is one with persistent high temperatures and abundant
rainfall, with potential evaporation in excess of 114 centimetres (45 in).[37]
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[edit] Record
[edit] Modern
Instrumental temperature record of the last 150 years
Details of the modern climate record are known through the taking of measurements from such weather
instruments as thermometers, barometers, and anemometers during the past few centuries. The
instruments used to study weather conditions over the modern time scale, their known error, their
immediate environment, and their exposure have changed over the years, which must be considered
when studying the climate of centuries past.[38]
[edit] Paleoclimatology
Main article: Paleoclimatology
Paleoclimatology is the study of past climate over a great period of the Earth's history. It uses evidence
from ice sheets, tree rings, sediments, coral, and rocks to determine the past state of the climate. It
demonstrates periods of stability and periods of change and can indicate whether changes follow
patterns such as regular cycles.[39]
[edit] Climate change
Variations in CO2, temperature and dust from the Vostok ice core over the past 450,000 years
See also: Climate change, Global warming, temperature record, and attribution of recent
climate change
Climate change refers to the variation in the Earth's global climate or in regional climates over time. It
describes changes in the variability or average state of the atmosphere over time scales ranging from
decades to millions of years. These changes can be caused by processes internal to the Earth, external
forces (e.g. variations in sunlight intensity) or, more recently, human activities.[40]
In recent usage, especially in the context of environmental policy, the term "climate change" often refers
only to changes in modern climate, including the rise in average surface temperature known as global
warming. In some cases, the term is also used with a presumption of human causation, as in the United
Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). The UNFCCC uses "climate
variability" for non-human caused variations.[41]
Earth has undergone periodic climate shifts in the past, including four major ice ages. These consisting
of glacial periods where conditions are colder than normal, separated by interglacial periods. The
accumulation of snow and ice during a glacial period increases the surface albedo, reflecting more of the
Sun's energy into space and maintaining a lower atmospheric temperature. Increases in greenhouse
gases, such as by volcanic activity, can increase the global temperature and produce an interglacial.
Suggested causes of ice age periods include the positions of the continents, variations in the Earth's
orbit, changes in the solar output, and vulcanism.[42]
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[edit] Climate models
See also: Climate models and Climatology
Climate models use quantitative methods to simulate the interactions of the atmosphere,[43] oceans, land
surface and ice. They are used for a variety of purposes from study of the dynamics of the weather and
climate system to projections of future climate. All climate models balance, or very nearly balance,
incoming energy as short wave (including visible) electromagnetic radiation to the earth with outgoing
energy as long wave (infrared) electromagnetic radiation from the earth. Any imbalance results in a
change in the average temperature of the earth.
The most talked-about models of recent years have been those relating temperature to the build-up of
greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, primarily carbon dioxide (see greenhouse gas). These models
predict an upward trend in the global mean surface temperature, with the most rapid increase in
temperature being projected for the higher latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere.
Models can range from relatively simple to quite complex:
• A simple radiant heat transfer model that treats the earth as a single point and averages outgoing
energy
• this can be expanded vertically (radiative-convective models), or horizontally
• finally, (coupled) atmosphere–ocean–sea ice global climate models discretise and solve the full
equations for mass and energy transfer and radiant exchange.[44]
[edit] See also

Weather portal
• Climate change
• Biome - an ecological term for a major regional group of distinctive plant and animal
communities best adapted to the region's physical environment
• Climatology
• Effect of sun angle on climate
• Electronic Climate Control
• Microclimate
• Solar variation
• Temperature extreme
• National Climatic Data Center
• Climate Prediction Center
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Season
For other uses, see Season (disambiguation).
A season is one of the major divisions of the year, generally based on yearly periodic changes in
weather. Seasons result from the yearly revolution of the Earth around the Sun and the tilt of the Earth's
axis relative to the plane of revolution. In temperate and polar regions, the seasons are marked by
changes in the intensity of sunlight that reaches the Earth's surface, variations of which may cause
animals to go into hibernation or to migrate, and plants to be dormant.
During June, July, and August; the northern hemisphere is exposed to more direct sunlight because the
northern hemisphere faces the sun. The same is true of the southern hemisphere in December, January,
and February. Contrary to what some people believe, the seasons do not result from the varying distance
between the Earth and the Sun. Instead the tilt of the Earth causes the Sun to be higher in the sky during
the summer months which increases the solar flux.
In temperate and polar regions generally four seasons are recognized: spring, summer, autumn, winter.
In some tropical and subtropical regions it is more common to speak of the rainy (or wet, or monsoon)
season versus the dry season, because the amount of precipitation may vary more dramatically than the
average temperature. For example, in Nicaragua, the dry season is called Summer(Nov to Apr) and the
rainy season is called Winter(May to Oct) even though it is located in the northern hemisphere. In other
tropical areas a three-way division into hot, rainy and cool season is used. In some parts of the world,
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special "seasons" are loosely defined based upon important events such as a hurricane season, tornado
season or a wildfire season.
Chinese seasons are traditionally based on 24 periods known as solar terms, and begin at the midpoint of
solstices and equinoxes.[2]
[edit] Causes and effects

Contents
[hide]
Illumination of the earth during various seasons
• 1 Causes and effects
• 2 Polar day and night Fig. 1
• 3 3D Simulation This is a diagram of the seasons, regardless of the time of day (i.e.
• 4 Reckoning the Earth's rotation on its axis), the North Pole will be dark, and the
o 4.1 Meteorological South Pole will be illuminated; see also arctic winter. In addition to
o 4.2 Astronomical the density of incident light, the dissipation of light in the
o 4.3 Traditional atmosphere is greater when it falls at a shallow angle.
o 4.4 Australia Main article: Effect of sun angle on climate
• 5 In art
• 6 See also The seasons result from the Earth's axis being tilted to its orbital
• 7 References plane; it deviates by an angle of approximately 23.5 degrees. Thus,
at any given time during summer or winter, one part of the planet is
• 8 External links more directly exposed to the rays of the Sun (see Fig. 1). This
exposure alternates as the Earth revolves in its orbit. Therefore, At
any given time, regardless of season, the northern and southern hemispheres experience opposite
seasons.
It is easy to observe the effect of the axis tilt from the change in day length, and altitude of the Sun at
noon (the culmination of the Sun), during a year.
Seasonal weather differences between hemispheres are

further caused by the elliptical orbit of Earth. Earth
reaches perihelion (the point in its orbit closest to the Sun)
in January, and it reaches aphelion (farthest point from the
Sun) in July. Even though the effect this has on Earth's
seasons is minor, it does noticeably soften the northern
hemisphere's winters and summers. In the southern
hemisphere, the opposite effect is observed.
Seasonal weather fluctuations (changes) also depend on

factors such as proximity to oceans or other large bodies
of water, currents in those oceans, El Niño/ENSO and
other oceanic cycles, and prevailing winds.
In the temperate and polar regions, seasons are marked by

changes in the amount of sunlight, which in turn often
causes cycles of dormancy in plants and hibernation in
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animals. These effects vary with latitude and with proximity to bodies of water. For example, the South
Pole is in the middle of the continent of Antarctica and therefore a considerable distance from the
moderating influence of the southern oceans. The North Pole is in the Arctic Ocean, and thus its
temperature extremes are buffered by the water. The result is that the South Pole is consistently colder
during the southern winter than the North Pole during the northern winter.
The cycle of seasons in the polar and temperate zones of

one hemisphere is opposite to that in the other. When it is
summer in the Northern hemisphere, it is winter in the
Southern hemisphere, and vice versa.
In the tropics, there is no noticeable change in the amount

of sunlight. However, many regions (such as the northern
Indian ocean) are subject to monsoon rain and wind cycles.
A study of temperature records over the past 300 years[1]
shows that the climatic seasons, and thus the seasonal year,
are governed by the anomalistic year rather than the
tropical year.
In meteorological terms, the summer solstice and winter

solstice (or the maximum and minimum insolation,
respectively) do not fall in the middles of summer and winter. The heights of these seasons occur up to a
month later because of seasonal lag. Seasons, though, are not always defined in meteorological terms.
Compared to axial tilt, other factors contribute little to seasonal temperature changes. The seasons are
not the result of the variation in Earth’s distance to the sun because of its elliptical orbit.[2] Orbital
eccentricity can influence temperatures, but on Earth, this effect is small and is more than counteracted
by other factors; research shows that the Earth as a whole is actually slightly warmer when farther from
the sun. This is because the northern hemisphere has more land than the southern, and land warms more
readily than sea.[3] Mars however experiences wide temperature variations and violent dust storms every
year at perihelion.[4]
[edit] Polar day and night
Any point north of the Arctic Circle or south of the Antarctic Circle will have one period in the summer
when the sun does not set, and one period in the winter when the sun does not rise. At progressively
higher latitudes, the periods of "midnight sun" (or "midday dark" for the other side of the globe) are
progressively longer. For example, at the military and weather station Alert on the northern tip of
Ellesmere Island, Canada (about 450 nautical miles or 830 km from the North Pole), the sun begins to
peek above the horizon in mid-February and each day it climbs higher and stays up longer; by 21 March,
the sun is up for 12 hours. However, mid-February is not first light. The sky (as seen from Alert) has
twilight, or at least a pre-dawn glow on the horizon, for increasing hours each day, for more than a
month before the sun first appears.
In the weeks surrounding 21 June, the sun is at its highest, and it appears to circle the sky without going
below the horizon. Eventually, it does go below the horizon, for progressively longer periods each day
until, around the middle of October, it disappears for the last time. For a few more weeks, "day" is
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marked by decreasing periods of twilight. Eventually, for the weeks surrounding 21 December, it is
continuously dark. In later winter, the first faint wash of light briefly touches the horizon (for just
minutes per day), and then increases in duration and pre-dawn brightness each day until sunrise in
February.
[edit] 3D Simulation
It is possible to explore interactively in this 3D season simulation, the main elements of this article such
as:
• Effect of sun angle on climate,

• tilt of the earth's axe of poles,
• Polar day and night
• Earth in 3D light
[edit] Reckoning
[edit] Meteorological
Meteorological seasons are reckoned by temperature, with summer being the hottest quarter of the year
and winter the coldest quarter of the year.
Using this reckoning, the Roman calendar began the year and the spring season on the first of March,
with each season occupying three months. This reckoning is also used in Denmark, the former USSR,
and Australia. In the modern United Kingdom there are no hard and fast rules about seasons, and
informally many people use this reckoning.
So, in meteorology for the Northern hemisphere: spring begins on March 1, summer on June 1, ]].
[edit] Astronomical
In astronomical reckoning, the seasons begin at the solstices and equinoxes. The cross-quarter days are
considered seasonal midpoints. The length of these seasons is not uniform because of the elliptical orbit
of the earth and its different speeds along that orbit.[5]
In the conventional United States calendar: Winter (89 days) begins on 21 December, the winter
solstice; spring (92 days) on 20 March, the vernal equinox; summer (93 days) on 21 June, the summer
solstice; and autumn (90 days) on 22 September, the autumnal equinox.[citation needed]
Because of the differences in the Northern and Southern Hemispheres, it is no longer considered
appropriate to use the northern-seasonal designations for the astronomical quarter days. The modern
convention for them is: March Equinox; June Solstice; September Equinox; and December Solstice.
[edit] Traditional
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Traditional seasons are reckoned by insolation, with summer being the quarter of the year with the
greatest insolation and winter the quarter with the least. These seasons begin about 4 weeks earlier than
the meteorological seasons and 7 weeks earlier than the astronomical seasons.
In traditional reckoning, the seasons begin at the cross-quarter days. The solstices and equinoxes are the
midpoints of these seasons. For example, the days of greatest and least insolation are considered the
"midsummer" and "midwinter" respectively.
This reckoning is used by various traditional cultures in the Northern Hemisphere, including East Asian
and Irish cultures. In Iran, Afghanistan and some other parts of middle east the beginning of the
astronomical spring is the beginning of the new year which is called Nowruz.
So, according to traditional reckoning, winter begins between 5 November and 10 November, Samhain,
立冬 (lìdōng or rittou); spring between 2 February and 7 February, Imbolc, 立春 (lìchūn or rissyun);
summer between 4 May and 10 May, Beltane, 立夏 (lìxià or rikka); and autumn between 3 August and
10 August, Lughnasadh, 立秋 (lìqiū or rissyuu). The middle of each season is considered Mid-winter,
between 20 December and 23 December, 冬至 (dōngzhì or touji); Mid-spring, between 19 March and 22
March, 春分 (chūnfēn or syunbun); Mid-summer, between 19 June and 23 June, 夏至 (xiàzhì or geshi);
and Mid-autumn, between 21 September and 24 September, 秋分 (qiūfēn or syuubun).
[edit] Australia
In Australia, the traditional aboriginal people defined the seasons by what was happening to the plants,
animals and weather around them. This led to each separate tribal group having different seasons, some
with up to 8 seasons each year. However, most modern Aboriginal Australians follow the
meteorological seasons as do non-Aboriginal Australians.
In art
The (four) seasons have inspired many artists. Below is a list of some notable artwork about this theme:
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• The Four Seasons (Vivaldi)
• The Seasons (poem)
• Spring, Summer, Autumn, Winter… and Spring
• The Legend of Zelda: Oracle of Seasons
See also
• Indian Summer
• Perennial tea ceremony
• Months
Family
This article or section contains weasel words, vague phrasing that often accompanies biased or
unverifiable information. Such statements should be clarified or removed. (November 2008)
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding
reliable references. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (November 2008)
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Close relationships For other uses, see Family (disambiguation).
"Families" redirects here. For the daytime soap opera, see Families
(TV series).
Family denotes a group of people affiliated by consanguinity, affinity

Affinity · Attachment · Bonding or co-residence. Although the concept of consanguinity originally
referred to relations by "blood," many anthropologists[who?] have argued
Boyfriend · Casual · Cohabitation
that one must understand the notion of "blood" metaphorically, and
Compersion · Concubinage that many societies understand 'family' through other concepts rather
Consort · Courtesan · Courtship than through genetic distance.
Divorce · Domestic partnership
Dower / Dowry / Bride price
It has been argued by many sociologists,[who?] anthropologists,[who?]
philosophers[who?] and psychoanalysts[who?] and that the primary function
Family · Friendship · Girlfriend of the family is to perpetuate society. Either socially, with the "social
Husband · Infatuation · Intimacy production of children",[1] or biologically, or both. Thus, one's
Jealousy · Limerence · Love experience of one's family shifts over time. From the perspective of
Kinship · Marriage · Monogamy children, the family is a family of orientation: the family serves to
locate children socially, and plays a major role in their enculturation
Psychology of monogamy
and socialization. From the point of view of the parent(s), the family is
Non-monogamy a family of procreation the goal of which is to produce and
Passion · Pederasty enculturate and socialize children.[2] However, producing children is
Platonic love · Polyamory not the only function of the family; in societies with a sexual division
Polyfidelity · Polygamy of labor, marriage, and the resulting relationship between two people,
is necessary for the formation of an economically productive
Relationship abuse
household.[citation needed]
Relationship breakup · Romance
Romantic friendship · Separation A conjugal family consists of one or more mothers and their children,
Sexuality · Same-sex relationship and/or one or more spouses, usually husbands. The most common
form of this family is regularly referred to as a nuclear family.
Significant other · Soulmate
Teen dating violence · Wedding A consanguineal family consists of a mother and her children, and
Widowhood · Wife other people — usually the family of the mother, like her husband.
This kind of family is common where mothers do not have the
v•d•e
resources to rear their children on their own, and especially where
property is inherited. When important property is owned by men, consanguineal families commonly
consist of a husband and wife, their children and other members of the husband's family.
A matrifocal family consists of a mother and her children. Generally, these children are her biological
offspring, although adoption of children is a practice in nearly every society. This kind of family is
common where women have the resources to rear their children by themselves, or where men are more
mobile than women.
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[edit] Economic functions
Contents
[hide] Anthropologists have often supposed that the
family in a traditional society forms the primary
• 1 Economic functions economic unit. This economic role has gradually
• 2 Political functions diminished in modern times, and in societies like
• 3 Kinship terminology the United States it has become much smaller —
o 3.1 Western kinship except in certain sectors such as agriculture and
• 4 Family in the West in a few upper class families. In China the family
o 4.1 Contemporary views of the family as an economic unit still plays a strong role in
• 5 Size the countryside. However, the relations between
• 6 See also the economic role of the family, its socio-
• 7 Notes economic mode of production and cultural
• 8 References values remain highly complex.
Extended middle-class Midwestern U.S. family of

Danish/German extraction
Political functions
On the other hand family structures or its internal

relationships may affect both state and religious institutions.
J.F. del Giorgio in The Oldest Europeans points out that the
high status of women among the descendants of the post-glacial Paleolithic European population was
coherent with the fierce love of freedom of pre-Indo-European tribes. He believes that the extraordinary
respect for women in those families meant that children raised in such atmospheres tended to distrust
strong, authoritarian leaders. According to del Giorgio, European democracies have their roots in those
ancient ancestors.
Kinship terminology
Main article: Kinship terminology
Archaeologist Lewis Henry Morgan (1818–1881) performed the first survey of kinship terminologies in
use around the world. Though much of his work is now considered dated, he argued that kinship
terminologies reflect different sets of distinctions. For example, most kinship terminologies distinguish
between sexes (the difference between a brother and a sister) and between generations (the difference
between a child and a parent). Moreover, he argued, kinship terminologies distinguish between relatives
by blood and marriage (although recently some anthropologists have argued that many societies define
kinship in terms other than "blood").
"you should remember for ever family is the biggest word in the world"
Morgan made a distinction between kinship systems that use classificatory terminology and those that
use descriptive terminology. Morgan's distinction is widely misunderstood, even by contemporary
anthropologists. Classificatory systems are generally and erroneously understood to be those that "class
together" with a single term relatives who actually do not have the same type of relationship to ego.
(What defines "same type of relationship" under such definitions seems to be genealogical relationship.
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This is more than a bit problematic given that any genealogical description, no matter how standardized,
employs words originating in a folk understanding of kinship.) What Morgan's terminology actually
differentiates are those (classificatory) kinship systems that do not distinguish lineal and collateral
relationships and those (descriptive) kinship systems which do. Morgan, a lawyer, came to make this
distinction in an effort to understand Seneca inheritance practices. A Seneca man's effects were inherited
by his sisters' children rather than by his own children.[3]
Morgan identified six basic patterns of kinship terminologies:
• Hawaiian: only distinguishes relatives based upon sex and generation.

