Notes present short pieces which are research-based, experience-based, or idea-based.
Celebrity Endorsers and Adolescents:
A Study of Gender Influences
Prashant Mishra, Upinder Dhar, Saifuddin Raotiwala
As proliferation of the media was taking Indian
households in its stride, marketers were quick to
grab the opportunities presented by this pheno-
menon. A significant transformation which be-
came evident was the increased visibility of
celebrities such as movie stars, sports persons,
and others. In such a scenario, the impact of
celebrity endorsers on consumers' attitudes to
product evaluations and purchase is expected to
change. This paper attempts to explore the
influence of gender on consumers' perception
about male and female celebrity endorsers' ef-
fectiveness on three dimensions, i.e., attractive-
ness, trustworthiness, and expertise. The findings ,
of the study are discussed to draw implications
for berth practitioners as well as researchers.
Praslumt Miskra is a member of the faculty in the Marketing
at At Nitma Institute of Management, Ahmedabad.
pmiskra7374@hotmail.com
r Dhar is the Director of the Prestige Institute of
Management and Research, Indore.
Raotiwala is an Executive with the DDE-ORG
Systems at Baroda.
Vol. 26, No. 4, October-December 2001
Introduction
The use of celebrity endorser as the source for a
communication message has increased dramatically in
the past few years. Celebrities have been used to
promote everything from sports drinks to digital mobile
phones and the use of communication medium seems
endless. Endorsers are used in broadcast media, both
television and radio, print media, and even outdoor
billboard advertising, and their effectiveness in each has
been tested. The value of celebrity endorsements has
been recognized worldwide. In India too, it has become
one of the most readily accepted practices. Firms such
as Hindustan Lever (Lux), Smithkline Beecham, and
Action Shoes have been using celebrity endorsers for
long. The recent spate of Pepsi and Coke advertisements
using celebrities from tinsel world is an evidence of
the ever growing popularity of using celebrity as a
spokesperson or endorser in marketing communication.
According to an international estimate, almost 10 per
cent of all advertising expenditure is being spent to pay
the endorser (Agrawal and Kamakura, 1995). It has also
been established that the use of celebrity endorser is
not limited to any particular industry. Companies using
celebrity endorsers cross all industry categories.
One of the major factors for consideration by
organizations while selecting celebrity endorsers is
the credibility and likeability of that particular
endorser. It has been reported that a celebrity who
endorses more than one product is less effective.
Tripp, Jensen and Carlson (1994) argued that the
number of products a celebrity endorses negatively
influences the consumers' perceptions of endorsers'
credibility and likeability, as well as attitude towards
the advertisement. A person who is involved in
communicating the marketing message either in
direct or indirect manner is known as the source
(Belch and Belch, 1995). This process of social
influence results in an individual adopting the attitude
advocated by the communicator: compliance, iden-
tification, and internalization (Kamins, 1990) and this
is what gives a source its influence. Compliant relates
59 Vikalpa
to special acceptance and approval and therefore not
relevant in non-personal communication. It has been
argued that celebrity endorsements are expensive for
firms and therefore selection process needs to be
taken into consideration carefully.
Research studies comparing the impact of ad-
vertisements with and without celebrity endorsers
have found that those featuring celebrities were rated
more positively. This was especially true among
teenagers who were more likely to project the
celebrity's credibility to the advertising message and
the endorsed product (Atkin and Block, 1983).
Expertise and trustworthiness have been identified
as the most significant indicators of source credibility
of the communicator (Homer and Lynn, 1990).
Though some other researchers have included physi-
cal attractiveness also in the analysis, to their fol-
lowers and to much of the general public, celebrities
represent an idealization of life that most people
imagine that they would love to live. Advertisers
spend enormous sums of money to have celebrities
promote their products, with the assumption that
reading or viewing audience will react positively to
the celebrity association with their product (Scott,
1091). Of all the benefits that a celebrity might
contribute to a firm's advertising programme - fame,
talent, credibility, or charisma, celebrity credibility
with the consumer audience is the most important.
Celebrity credibility is understood as the audiences'
perception of both the celebrity's expertise - how
much the celebrity knows about the product area,
and trustworthiness - how honest is the celebrity
about the product (Ohanian,1991).
Television stars, movie actors, and famous sports
persons are widely used in magazine advertisements,
radio spots, and television commercials to endorse
products. By definition, a celebrity is a personality
(actor, entertainer or sports person) who is known
to the public for his or her accomplishments in the
areas other than the product class endorsed (Fried-
man and Friedman, 1979). According to an estimate
in the US, as many as one fourth of all commercials
employ celebrity endorsement (Spielman, 1987; Miciak
and Shanklin, 1994). Advertisers and agencies are
willing to pay enormous sum to those celebrities who
are liked and respected by target audiences and who
will favourably influence consumers' attitudes and
behaviour towards the endorsed product. Such ex-
pectations are not oyer ambitious as it has been found
that consumers' attitudes and perceptions of quality
axe enhanced when celebrities endorse products
(Fireworks and Friedman, 1987).