• Sudanese: no two relatives share the same term.
• Eskimo: in addition to distinguishing relatives based upon sex and generation, also distinguishes
between lineal relatives and collateral relatives.
• Iroquois: in addition to sex and generation, also distinguishes between siblings of opposite sexes
in the parental generation.
• Crow: a matrilineal system with some features of an Iroquois system, but with a "skewing"
feature in which generation is "frozen" for some relatives.
• Omaha: like a Crow system but patrilineal.
[edit] Western kinship
See also: Cousin chart
The relationships and names of various family members in the English language.
Most Western societies employ Eskimo kinship terminology. This kinship terminology commonly
occurs in societies based on conjugal (or nuclear) families, where nuclear families have a degree of
relatively mobility.
Members of the nuclear family (or immediate family) use descriptive kinship terms:
• Mother: a female parent

• Father: a male parent
• Son: a male child of the parent(s)
• Daughter: a female child of the parent(s)
• Brother: a male child of the same parent(s)
• Sister: a female child of the same parent(s)
• Grandfather: father of a father or mother
• Grandmother: mother of a father or mother
Such systems generally assume that the mother's husband has also served as the biological father. In
some families, a woman may have children with more than one man or a man may have children with
more than one woman. The system refers to a child who shares only one parent with another child as a
"half-brother" or "half-sister". For children who do not share biological or adoptive parents in common,
English-speakers use the term "stepbrother" or "stepsister" to refer to their new relationship with each
other when one of their biological parents marries one of the other child's biological parents.
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Any person (other than the biological parent of a child) who marries the parent of that child becomes the
"stepparent" of the child, either the "stepmother" or "stepfather". The same terms generally apply to
children adopted into a family as to children born into the family.
Typically, societies with conjugal families also favor neolocal residence; thus upon marriage a person
separates from the nuclear family of their childhood (family of orientation) and forms a new nuclear
family (family of procreation). This practice means that members of one's own nuclear family once
functioned as members of another nuclear family, or may one day become members of another nuclear
family.
However, in the western society the single parent family has been growing more accepted and has begun
to truly make an impact on culture. The majority of single parent families are more commonly single
mother families than single father. These families face many difficult issues besides the fact that they
have to raise their children on their own, but also have to deal with issues related to low income. Many
single parents struggle with low incomes and find it hard to cope with other issues that they face
including rent, child care, and other necessities required in maintaining a healthy and safe home.
Members of the nuclear families of members of one's own (former) nuclear family may class as lineal or
as collateral. Kin who regard them as lineal refer to them in terms that build on the terms used within the
nuclear family:
An infant, his mother, his maternal

grandmother, and his great-grandmother.
A Grandmother with her grandson
• Grandparent
o Grandfather: a parent's father
o Grandmother: a parent's mother
• Grandson: a child's son
• Granddaughter: a child's daughter
For collateral relatives, more classificatory terms come into play, terms that do not build on the terms
used within the nuclear family:
• Uncle: father's brother, mother's brother, father's/mother's sister's husband

• Aunt: father's sister, mother's sister, father's/mother's brother's wife
• Nephew: sister's son, brother's son, wife's brother's son, wife's sister's son, husband's brother's
son, husband's sister's son
• Niece: sister's daughter, brother's daughter, wife's brother's daughter, wife's sister's daughter,
husband's brother's daughter, husband's sister's daughter
When additional generations intervene (in other words, when one's collateral relatives belong to the
same generation as one's grandparents or grandchildren), the prefix "grand" modifies these terms.
(Although in casual usage in the USA a "grand aunt" is often referred to as a "great aunt", for instance.)
And as with grandparents and grandchildren, as more generations intervene the prefix becomes "great
grand", adding an additional "great" for each additional generation.
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Most collateral relatives have never had membership of the nuclear family of the members of one's own
nuclear family.
• Cousin: the most classificatory term; the children of aunts or uncles. One can further distinguish
cousins by degrees of collaterality and by generation. Two persons of the same generation who
share a grandparent count as "first cousins" (one degree of collaterality); if they share a great-
grandparent they count as "second cousins" (two degrees of collaterality) and so on. If two
persons share an ancestor, one as a grandchild and the other as a great-grandchild of that
individual, then the two descendants class as "first cousins once removed" (removed by one
generation); if the shared ancestor figures as the grandparent of one individual and the great-
great-grandparent of the other, the individuals class as "first cousins twice removed" (removed
by two generations), and so on. Similarly, if the shared ancestor figures as the great-grandparent
of one person and the great-great-grandparent of the other, the individuals class as "second
cousins once removed". Hence the phrase "third cousin once removed upwards".
Cousins of an older generation (in other words, one's parents' first cousins), though technically first
cousins once removed, often get classified with "aunts" and "uncles".
Similarly, a person may refer to close friends of one's parents as "aunt" or "uncle", or may refer to close
friends as "brother" or "sister", using the practice of fictive kinship.
English-speakers mark relationships by marriage (except for wife/husband) with the tag "-in-law". The
mother and father of one's spouse become one's mother-in-law and father-in-law; the female spouse of
one's child becomes one's daughter-in-law and the male spouse of one's child becomes one's son-in-law.
The term "Sister-in-law" refers to three essentially different relationships, either the wife of one's
sibling, or the sister of one's spouse, or the wife of one's spouse's sibling. "Brother-in-law" expresses a
similar ambiguity. No special terms exist for the rest of one's spouse's family.
The terms "half-brother" and "half-sister" indicate siblings who share only one biological or adoptive
parent.
Family in the West
Family arrangements in the United States have become more diverse with no particular household
arrangement representing half of the United States population.[4]
The diverse data coming from ethnography, history, law and social statistics, establish that the human
family is an institution and not a biological fact founded on the natural relationship of consanguinity.[5][6]
The different types of families occur in a wide variety of settings, and their specific functions and
meanings depend largely on their relationship to other social institutions. Sociologists have a special
interest in the function and status of these forms in stratified (especially capitalist) societies.
The term "nuclear family" is commonly used, especially in the United States and Europe, to refer to
conjugal families. Sociologists distinguish between conjugal families (relatively independent of the
kindreds of the parents and of other families in general) and nuclear families (which maintain relatively
close ties with their kindreds).
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The term "extended family" is also common, especially in the United States and Europe. This term has
two distinct meanings. First, it serves as a synonym of "consanguinal family". Second, in societies
dominated by the conjugal family, it refers to kindred (an egocentric network of relatives that extends
beyond the domestic group) who do not belong to the conjugal family.
These types refer to ideal or normative structures

found in particular societies. Any society will exhibit
some variation in the actual composition and
conception of families. Much sociological, historical
and anthropological research dedicates itself to the
understanding of this variation, and of changes in the
family form over time. Thus, some speak of the
bourgeois family, a family structure arising out of
16th-century and 17th-century European households,
in which the family centers on a marriage between a
man and woman, with strictly-defined gender-roles.
The man typically has responsibility for income and
support, the woman for home and family matters.
Philosophers and psychiatrists like Deleuze, Guattari,

Laing, Reich, explained that the patriarchal-family
conceived in the West tradition (husband-wife-
children isolated from the outside) serves the purpose
of perpetuating a propertarian and authoritarian
[7]
society. The child grows according to the Oedipal model, which is typical of the structure of capitalist
societies,[6][5] and he becomes in turn owner of submissive children and protector of the woman.[8][9][10][11]
[12]
The family institution conflicts with human nature, and one of its core functions is performing a
suppression of instincts,[5][6] a repression of desire commencing with the earliest age of the child. [7] This
psychic repression is such that social repression becomes desired, forming docile subjects for society.[7]
Michel Foucault, in his systematic study of sexuality, observed more precisely that desire, other than
being repressed, is shaped and used as a tool, to control the individual and alter interpersonal
relationships. organized religion, through moral prohibitions, and the economic power, through
advertising, make use of unconscious sex drives. Dominating desire, they dominate individuals.[13]
According to the analysis of Michel Foucault, in the west:
the [conjugal] family organization, precisely to the extent that it was insular and heteromorphous with respect to
the other power mechanisms, was used to support the great "maneuvers" employed for the Malthusian control of
the birthrate, for the populationist incitements, for the medicalization of sex and the psychiatrization of its
nongenital forms.
—Michel Foucault, The History of Sexuality vol I, chap. IV, sect. Method, rule 3, p.99
According to the work of scholars Max Weber, Alan Macfarlane, Steven Ozment, Jack Goody and Peter
Laslett, the huge transformation that led to modern marriage in Western democracies was "fueled by the
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religio-cultural value system provided by elements of Judaism, early Christianity, Roman Catholic
canon law and the Protestant Reformation".[14]
In contemporary Europe and the United States, people in academic, political and civil sectors have
called attention to single-father-headed households, and families headed by same-sex couples,[citation needed]
although academics point out that these forms exist in other societies. Also the term blended family or
stepfamily describes families with mixed parents: one or both parents remarried, bringing children of the
former family into the new family.[15]
Contemporary views of the family
Contemporary society generally views family as a haven from the world, supplying absolute fulfillment.
The family is considered to encourage "intimacy, love and trust where individuals may escape the
competition of dehumanizing forces in modern society from the rough and tumble industrialized world,
and as a place where warmth, tenderness and understanding can be expected from a loving mother, and
protection from the world can be expected from the father. However, the idea of protection is declining
as civil society faces less internal conflict combined with increased civil rights and protection from the
state. To many, the ideal of personal or family fulfillment has replaced protection as the major role of
the family. The family now supplies what is “vitally needed but missing from other social
arrangements”.[16]
Social conservatives often express concern over a purported decay of the family and see this as a sign of
the crumbling of contemporary society. They feel that the family structures of the past were superior to
those today and believe that families were more stable and happier at a time when they did not have to
contend with problems such as illegitimate children and divorce. Others dispute this theory, claiming
“there is no golden age of the family gleaming at us in the far back historical past”.[17]
A study performed by scientists from Iceland found that mating with a relative can significantly increase
the number of children in a family. A lot of societies consider inbreeding unacceptable. Scientists warn
that inbreeding may raise the chances of a child getting two copies of disease-causing recessive genes
and in such a way it may lead to genetic disorders and higher infant mortality.
Scientists found that couples formed of relatives had more children and grandchildren than unrelated
couples. The study revealed that when a husband and wife were third cousins, they had an average of 4.0
children and 9.2 grandchildren. If a woman was in relationship with her eight cousin, then the number of
children declined, showing an average of 3,3 children and 7,3 grandchildren . [18]
Size
Natalism is the belief that human reproduction is the basis for individual existence, and therefore
promotes having large families.
Many religions, e.g., Judaism[19], encourage their followers to procreate and have many children.
In recent times, there has been an increasing amount of family planning and a following decrease in total
fertility rate in many parts of the world, in part due to concerns of overpopulation.
Many countries with population decline offer incentives for people to have large families as a means of
national efforts to reverse declining populations.
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See also
• Adoption
• Child
o Illegitimacy
• Cinderella effect
• Clan
• Consanguinity
o Kin selection
o Pedigree collapse
• Domestic violence
• Family
o Polygamy
o Complex family
o Dysfunctional family
o Elderly care
• Family economics
o Family history
o Family life in literature
o Family as a model for the state
o Family law
o Family name
o Family therapy
o Grandfamily
o Grandparent
o Mother
o Parenting
• Family environment scale
• Family tree
o Genealogy
o Genogram
o Ancestor
o Kinship terminology
o Cousin
• Household
• Interpersonal relationship and Intimate relationship
o Incest
o Cohabitation
o Common-law marriage
o Divorce
o Marriage
• Sociology of the family
• The Family: A Proclamation to the World
• Familycentrics
• Hindu joint family
• Survivalism
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Human voice
(Redirected from Voice)

"Voice" redirects here. For other uses, see Voice (disambiguation).
The spectrogram of the human voice reveals its rich

harmonic content.
The human voice consists of sound made by a human

being using the vocal folds for talking, singing, laughing,
crying, screaming, etc. Human voice is specifically that
part of human sound production in which the vocal folds
(vocal cords) are the primary noise source. Generally
speaking, the voice can be subdivided into three parts; the
lungs, the vocal folds, and the articulators. The lung (the pump) must produce adequate airflow to
vibrate vocal folds (air is the fuel of the voice). The vocal folds (vocal cords) are the vibrators,
neuromuscular units that ‘fine tune’ pitch and tone. The articulators (vocal tract consisting of tongue,
palate, cheek, lips, etc.) articulate and filter the sound.
The vocal folds, in combination with the articulators, are capable of producing highly intricate arrays of
sound.[1][2][3] The tone of voice may be modulated to suggest emotions such as anger, surprise, or
happiness.[4][5] Singers use the human voice as an instrument for creating music.[6]
[edit] Voice types and the folds

Contents (cords) themselves
[hide] Main article: Vocal folds
• 1 Voice types and the folds (cords) themselves

• 2 Physiology and vocal timbre A labeled anatomical diagram of the vocal folds
o 2.1 Vocal registration or cords.
o 2.2 Vocal resonation
• 3 Influences of the human voice
• 4 Voice disorders Men and women have different vocal folds
• 5 See also sizes; adult male voices are usually lower-
• 6 Footnotes pitched and have larger folds. The male vocal
• 7 Further reading folds (which would be measured vertically in
the opposite diagram), are between 17 mm and
• 8 External links 25 mm in length.[7] The female vocal folds are
between 12.5 mm and 17.5 mm in length.
As seen in the illustration, the folds are located just above the trachea (the windpipe which travels from
the lungs). Food and drink do not pass through the cords but instead pass through the esophagus, an
unlinked tube. Both tubes are separated by the epiglottis, a "flap" that covers the opening of the trachea
while swallowing.
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The folds in both sexes are within the
larynx. They are attached at the back
(side nearest the spinal cord) to the
arytenoid cartilages, and at the front
(side under the chin) to the thyroid
cartilage. They have no outer edge as
they blend into the side of the
breathing tube (the illustration is out
of date and does not show this well)
while their inner edges or "margins"
are free to vibrate (the hole). They
have a three layer construction of an
epithelium, vocal ligament, then
muscle (vocalis muscle), which can
shorten and bulge the folds. They are
flat triangular bands and are pearly
white in color. Above both sides of the
vocal cord is the vestibular fold or
false vocal cord, which has a small sac
between its two folds (not illustrated).
The difference in vocal folds size between men and women means that they have differently pitched
voices. Additionally, genetics also causes variances amongst the same sex, with men and women's
singing voices being categorized into types. For example, among men, there are basses, baritones and
tenors, and contraltos, mezzo-sopranos and sopranos among women. There are additional categories for
operatic voices, see voice type. This is not the only source of difference between male and female voice.
Men, generally speaking, have a larger vocal tract, which essentially gives the resultant voice a lower
tonal quality. This is mostly independent of the vocal folds themselves.
[edit] Physiology and vocal timbre
The sound of each individual's voice is entirely unique not only because of the actual shape and size of
an individual's vocal cords but also due to the size and shape of the rest of that person's body. Humans
have vocal folds which can loosen, tighten, or change their thickness, and over which breath can be
transferred at varying pressures. The shape of chest and neck, the position of the tongue, and the
tightness of otherwise unrelated muscles can be altered. Any one of these actions results in a change in
pitch, volume, timbre, or tone of the sound produced. Sound also resonates within different parts of the
body, and an individual's size and bone structure can affect the sound produced by an individual.
Singers can also learn to project sound in certain ways so that it resonates better within their vocal tract.
This is known as vocal resonation. Another major influence on vocal sound and production is the
function of the larynx which people can manipulate in different ways to produce different sounds. These
different kinds of laryngeal function are described as different kinds of vocal registers.[8] The primary
method for singers to accomplish this is through the use of the Singer's Formant, which has been shown
to match particularly well to the most sensitive part of the ear's frequency range.[9][10]
[edit] Vocal registration
Main article: Vocal registration
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Vocal registration refers to the system of vocal registers within the human voice. A register in the
human voice is a particular series of tones, produced in the same vibratory pattern of the vocal folds, and
possessing the same quality. Registers originate in laryngeal function. They occur because the vocal
folds are capable of producing several different vibratory patterns. Each of these vibratory patterns
appears within a particular range of pitches and produces certain characteristic sounds.[11] The term
register can be somewhat confusing as it encompasses several aspects of the human voice. The term
register can be used to refer to any of the following[12]:
• A particular part of the vocal range such as the upper, middle, or lower registers.
• A resonance area such as chest voice or head voice.
• A phonatory process
• A certain vocal timbre
• A region of the voice which is defined or delimited by vocal breaks.
• A subset of a language used for a particular purpose or in a particular social setting.
In linguistics, a register language is a language which combines tone and vowel phonation into a single
phonological system.
Within speech pathology the term vocal register has three constituent elements: a certain vibratory
pattern of the vocal folds, a certain series of pitches, and a certain type of sound. Speech pathologists
identify four vocal registers based on the physiology of laryngeal function: the vocal fry register, the
modal register, the falsetto register, and the whistle register. This view is also adopted by many vocal
pedagogists.[12]
[edit] Vocal resonation
Main article: Vocal resonation
Vocal resonation is the process by which the basic product of phonation is enhanced in timbre and/or
intensity by the air-filled cavities through which it passes on its way to the outside air. Various terms
related to the resonation process include amplification, enrichment, enlargement, improvement,
intensification, and prolongation, although in strictly scientific usage acoustic authorities would question
most of them. The main point to be drawn from these terms by a singer or speaker is that the end result
of resonation is, or should be, to make a better sound.[12] There are seven areas that may be listed as
possible vocal resonators. In sequence from the lowest within the body to the highest, these areas are the
chest, the tracheal tree, the larynx itself, the pharynx, the oral cavity, the nasal cavity, and the sinuses.[13]
[edit] Influences of the human voice

Main articles: Voice projection and Evolution
The twelve-tone musical scale, upon which the majority of the world's music is based, may have its
roots in the sound of the human voice during the course of evolution, according to a study published by
the New Scientist. Analysis of recorded speech samples found peaks in acoustic energy that mirrored the
distances between notes in the twelve-tone scale.[14]
[edit] Voice disorders

Main articles: Vocal loading and Voice disorders
This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding
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reliable references. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (July 2007)
There are many disorders which affect the human voice; these include speech impediments, and growths
and lesions on the vocal folds. Talking for improperly long periods of time causes vocal loading, which
is stress inflicted on the speech organs. When vocal injury is done, often an ENT specialist may be able
to help, but the best treatment is the prevention of injuries through good vocal production. Voice therapy
is generally delivered by a Speech-language pathologist.
Hoarseness or breathiness that lasts for more than two weeks is a common symptom of an underlying
voice disorder and should be investigated medically.
[edit] See also

• Accent (linguistics) • Vocal loading
• Acoustic phonetics • Vocal rest
• Belt (music) • Vocology
• Manner of articulation • Voice analysis
• Nonverbal communication • Voice disorders
• Phonation • Voice frequency
• Phonetics • Voice organ
• Voice change in boys • Voice pedagogy
• Speaker recognition • Voice projection
• Speaker verification
• Voice synthesis
• Speech Synthesis
Writing
"Write" redirects here. For other uses, see Write (disambiguation).
Illustration of a scribe writing. Writing is the representation of

language in a textual medium through the use of a set of signs
or symbols (known as a writing system). It is distinguished
from illustration, such as cave drawing and painting, and the
recording of language via a non-textual medium such as
magnetic tape audio.
Writing began as a consequence of the burgeoning needs of

accounting. Around the 4th millennium BC, the complexity of
trade and administration outgrew the power of memory, and
writing became a more dependable method of recording and
presenting transactions in a permanent form (Robinson, 2003,
p. 36).
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Writing as a category
Contents
[hide] Writing, more particularly, refers
to two things: writing as a noun,
• 1 Writing as a category the thing that is written; and
• 2 Means for recording information writing as a verb, which
o 2.1 Writing systems designates the activity of writing.
 2.1.1 Logographies It refers to the inscription of
 2.1.2 Syllabaries characters on a medium, thereby
 2.1.3 Alphabets forming words, and larger units
 2.1.4 Featural scripts of language, known as texts. It
 2.1.5 Historical significance of writing systems also refers to the creation of
o 2.2 Tools and materials meaning and the information
• 3 History of early writing thereby generated. In that regard,
o 3.1 Mesopotamia linguistics (and related sciences)
o 3.2 Turkmenistan distinguishes between the written
o 3.3 China language and the spoken
o 3.4 Egypt language. The significance of the
o 3.5 Indus Valley medium by which meaning and
o 3.6 Phoenician writing system and descendants information is conveyed is
o 3.7 Mesoamerica
indicated by the distinction made
• 4 Creation of text or information
in the arts and sciences. For
o 4.1 Creativity
example, while public speaking
and poetry reading are both types
o 4.2 Author
of speech, the former is governed
o 4.3 Writer
by the rules of rhetoric and the
o 4.4 Critiques
latter by poetics.
• 5 See also
• 6 References
A person who composes a
message or story in the form of
text is generally known as a writer or an author. However, more specific designations exist which are
dictated by the particular nature of the text such as that of poet, essayist, novelist, playwright, journalist,
and more. A person who transcribes, translates or produces text to deliver a message authored by
another person is known as a scribe, typist or typesetter. A person who produces text with emphasis on
the aesthetics of glyphs is known as a calligrapher or graphic designer.
Writing is also a distinctly human activity. It has been said that a monkey, randomly typing away on a
typewriter (in the days when typewriters replaced the pen or plume as the preferred instrument of
writing) could re-create Shakespeare-- but only if it lived long enough (this is known as the infinite
monkey theorem). Such writing has been speculatively designated as coincidental. It is also speculated
that extra-terrestrial beings exist who may possess knowledge of writing. The fact is that the only known
writing is human writing.[citation needed]
Means for recording information
Wells argues that writing has the ability to "put agreements, laws, commandments on record. It made the
growth of states larger than the old city states possible. The command of the priest or king and his seal
could go far beyond his sight and voice and could survive his death" (Wells in Robinson, 2003, p. 35).
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Writing systems
The major writing systems – methods of inscription – broadly fall into four categories: logographic,
syllabic, alphabetic, and featural. Another category, ideographic (symbols for ideas), has never been
developed sufficiently to represent language. A sixth category, pictographic, is insufficient to represent
language on its own, but often forms the core of logographies.
Logographies
A logogram is a written character which represents a word or morpheme. The vast number of logograms
needed to write language, and the many years required to learn them, are the major disadvantage of the
logographic systems over alphabetic systems. However, the efficiency of reading logographic writing
once it is learned is a major advantage. No writing system is wholly logographic: all have phonetic
components as well as logograms ("logosyllabic" components in the case of Chinese characters,
cuneiform, and Mayan, where a glyph may stand for a morpheme, a syllable, or both; "logoconsonantal"
in the case of hieroglyphs), and many have an ideographic component (Chinese "radicals", hieroglyphic
"determiners"). For example, in Mayan, the glyph for "fin", pronounced "ka'", was also used to represent
the syllable "ka" whenever the pronunciation of a logogram needed to be indicated, or when there was
no logogram. In Chinese, about 90% of characters are compounds of a semantic (meaning) element
called a radical with an existing character to indicate the pronunciation, called a phonetic. However,
such phonetic elements complement the logographic elements, rather than vice versa.
The main logographic system in use today is Chinese characters, used with some modification for
various languages of China, Japanese, and, to a lesser extent, Korean in South Korea. Another is the
classical Yi script.
Syllabaries
A syllabary is a set of written symbols that represent (or approximate) syllables. A glyph in a syllabary
typically represents a consonant followed by a vowel, or just a vowel alone, though in some scripts more
complex syllables (such as consonant-vowel-consonant, or consonant-consonant-vowel) may have
dedicated glyphs. Phonetically related syllables are not so indicated in the script. For instance, the
syllable "ka" may look nothing like the syllable "ki", nor will syllables with the same vowels be similar.
Syllabaries are best suited to languages with relatively simple syllable structure, such as Japanese. Other
languages that use syllabic writing include the Linear B script for Mycenaean Greek; Cherokee; Ndjuka,
an English-based creole language of Surinam; and the Vai script of Liberia. Most logographic systems
have a strong syllabic component. Ethiopic, though technically an alphabet, has fused consonants and
vowels together to the point that it's learned as if it were a syllabary.
Alphabets
See also: History of the alphabet
An alphabet is a small set of symbols, each of which roughly represents or historically represented a
phoneme of the language. In a perfectly phonological alphabet, the phonemes and letters would
correspond perfectly in two directions: a writer could predict the spelling of a word given its
pronunciation, and a speaker could predict the pronunciation of a word given its spelling. As languages
often evolve independently of their writing systems, and writing systems have been borrowed for
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languages they were not designed for, the degree to which letters of an alphabet correspond to phonemes
of a language varies greatly from one language to another and even within a single language.
In most of the alphabets of the Mid-East, only consonants are indicated, or vowels may be indicated
with optional diacritics. Such systems are called abjads. In most of the alphabets of India and Southeast
Asia, vowels are indicated through diacritics or modification of the shape of the consonant. These are
called abugidas. Some abugidas, such as Ethiopic and Cree, are learned by children as syllabaries, and
so are often called "syllabics". However, unlike true syllabaries, there is not an independent glyph for
each syllable.
Sometimes the term "alphabet" is restricted to systems with separate letters for consonants and vowels,
such as the Latin alphabet. Because of this use, Greek is often considered to be the first alphabet.
Featural scripts
A featural script notates the building blocks of the phonemes that make up a language. For instance, all
sounds pronounced with the lips ("labial" sounds) may have some element in common. In the Latin
alphabet, this is accidentally the case with the letters "b" and "p"; however, labial "m" is completely
dissimilar, and the similar-looking "q" is not labial. In Korean hangul, however, all four labial
consonants are based on the same basic element. However, in practice, Korean is learned by children as
an ordinary alphabet, and the featural elements tend to pass unnoticed.
Another featural script is SignWriting, the most popular

writing system for many sign languages, where the shapes and
movements of the hands and face are represented iconically.
Featural scripts are also common in fictional or invented
systems, such as Tolkien's Tengwar.
Historical significance of writing systems
Olin Levi Warner, tympanum representing Writing, above exterior of main entrance doors, Thomas
Jefferson Building, Washington DC, 1896.
Historians draw a distinction between prehistory and history, with history defined by the advent of
writing. The cave paintings and petroglyphs of prehistoric peoples can be considered precursors of
writing, but are not considered writing because they did not represent language directly.
Writing systems always develop and change based on the needs of the people who use them. Sometimes
the shape, orientation and meaning of individual signs also changes over time. By tracing the
development of a script it is possible to learn about the needs of the people who used the script as well
as how it changed over time.
Tools and materials
This section does not cite any references or sources.

Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unverifiable material may be challenged and
removed. (September 2007)
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The many tools and writing materials used throughout history include stone tablets, clay tablets, wax
tablets, vellum, parchment, paper, copperplate, styluses, quills, ink brushes, pencils, pens, and many
styles of lithography. It is speculated that the Incas might have employed knotted threads known as
quipu (or khipu) as a writing system. [1]
The typewriter and various forms of word processors have subsequently become widespread writing
tools, and various studies have compared the ways in which writers have framed the experience of
writing with such tools as compared with the pen or pencil. [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] For more information see writing
implements.
History of early writing

Main article: History of writing
By definition, history begins with written records; evidence of human culture without writing is the
realm of prehistory.
The writing process involved from economic necessity in the ancient near east. Archaeologist Denise
Schmandt-Besserat determined the link between previously uncategorized clay "tokens" and the first
known writing, cuneiform.[7] The clay tokens were used to represent commodities, and perhaps even
units of time spent in labor, and their number and type became more complex as civilization advanced.
A degree of complexity was reached when over a hundred different kinds of tokens had to be accounted
for, and tokens were wrapped and fired in clay, with markings to indicate the kind of tokens inside.
These markings soon replaced the tokens themselves, and the clay envelopes were demonstrably the
prototype for clay writing tablets.[7]
Mesopotamia
The original Mesopotamian writing system was derived from this method of keeping accounts, and by
the end of the 4th millennium BC,[8] this had evolved into using a triangular-shaped stylus pressed into
soft clay for recording numbers. This was gradually augmented with pictographic writing using a sharp
stylus to indicate what was being counted. Round-stylus and sharp-stylus writing was gradually replaced
by writing using a wedge-shaped stylus (hence the term cuneiform), at first only for logograms, but
evolved to include phonetic elements by the 29th century BC. Around the 26th century BC, cuneiform
began to represent syllables of spoken Sumerian. Also in that period, cuneiform writing became a
general purpose writing system for logograms, syllables, and numbers, and this script was adapted to
another Mesopotamian language, Akkadian, and from there to others such as Hurrian, and Hittite.
Scripts similar in appearance to this writing system include those for Ugaritic and Old Persian.
Turkmenistan
An unknown civilization in Central Asia 4,000 years ago, hundreds of years before Chinese writing
developed. An excavation near Ashgabat, the capital of Turkmenistan, revealed an inscription on a piece
of stone that was used as a stamp seal. [9]
China
Further information: Oracle bone script and Bronzeware script
Research Trang296
In China historians have found out a lot about the early Chinese dynasties from the written documents
left behind. From the Shang Dynasty most of this writing has survived on bones or bronze implements.
Markings on turtle shells (used as oracle bones) have been carbon-dated to around 1500 BC. Historians
have found that the type of media used had an effect on what the writing was documenting and how it
was used.
There have recently been discoveries of tortoise-shell carvings dating back to c. 6000 BC, but whether
or not the carvings are of sufficient complexity to qualify as writing is under debate.[10][11] If it is deemed
to be a written language, writing in China will predate Mesopotamian cuneiform, long acknowledged as
the first appearance of writing, by some 2000 years.
Egypt
The earliest known hieroglyphic inscriptions are the Narmer Palette, dating to c.3200 BC, and several
recent discoveries that may be slightly older, though the glyphs were based on a much older artistic
tradition. The hieroglyphic script was logographic with phonetic adjuncts that included an effective
alphabet.
Writing was very important in maintaining the Egyptian empire, and literacy was concentrated among
an educated elite of scribes. Only people from certain backgrounds were allowed to train to become
scribes, in the service of temple, pharaonic, and military authorities. The hieroglyph system was always
difficult to learn, but in later centuries was purposely made even more so, as this preserved the scribes'
status.
The world's oldest known alphabet was developed in central Egypt around 2000 BC from a hieroglyphic
prototype, and over the next 500 years spread to Canaan and eventually to
the rest of the world.
Indus Valley
Main article: Indus script
Ten Indus scripts discovered near the northern gate of Dholavira (perhaps 5000 years old)
Indus script refers to short strings of symbols associated with the Indus Valley Civilization used
between 2600–1900 BC. In spite of many attempts at decipherments and claims, it is as yet
undeciphered. The script generally refers to that used in the mature Harappan phase, which perhaps
evolved from a few signs found in early Harappa after 3500 BC,[12], and was followed by the mature
Harappan script. The script is written from right to left,[13] and sometimes follows a boustrophedonic
style. Since the number of principal signs is about 400-600,[14] midway between typical logographic and
syllabic scripts, many scholars accept the script to be logo-syllabic [15] (typically syllabic scripts have
about 50-100 signs whereas logographic scripts have a very large number of principal signs). Several
scholars maintain that structural analysis indicates an agglutinative language underlies the script.
However, this is contradicted by the occurrence of signs supposedly representing suffixes at the
beginning or middle of words.
Phoenician writing system and descendants
Research Trang297
The Phoenician writing system was adapted from the Proto-Caananite script in around the 11th century
BC, which in turn borrowed ideas from Egyptian hieroglyphics. This writing system was an abjad —
that is, a writing system in which only consonants are represented. This script was adapted by the
Greeks, who adapted certain consonantal signs to represent their vowels. The Cumae alphabet, a variant
of the early Greek alphabet gave rise to the Etruscan alphabet, and its own descendants, such as the
Latin alphabet and Runes. Other descendants from the Greek alphabet include the Cyrillic alphabet, used
to write Russian, among others. The Phoenician system was also adapted into the Aramaic script, from
which the Hebrew script and also that of Arabic are descended.
The Tifinagh script (Berber languages) is descended from the Libyco-Berber script which is assumed to
be of Phoenician origin.
Mesoamerica
A stone slab with 3,000-year-old writing was discovered in the Mexican state of Veracruz, and is an
example of the oldest script in the Western Hemisphere preceding the oldest Zapotec writing dated to
about 500 BC. [16] [17] [18]
Of several pre-Columbian scripts in Mesoamerica, the one that appears to have been best developed, and
the only one to be deciphered, is the Maya script. The earliest inscriptions which are identifiably Maya
date to the 3rd century BC, and writing was in continuous use until shortly after the arrival of the
Spanish conquistadores in the 16th century AD. Maya writing used logograms complemented by a set of
syllabic glyphs, somewhat similar in function to modern Japanese writing.
Creation of text or information

Further information: Literature
Creativity
Main articles: Creativity and Creative Writing
Author
Main article: Author
Writer
Main article: Writer
Critiques
This section does not cite any references or sources.

Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unverifiable material may be challenged and
removed. (September 2007)
Writers sometimes search out others to evaluate or criticize their work. To this end, many writers join
writing circles, often found at local libraries or bookstores. With the evolution of the Internet, writing
circles have started to go online.
Research Trang298
Wikibooks' [[wikibooks:|]] has more about this subject:

Fiction technique
See also
• Asemic writing • Kishotenketsu • Story bible
• Author • Linguistics • Speech communication
• Boustrophedon text • List of writers' conferences • Typography
• Calligraphy • Literacy • White papers
• Collaborative writing • Literary award • Word processing
• Communication • Literary criticism • Writer
• Composition studies • Literary festival • Writer's block
• Creative writing • Literature • Writing bump
• Decipherment • Manuscript • Writing circle
• Essay • Orthography • Writing slate
• Fiction writing • Pencil • Writing style
• Grammar • Printing • Writing systems
• Graphonomics • Publishing
• Interactive fiction • Writer's voice
• Scriptorium
• Journalism
Illness

This article or section has multiple issues. Please help improve the article or discuss these issues
on the talk page.
• It needs additional references or sources for verification. Tagged since September 2008.
• It needs to be expanded. Tagged since September 2008.
• It may require general cleanup to meet Wikipedia's quality standards. Tagged since March 2008.
Illness (sometimes referred to as ill-health or ail) can be defined as a state of poor health.
It is sometimes considered a synonym for disease.[1] Others maintain that

fine distinctions exist.[2] Some have described illness as the subjective
Contents perception by a patient of an objectively defined disease.[3]
[hide]
[edit] Introduction
• 1 Introduction
• 2 Physical The mode of being healthy includes, as defined by the World Health
• 3 Mental Organization, " [...] a state of complete physical, mental and social well-
• 4 Social being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity". [4] When these
• 5 Treatment conditions are not fulfilled, then one can be considered to have an illness
• 6 Study of illness or be ill. Medication and the science of pharmacology is used to cure or
• 7 Religion and illness
Research Trang299
• 8 See also
• 9 References
reduce symptoms of an illness or medical conditions. Developmental disability is a term used to describe
severe, life-long disabilities attributable to mental and/or physical impairments.
[edit] Physical
Conditions of the body or mind that cause pain, dysfunction, or distress to the person afflicted or those
in contact with the person can be deemed an illness. Sometimes the term is used broadly to include
injuries, disabilities, syndromes, infections, symptoms, deviant behaviors, and atypical variations of
structure and function, while in other contexts these may be considered distinguishable categories. A
pathogen or infectious agent is a biological agent that causes disease or illness to its host. A passenger
virus is a virus that simply hitchhikes in the body of a person or infects the body without causing
symptoms, illness or disease. Foodborne illness or food poisoning is any illness resulting from the
consumption of food contaminated with pathogenic bacteria, toxins, viruses, prions or parasites.
[edit] Mental
Mental illness (or Emotional disability, Cognitive dysfunction) is a broad generic label for a category of
illnesses that may include affective or emotional instability, behavioral dysregulation, and/or cognitive
dysfunction or impairment. Specific illnesses known as mental illnesses include major depression,
generalized anxiety disorder, schizophrenia, and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, to name a few.
Mental illness can be of biological (e.g., anatomical, chemical, or genetic) or psychological (e.g., trauma
or conflict) origin. It can impact one’s ability to work or go to school and contribute to problems in
relationships. Other generic names for mental illness include “mental disorder”, “psychiatric numpty”,
“psychological disorder”,“abnormal psychology”, “emotional disability”, “emotional problems”, or
“behavior problem”. The term insanity is used technically as a legal term. Brain damage may occur
[edit] Social
Social determinants of health are the social conditions in which people live which determine their health.
Illnesses are generally related to social, economic, political, and environmental circumstances. Social
determinants of health have been recognized by several health organizations such as the Public Health
Agency of Canada and the World Health Organization to greatly influence collective and personal well-
being.
[edit] Treatment
The governmental involvement is vital and may also be required to study a range of illnesses and
treatments. Health care is the prevention, treatment, and management of illness and the preservation of
mental and physical well-being through the services offered by the medical, nursing, and allied health
professions. The organised provision of such services may constitute a health care system. Before the
term "healthcare" became popular, English-speakers referred to medicine or to the health sector and
spoke of the treatment and prevention of illness and disease. A patient is any person who receives
medical attention, care, or treatment. The person is most often ill or injured and is being treated by, or in
need of treatment by, a physician or other medical professional. Health consumer or health care
consumer is another name for patient, usually used by some governmental agencies, insurance
companies, and/or patient groups.
Medical emergencies are injuries or illnesses that pose an immediate threat to a person's health or life
which require help from a doctor or hospital. The doctor's specialization of emergency medicine
Research Trang300
includes techniques for effective handling of medical emergencies and resuscitation of patients.
Emergency departments provides initial treatment to patients with a broad spectrum of illnesses and
injuries, some of which may be life-threatening and requiring immediate attention.
A drug is any chemical substance other than a food or device that affects the function of living things.
Drugs can be used to treat illness, or they can be used recreationally to alter behavior and perception.
Medications are typically produced by pharmaceutical companies and are often patented. Those that are
not patented are called generic drugs. Some drugs, if misused, can overwhelm the homeostasis of a
living organism, causing severe illness or death. Essentially it is a type of poisoning. In the context of
biology, poisons are substances that can cause illness.
Bedrest as a medical treatment refers to staying in bed day and night, as in a treatment for a hangover.
Even though most patients in hospitals spend most of their time in the hospital beds, bedrest more often
refers to an extended period of recumbence at home.
Human enhancement technologies (HET) are technologies that can be used not simply for treating
illness and disability, but also for enhancing human capacities and characteristics. Medication is a
licenced drug taken to cure or reduce symptoms of an illness or medical condition. A wheelchair is
mobility device that takes the form of a chair on wheels, used by people for whom walking is difficult or
impossible due to illness or disability.
Shock therapy is the deliberate and controlled induction of some form of physiological state of shock in
an individual for the purpose of psychiatric treatment. Electrotherapy is the use of electrical energy in
the treatment of impairments of health and a conditions of abnormal functioning.
[edit] Study of illness
Epidemiology is the scientific study of factors affecting the health and illness of individuals and
populations, and serves as the foundation and logic of interventions made in the interest of public health
and preventive medicine.
Behavioral medicine is an interdisciplinary field of medicine concerned with the development and
integration of psychosocial, behavioral and biomedical knowledge relevant to health and illness. Clinical
Global Impression scale to assess treatment response in patients with mental disorders. It's "
Improvement scale" requires the clinician to rate how much the patient's illness has improved or
worsened relative to a baseline state. Mental confusion and decreased alertness may indicate that a
chronic illness has gotten worse.
[edit] Religion and illness
Jewish and Islamic law grant exceptions to people of ill health. For example, one whose life would be
endangered by doing so is exempt from (and indeed forbidden to participate in) fasting on Yom Kippur
or during Ramadan.
In the New Testament Jesus is described as performing miracles of healing.
Illness was one of the four scenes, referred to as the four sights, encountered by Gautama Buddha.
Korean Shamanism involves notions of "spirit sickness".