Vol.,No 4 October-December 2001
It is widely believed that celebrity endorsers
bring the benefit of their symbolic images (i.e., their
personal meaning) to the products and services to
which they lend their name and person. Specifically,
the cultural meaning that resides within a particular
celebrity endorser is passed o$ to the product or
service being endorsed (McCracken, 1989; Langmeyer
and Walker, 1991; Burroughs, Hooten and Knowles,
1994). Indeed, prototypical bonding is the term used
to describe the process of associating a spokesperson's
attributes, traits, and values with a particular service
or product (Lautman, 1991). Results of a survey of
advertising executives indicated celebrity credibility,
celebrity and audience match up, celebrity and brand
match up, celebrity attractiveness, and miscellaneous
considerations as major considerations in the selec-
tion of celebrity (Miciak and Shanklin, 1994). A
celebrity's trustworthiness and expertise jointly re-
ferred to as credibility is the most important reason
for selecting a celebrity endorser. People who are
trustworthy and are perceived as knowledgeable on
a particular issue, such as brand's effectiveness, are
best able to convince others to undertake a course
of action. On the other hand, attractiveness of the
celebrity is seen as a combination of a number of
factors such as friendliness, likeability, physique, and
occupation as some of the more important dimen-
sions of the attractiveness concept. The celebrity-
audience match and celebrity-brand match is seen
by executives as being greater in importance as
compared to attractiveness. A number of other
researches have demonstrated that credibility and
attractiveness are the two basic attributes contributing
to an endorser's effectiveness as each of them involves
a different mechanism by which the endorser affects
consumer attitude and behaviour (Kelman, 1961;
O'Keefe, 1990).
Fundamentally, credibility denotes the tendency
to believe or trust someone. When an information
source like endorser is perceived as being credible,
audience attitudes are changed. This change occurs
through a psychological process called internaliza-
tion, where the receiver accepts the endorsers'
position on an issue as his or her own. An internalized
attitude tends to be maintained even if the source
of the message is forgotten or if the source switches
to a different position (Petty, Ostrom and Brock,
1981). Credibility consists of two important properties
of the endorsers, i.e., expertise and trustworthiness.
Expertise refers to knowledge, experience or skills
possessed by an endorser. It is a perceived rather
than an absolute phenomenon. On the other hand,
trustworthiness refers to honesty, integrity, and
60 Vikalpa.
believability of a source. While expertise and
trustworthiness are not mutually exclusive, a particu-
lar endorser is often perceived as highly trustworthy
but not particularly an expert. An endorser's trust-
worthiness depends primarily on the audiences'
perceptions of his or her endorsement motivations.
Earlier, researches with ethnic minorities have re-
vealed that when a spokesperson matches the audi-
ences* ethnicity, the spokesperson's trustworthiness
is enhanced, which in turn promotes more favourable
attitude towards the advertised brand (Deshpande
and Stayman, 1994).
The findings of an experimental test of various
magazine advertisements for two products, rachet set
and body oil, had revealed that the seductive model/
body oil Combination was perceived most favourably
by all the respondents, whereas the nude model/
body Oil combination was perceived as the least
appealing advertisement. More importantly, females
too regarded the nude model/rachet set as least
appealing (Peterson and Kerin, 1977). According to
die meaning transfer model proposed by McCracken
(1989), the brands benefit from associations with
endorsers because they acquire or possess particular
configurations of cultural meanings that cannot be
found elsewhere. Thus, endorsers are expected to
enhance advertising readership or viewership or
listener ship and induce positive attitudinal change
towards a company and its products and the per-
sonality characteristics of the endorser can get as-
sociated with a brand's imagery. The endorsers'
characteristics are viewed from two perspectives.
First, that endorser is the source of information in
tine advertisement, hence contributing to the accept-
ance of the content of the message because of the
source's credibility or attractiveness, whereas the
second and more recent perspective suggests that
endorser is someone possessing some symbolic prop-
erties which are transferred from the endorser to the
endorsed brand (through advertising) and then from
tftie 1 "triuui1 tb the consumer (through the acts of
purchasing and consuming or owning the brand).
In the light of- the above facts, the-present study
was undertaken wok an objective to explore the
perceptual differences amongst adolescents about
effectiveness of male and female celebrity endorsers.