Research Trang301
Folk medicine is collectively procedures traditionally used for treatment of illness and injury, aid to
childbirth, and maintenance of wellness. It is a body of knowledge distinct from "scientific medicine"
and may coexist in the same culture.
The border between normality and illness may be subjective. For example, in some religions,
homosexuality is believed to be an illness.[citation needed]
[edit] See also
• Convalescence
• Wellness (alternative medicine) is used to mean a healthy balance of the mind-body and spirit
that results in an overall feeling of well-being.
[edit] References
1. ^ illness at Dorland's Medical Dictionary

2. ^ Emson HE (April 1987). "Health, disease and illness: matters for definition". CMAJ 136 (8): 811–3.
PMID 3567788.
3. ^ McWhinney IR (April 1987). "Health and disease: problems of definition". CMAJ 136 (8): 815. PMID
3567791.
4. ^ WHO, 1946
[hide]
v•d•e
Medical conditions (Diseases, Disorders, Illness, Syndromes, Symptoms, Medical
signs, Injuries, etc.)
Infectious disease/Infection: Bacterial disease (G+, G-) · Virus disease · Parasitic

(A/B, 001-139)
disease · Mycosis · Zoonosis
Cancer Tumor
(C/D, 140-239)
Immunodeficiency · Immunoproliferative disorders ·
Immune disorder
Hypersensitivity
(E, 240-279) Endocrine disease · Nutrition disorder · Inborn error of metabolism
(F, 290-319) Mental disorder
(G, 320-359) Nervous system disease (CNS, PNS)
(H, 360-389) Eye disease · Ear disease
(I, 390-459) Cardiovascular disease (Heart disease, Vascular disease)
(J, 460-519) Respiratory disease (Obstructive lung disease, Restrictive lung disease, Pneumonia)
Stomatognathic disease · Digestive disease (Esophageal, Stomach, Enteropathy,

(K, 520-579)
Liver, Pancreatic)
Research Trang302
(L, 680-709) Skin disease
(M, 710-739) Musculoskeletal disorders
(N, 580-629) Urologic disease (Nephropathy, Urinary bladder disease) · Breast disease
(O, 630-679) Complications of pregnancy
(P, 760-779) Fetal disease
(Q, 740-759) Congenital disorder
(R, 780-799) Syndromes · Medical signs (Eponymous)
Bone fracture · Dislocations/subluxation · Sprain · Strain · Head injury · Chest

(S/T, 800-999)
trauma · Poisoning
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illness"
Categories: Medical terms | Health
Hidden categories: Articles lacking reliable references from September 2008 | Articles to be expanded
since September 2008 | All articles to be expanded | Cleanup from March 2008 | All pages needing
cleanup | All articles with unsourced statements | Articles with unsourced statements since June 2007
Future

reliable references. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (June 2008)
For other uses, see Future (disambiguation).
The Ghost of Christmas Yet to Come shows Scrooge his future in Dickens'
A Christmas Carol.
The future is a time period commonly understood to contain all events that
have yet to occur.[1] It is the opposite of the past, and is the time after the
present.[2] Organized efforts to predict or forecast the future may have
derived from observations by early man of heavenly objects. In the
Occidental view, which uses a linear conception of time, the future is the
portion of the projected time line that is anticipated to occur. [3] In special
relativity the future is considered as absolute future or the future light cone.
[4]
In physics, time is considered to be a fourth dimension.[5]
In the philosophy of time, presentism is the belief that only the present
exists and the future and the past are unreal. Religions consider the future when they address issues such
Research Trang303
as karma, life after death, and eschatologies that study what the end of time and the end of the world will
be. Religious figures have claimed to see into the future, such as prophets and diviners.
Future studies or futurology is the science, art and practice of postulating possible futures. Modern
practitioners stress the importance of alternative and plural futures, rather than one monolithic future,
and the limitations of prediction and probability, versus the creation of possible and preferable futures.
In art and culture, the future was explored in several art movements and genres. The futurism art
movement at the beginning of the 20th century explored every medium of art, including painting,
sculpture, poetry, theatre, music, architecture and even gastronomy. Futurists had passionate loathing of
ideas from the past, especially political and artistic traditions. Instead, they espoused a love of speed,
technology, and violence. Futuristic music involved homage to, inclusion of, or imitation of machines.
Futurism expanded to encompass other artistic domains and ultimately included industrial design,
textiles, and architecture. Science fiction writer Robert A. Heinlein defines sci-fi as "realistic speculation
about possible future events, based solidly on adequate knowledge of the real world, past and present,
and on a thorough understanding of the nature and significance of the scientific method."[6] More
generally, science fiction is a broad genre of fiction that often involves speculations based on current or
future science or technology.
[edit] Forecasting
Contents Main article: Forecasting
[hide]
Organized efforts to predict or forecast the future may have derived
• 1 Forecasting from observations by early man of heavenly objects, which changed
o 1.1 Future studies position in predictable patterns. The practice of astrology, today
• 2 Physics considered pseudoscience, evolved from the human desire to
• 3 Philosophy forecast the future. Much of physical science can be read as an
• 4 Psychology attempt to make quantitative and objective predictions about events.
• 5 Religion Forecasting is the process of estimation in unknown situations. Due
• 6 In art and culture to the element of the unknown, risk and uncertainty are central to
o 6.1 Futurism forecasting and prediction. Statistical forecasting is the process of
o 6.2 Science fiction estimation in unknown situations. It can refer to estimation of time
• 7 References series, cross-sectional or longitudinal data.
• 8 See also
Prediction is a similar, but more general term. Both can refer to
• 9 External links estimation of time series, cross-sectional or longitudinal data.
Econometric forecasting methods use the assumption that it is
possible to identify the underlying factors that might influence the variable that is being forecast. If the
causes are understood, projections of the influencing variables can be made and used in the forecast.
Judgemental forecasting methods incorporate intuitive judgements, opinions and probability estimates,
as in the case of the Delphi method, scenario building, and simulations. Forecasting is applied in many
areas, including weather forecasting, earthquake prediction, transport planning, and labour market
planning.
Despite the development of cognitive instruments for the comprehension of future, the stochastic nature
of many natural and social processes has made precise forecasting of the future elusive. Modern efforts
such as future studies attempt to predict social trends, while more ancient practices, such as weather
forecasting, have benefited from scientific and causal modelling.
Research Trang304
[edit] Future studies
Future studies or futurology is the science, art and practice of postulating possible, probable, and
preferable futures and the worldviews and myths that underlie them. Futures studies seeks to understand
what is likely to continue, what is likely to change, and what is novel. Part of the discipline thus seeks a
systematic and pattern-based understanding of past and present, and to determine the likelihood of future
events and trends. A key part of this process is understanding the potential future impact of decisions
made by individuals, organisations and governments. Leaders use results of such work to assist in
decision-making.
• "Take hold of the future or the future will take hold of you." Patrick Dixon, author Futurewise
Futures is an interdisciplinary field, studying yesterday's and today's changes, and aggregating and
analyzing both lay and professional strategies, and opinions with respect to tomorrow. It includes
analyzing the sources, patterns, and causes of change and stability in the attempt to develop foresight
and to map possible futures. Modern practitioners stress the importance of alternative and plural futures,
rather than one monolithic future, and the limitations of prediction and probability, versus the creation of
possible and preferable futures.
Three factors usually distinguish futures studies from the research conducted by other disciplines
(although all disciplines overlap, to differing degrees). First, futures studies often examines not only
possible but also probable, preferable, and "wild card" futures. Second, futures studies typically attempts
to gain a holistic or systemic view based on insights from a range of different disciplines. Third, futures
studies challenges and unpacks the assumptions behind dominant and contending views of the future.
The future thus is not empty but fraught with hidden assumptions.
Futures studies does not generally include the work of economists who forecast movements of interest
rates over the next business cycle, or of managers or investors with short-term time horizons. Most
strategic planning, which develops operational plans for preferred futures with time horizons of one to
three years, is also not considered futures. But plans and strategies with longer time horizons that
specifically attempt to anticipate and be robust to possible future events, are part of a major
subdiscipline of futures studies called strategic foresight.
The futures field also excludes those who make future predictions through professed supernatural
means. At the same time, it does seek to understand the models such groups use and the interpretations
they give to these models.
[edit] Physics
Please help improve this section by expanding it. Further information might be found on the talk
page. (May 2008)
A visualisation of the future light cone (at top), the present, and the past light cone in 2D space.
In classical physics the future is just a half of the timeline. In special relativity the future is considered as
absolute future or the future light cone. In physics, time is considered to be a fourth dimension.
Physicists argue that space-time can be understood as a sort of stretchy fabric that can bend due to forces
such as gravity. While a person can move backwards or forwards in the three spatial dimensions, many
physicists argue you are only able to move forward in time. [7]
Research Trang305
The physicist who advised the makers of the fictional time-travel film Déjà Vu claims that a person
could hypothetically travel into the future if they had a spaceship that could travel at the speed of light.
After a voyage on this ship, if a person returned to Earth, millions of years would have passed in Earth
time. [7] Some physicists claim that by using a wormhole to connect two regions of space-time a person
could theoretically travel in time. Physicist Michio Kaku points out that to power this hypothetical time
machine and "punch a hole into the fabric of space-time", it would require the energy of a star. Another
theory is that a person could travel in time with cosmic strings, which are hypothetical "narrow tubes of
energy stretched across the entire length of the ever-expanding universe. Many people say that time is
like a fabric. The fabric is 4d or 5d. Something we would not understand. Lets say there are two twins
where 1 is in space going 5,000,000mph for 21 earth years but has only aged 3 years and only felt it was
3 years ,but the other twin aged 21 years. We may never understand time." [7]
[edit] Philosophy
page. (May 2008)
In the philosophy of time, presentism is the belief that only the present exists and the future and the past
are unreal. Past and future "entities" are to be construed as logical constructions or fictions. The opposite
of presentism is 'eternalism', which is the belief that things in the past and things yet to come exist
eternally. One other view (that has not been held by very many philosophers) is sometimes called the
'growing block' theory of time, which is a theory that takes the past and present to exist but the future to
be nonexistent.[8]
Presentism is compatible with Galilean relativity, in which time is independent of space but is probably
incompatible with Lorentzian/Einsteinian relativity in conjunction with certain other philosophical
theses which many find uncontroversial. Saint Augustine proposed that the present is a knife edge
between the past and the future and could not contain any extended period of time.
Contrary to Saint Augustine, some philosophers propose that conscious experience is extended in time.
For instance, William James said that time is "the short duration of which we are immediately and
incessantly sensible".[citation needed] Augustine proposed that God is outside of time and present for all times,
in eternity. Other early philosophers who were presentists include the Buddhists (in the tradition of
Indian Buddhism). A leading scholar from the modern era on Buddhist philosophy is Stcherbatsky, who
has written extensively on Buddhist presentism: "Everything past is unreal, everything future is unreal,
everything imagined, absent, mental... is unreal... Ultimately real is only the present moment of physical
efficiency [i.e., causation]."[9]
[edit] Psychology
Mother and child personify the optimistic "Spirit of Tomorrow" at Walt

Disney World's Epcot.
page. (May 2008)
While ethologists consider animal behavior to be largely based on fixed

action patterns or other learned traits in an animal's past, human behavior
is known to encompass an anticipation of the future. Anticipatory behavior
Research Trang306
can be the result of a psychological outlook toward the future, for examples optimism, pessimism, and
hope.
Optimism is an outlook on life such that one maintains a view of the world as a positive place. People
would say that optimism is seeing the glass "half full" of water as opposed to half empty. It is the
philosophical opposite of pessimism. Optimists generally believe that people and events are inherently
good, so that most situations work out in the end for the best.Hope is a belief in a positive outcome
related to events and circumstances in one's life. Hope implies a certain amount of despair, wanting,
wishing, suffering or perseverance — i.e., believing that a better or positive outcome is possible even
when there is some evidence to the contrary. "Hopefulness" is somewhat different from optimism in that
hope is an emotional state, whereas optimism is a conclusion reached through a deliberate thought
pattern that leads to a positive attitude.
[edit] Religion
This section does not cite any references or sources. Please help improve this article by adding
citations to reliable sources. Unverifiable material may be challenged and removed. (June 2008)
Religions consider the future when they address issues such as karma, life after death, and eschatologies
that study what the end of time and the end of the world will be. In religion, major prophets are said to
have the power to change the future. Common religious figures have claimed to see into the future, such
as minor prophets and diviners. The term "afterlife" refers to the continuation of existence of the soul,
spirit or mind of a human (or animal) after physical death, typically in a spiritual or ghostlike afterworld.
Deceased persons are usually believed to go to a specific region or plane of existence in this afterworld,
often depending on the rightness of their actions during life.
Some believe the afterlife includes some form of preparation for the soul to be transferred to another
body (reincarnation). The major views on the afterlife derive from religion, esotericism and
metaphysics. There are those who are skeptical of the existence of the afterlife, or believe that it is
absolutely impossible, such as the materialist-reductionists, who state that the topic is supernatural,
therefore does not really exist or is unknowable. In metaphysical models, theists generally believe some
sort of afterlife awaits people when they die. Atheists generally believe that there is not a life after death.
Members of some generally non-theistic religions such as Buddhism, tend to believe in an afterlife like
reincarnation but without reference to God.
Agnostics generally hold the position that like the existence of God, the existence of supernatural
phenomena, such as souls or life after death, is unverifiable and therefore unknowable. Some
philosophies (i.e. posthumanism, Humanism, and often empiricism) generally hold that there is not an
afterlife. Many religions, whether they believe in the soul’s existence in another world like Christianity,
Islam and many pagan belief systems, or in reincarnation like many forms of Hinduism and Buddhism,
believe that one’s status in the afterlife is a reward or punishment for their conduct during life.
Eschatology is a part of theology and philosophy concerned with the final events in the history of the
world, or the ultimate destiny of humanity, commonly referred to as the end of the world. While in
mysticism the phrase refers metaphorically to the end of ordinary reality and reunion with the Divine, in
many traditional religions it is taught as an actual future event prophesied in sacred texts or folklore.
More broadly, eschatology may encompass related concepts such as the Messiah or Messianic Age, the
end time, and the end of days.
Research Trang307
[edit] In art and culture
[edit] Futurism
Futurism was an art movement that originated in Italy at the beginning of the 20th century. Futurism was
a largely Italian and Russian movement, although it also had adherents in other countries, England for
example. The Futurists explored every medium of art, including painting, sculpture, poetry, theatre,
music, architecture and even gastronomy. Futurists had passionate loathing of ideas from the past,
especially political and artistic traditions. He and others also espoused a love of speed, technology, and
violence. Futurists dubbed the love of the past passéisme. The car, the plane, the industrial town were all
legendary for the Futurists, because they represented the technological triumph of people over nature.
The Futurist Manifesto had declared, "We will glorify war - the world's only hygiene - militarism,
patriotism, the destructive gesture of freedom-bringers, beautiful ideas worth dying for, and scorn for
woman." [10] Although it owed much of its character and some of its ideas to radical political
movements, it was not much involved in politics until the autumn of 1913.[11]
One of the many 20th century classical movements in music was one which involved homage to,
inclusion of, or imitation of machines. Closely identified with the central Italian Futurist movement were
brother composers Luigi Russolo and Antonio Russolo, who used instruments known as "intonarumori",
which were essentially sound boxes used to create music out of noise. Luigi Russolo's futurist manifesto,
The Art of Noises, is considered to be one of the most important and influential texts in 20th century
musical aesthetics. Other examples of futurist music include Arthur Honegger's Pacific 231, which
imitates the sound of a steam locomotive, Prokofiev's "The Steel Step", and the experiments of Edgard
Varèse.
Literary futurism made its debut with F.T. Marinetti's Manifesto of Futurism (1909). Futurist poetry
used unexpected combinations of images and hyper-conciseness (not to be confused with the actual
length of the poem). Futurist theater works have scenes that are few sentences long, and which use
nonsensical humor and which attempt to discredit the deep-rooted dramatic traditions with parody. The
longer forms of literature, such as the novel, had no place in the Futurist aesthetic, which was obsessed
with speed and compression.
Futurism expanded to encompass other artistic domains and ultimately included painting, sculpture,
ceramics, graphic design, industrial design, interior design, theatre design, textiles, drama, literature,
music and architecture. In architecture, it was characterized by a distinctive thrust towards rationalism
and modernism through the use of advanced building materials. The ideals of futurism remain as
significant components of modern Western culture; the emphasis on youth, speed, power and technology
finding expression in much of modern commercial cinema and culture. Futurism has produced several
reactions, including the 1980s-era literary genre of cyberpunk — in which technology was often treated
with a critical eye.
[edit] Science fiction
Science fiction writer Robert A. Heinlein defines sci-fi as " realistic speculation about possible future
events, based solidly on adequate knowledge of the real world, past and present, and on a thorough
understanding of the nature and significance of the scientific method."[6] More generally, science fiction
is a broad genre of fiction that often involves speculations based on current or future science or
technology. Science fiction is found in books, art, television, films, games, theater, and other media.
Science fiction differs from fantasy in that, within the context of the story, its imaginary elements are
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largely possible within scientifically established or scientifically postulated laws of nature (though some
elements in a story might still be pure imaginative speculation). Settings may include the future, or
alternative time lines, and stories may depict new or speculative scientific principles, such as time travel
or psionics, or new technology, such as nanotechnology, faster-than-light travel or robots, Exploring the
consequences of such differences is the traditional purpose of science fiction, making it a "literature of
ideas".[12]
Some science fiction authors construct a postulated history of the future called a "future history" which
serves as a common background for their fiction. Sometimes the author publishes a timeline of events in
their history, while other times the reader can reconstruct the order of the stories from information
provided therein. Some works were published which constituted "future history" in a more literal sense -
i.e., stories or whole books purporting to be excerpts of a history book from the future and which are
written in the form of a history book - i.e., having no personal protagonists but rather describing the
development of nations and societies over decades and centuries. Examples include H.G. Wells' The
Shape of Things to Come (1933), which was written in the form of a history book published in the year
2106 and - in the manner of a real history book - containing numerous footnotes and references to the
works of (mostly fictitious) prominent historians of the 20th and 21st centuries.
Military
reliable references. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (August 2008)
Praetorian Guards, Roman Soldiers
A military is an organization authorized by its nation to use

force, usually including use of weapons, in defending its
country (or by attacking other countries) by combating actual
or perceived threats. As an adjective the term "military" is also
used to refer to any property or aspect of a military. Militaries
often function as societies within societies, by having their own
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military communities, economies, education, medicine and other aspects of a functioning civilian
society.
The profession of soldiering as part of a military group is older than recorded history itself. Some of the
most enduring images of the classical antiquity portray the power and feats of its military leaders. The
Battle of Kadesh in 1274 BC was one of the defining points of Pharaoh Ramesses II's reign and is
celebrated in bas-relief on his monuments.[1] A thousand years later the first emperor of unified China,
Qin Shi Huang, was so determined to impress the gods with his military might that he was buried with
an army of terracotta soldiers.[2] The Romans were dedicated to military matters, leaving to posterity
many treatises and writings as well as a large number of lavishly carved triumphal arches and columns.
In the modern era, world wars and countless other major conflicts have changed the employment of the
militaries beyond recognition to their ancient participants. Empires have come and gone; states have
grown and declined. Enormous social changes have been wrought, and military power continues to
dominate international relations. The role of the military today is as central to global societies as it ever
was.
[edit] Etymology and definitions

Contents
[hide] The first recorded use of military in English, spelled
militarie, was in 1585.[3] It comes from the Latin militaris
• 1 Etymology and definitions (from Latin miles meaning "soldier") but is of uncertain
• 2 Military history etymology, one suggestion being derived from *mil-it- - going
• 3 The Military in a body or mass[4] The word is now identified as denoting
• 4 Military in combat someone that is skilled in use of weapons, or engaged in
• 5 Military technology military service or in warfare.[5][6]
• 6 Military and society
o 6.1 Ideology and ethics As a noun the military usually refers generally to a country's
o 6.2 Antimilitarism armed forces or sometimes, more specifically, to the senior
• 7 Stereotypes of the military officers who command them.[5][6] In general it refers to the
o 7.1 Military in the media physicality of armed forces, their personnel, equipment, and
o 7.2 Militaria physical space they occupy.
• 8 References and notes
As an adjective military originally applied only to soldiers
• 9 Sources and soldiering, but it soon broadened to apply to land forces in
general and anything to do with their profession. [3] The names
of both the Royal Military Academy (1741) and United States Military Academy (1802) reflect this.
However, at about the time of Napoleonic wars "military" begun to be applied to armed forces as a
whole[3] and in the 21st century expressions like "military service", "military intelligence" and "military
history" reflect this broader meaning. As such, it now connotes any activity performed by the military
personnel.
[edit] Military history

Main article: Military history
Military history is often considered to be the history of all conflicts, not just the history of the state
militaries. It differs somewhat from the history of war with military history focusing on the people and
institutions of war-making while the history of war focuses on the evolution of war itself in the face of
changing technology, governments, and geography. Military history has a number of purposes. One
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main purpose is to learn from past accomplishments and mistakes so as to more effectively wage war in
the future. Another is to create a sense of military tradition which is used to create cohesive military
forces. Still another may be to learn to prevent wars more effectively. Human knowledge about the
military is largely based on recorded and oral history of military conflicts, their participating armies and
navies, and more recently air forces. There are two types of military history, although almost all texts
have elements of both: descriptive history that serves to chronicle conflicts without offering any
statements about the causes, nature of conduct, the ending and effects of a conflict; and analytical
history that seeks to offer statements about the causes, nature, ending and aftermath of conflicts as a
means of deriving knowledge and understanding of conflicts as a whole, and prevent repetition of
mistakes in future, to suggest better concepts or methods in employing forces, or to advocate need new
technology.
[edit] The Military
Every nation in the history of humanity had different needs for military forces. How these needs are
determined, forms the basis of their composition, equipment and use of facilities. It also determines what
military does in terms of peacetime and wartime activities. All militaries, whether large or small, are
military organizations that must perform certain functions and fulfil certain roles to qualify for being
designated as such. If they fail to do so, they may become known as paramilitary, civil defence, militia
or other which are not military. These commonalities of the state's military define them.
An example of military command; a map of Argentina's military zones (1975-1983)
Military command
The first requirement of the military is to establish it as a force with a capability to execute national
defense policy. Invariably, although the policy may be created by policy makers or Policy analyst, its
implementation requires specific expert knowledge of how military functions and how it fulfils roles.
The first of these skills is the ability to create a cohesive force capable of acting on policy as and when
required, and therefore the first function of the military is to provide military command. One of the roles
of military command is to translate policy into concrete missions and tasks, and to express them in terms
understood by subordinates, generally called orders. Military command make effective and efficient
military organisation possible through delegation of authority which encompass organisational structures
as large as military districts or military zones, and as small as platoons. The command element of the
military is often a strong influence on the organisational culture of the forces.
Military personnel
Another requirement is for the military command personnel, often called the officer corps, to command
subordinated military personnel, generally known as soldiers, sailors, marines, or airmen, capable of
executing the many specialised operational missions and task required for the military to execute the
policy directives. Unsurprisingly, just like in the commercial enterprises where there are, in a corporate
setting, directors, managers and various staff that carry out the business of the day as part of business
operations or undertake business project management, military also has its routines and projects. During
peacetime when military personnel are mostly employed in garrisons or permanent military facilities
they mostly conduct administrative tasks, training and education activities, and technology maintenance.
Another role of military personnel is to ensure a continuous replacement of departing servicemen and
women through military recruitment, and the maintenance of a military reserve.
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See also: Military reserve
Military intelligence
Next requirement comes as a fairly basic need for the military to identify the possible threats it may be
called upon to face. For this purpose some of the command and other military, and often civilian
personnel participate in identification of these threats, which is at once an organisation, a system and a
process collectively called military intelligence. The difficulty in using military intelligence concepts
and military intelligence methods is in the nature of the secrecy of the information they seek, and the
clandestine nature that intelligence operatives work in obtaining what may be plans for a conflict
escalation, initiation of combat or an invasion. An important part of the military intelligence role is the
military analysis performed to assess military capability of potential future aggressors, and provide
combat modelling that helps to understand factors on which comparison of forces can be made. This
helps to quantify and qualify such statements as "China and India maintain the largest armed forces in
the World" or that "the U.S. Military is considered to be the world's strongest".
Military finance
Having military intelligence representatives participate in the execution of the national defence policy is
important because it becomes the first respondent and commentator on the policy expected strategic goal
compared to the realities of identified threats. When the intelligence reporting is compared to the policy,
it becomes possible for the national leadership to think about allocating resources over an above the
officers and their subordinates military pay and the expense of maintaining military facilities and
military support services for them. The process of allocating resources is conducted by determining a
military budget which is administered by a military finance organisation within the military. Military
procurement is then authorised to purchase or contract provision of goods and services to the military,
whether in peacetime at a permanent base or in a combat zone from local population.
Capability development
Capability development, which is often referred to as the military "strength", is arguably one of the most
complex activities known to humanity because it requires determining: Strategic, operational and
tactical capability requirements to counter the identified threats; Strategic, operational and tactical
doctrines by which the acquired capabilities will be used; identifying concepts, methods and systems
involved in executing the doctrines; creating design specifications for the manufacturers who would
produce these in adequate quantity and quality for their use in combat; purchase the concepts, methods
and systems; create a forces structure that would use the concepts, methods and systems most effectively
and efficiently; integrate these concepts, methods and systems into the force structure by providing
military education, training, and practice that preferably resembles combat environment of intended use;
create military logistics systems to allow continued and uninterrupted performance of military
organisations under combat conditions, including provision of health services to the personnel and
maintenance for the equipment; the services to assist recovery of wounded personnel and repair of
damaged equipment; and finally post-conflict demobilisation and disposal of war stocks surplus to
peacetime requirements.
Development of military doctrine is perhaps the more important of all capability development activities
because it determines how military forces were, and are used in conflicts, the concepts and methods used
by the command to employ appropriately military skilled, armed and equipped personnel in achievement
of the tangible goals and objectives of the war, campaign, battle, engagement, action or a duel.[7] The
line between strategy and tactics is not easily blurred, although deciding which is being discussed had
sometimes been a matter of personal judgement by some commentators, and military historians. The use
of forces at the level of organisation between strategic and tactical is called operational mobility.
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Military science
Main article: Military science
Because most of the concepts and methods used by the military, and many of its systems are not found
in the commercial use, much of materiel is researched, designed, developed and offered for inclusion in
arsenals by military science organisation within the overall structure of the military. Military scientists
are therefore found to interact with all Arms and Services of the armed forces, and at all levels of the
military hierarchy of command. Although concerned with research into military psychology, and
particularly combat stress and how it affect troop morale, often the bulk of military science activities is
directed at the military intelligence technology, military communications and improving military
capability through research, design, development and prototyping of weapons, military support
equipment, and military technology in general that includes everything from global communication
networks and aircraft carriers to paint and food.
The Kawasaki C-1 is a tactical military

transport of the Japan Air Self-Defense
Force.
Military logistics
Main article: Military logistics
Possessing military capability is not sufficient if this capability can not be deployed for, and employed
in combat operations. To achieve this, military logistics are used for the logistics management and
logistics planning of the forces supply "tail", the consumables and capital equipment of the troops.
Although mostly concerned with the military transport as a means of delivery using different modes of
transport from military trucks to container ships operating from permanent military base, it also involves
creating field supply dumps in the rear of the combat zone, and even forward supply points in specific
unit's Tactical Area of Responsibility. These supply points are also used to provide military engineering
services such as the recovery of defective and derelict vehicles and weapons, maintenance of weapons in
the field, the repair and field modification of weapons and equipment, and in peacetime the life-
extension programs undertaken to allow continued use of equipment. One of the most important role of
logistics is the supply of munitions as a primary type of consumable, their storage and disposal.
Military operations
While capability development is about enabling the military to perform its functions and roles in
executing the defence policy, how personnel and their equipment are used in engaging the enemy,
winning battles, successfully concluding campaigns, and eventually the war, is the responsibility of
military operations. Military operations oversees the policy interpretation into military plans, allocation
of capability to specific strategic, operational and tactical goals and objectives, change in posture of the
armed forces, the interaction of Combat Arms, Combat Support Arms and Combat Support Services
during combat operations, defining of military missions and tasks during the conduct of combat,
management of military prisoners and military civil affairs, and the military occupation of enemy
territory, seizure of captured equipment, and maintenance of civil order in the territory under its
responsibility. Throughout the combat operations process, and during the lulls in combat combat
military intelligence provides reporting on the status of plan completion and its correlation with desired,
expected and achieved satisfaction of policy fulfilment.
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Main articles: Military strategy and Military tactics
Military performance assessment

The last requirement of the military is for military performance assessment and learning from it. These
two functions are performed by military historians and military theorists who seek to identify failures
and success of the armed force and integrate corrections into the military reform with the aim of
producing an improved force capable of performing adequately should there be a national defence policy
review.
[edit] Military in combat
The primary reason for the existence of the military is to engage in combat, should it be required to do
so by the national defence policy, and to win. This represents an organisational goal of any military, and
the primary focus for military thought through military history. The "show" of military force has been a
term that referred as much to military force projection, as to the units such as regiments or gunboats
deployed in a particular theatre, or as an aggregate of such forces. In the Gulf War the United States
Central Command controlled military forces (units) of each of the four military services of the United
States. How victory is achieved, and what shape it assumes is studied by the militaries on three levels.
Strategic victory
Military strategy is the management of forces in wars and military campaigns by a commander-
in-chief employing large military forces either national and allied as a whole, or the component
elements of armies, navies and air forces such as army groups, fleets and large numbers of
aircraft. Military strategy is a long-term projection of belligerents' policy with a broad view of
outcome implications, including outside the concerns of military command. Military strategy is
more concerned with the supply of war and planning, then management of field forces and
combat between them. The scope of Strategic military planning can span weeks, but commonly
months and years.[8]
Operational victory
Operational mobility is, within warfare and military doctrine, the level of command which
coordinates the minute details of tactics with the overarching goals of strategy. A common
synonym is operational art.
The operational level is at a scale bigger than one where line of sight and the time of day are
important, and smaller than the strategic level, where production and politics are considerations.
Formations are of the operational level if they are able to conduct operations on their own, and
are of sufficient size to be directly handled or have a significant impact at the strategic level. This
concept was pioneered by the German army prior to and during the Second World War. At this
level planning and duration of activities takes from one week to a month, and are executed by
Field Armies and Army Corps and their naval and air equivalents.[9]
Tactical victory
Military tactics concerns itself with the methods for engaging and defeating an enemy in direct
combat. Military tactics are usually used by units over hours or days, and are focused on the
specific, close proximity tasks and objectives of squads, companys, battalions, regiments,
brigades and divisions and their naval and air equivalents.[10]
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One of the oldest military publications is The Art of War by the Chinese philosopher Sun Tzu.[11] Written
in the 6th century BCE, the 13-chapter book is intended as military instruction and not as military
theory, but has had a huge influence on Asian, and from the late 19th century, European and United
States military planning. It has even been used to formulate business tactics, and used elsewhere[where?].
Battle formation and tactics of Macedon—Courtesy of

The Department of History, United States Military
Academy [1]
The Classical Greeks and the Romans wrote prolifically

on military campaigning. Among the best-known
Roman works are Julius Caesar's commentaries on the
Gallic Wars and the Roman Civil war—written about
50 BC. Two major works on tactics come from the late
Roman period: Taktike Theoria by Aelianus Tacticus and De Re Militari ("On military matters") by
Vegetius. Taktike Theoria examined Greek military tactics, and was most influential in the Byzantine
world and during the Golden Age of Islam. De Re Militari formed the basis of European military tactics
until the late 17th century. Perhaps its most enduring maxim is Igitur qui desiderat pacem, praeparet
bellum (let he who desires peace prepare for war).
Due to the changing nature of combat with the introduction of artillery in the European Middle Ages,
and infantry firearms in the Renaissance, attempts were made to define and identify those strategies,
grand tactics and tactics that would produce a victory more often than that achieved by the Romans in
praying to the gods before the battle. Later this became known as Military Science, and later still would
adopt the scientific method approach to the conduct of military operations under the influence of the
Industrial Revolution thinking. In his seminal book On War the Prussian Major-General and leading
expert on modern military strategy Carl von Clausewitz defined military strategy as "the employment of
battles to gain the end of war."[12] According to Clausewitz
strategy forms the plan of the War, and to this end it links together the series of acts which are to lead to the final
decision, that is to say, it makes the plans for the separate campaigns and regulates the combats to be fought in
each.[13]
Hence, Clausewitz placed political aims above military goals, ensuring civilian control of the military.
Military strategy was one of a triumvirate of "arts" or "sciences" that governed the conduct of warfare,
the others being: military tactics, the execution of plans and manœuvering of forces in battle, and
maintenance of an army.
The meaning of military tactics has changed over time from the deployment and manoeuvreing of entire
land armies on the fields of ancient battles, and galley fleets, to modern use of small unit ambushes,
encirclements, bomb and bombardment attacks, frontal assaults, air assaults, hit-and-run tactics used
mainly by guerilla forces and, in some cases, suicide attacks on land and at sea. Evolution of aerial
warfare introduced its own air combat tactics. Often, military deception, in the form of military
camouflage or misdirection using decoys, is used to confuse the enemy as a tactic. A major development
in infantry tactics came with the increased use of trench warfare in the 19th and 20th century. This was
mainly employed in World War I in the Gallipoli campaign and the Western Front. Trench warfare often
turned to a stalemate, because in order to attack an enemy entrenchment soldiers had to run through an
exposed "no man's land" under heavy fire from an entrenched enemy.
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[edit] Military technology
Arrow-head. Bronze, 4th century BC. From Olynthus,

Chalcidice.
Main article: Military technology and equipment
As with any occupation, since the ancient times the military has been distinguished from other members
of the society by their tools, the military weapons and military equipment used in combat. When Stone
Age humans first took a sliver of flint to tip the spear, it was the first example of applying technology to
improve the weapon. Since then, the advances made by human societies and that of weapons has been
irretrievably linked. Stone weapons gave way to Bronze Age weapons, and later the Iron Age weapons.
With each technological change was realised some tangible increase in military capability through
greater effectiveness of a sharper edge in defeating leather armour, improved density of materials used
in manufacture of weapons. On land the first really significant technological advance in warfare was the
development of the ranged weapons and notably the sling. The next significant advance came with the
domestication of the horses and mastering of horse riding. Arguably the greatest invention that affected
not just the military, but all society, after adoption of fire, was the wheel, and its use in the construction
of the chariot. There were no advances in military technology until, from the mechanical arm action of a
slinger, the Greeks and Romans development the siege engines, and the bow was manufactured in
increasingly larger and more powerful versions to increase both the weapon range and armour
penetration performance. These proved particularly useful during the age of chivalry, with knights,
mounted on destriers and encased in ever-more sophisticated armour, dominating the battlefield.
Somewhat earlier in China, gunpowder had been invented, and was increasingly used by the military in
combat. The use of gunpowder in the early vase-like mortars in Europe, and advanced versions of the
long bow and cross bow, which all had armour-piercing arrowheads, that put an end to the dominance of
the armoured knight. After the long bow, which required great skill and strength to use, the next most
significant technological advance was the musket, which could be used effectively with little training. In
time the successors to muskets and cannon, in the form of rifles and artillery, would become core
battlefield technology.
As the speed of technological advances accelerated in civilian applications, so too warfare became more
industralised. The newly-invented machine gun and repeating rifle redefined fire power on the
battlefield and, in part, explains the high casualty rates of the American Civil War. The next
breakthrough was the conversion of artillery parks from the muzzle loading guns to the breech loading
guns, and in particular the highly-mobile, recoilless, field-gun, the French Soixante-Quinze, in the late
1800s.
The development of breech loading had the greatest effect on naval warfare, for the first time since the
Middle Ages altering the way weapons are mounted on warships, and therefore naval tactics, now
divorced from the reliance on sails with the invention of the internal combustion. A further advance in
military naval technology was the design of the submarine and its weapon, the torpedo.
During World War I the need to break the deadlock of the trenches saw the rapid development of many
new technologies, particularly the tanks and military aviation. Military aviation was extensively used,
and particularly the bombers during the World War II, which marked the most frantic period of weapons
development in history. Many new designs and concepts were used in combat, and all existing
technologies were improved between 1939 and 1945. During the war significant advances were made in
military communications through use of radio, military intelligence through use of the radar, and in
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military medicine through use of penicillin, while in the air the missile, jet aircraft and helicopters were
seen for the first time. Perhaps the most infamous of all military technologies was the creation of the
atomic bomb, although the effects of radiation were unknown until the early 1950s. Far greater use of
military vehicles had finally eliminated the cavalry from the military force structure.
AIM-7 Sparrow medium range air-to-air missile from an F-15 Eagle
After World War II, with the onset of the Cold War, the constant
technological development of new weapons was institutionalized as
participants engaged in a constant arms race in capability
development. This constant state of weapons development continues
into the present, and remains a constant drain on national resources,
which some blame on the military-industrial complex. The most significant technological developments
that influenced combat have been the guided missiles which are used by all Services. More recently,
information technology, and its use in surveillance, including space-based reconnaissance systems, have
played an increasing role in military operations. The impact of information warfare that focuses on
attacking command communication systems, and military databases has been coupled with the new
development in military technology has been the use of robotic systems in intelligence combat, both in
hardware and software applications.
The MIRV ICBM and the Tsar Bomb are considered the most destructive weapons invented.
[edit] Military and society
The relationship between the military and the society it serves is a complicated and ever-evolving one.
Much depends on the nature of the society itself and whether it sees the military as important, as for
example in time of threat or war, or a burdensome expense typified by defence cuts in time of peace.
These relationships are seen from the perspective of political-military relations, the military-industrial
complex mentioned above, and the socio-military relationship. The last can be divided between those
segments of society that offer support for the military, those who voice opposition to the military, the
voluntary and involuntary civilians in the military forces, the populations of civilians in a combat zone,
and of course the military's self-perception.
[edit] Ideology and ethics
Main article: Militarism
Militarist ideology is the society's social attitude of being best served, or being a beneficiary of a
government, or guided by concepts embodied in the military culture, doctrine, system, or leaders.
Either because of the cultural memory, national history, or the potentiality of a military threat, the
militarist argument asserts that a civilian population is dependent upon, and thereby subservient to the
needs and goals of its military for continued independence. Militarism is sometimes contrasted with the
concepts of comprehensive national power, soft power and hard power.
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Most nations have separate military laws which regulate conduct in war and during peacetime. An early
exponent was Hugo Grotius, whose Rights of War and Peace (1625) had a major impact of the
humanitarian approach to warfare development. His theme was echoed by Gustavus Adolphus.
Ethics of warfare have developed since 1945 to create constraints on the military treatment of prisoners
and civilians primarily by the Geneva Conventions, but rarely apply to use of the military forces as
internal security troops during times of political conflict that results in popular protests and incitement to
popular uprising.
International protocols restrict the use, or have even created international bans on weapons, notably
weapons of mass destruction. International conventions define what constitutes a war crime and
provides for war crimes prosecution. Individual countries also have elaborate codes of military justice,
an example being the United States' Uniform Code of Military Justice that can lead to court martial for
military personnel found guilty of war crimes.
Military actions are sometimes argued to be justified by furthering a humanitarian cause such as disaster
relief operations or in defence of refugees. The term military humanism is used to refer to such actions.
[edit] Antimilitarism
Main article: Antimilitarism
Antimilitarism is the society's social attitude opposed to war between states, and in particular countering
arguments based on militarism. Following Hegel's exploration of the relationship between history and
violence, antimilistarists argue that there are different types of violence, some of which can be said to be
legitimate others non-legitimate. Anarcho-syndicalist Georges Sorel advocated the use of violence as a
form of direct action, calling it "revolutionary violence", which he opposed in Reflections on Violence
(1908) to the violence inherent in class struggle. Sorel thus followed the International Workingmen's
Association theorization of propaganda of the deed.
War, as violence, can be distinguished into war between states, and civil war, in which case class
struggle is, according to antimilitarists theorists, a primordial component. Hence, Marx's influence on
antimilitarist doctrine was not surprising, although making Marx accountable for the antimilitarist
tradition is a large overstatement. The belief in the eternal antimilitarist spirit, present in all places and
time, is however a myth because the modern military as an institution is a historic achievement formed
during the 18th and 19th centuries, as a by-product of the modern nation-states. Napoleon's invention of
conscription is a fundamental progress in the organization of state armies. Later, Prussian militarism
would be exposed by 19th century social theorists.
[edit] Stereotypes of the military
A military brat is a colloquial term for a child with at least one parent who served as a regular in the
armed forces. Children of armed forces members may move around to different military bases or
international postings, which gives them an unusual childhood. Unlike common usage of the term brat,
when it is used in this context, it is not necessarily a derogatory term.
[edit] Military in the media
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Soldiers and armies have been at the heart of popular culture since the beginnings of recorded history. In
addition to the countless images of military leaders in heroic poses from antiquity, they have been an
enduring source of inspiration in war literature. Not all of this has been entirely complementary and the
military have been lampooned or ridiculed as often as they have been idolized. The classical Greek
writer Aristophanes, devoted an entire comedy, the Lysistrata, to a strike organised by military wives
where they withhold sex from their husbands to prevent them from going to war.
In Medieval Europe, tales of knighthood and chivalry, the officer class of the period, captured the
popular imagination. Writers and poets like Taliesin, Chrétien de Troyes and Thomas Mallory wrote
tales of derring-do featuring Arthur, Guinevere, Lancelot and Galahad. Even in the 21st century, books
and films about the Arthurian legend and the Holy Grail continuing to appear. A century or so later, in
the hands of writers such as Jean Froissart, Miguel Cervantes and William Shakespeare, the fictional
knight Tirant lo Blanch and the real-life condottieri John Hawkwood would be juxtaposed against the
fantastical Don Quixote and the carousing Sir John Falstaff. In just one play, Henry V, Shakespeare
provides a whole range of military characters, from cool-headed and clear-sighted generals, to captains,
and common soldiery.
Emperor view:Sir John

The Flight of Medieval Shakespeare's Sir"The Cruel
Augustus Richard II of Hawkwood
Pompey after John Falstaff byPractices of
Caesar in a meets(fresco in theEduard
Pharsalus, byEngland vonPrince Rupert"
martial pose Duomo,
Jean Fouquet rebels Grützner (1643)
(1st century) Florence)
The rapid growth of movable type in the late 16th and early 17th centuries saw an upsurge in private
publication. Political pamphlets became popular, often lampooning military leaders for political
purposes. A pamphlet directed against Prince Rupert of the Rhine is a typical example. During the 19th
century, irreverence towards authority was at its height and for every elegant military gentleman painted
by the master-portraitists of the European courts for example, Gainsborough, Goya and Reynolds, there
are the sometimes affectionate and sometimes savage caricatures of Rowland and Hogarth.
This continued in the 20th century, with publications like Punch in the British Empire and Le Père
Duchesne in France, poking fun at the military establishment. This extended to media other print also.
An enduring example is the Major-General's Song from the Gilbert and Sullivan light opera, Pirates of
Penzance, where a senior army officer is satirised for his enormous fund of irrelevant knowledge.
Red Army
recruitment
Punch: warposter.png
reporter, W H
Russell, CrimeanRed Army
War recruiting poster
Colonel John Hayes St.Rowlandson often"A modern major (1920)
Leger (detail) by Sirsatirised thegeneral" (Pirates of
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Joshua Reynolds military Penzance)
The increasing importance of cinema in the early 20th century provided a new platform for depictions of
military subjects. During the First World War, although heavily censored, newsreels enabled those at
home to see for themselves a heavily-sanitized version of life at the front line. About the same time, both
pro-war and anti-war films came to the silver screen. One of the first films on military aviation, Hell's
Angels broke all box office records on its release in 1929. Soon, war films of all types were showing
throughout the world, notably those of Charlie Chaplin who actively promoted war bonds and voluntary
enlistment.
The First World War was also responsible for a new kind of military depiction, through poetry. Hitherto,
poetry had been used mostly to glorify or sanctify war. The Charge of the Light Brigade by Alfred, Lord
Tennyson, with its galloping hoofbeat rhythm, is a prime late Victorian example of this, though Rudyard
Kipling had written a scathing reply, The Last of the Light Brigade, criticising the poverty in which
many Light Brigade veterans found themselves in old age. Instead, the new wave of poetry, from the
war poets, was written from the point of view of the disenchanted trench soldier. Leading war poets
included: Siegfried Sassoon, Wilfred Owen, John McCrae, Rupert Brooke, Isaac Rosenberg and David
Jones. A similar movement occurred in literature, producing a slew of novels on both sides of the
Atlantic including notably All Quiet on the Western Front and Johnny Got His Gun. The 1963 English
stage musical Oh, What a Lovely War! provided a satirical take on World War I, which was released in a
cinematic version directed by Richard Attenborough in 1969.
The propaganda war that accompanied World War II invariably depicted the enemy in unflattering
terms. Both the Soviet Union and Nazi Germany excelled in producing heroic images, placing their
soldiers in a semi-mythical context. Examples of this exist not only in posters but also in the films of
Leni Riefenstahl and Sergei Eisenstein. Alongside this, World War II also inspired films as varied as
Bridge on the River Kwai, The Longest Day, Catch-22, Saving Private Ryan, and The Sea Shall Not
Have Them. The next major event, the Korean War inspired a long-running television series M*A*S*H.
With the Vietnam War, the tide of balance turned and its films, notably Apocalypse Now, Good Morning
Vietnam, Go Tell the Spartans and Born on the Fourth of July, have tended to contain critical messages.
There's even a nursery rhyme about war, the Grand Old Duke of York, ridiculing a general for his
inability to command any further than marching his men up and down a hill. The huge number of songs
focusing on war include And The Band Played Waltzing Matilda and Universal Soldier.
Caricature Japanese soldier in a USNazi Poster depicting AmericanJoseph Heller's anti-war

propaganda poster "liberators" as monsters novel, Catch-22
Although some groups engaged in combat, such as resistance movements, all refer to themselves using
military terminology, notably "Army" or "Front", none have had the structure of a national military to
justify the reference, and usually have had to rely on support of outside national militaries.
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Guerilla structure
[edit] Militaria
Main article: Militaria
Militaria are another way of depicting the military. Militaria are antique artifacts or replicas of military
history people, firearms, swords, badges, etc collected for their historical significance. Today, the
collecting of militaria items such as toy soldiers, tin soldiers, military models is an established hobby
among many groups of people
Hospital

For other uses, see Hospital (disambiguation).
Norfolk and Norwich University Hospital in

the United Kingdom. The UK has a publicly
funded healthcare system called the National
Health Service.
All India Institute of Medical

Contents Sciences in Delhi, India.
[hide]
A hospital is an institution for health care providing treatment by
• 1 Etymology specialised staff and equipment, and often but not always
• 2 Types providing for longer-term patient stays.
o 2.1 General
o 2.2 Specialized Today, hospitals are usually funded by the state, health
o 2.3 Teaching organizations (for profit or non-profit), health insurances or
o 2.4 Clinics charities, including direct charitable donations. In history,
• 3 Departments however, they were often founded and funded by religious orders
• 4 History or charitable individuals and leaders. Similarly, modern-day
o 4.1 Early examples hospitals are largely staffed by professional physicians, surgeons
o 4.2 Roman Empire
and nurses, whereas in history, this work was usually done by the
o 4.3 Medieval Islam
founding religious orders or by volunteers.
o 4.4 Medieval Europe
o 4.5 Colonial America Etymology
o 4.6 Modern era
• 5 Criticism During the Middle Ages the hospital could serve other functions,
• 6 Funding such as almshouse for the poor, hostel for pilgrims, or hospital
• 7 Buildings school. The name comes from Latin hospes (host), which is also
o 7.1 Architecture
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• 8 References & Notes
the root for the English words hotel, hostel, and hospitality. The modern word hotel derives from the
French word hostel, which featured a silent s, which was eventually removed from the word. (The
circumflex on modern French hôtel hints at the vanished s)
Grammar of the word differs slightly depending on the dialect. In the U.S., hospital usually requires an
article; in Britain and elsewhere, the word is normally used without an article when it is the object of a
preposition and when referring to a patient ("in/to the hospital" vs. "in/to hospital"); in Canada, both
usages are found.
The word is also similar/related to Sanskrit word 'Ispital' and the German 'Spital'.
Types
Some patients in a hospital come just for diagnosis and/or therapy and then leave ('outpatients'); while
others are 'admitted' and stay overnight or for several weeks or months ('inpatients'). Hospitals are
usually distinguished from other types of medical facilities by their ability to admit and care for
inpatients.
General
The best-known type of hospital is the general hospital, which is set up to deal with many kinds of
disease and injury, and typically has an emergency department to deal with immediate threats to health
and the capacity to dispatch emergency medical services. A general hospital is typically the major health
care facility in its region, with large numbers of beds for intensive care and long-term care; and
specialized facilities for surgery, plastic surgery, childbirth, bioassay laboratories, and so forth. Larger
cities may have many different hospitals of varying sizes and facilities.
Specialized
Types of specialized hospitals include trauma centers, rehabilitation hospitals, children's hospitals,
seniors' (geriatric) hospitals, and hospitals for dealing with specific medical needs such as psychiatric
problems (see psychiatric hospital), certain disease categories, and so forth.
A hospital may be a single building or a campus. (Many hospitals with pre-20th-century origins began
as one building and evolved into campuses.) Some hospitals are affiliated with universities for medical
research and the training of medical personnel. Worldwide, most hospitals are run on a non-profit basis
by governments or charities. Within the United States, most hospitals are not-for-profit.
Teaching
A teaching hospital (or university hospital) combines assistance to patients with teaching to medical
students and is often linked to a medical school.
Clinics
A medical facility smaller than a hospital is generally called a clinic, and is often run by a government
agency for health services or a private partnership of physicians (in nations where private practice is
allowed). Clinics generally provide only outpatient services.
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Departments
Resuscitation room bed after a trauma

intervention, showing the highly technical
equipment of modern hospitals.
Empty ward and iron beds in a hospital in

Kharkov, Ukraine.
See also: :Category:Hospital departments
Hospitals may have any of the following departments or units:
• Behavioral Health Services

• Burn unit
• Cancer Center
• Cardiology
• Coronary care unit
• Dentistry
o Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery
• Dermatology
• Dispensary
• Emergency department
o Trauma Center
• Gastroenterology
• Intensive Care Unit
• Internal Medicine
o Endocrinology
o Epidemiology
o Immunology
• Laboratory Services
• Neurology
• Nursing unit
• OB/GYN
o Neonatal Intensive Care Unit
• Orthopedic Services
• Outpatient department
• Pathology
• Pediatrics
• Pharmacy
• Plastic Surgery
• Psychiatric ward
• Rehabilitation Services
• Physical Therapy
• Post anesthesia care unit
• Radiology
• Respiratory Therapy
• Surgery
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• Urgent care
• Urology
Non-medical departments include:
• Medical records department

• Release of Information department
History
Early examples
A physician visiting the sick in a hospital. German engraving from 1682.
In ancient cultures, religion and medicine were linked. The earliest known
institutions aiming to provide cure were Egyptian temples. Greek temples
dedicated to the healer-god Asclepius might admit the sick, who would
wait for guidance from the god in a dream. The Romans adopted his
worship. Under his Roman name Æsculapius, he was provided with a
temple (291 BC) on an island in the Tiber in Rome, where similar rites
were performed.[1]
Piercey & Scarborough (2008) report on the origins of the hospital:
As early as 4000 BC religions identified certain of their deities with healing. The temples of Saturn, and later of
Asclepius in Asia Minor, were recognized as healing centres. Brahmanic hospitals were established in Sri Lanka
as early as 431 BC, and King Aśoka established a chain of hospitals in Hindustān about 230 BC. Around 100 BC
the Romans established hospitals (valetudinaria) for the treatment of their sick and injured soldiers; their care was
important because it was upon the integrity of the legions that the power of Rome was based.[2]
The Sinhalese (Sri Lankans) are perhaps responsible for introducing the concept of dedicated hospitals
to the world. According to the Mahavamsa, the ancient chronicle of Sinhalese royalty written in the 6th
century A.D., King Pandukabhaya (4th century BC) had lying-in-homes and hospitals (Sivikasotthi-
Sala) built in various parts of the country. This is the earliest documentary evidence we have of
institutions specifically dedicated to the care of the sick anywhere in the world.[3][4] Mihintale Hospital is
perhaps the oldest in the world.[5] Ruins of ancient hospitals in Sri Lanka are still in existance in
Mihintale, Anuradhapura and Medirigiriya.[6]
Institutions created specifically to care for the ill also appeared early in India. King Ashoka is said to
have founded at least 18 hospitals ca. 230 BC, with physicians and nursing staff, the expense being
borne by the royal treasury.[7] Stanley Finger (2001) in his book Origins of Neuroscience: A History of
Explorations Into Brain Function provides evidence of an Ashokan edict translated as reading:
"Everywhere King Piyadasi (Asoka) erected two kinds of hospitals, hospitals for people and hospitals
for animals. Where there were no healing herbs for people and animals, he ordered that they be bought
and planted."[8] Similar views are held by Piercey & Scarborough in the Encyclopedia Britannica (2008).
[2]
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However, there are researchers who dispute this such as Dominik Wujastyk of the University College
London who, in his paper The Nurses should be able to Sing and Play Instruments notes that "There is
absolutely no evidence for these A´sokan hospitals, in A´soka’s inscriptions or elsewhere. They are
ghosts, and we need to exorcise them.". He instead argues that a correct translation of the edict indicates
that Ashoka built rest houses (as for travellers) instead of hospitals, and that this was misinterpreted due
to the reference to imported medical herbs.[9]
The first teaching hospital where students were authorized to methodically practice on patients under the
supervision of physicians as part of their education, was the Academy of Gundishapur in the Persian
Empire. One expert has argued that "to a very large extent, the credit for the whole hospital system must
be given to Persia".[10]
Roman Empire
The Romans created valetudinaria for the care of sick slaves, gladiators and soldiers around 100 BC,
and many were identified by later archeology. While their existence is considered proven, there is some
doubt as to whether they were as widespread as was once thought, as many were identified only
according to the layout of building remains, and not by means of surviving records or finds of medical
tools.[11]
The adoption of Christianity as the state religion of the empire drove an expansion of the provision of
care. The First Council of Nicaea in 325 A.D. urged the Church to provide for the poor, sick, widows
and strangers. It ordered the construction of a hospital in every cathedral town. Among the earliest were
those built by the physician Saint Sampson in Constantinople and by Basil, bishop of Caesarea. The
latter was attached to a monastery and provided lodgings for poor and travelers, as well as treating the
sick and infirm. There was a separate section for lepers.[12]
Medieval Islam
Main article: Bimaristan

Further information: Islamic medicine
The earliest recorded hospitals in the medieval Islamic world refer to the hopital of al-Walid ibn 'Abdul
Malik (ruled 705-715 CE) which he built in 86 AH (706-707 CE). It somewhat resembled the Persian
bimaristan and Byzantine nosocomia, but was more general as it extended its services to the lepers and
the invalid and destitute people. All treatment and care was free of charge and there was more than one
physician employed in this hospital.[13]
In the medieval Islamic world, the word "Bimaristan" was used to indicate a hospital in the modern
sense, an establishment where the ill were welcomed and cared for by qualified staff. In this way,
Muslim physicians were the first to make a distinction between a hospital and other different forms of
healing temples, sleep temples, hospices, assylums, lazarets and leper-houses, all of which in ancient
times were more concerned with isolating the sick and the mad from society "rather than to offer them
any way to a true cure." Some thus consider the medieval Bimaristan hospitals as "the first hospitals" in
the modern sense of the word.[14] The first public hospitals,[15] psychiatric hospitals[16] and medical
universities[17] were also introduced by medieval Muslim physicians.
Between the eighth and twelfth centuries CE Muslim hospitals developed a high standard of care.
Hospitals built in Baghdad in the ninth and tenth centuries employed up to twenty-five staff physicians
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and had separate wards for different conditions. Al-Qairawan hospital and mosque, in Tunisia, were
built under the Aghlabid rule in 830 CE and was simple but adequately equipped with halls organized
into waiting rooms, a mosque, and a special bath. The hospital employed female nurses, including
nurses from Sudan, a sign of great breakthrough. In addition to regular physicians who attended the sick,
there were Fuqaha al-Badan, a kind of religious physio-therapists, group of religious scholars whose
medical services included bloodletting, bone setting, and cauterisation. During Ottoman rule, when
hospitals reached a particular distinction, Sultan Bayazid II built a mental hospital and medical madrasa
in Edirne, and a number of other early hospitals were also built in Turkey. Unlike in Greek temples to
healing gods, the clerics working in these facilities employed scientific methodology far beyond that of
their contemporaries in their treatment of patients.[18]
According to Sir John Bagot Glubb:
"By Mamun's time medical schools were extremely active in Baghdad. The first free public hospital was opened
in Baghdad during the Caliphate of Haroon-ar-Rashid. As the system developed, physicians and surgeons were
appointed who gave lectures to medical students and issued diplomas to those who were considered qualified to
practice. The first hospital in Egypt was opened in 872 AD and thereafter public hospitals sprang up all over the
empire from Spain and the Maghrib to Persia."[17]
Medieval Europe
Hospicio Cabañas was the largest hospital in

colonial America.
The church at Les Invalides in France

showing the often close connection between
historical hospitals and churches.
Medieval hospitals in Europe followed a similar pattern. They were

religious communities, with care provided by monks and nuns. (An old French term for hospital is
hôtel-Dieu, "hostel of God.") Some were attached to monasteries; others were independent and had their
own endowments, usually of property, which provided income for their support. Some hospitals were
multi-function while others were founded for specific purposes such as leper hospitals, or as refuges for
the poor or for pilgrims: not all cared for the sick. Not until later where most hospitals multi-functional,
though the first Spanish hospital, founded by the Catholic Visigoth bishop Masona in 580 at Mérida,
was a xenodochium designed as an inn for travellers (mostly pilgrims to the shrine of Eulalia of Mérida)
as well as a hospital for citizens and local farmers. The hospital's endowment consisted of farms to feed
its patients and guests.
Colonial America
It is believed that the first Spanish style hospital founded in the Americas Western Hemisphere
following Columbus arrival to the island now known as Hispaniola was the Hospital San Nicolás de Bari
[Calle Hostos] in Santo Domingo, Distrito Nacional Dominican Republic.
Fray Nicolas de Ovando, Spanish governor and colonial administrator from 1502-1509, authorized its
construction in or after 1504. It is believed that this hospital also served as a church during its lifetime.
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The first phase of its construction was completed in 1519. Erwin Walter Palm, [former author and
professor of Spanish American art, culture, and history] wrote that "the Brotherhood of Our Lady of the
Conception continued the construction of the hospital in 1533, adding modern elements, including
additional buildings." Abandoned in the mid-18th century the hospital now lies in ruins near the
Cathedral in the colonial zone in Santo Domingo, DR, amid additional historical New World sights.
The Hospital de Jesús Nazareno in Mexico City is the oldest hospital in North America. It was founded
in 1524 with the economic support of conquistador Hernán Cortés to care for poor Spanish soldiers and
the native inhabitants.
The first hospital in North America north of Mexico is the Hôtel-Dieu de Québec. It was established in
New France in 1639 by three Augustinians from l'Hôtel-Dieu de Dieppe in France. The project of the
niece of Cardinal de Richelieu was granted a royal charter by King Louis XIII and staffed by colonial
physician Robert Giffard de Moncel.
Modern era
In Europe the medieval concept of Christian care evolved during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries
into a secular one, but it was in the eighteenth century that the modern hospital began to appear, serving
only medical needs and staffed with physicians and surgeons. The Charité (founded in Berlin in 1710) is
an early example.
Guy's Hospital was founded in London in 1724 from a bequest by wealthy merchant Thomas Guy. Other
hospitals sprang up in London and other British cities over the century, many paid for by private
subscriptions. In the British American colonies the Pennsylvania General Hospital was chartered in
Philadelphia in 1751, after £2,000 from private subscription was matched by funds from the Assembly.
[19]
When the Viennese General Hospital (Allgemeines Krankenhaus) opened in 1784 (instantly becoming
the world's largest hospital), physicians acquired a new facility that gradually developed into the most
important research center. During the 19th century, the Second Viennese Medical School emerged with
the contributions of physicians such as Carl Freiherr von Rokitansky, Josef Škoda, Ferdinand Ritter von
Hebra and Ignaz Philipp Semmelweis. Basic medical science expanded and specialization advanced.
Furthermore, the first dermatology, eye, as well as ear, nose and throat clinics in the world were founded
in Vienna, being considered as the birth of specialized medicine.[citation needed]
By the mid-nineteenth century most of Europe and the United States had established a variety of public
and private hospital systems. In Continental Europe the new hospitals were generally built and run from
public funds. The National Health Service, the principle provider of healthcare in the United Kingdom,
was founded in 1948.
In the United States the traditional hospital is a non-profit hospital, usually sponsored by a religious
denomination. One of the earliest of these "almshouses" in what would become the United States was
started by William Penn in Philadelphia in 1713. These hospitals are tax-exempt due to their charitable
purpose, but provide only a minimum of charitable medical care. They are supplemented by large public
hospitals in major cities and research hospitals often affiliated with a medical school. In the late
twentieth century, chains of for-profit hospitals arose in the USA.
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Criticism
While hospitals, by concentrating equipment, skilled staff and other resources in one place, clearly
provide important help to patients with serious or rare health problems, hospitals are also criticised for a
number of faults, some of which are endemic to the system, others which develop from what some
consider wrong approaches to health care.
One criticism often voiced is the 'industrialised' nature of care, with constantly shifting treatment staff,
which dehumanises the patient and prevents more effective care as doctors and nurses are rarely
intimately familiar with the patient. The high working pressures often put on the staff exacerbate such
rushed and impersonal treatment. The architecture and setup of modern hospitals is often voiced as a
contributing factor to the feelings of faceless treatment many people complain about.[20]
Another criticism is that hospitals are in themselves a dangerous place for patients, who are often
suffering from weakened immune systems - either due to their body having to undergo substantial
surgery or because of the illness which placed them in the hospital itself. As an example, it is estimated
that as much as 10% of all patients in the United States contract a nosocomical (hospital-caused)
infection.[21] Due to the environment in which antibiotics are used in large quantities, the infections are
also often multi-resistant to various treatment methods, such as the relatively common MRSA infection.
Funding
In the modern era, hospitals are, broadly, either funded by the government of the country in which they
are situated, or survive financially by competing in the private sector (a number of hospitals are also still
supported by the historical type of charitable or religious associations).
In the United Kingdom for example, a relatively comprehensive, "free at the point of delivery"
healthcare system exists, funded by the state. Hospital care is thus relatively easily available to all legal
residents (although as hospitals prioritize their limited resources, there is a tendency for 'waiting lists' to
be generated for non-emergency treatment, and those who can afford it may take out private healthcare
to get treatment faster).[22] On the other hand, many countries, including for example the USA, have in
the 20th Century followed a largely private-based, for-profit-approach to providing hospital care, with
few state-money supported "charity" hospitals remaining today.[23] Where for-profit hospitals in such
countries admit uninsured patients in emergency situations (such as during and after the Hurricane
Katrina in the USA), they incur direct financial losses,[23] ensuring that there is a clear disincentive to
admit such patients.
While for-profit-based systems have produced some of the best hospitals in the world, a proportion of
the populace may have little or no access to healthcare services of adequate quality.[citation needed]
As quality of healthcare has increasingly become an issue around the world, hospitals have increasingly
had to pay serious attention to this. Independent external assessment of quality is one of the most
powerful ways of assessing the quality of healthcare, and hospital accreditation is one means by which
this is achieved. In many parts of the world such accreditation is sourced from other countries, a
phenomenon known as international healthcare accreditation, by groups such as the Joint Commission
from the USA and the Trent Accreditation Scheme from Great Britain.
Buildings
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The National Health Service Norfolk and Norwich University Hospital in the UK, showing the
utilitarian architecture of many modern hospitals.
Architecture
Modern hospital buildings are designed to minimize the effort of medical personnel and the possibility
of contamination while maximizing the efficiency of the whole system. Travel time for personnel within
the hospital and the transportation of patients between units is facilitated and minimized. The building
also should be built to accommodate heavy departments such as radiology and operating rooms while
space for special wiring, plumbing, and waste disposal must be allowed for in the design.
However, the reality is that many hospitals, even those considered 'modern', are the product of continual
and often badly managed growth over decades or even centuries, with utilitarian new sections added on
as needs and finances dictate. As a result, Dutch architectural historian Cor Wagenaar has called many
hospitals:
"... built catastrophes, anonymous institutional complexes run by vast bureaucracies, and totally
unfit for the purpose they have been designed for ... They are hardly ever functional, and instead
of making patients feel at home, they produce stress and anxiety."[24]
Some newer hospital designs now try to reestablish design that takes the patient's psychological needs
into account, such as providing for more air, better views, and more pleasant color schemes. These ideas
harken back to the late 18th century, when the concept of providing fresh air and access to the 'healing
powers of nature' were first employed by hospital architects in improving their buildings.[24]
Another major change which is still ongoing in many parts of the world is the change from a ward-based
system (where patients are treated and accommodated in communal rooms, separated at best by movable
partitions) to a room-based environment, where patients are accommodated in private rooms. The ward-
based system has been described as very efficient, especially for the medical staff, but is considered to
be more stressful for patients and detrimental to their privacy. A major constraint on providing all
patients with their own rooms is however found in the higher cost of building and operating such a
hospital, which causes some hospitals to charge for the privilege of private rooms.[25]
References & Notes
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Fire

reliable references. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2008)
For other uses, see Fire (disambiguation).
U.S. Air Force Airmen from the 20th Civil Engineer

Squadron Fire Protection Flight neutralize a live fire during
a field training exercise.
Fire is the rapid oxidation of a combustible material

resulting in the release of heat, light, and reaction products.
[1]
Depending on the substances alight, and any impurities
outside, the color of the flame and the fire's intensity might
vary. Fire in its most common form can result in conflagration, and has the potential to cause physical
damage through burning.
Chemistry
Contents
[hide] Chemical Reaction
• 1 Chemistry
o 1.1 Chemical Reaction
o 1.2 Flame The fire tetrahedron
o 1.3 Typical temperatures of fires and flames
 1.3.1 Temperatures of flames by appearance Fires start when a flammable
• 2 Controlling fire and/or a combustible material with
• 3 Fire fuel an adequate supply of oxygen or
• 4 Fire protection and prevention another oxidizer is subjected to
• 5 Practical uses enough heat and is able to sustain a
• 6 See also chain reaction. This is commonly
• 7 References called the fire tetrahedron. No fire
can exist without all of these
• 8 External links elements being in place.
Once ignited, a chain reaction must take place whereby fires can sustain their own heat by the further
release of heat energy in the process of combustion and may propagate, provided there is a continuous
supply of an oxidizer and fuel.
Fire can be extinguished by removing any one of the elements of the fire
tetrahedron. Fire extinguishing by the application of water acts by removing
Research Trang330
heat from the fuel faster than combustion generates it. Application of carbon dioxide is intended
primarily to starve the fire of oxygen. A forest fire may be fought by starting smaller fires in advance of
the main blaze, to deprive it of fuel. Other gaseous fire suppression agents, such as halon or HFC-227,
interfere with the chemical reaction itself.
Flame
A log on fire
Main article: Flame
A flame is an exothermic, self-sustaining, oxidizing chemical

reaction producing energy and glowing hot matter, of which a very
small portion is plasma. It consists of reacting gases and solids emitting visible and infrared light, the
frequency spectrum of which depends on the chemical composition of the burning elements and
intermediate reaction products.
In many cases, such as the burning of organic matter, for example wood, or the incomplete combustion
of gas, incandescent solid particles called soot produce the familiar red-orange glow of 'fire'. This light
has a continuous spectrum. Complete combustion of gas has a dim blue color due to the emission of
single-wavelength radiation from various electron transitions in the excited molecules formed in the
flame. Usually oxygen is involved, but hydrogen burning in chlorine also produces a flame, producing
hydrogen chloride (HCl). Other possible combinations producing flames, amongst many more, are
fluorine and hydrogen, and hydrazine and nitrogen tetroxide.
The glow of a flame is complex. Black-body radiation is emitted from soot, gas, and fuel particles,
though the soot particles are too small to behave like perfect blackbodies. There is also photon emission
by de-excited atoms and molecules in the gases. Much of the radiation is emitted in the visible and
infrared bands. The color depends on temperature for the black-body radiation, and on chemical makeup
for the emission spectra. The dominant color in a flame changes with temperature. The photo of the
forest fire is an excellent example of this variation. Near the ground, where most burning is occurring,
the fire is white, the hottest color possible for organic material in general, or yellow. Above the yellow
region, the color changes to orange, which is cooler, then red, which is cooler still. Above the red region,
combustion no longer occurs, and the uncombusted carbon particles are visible as black smoke.
The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) of the United States has recently found
that gravity plays a role. Modifying the gravity causes different flame types.[2] The common distribution
of a flame under normal gravity conditions depends on convection, as soot tends to rise to the top of a
general flame, as in a candle in normal gravity conditions, making it yellow. In microgravity or zero
gravity, such as an environment in outer space, convection no longer occurs, and the flame becomes
spherical, with a tendency to become more blue and more efficient (although it will go out if not moved
steadily, as the CO2 from combustion does not disperse in microgravity, and tends to smother the flame).
There are several possible explanations for this difference, of which the most likely is that the
temperature is evenly distributed enough that soot is not formed and complete combustion occurs.[3]
Experiments by NASA reveal that diffusion flames in microgravity allow more soot to be completely
oxidized after they are produced than diffusion flames on Earth, because of a series of mechanisms that
behave differently in microgravity when compared to normal gravity conditions. [4] These discoveries
have potential applications in applied science and industry, especially concerning fuel efficiency.
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In combustion engines, various steps are taken to eliminate a flame. The method depends mainly on
whether the fuel is oil, wood, or a high-energy fuel such as jet fuel.
Typical temperatures of fires and flames
• Oxyhydrogen flame: 2000 or above (3645 °F) [5]

• Bunsen burner flame: 1300 to 1600 °C (2372 to 2912 °F) [6]
• Blowtorch flame: 1,300 °C (2372 °F) [7]
• Candle flame: 1000 °C (1832 °F)
• Smoldering cigarette:
o Temperature without drawing: side of the lit portion; 400 °C (750 °F); middle of the lit
portion: 585 °C (1110 °F)
o Temperature during drawing: middle of the lit portion: 700 °C (1290 °F)
o Always hotter in the middle.
Temperatures of flames by appearance
The temperature of flames with carbon particles emitting light can be assessed by their color:[8]
• Red
o Just visible: 525 °C (977 °F)
o Dull: 700 °C (1290 °F)
o Cherry, dull: 800 °C (1470 °F)
o Cherry, full: 900 °C (1650 °F)
o Cherry, clear: 1000 °C (1830 °F)
• Orange
o Deep: 1100 °C (2010 °F)
o Clear: 1200 °C (2190 °F)
• White
o Whitish: 1300 °C (2370 °F)
o Bright: 1400 °C (2550 °F)
o Dazzling: 1500 °C (2730 °F)
Controlling fire
A forest fire
The ability to control fire was a major change in the habits of early
humans. Making fire to generate heat and light made it possible for
people to cook food, increasing the variety and availability of
nutrients. Fire also kept nocturnal predators at bay. Archaeology
indicates that ancestors or relatives of modern humans might have
controlled fire as early as 790,000 years ago. The Cradle of Humankind site has evidence for controlled
fire from 1 to 1.8 million years ago.[9]
By the Neolithic Revolution, during the introduction of grain based agriculture, people all over the
world used fire as a tool in landscape management. These fires were typically controlled burns or "cool
fires", as opposed to uncontrolled "hot fires" that damage the soil. Hot fires destroy plants and animals,
Research Trang332
and endanger communities. This is especially a problem in the forests of today where traditional burning
is prevented in order to encourage the growth of timber crops. Cool fires are generally conducted in the
spring and fall. They clear undergrowth, burning up biomass that could trigger a hot fire should it get too
dense. They provide a greater variety of environments, which encourages game and plant diversity. For
humans, they make dense, impassable forests traversable.
The first technical application of the fire may have been the extracting and treating of metals. There are
numerous modern applications of fire. In its broadest sense, fire is used by nearly every human being on
earth in a controlled setting every day. Users of internal combustion vehicles employ fire every time
they drive. Thermal power stations provide electricity for a large percentage of humanity.
The use of fire in warfare has a long history. Hunter-gatherer groups around the world have been noted
as using grass and forest fires to injure their enemies and destroy their ability to find food, so it can be
assumed that fire has been used in warfare for as long as humans have had the knowledge to control it.
Homer detailed the use of fire by Greek commandos who hid in a wooden horse to burn Troy during the
Trojan war. Later the Byzantine fleet used Greek fire to attack ships and men. In the First World War,
the first modern flamethrowers were used by infantry, and were successfully mounted on armoured
vehicles in the Second World War. In the latter war, incendiary bombs were used by Axis and Allies
alike, notably on Rotterdam, London, Hamburg and, notoriously, at Dresden, in the latter two cases
firestorms were deliberately caused in which a ring of fire surrounding each city was drawn inward by
an updraft caused by a central cluster of fires. The United States Army Air Force also extensively used
incendiaries against Japanese targets in the latter months of the war, devastating entire cities constructed
primarily of wood and paper houses. In the Second World War, the use of napalm and molotov cocktails
was popularized, though the former did not gain public attention until the Vietnam War. More recently
many villages were burned during the Rwandan Genocide.
Fire fuel
A coal-fired power station in the People's Republic of China
Setting fuel aflame releases usable energy. Wood was a prehistoric fuel,
and is still viable today. The use of fossil fuels, such as petroleum, natural
gas and coal, in power plants supplies the vast majority of the world's
electricity today; the International Energy Agency states that nearly 80%
of the world's power comes from these sources.[10] The fire in a power station is used to heat water,
creating steam that drives turbines. The turbines then spin an electric generator to produce power.
The unburnable solid remains of a combustible material left after a fire is called clinker if its melting
point is below the flame temperature, so that it fuses and then solidifies as it cools, and ash if its melting
point is above the flame temperature.
Fire protection and prevention

Main article: Fire protection
A structure fire
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Fire fighting services are provided in most developed areas to extinguish or contain uncontrolled fires.
Trained firefighters use Fire apparatus, water supply resources such as water mains and fire hydrants or
they might use A and B class foam depending on what is feeding the fire. An array of other equipment
to combat the spread of fires.
Fire prevention is intended to reduce sources of ignition, and is partially focused on programs to educate
people from starting fires.[11] Buildings, especially schools and tall buildings, often conduct fire drills to
inform and prepare citizens on how to react to a building fire. Purposely starting destructive fires
constitutes arson and is a criminal offense in most jurisdictions.
Model building codes require passive fire protection and active fire protection systems to minimize
damage resulting from a fire. The most common form of active fire protection is fire sprinklers. To
maximize passive fire protection of buildings, building materials and furnishings in most developed
countries are tested for fire-resistance, combustibility and flammability. Upholstery, carpeting and
plastics used in vehicles and vessels are also tested.
Practical uses
A blacksmith's fire is used primarily for forging iron.
Fire is or has been used:
• For light, heat (for cooking, survival and comfort), and

protection
• As a weapon of warfare, especially during ancient and
medieval times.
• For fire-stick farming
• For cremation
• For welding
• For celebration (such as, birthday candles)
• For religious observances
• For back-burning in fighting fires
• For controlled burn-offs for preventing wildfires
• For burn-offs to clear land for agriculture or for promoting new growth
• For recreational use as a campfire or bonfire
See also
Fire portal
• Active fire protection

• A list of articles relating to fire
• A list of articles relating to firefighting
• A list of articles relating to specific fires
• A list of sources of light
• ATF Fire Research Laboratory
• Colored fire - common and cheap chemicals by which to color a fire
• Endothermic
• Explosion, Rust, Digestion and composting are different kinds of combustion.
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• Fire door
• Fire damage
• Fire lookout tower and/or Fire lookout
• Fireproofing
• Fire protection
• Fire protection engineering
• Firestop
• Firestop pillow
• Fire pit
• Fire test
• Fire whirl
• Fire worship
• Flame test - using flame colors to identify common metals
• Intumescent
• Life safety code
• Lightning
• Making fire
• Passive fire protection
• Plasma
• Pyromania
• Pyrokinesis
• Rubens' Tube
• Smoke
• Volcano
Petrochemical
A petrochemical refinery in Grangemouth, Scotland, UK.
Petrochemicals are chemical products made from raw materials of

petroleum or other hydrocarbon origin. Although some of the chemical
compounds that originate from petroleum may also be derived from coal
and natural gas, petroleum is the major source. The largest petrochemical
industries are to be found in the USA and Western Europe, though the
major growth in new production capacity is in the Middle East and Asia.
There is a substantial inter-regional trade in petrochemicals of all kinds.
World production of ethylene is around 110 million tons per year, of
propylene 65 million tons, and of aromatic raw materials 70 million tons.
The following is a partial list of the major commercial petrochemicals and their derivatives:
• ethylene - the simplest olefin; used as a ripening hormone, a monomer and a chemical feedstock
o polyethylenes - polymerized ethylene
o ethanol - made by hydration (chemical reaction adding water) of ethylene
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o ethylene oxide - sometimes called oxirane; can be made by oxidation of ethylene
 ethylene glycol - from hydration of ethylene oxide or oxidation of ethylene
 engine coolant - contains ethylene glycol
 polyesters - any of several polymers with ester linkages in the backbone
chain
 glycol ethers - from condensation of glycols
 ethoxylates
o vinyl acetate
o 1,2-dichloroethane
 trichloroethylene
 tetrachloroethylene - also called perchloroethylene; used as a dry cleaning solvent
and degreaser
 vinyl chloride - monomer for polyvinyl chloride
 polyvinyl chloride (PVC) - type of plastic used for piping, tubing, other
things
• propylene - used as a monomer and a chemical feedstock
o isopropyl alcohol - 2-propanol; often used as a solvent or rubbing alcohol
o acrylonitrile - useful as a monomer in forming Orlon, ABS
o polypropylene - polymerized propylene
o propylene oxide
 propylene glycol - sometimes used in engine coolant
 glycol ethers - from condensation of glycols
o isomers of butylene - useful as monomers or co-monomers
 isobutylene - feed for making methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE) or monomer for
copolymerization with a low percentage of isoprene to make butyl rubber
o 1,3-butadiene - a diene often used as a monomer or co-monomer for polymerization to
elastomers such as polybutadiene or a plastic such as acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene
(ABS)
 synthetic rubbers - synthetic elastomers made of any one or more of several
petrochemical (usually) monomers such as 1,3-butadiene, styrene, isobutylene,
isoprene, chloroprene; elastomeric polymers are often made with a high
percentage of conjugated diene monomers such as 1,3-butadiene, isoprene, or
chloroprene
o higher olefins
 polyolefins such poly-alpha-olefins which are used as lubricants
 alpha-olefins - used as monomers, co-monomers, and other chemical precursors.
For example, a small amount of 1-hexene can be copolymerized with ethylene
into a more flexible form of polyethylene.
 other higher olefins
 detergent alcohols
o acrylic acid
 acrylic polymers
o allyl chloride -
 epichlorohydrin - chloro-oxirane; used in epoxy resin formation
 epoxy resins - a type of polymerizing glue from bisphenol A,
epichlorohydrin, and some amine
• benzene - the simplest aromatic hydrocarbon

o ethylbenzene - made from benzene and ethylene
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 styrene made by dehydrogenation of ethylbenzene; used as a monomer
 polystyrenes - polymers with styrene as a monomer
o cumene - isopropylbenzene; a feedstock in the cumene process
 phenol - hydroxybenzene; often made by the cumene process
 acetone - dimethyl ketone; also often made by the cumene process
 bisphenol A - a type of "double" phenol used in polymerization in epoxy resins
and making a common type of polycarbonate
 epoxy resins - a type of polymerizing glue from bisphenol A,
epichlorohydrin, and some amine
 polycarbonate - a plastic polymer made from bisphenol A and phosgene
(carbonyl dichloride)
 solvents - liquids used for dissolving materials; examples often made from
petrochemicals include ethanol, isopropyl alcohol, acetone, benzene, toluene,
xylenes
o cyclohexane - a 6-carbon aliphatic cyclic hydrocarbon sometimes used as a non-polar
solvent
 adipic acid - a 6-carbon dicarboxylic acid which can be a precursor used as a co-
monomer together with a diamine to form an alternating copolymer form of
nylon.
 nylons - types of polyamides, some are alternating copolymers formed
from copolymerizing dicarboxylic acid or derivatives with diamines
 caprolactam - a 6-carbon cyclic amide
 nylons - types of polyamides, some are from polymerizing caprolactam
o nitrobenzene - can be made by single nitration of benzene
 aniline - aminobenzene
 methylene diphenyl diisocyanate (MDI) - used as a co-monomer with
diols or polyols to form polyurethanes or with di- or polyamines to form
polyureas
 polyurethanes
o alkylbenzene - a general type of aromatic hydrocarbon which can be used as a presursor
for a sulfonate surfactant (detergent)
 detergents - often include surfactants types such as alkylbenzenesulfonates and
nonylphenol ethoxylates
o chlorobenzene
• toluene - methylbenzene; can be a solvent or precursor for other chemicals
o benzene
o toluene diisocyanate (TDI) - used as co-monomers with diols or polyols to form
polyurethanes or with di- or polyamines to form polyureas
 polyurethanes - a polymer formed from diisocyanates and diols or polyols
o benzoic acid - carboxybenzene
 caprolactam
 nylon
• mixed xylenes - any of three dimethylbenzene isomers, could be a solvent but more often
precursor chemicals
o ortho-xylene - both methyl groups can be oxidized to form (ortho-)phthalic acid
 phthalic anhydride
o para-xylene - both methyl groups can be oxidized to form terephthalic acid
 dimethyl terephthalate - can be copolymerized to form certain polyesters
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 polyesters - although there can be many types, polyethylene terephthalate
is made from petrochemical products and is very widely used.
 purified terephthalic acid - often copolymerized to form polyethylene
terephthalate
 polyesters
[edit] See also
• Petroleum
• Petroleum products
• Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries
[edit] External links
• Petrochemistry in Europe
• Educational resource on petrochemistry
• Article showing some of the basics of a petchem facility
This article includes a list of references or external links, but its sources remain unclear because it
lacks inline citations. Please improve this article by introducing more precise citations where
appropriate. (February 2008)
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petrochemical"
Categories: Petroleum products | Chemical engineering
Hidden category: Articles lacking in-text citations
Oil refinery
(Redirected from Petroleum refining)

Anacortes Refinery (Tesoro), on the north end of March

Point southeast of Anacortes, Washington
An oil refinery is an industrial process plant where crude

oil is processed and refined into more useful petroleum
products, such as gasoline, diesel fuel, asphalt base,
heating oil, kerosene, and liquefied petroleum gas.[1][2] Oil
refineries are typically large sprawling industrial
complexes with extensive piping running throughout,
carrying streams of fluids between large chemical
processing units.
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[edit] Operation
Contents
[hide]
Crude oil is separated into fractions by fractional
• 1 Operation distillation. The fractions at the top of the
• 2 Major products of oil refineries fractionating column have lower boiling points
• 3 Common process units found in a refinery than the fractions at the bottom. The heavy bottom
o 3.1 Flow diagram of typical refinery fractions are often cracked into lighter, more
• 4 Specialty end products useful products. All of the fractions are processed
• 5 Siting/locating of petroleum refineries further in other refining units.
• 6 Safety and environmental concerns
• 7 Corrosion problems and prevention Raw or unprocessed crude oil is not generally
• 8 History useful in its raw or unprocessed form, as it comes
o 8.1 Oil refining in the United States out of the ground. Although "light, sweet" (low
• 9 See also viscosity, low sulfur) crude oil has been used
• 10 References directly as a burner fuel for steam vessel
propulsion, the lighter elements form explosive
• 11 External links vapors in the fuel tanks and so it was quite
dangerous, especially in warships. Instead, the
hundreds of different hydrocarbon molecules in crude oil are separated in a refinery into components
that can be used as fuels, lubricants, and as feedstock in petrochemical processes that manufacture such
products as plastics, detergents, solvents, elastomers; and fibers such as nylon and polyesters. Petroleum
fossil fuels are burned in internal combustion engines in order to provide power to operate ships,
automobiles, aircraft engines, lawn-mowers, chainsaws, and other pieces of power equipment. These
different hydrocarbons have different boiling points, which means they can be separated by distillation.
Since the lighter liquid elements are in great demand for use in internal combustion engines, a modern
refinery will convert heavy hydrocarbons and lighter gaseous elements into these higher value products.
The oil refinery in Haifa, Israel is capable of processing about 9 million

tons (66 million barrels) of crude oil a year. Its two cooling towers are
landmarks of the city's skyline.
Oil can be used in so many

ways because it contains
hydrocarbons of varying molecular masses, forms and
lengths such as paraffins, aromatics, naphthenes (or
cycloalkanes), alkenes, dienes, and alkynes. While the atomic
make-up of the molecules in crude oil includes many
different atoms such as sulfer and nitrogen, the most plentiful
molecules are the hydrocarbons, which are molecules of
varying length and complexity made of hydrogen and carbon
atoms, and a small number of oxygen atoms. The differences
in the structure of these molecules is what confers upon them
their varying physical and chemical properties, and it is this
variety that makes crude oil so useful in such a broad range
of applications.
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Once separated and purified of any contaminants and impurities, the fuel or lubricant can be sold
without any further processing. Smaller molecules such as isobutane and propylene or butylenes can be
recombined to meet specific octane requirements of fuels by processes such as alkylation or less
commonly, dimerization. Octane grade of gasoline can also be improved by catalytic reforming, which
strips hydrogen out of hydrocarbons to produce aromatics, which have much higher octane ratings.
Intermediate products such as gasoils can even be reprocessed to break a heavy, long-chained oil into a
lighter short-chained one, by various forms of cracking such as fluid catalytic cracking, thermal
cracking, and hydrocracking. The final step in gasoline production is the blending of fuels with different
octane ratings, vapor pressures, and other properties to meet product specifications.
Oil refineries are large scale plants, processing from about a hundred thousand to several hundred
thousand barrels of crude oil per day. Because of the high capacity, many of the units are operated
continuously (as opposed to processing in batches) at steady state or approximately steady state for long
periods of time (months to years). This high capacity also makes process optimization and advanced
process control very desirable.
[edit] Major products of oil refineries
Most products of oil processing are usually grouped into three categories: light distillates (LPG,
gasoline, naphtha), middle distillates (kerosene, diesel), heavy distillates and residuum (fuel oil,
lubricating oils, wax, tar). This classification is based on the way crude oil is distilled and separated into
fractions (called distillates and residuum) as can be seen in the above drawing.[2]
• Liquid petroleum gas (LPG)

• Gasoline (also known as petrol)
• Naphtha
• Kerosene and related jet aircraft fuels
• Diesel fuel
• Fuel oils
• Lubricating oils
• Paraffin wax
• Asphalt and Tar
• Petroleum coke
[edit] Common process units found in a refinery
The number and nature of the process units in a refinery determine its complexity index.
• Desalter unit washes out salt from the crude oil before it enters the atmospheric distillation unit.
• Atmospheric Distillation unit distills crude oil into fractions. See Continuous distillation.
• Vacuum Distillation unit further distills residual bottoms after atmospheric distillation.
• Naphtha Hydrotreater unit uses hydrogen to desulfurize naphtha from atmospheric distillation.
Must hydrotreat the naphtha before sending to a Catalytic Reformer unit.
• Catalytic Reformer unit is used to convert the naphtha-boiling range molecules into higher
octane reformate (reformer product). The reformate has higher content of aromatics and cyclic
hydrocarbons). An important byproduct of a reformer is hydrogen released during the catalyst
reaction. The hydrogen is used either in the hydrotreaters or the hydrocracker.
• Distillate Hydrotreater unit desulfurizes distillates (such as diesel) after atmospheric distillation.
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• Fluid Catalytic Cracker (FCC) unit upgrades heavier fractions into lighter, more valuable
products.
• Hydrocracker unit uses hydrogen to upgrade heavier fractions into lighter, more valuable
products.
• Visbreaking unit upgrades heavy residual oils by thermally cracking them into lighter, more
valuable reduced viscosity products.
• Merox unit treats LPG, kerosene or jet fuel by oxidizing mercaptans to organic disulfides.
• Coking units (delayed coking, fluid coker, and flexicoker) process very heavy residual oils into
gasoline and diesel fuel, leaving petroleum coke as a residual product.
• Alkylation unit produces high-octane component for gasoline blending.
• Dimerization unit converts olefins into higher-octane gasoline blending components. For
example, butenes can be dimerized into isooctene which may subsequently be hydrogenated to
form isooctane. There are also other uses for dimerization.
• Isomerization unit converts linear molecules to higher-octane branched molecules for blending
into gasoline or feed to alkylation units.
• Steam reforming unit produces hydrogen for the hydrotreaters or hydrocracker.
• Liquified gas storage units for propane and similar gaseous fuels at pressure sufficient to
maintain in liquid form. These are usually spherical vessels or bullets (horizontal vessels with
rounded ends.
• Storage tanks for crude oil and finished products, usually cylindrical, with some sort of vapor
emission control and surrounded by an earthen berm to contain spills.
• Amine gas treater, Claus unit, and tail gas treatment for converting hydrogen sulfide from
hydrodesulfurization into elemental sulfur.
• Utility units such as cooling towers for circulating cooling water, boiler plants for steam
generation, instrument air systems for pneumatically operated control valves and an electrical
substation.
• Wastewater collection and treating systems consisting of API separators, dissolved air flotation
(DAF) units and some type of further treatment (such as an activated sludge biotreater) to make
such water suitable for reuse or for disposal.[3]
• Solvent refining units use solvent such as cresol or furfural to remove unwanted, mainly
asphaltenic materials from lubricating oil stock (or diesel stock).
• Solvent dewaxing units remove the heavy waxy constituents petrolatum from vacuum distillation
products.
[edit] Flow diagram of typical refinery
The image below is a schematic flow diagram of a typical oil refinery that depicts the various unit
processes and the flow of intermediate product streams that occurs between the inlet crude oil feedstock
and the final end products. The diagram depicts only one of the literally hundreds of different oil
refinery configurations. The diagram also does not include any of the usual refinery facilities providing
utilities such as steam, cooling water, and electric power as well as storage tanks for crude oil feedstock
and for intermediate products and end products.[1][4][5][6]
Schematic flow diagram of a typical oil refinery
There are many process configurations other than that depicted above. For example, the vacuum
distillation unit may also produce fractions that can be refined into endproducts such as: spindle oil used
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in the textile industry, light machinery oil, motor oil, and steam cylinder oil. As another example, the
vacuum residue may be processed in a coker unit to produce petroleum coke.
[edit] Specialty end products
These will blend various feedstocks, mix appropriate additives, provide short term storage, and prepare
for bulk loading to trucks, barges, product ships, and railcars.
• Gaseous fuels such as propane, stored and shipped in liquid form under pressure in specialized
railcars to distributors.
• Liquid fuels blending (producing automotive and aviation grades of gasoline, kerosene, various
aviation turbine fuels, and diesel fuels, adding dyes, detergents, antiknock additives, oxygenates,
and anti-fungal compounds as required). Shipped by barge, rail, and tanker ship. May be shipped
regionally in dedicated pipelines to point consumers, particularly aviation jet fuel to major
airports, or piped to distributors in multi-product pipelines using product separators called
pipeline inspection gauges ("pigs").
• Lubricants (produces light machine oils, motor oils, and greases, adding viscosity stabilizers as
required), usually shipped in bulk to an offsite packaging plant.
• Wax (paraffin), used in the packaging of frozen foods, among others. May be shipped in bulk to
a site to prepare as packaged blocks.
• Sulfur (or sulfuric acid), byproducts of sulfur removal from petroleum which may have up to a
couple percent sulfur as organic sulfur-containing compounds. Sulfur and sulfuric acid are useful
industrial materials. Sulfuric acid is usually prepared and shipped as the acid precursor oleum.
• Bulk tar shipping for offsite unit packaging for use in tar-and-gravel roofing.
• Asphalt unit. Prepares bulk asphalt for shipment.
• Petroleum coke, used in specialty carbon products or as solid fuel.
• Petrochemicals or petrochemical feedstocks, which are often sent to petrochemical plants for
further processing in a variety of ways. The petrochemicals may be olefins or their precursors, or
various types of aromatic petrochemicals.
[edit] Siting/locating of petroleum refineries
The principles of finding a construction site for refineries are similar to those for other chemical plants:
• The site has to be reasonably far from residential areas.
• Facilities for raw materials access and products delivery to markets should be easily available.
• Processing energy requirements should be easily available.
• Waste product disposal should not cause difficulties.
For refineries which use large amounts of process steam and cooling water, an abundant source of water
is important. Because of this, oil refineries are often located (associated to a port) near navigable rivers
or even better on a sea shore. Either are of dual purpose, making also available cheap transport by river
or by sea. Although the advantages of crude oil transport by pipeline are evident, and the method is also
often used by oil companies to deliver large output products such as fuels to their bulk distribution
terminals, pipeline delivery is not practical for small output products. For these, rail cars, road tankers or
barges may be used.
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It is useful to site refineries in areas where there is abundant space to be used by the same company or
others, for the construction of petrochemical plants, solvent manufacturing (fine fractionating) plants
and/or similar plants to allow these easy access to large output refinery products for further processing,
or plants that produce chemical additives that the refinery may need to blend into a product at source
rather than at blending terminals.
[edit] Safety and environmental concerns
Fire at Union Oil

refinery, Wilmington,
California, 1951
MiRO refinery at
Karlsruhe
The refining process releases numerous different

chemicals into the atmosphere; consequently, there
are substantial air pollution emissions[7] and a notable
odor normally accompanies the presence of a refinery. Aside from air pollution impacts there are also
wastewater concerns,[3] risks of industrial accidents such as fire and explosion, and noise health effects
due to industrial noise.
The public has demanded that many governments place restrictions on contaminants that refineries
release, and most refineries have installed the equipment needed to comply with the requirements of the
pertinent environmental protection regulatory agencies. In the United States, there is strong pressure to
prevent the development of new refineries, and no major refinery has been built in the country since
Marathon's Garyville, Louisiana facility in 1976. However, many existing refineries have been expanded
during that time. Environmental restrictions and pressure to prevent construction of new refineries may
have also contributed to rising fuel prices in the United States.[8] Additionally, many refineries (over 100
since the 1980s) have closed due to obsolescence and/or merger activity within the industry itself. This
activity has been reported to Congress and in specialized studies not widely publicised.
Environmental and safety concerns mean that oil refineries are sometimes located some distance away
from major urban areas. Nevertheless, there are many instances where refinery operations are close to
populated areas and pose health risks such as in the Campo de Gibraltar, a CEPSA refinery near the
towns of Gibraltar, Algeciras, La Linea, San Roque and Los Barrios with a combined population of over
300,000 residents within a 5-mile (8.0 km) radius and the CEPSA refinery in Santa Cruz on the island of
Tenerife, Spain[9] which is sited in a densely-populated city center and next to the only two major
evacuation routes in and out of the city. In California's Contra Costa County and Solano County, a
shoreline necklace of refineries and associated chemical plants are adjacent to urban areas in Richmond,
Martinez, Pacheco, Concord, Pittsburg, Vallejo and Benicia, with occasional accidental events that
require "shelter in place" orders to the adjacent populations.
In 2008, twelve US states and the District of Columbia announced their intent to sue the US
Environmental Protection Agency to force that agency to begin regulating greenhouse gases emitted
from oil refineries. They want the EPA to regulate all greenhouse gases, including carbon dioxide and
methane from these sources.[10]
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[edit] Corrosion problems and prevention
Petroleum refineries run as efficiently as possible to reduce costs. One major factor that decreases
efficiency is corrosion of the metal components found throughout the process line of the hydrocarbon
refining process. Corrosion causes the failure of parts in addition to dictating the cleaning schedule of
the refinery, during which the entire production facility must be shut down and cleaned. The cost of
corrosion in the petroleum industry has been estimated at US$3.7 billion.[11]
Corrosion occurs in various forms in the refining process, such as pitting corrosion from water droplets,
embrittlement from hydrogen, and stress corrosion cracking from sulfide attack. [12] From a materials
standpoint, carbon steel is used for upwards of 80% of refinery components, which is beneficial due to
its low cost. Carbon steel is resistant to the most common forms of corrosion, particularly from
hydrocarbon impurities at temperatures below 205oC, but other corrosive chemicals and environments
prevent its use everywhere. Common replacement materials are low alloy steels containing chromium
and molybdenum, with stainless steels containing more chromium dealing with more corrosive
environments. More expensive materials commonly used are nickel, titanium, and copper alloys. These
are primarily saved for the most problematic areas where extremely high temperatures or very corrosive
chemicals are present.[13]
Corrosion is fought by a complex system of monitoring and careful use of materials. Monitoring
methods include both off-line checks taken during maintenance and on-line monitoring collected in real
time during normal plant operation. Off-line checks measure corrosion after it has occurred, telling the
engineer when equipment must be replaced. On-line systems are a more modern development, and are
revolutionizing the way corrosion is approached. It allows process engineers to treat corrosion as
another process variable. Immediate responses to process changes allow the control of corrosion
mechanisms, so they can be minimized while also maximizing production output.[14] Materials methods
include selecting the proper material for the application. In areas of minimal corrosion, cheap materials
are preferable, but when bad corrosion can occur, more expensive but longer lasting materials should be
used. Other materials methods come in the form of protective barriers between corrosive substances and
the equipment metals. These can be either a lining of refractory material such as standard Portland
cement or other special acid-resistant cements that are shot onto the inner surface of the vessel. Also
available are thin overlays of more expensive metals that protect cheaper metal against corrosion
without requiring lots of material.[15]
[edit] History
The world's first oil refineries were set up by Ignacy Łukasiewicz near Jasło, Austrian Empire (now in
Poland) in the years 1854-56[16][17] but they were initially small as there was no real demand for refined
fuel. As Łukasiewicz's kerosene lamp gained popularity the refining industry grew in the area.
The first large oil refinery opened at Ploieşti, Romania in 1856.[18] Several other refineries were built at
that location with investment from United States companies before being taken over by Nazi Germany
during World War II. Most of these refineries were heavily bombarded by US Army Air Forces in
Operation Tidal Wave, August 1, 1943. Since then they have been rebuilt, and currently pose
somewhat[who?] of an environmental concern[citation needed].
Another early example is Oljeön, Sweden, now preserved as a museum at the UNESCO world heritage
site Engelsberg. It started operation in 1875 and is part of the Ecomuseum Bergslagen.
Research Trang344
At one time, the world's largest oil refinery was claimed to be Ras Tanura, Saudi Arabia, owned by
Saudi Aramco. For most of the 20th century, the largest refinery of the world was the Abadan refinery in
Iran. This refinery suffered extensive damage during the Iran-Iraq war. The world's largest refinery
complex is the "Centro de Refinación de Paraguaná" (CRP) operated by PDVSA in Venezuela with a
production capacity of 956,000 barrels per day (152,000 m³/d) (Amuay 635,000 bbl/d (101,000 m³/d),
Cardón 305,000 bbl/d (48,500 m³/d) and Bajo Grande 16,000 bpd). SK Energy's Ulsan refinery in South
Korea with a capacity of 840,000 bbl/d (134,000 m³/d) and Reliance Petroleum's refinery in Jamnagar,
India with 660,000 bbl/d (105,000 m³/d) are the second and third largest, respectively.
[edit] Oil refining in the United States
Early US refineries processed crude oil to recover the kerosene. Other products (like gasoline) were
considered wastes and were often dumped directly into the nearest river. The invention of the
automobile shifted the demand to gasoline and diesel, which remain the primary refined products today.
Refineries pre-dating the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) were not subject to any
environmental protection regulations. Today, national and state legislation requires refineries to meet
stringent air and water cleanliness standards. In fact, obtaining a permit to
build a modern refinery is perceived by many American oil companies to
be so difficult and costly that no new refineries have been built (though
many have been expanded) in the United States since 1976. As a result,
some believe that this may be the reason that the US is becoming more
and more dependent on the imports of finished gasoline, as opposed to
incremental crude oil. On the other hand, studies have revealed that
accelerating merger activity in the refining and production sector has
reduced capacity further, resulting in tighter markets in the United States in particular.
[edit] See also
Storage tanks and towers at Shell Puget Sound Refinery (Shell Oil Company), Anacortes, Washington
• Air pollution
• AP 42 Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors
• API oil-water separator
• Industrial wastewater treatment
• Cooling tower
• Ethanol fuel
• Gas flare
• List of oil refineries
• Nelson complexity index
• Refinery
• Acid gas
• Sour gas
Research Trang345
Research Trang346

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Hanoi 191208 Wikipedia SyHung2020

At 3.79 million square miles (9.83 million km²) and with

The United States of

Topographic map of the contiguous United States

View of the Rocky Mountains in Colorado

Native Americans and European settlers

The Mayflower transported Pilgrims to the New World in 1620, as

In 1492, Genoese explorer Christopher Columbus, under contract to the

Independence and expansion

Declaration of Independence, by John Trumbull, 1817–18

Tensions between American colonials and the British during the

Territorial acquisitions by date

Americans' eagerness to expand westward prompted a long series of

Civil War and industrialization

Battle of Gettysburg, lithograph by Currier & Ives, ca. 1863

Immigrants landing at Ellis Island, New York, 1902

After the war, the assassination of Lincoln radicalized Republican

World War I, Great Depression, and World War II

An abandoned farm in South Dakota during the Dust Bowl, 1936

At the outbreak of World War I in 1914, the United States remained

Cold War and protest politics

The World Trade Center on the morning of September 11, 2001

Government and elections

The United States is the world's oldest surviving federation. It is a

The federal government is composed of three branches:

The front of the United States Supreme Court building

Parties, ideology, and politics

President-elect Barack Obama (right) meets with current President George

Foreign relations and military

President George W. Bush (right) with British Prime Minister Gordon

The USS Ronald Reagan supercarrier

The president holds the title of commander-in-chief of the nation's armed

Wall Street is home to the New York Stock Exchange

Income and human development

Inflation adjusted percentage increase in after-tax

According to the United States Census Bureau, the

Science and technology

The United States has been a leader in scientific research and

Main article: Transportation in the United States

Largest ancestry groups by county, 2000

The United States population is projected by the U.S. Census Bureau to be

The population growth of Hispanic and Latino

Leading population centers

Rank Core city State

Languages (2005)[130] English is the de facto national language. Although there is no

A church in the largely Protestant Bible Belt

The University of Virginia, designed by Thomas Jefferson, a UNESCO

American public education is operated by state and local governments,

The Texas Medical Center in Houston, the world's largest medical

Crime and law enforcement

Homicide rates in selected countries, 2004

Law enforcement in the United States is primarily the

The United States is a multicultural nation, home to a wide variety of

The Hollywood sign

Literature, philosophy, and the arts

One of the first major promoters of American theater was impresario P. T.

Main article: Cuisine of the United States

Main article: Sports in the United States

The Pro Bowl (2006), American football's annual all-star game

• List of international rankings

Learning resources • InfoUSA Portal to U.S. Information Agency resources

• U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services Official government site

THE END OF UNITED STATES

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