Methodology
The Study
The present study was focused at exploring the differ-
ences amongst adolescents' perceptions about the ef-
fectiveness of male and female celebrities. The study
Vol 26, No. 4, October-December 2001
was aimed at filling the gap in knowledge in the
domain of consumer psychology concerning gender
influences on celebrity endorsers' effectiveness.
The survey approach was used to collect data front
the respondents to explore the influence of gender
and adolescence on the perception about celebrity
endorsers. A quasi-experimental design was used
to analyse the data obtained through survey.
The Sample
A random sample of 200 subjects was selected
from the cities of Indore, Ujjain, Dewas, Jabalpur,
Raipur, Bhilai, and Bhopal. The final sample
consisted of equal number of male and female
adolescents. The average age of the sample was 16
years for male adolescents (N=100) and 15 years
for female adolescents. The subjects were chosen
from prominent English medium higher secondary
schools.
The Tools
For data collection, a standardized scale developed by
Ohnian (1991) was used to measure celebrity endorser
effectiveness on three dimensions: attractiveness, trust-
worthiness, and expertise. The cumulative score of the
scale indicated overall effectiveness. The reliability as
measured by the authors of the scale was .reported to be
high. The scale was administered to the subjects after
developing rapport with them. The purpose of the study
was not disclosed in clear terms. However, the time to
respond was left to the subjects' choice. The responses
were to be given on a five-point Likert type scale ranging
from agree (5) to disagree (1). Instructions about
celebrity to be considered were restricted to four
celebrities (Shahrukh Khan, Aamir Khan among males
and Kajol and Aishwarya Rai among females featuring
advertisements of various brands of soft drinks). In order
to ascertain the respondents' familiarity with the celeb-
rities, a preliminary study was undertaken. The recall
was found to be high and all the respondents were users
of the brands studied. As far as the target is concerned, in
the absence of any reliable published claim about die
exact target of the campaigns, the authors considered the
total share of the consumption of the brands in the
area from which the study sample was chosen as a
starting point. According to the data available, the
sample universe (as per age group) accounted for almost
35 per cent of the total consumption of the products
under study. Hence it was reasonable to believe that
the target of the brands' communication is inclusive of
the sample universe. For data analysis, the collected
data were subjected to test for significance of difference
between means, i.e., Z-test. The statistical analysis was
undertaken after dividing the obtained data on the basis
of gender of subjects and celebrity.
61
Vikalpa
Results and Discussion
Results of the study can be summarized as under:
• Male adolescents' perception of female celebrity's
attractiveness, trustworthiness, and expertise is sig
nificantly higher in comparison to their perception
of male celebrity (Zatt = 9.54, p < 0.01; Ztrt = 2.47,
p < 0.05; and Zexp = 3.49, p < 0.01). Even on
cumulative influence, female celebrity is found to
be more influencing than male celebrity.
• There is no significant difference in the perception
of male and female adolescents about male
celebrity's attractiveness, trustworthiness, and exper
tise. The same pattern is visible even in total score
(Table 1).
• There is significant difference in the perception of
male adolescents about male celebrity's attractive
ness, trustworthiness and expertise as compared with
that of female adolescents about female celebrity.
Here, female adolescents found female celebrity
being jnore attractive, trustworthy, and expert as
compared to male adolescents' perception of male
celebrity (Zatt * 13.86, p < 0.01; Ztrt = 3.84, p <
0.01; and Zexp ?= 5.18, p < 0.01).
• Male adolescents' perception about female
celebrity's attractiveness and trustworthiness is sig
nificantly higher than that of female respondents'
perception about male celebrity (Zatt = 8.06, p <
0.01; Ztrt = 2.88, p < 0.05). Although there is no
significant difference in the perceptions about respec
tive celebrity's expertise, the difference is found
significant on cumulative score (Zcum = 3.90, p <
0.01).
• , No significant difference is found between male and
female adolescents' perceptions about female
celebrity's attractiveness, trustworthiness, and exper-
tise. The same pattern emerged when compared on
cumulative scores too.
table 1: Mean and Standard Deviation of Attractiveness, Trustworthiness, Expertise, and Overall
Effectiveness of Male and Female Celebrities as Perceived by Male and Female Adolescents
(Pf - 200)
Male Celebrity
Male Adolescents A (N = 50)
Attractiveness: 18.72 (4.05)
Trustworthiness: 20.66 (5.59)
Expertise: 21.64 (5.43)
Females Adolescents C (N = 50)
Attractiveness: 18.90 (4.05)
Trustworthiness: 20.00 (5.59)
Expertise: 23.18 (5.43)
N.B. Values in parentheses represent standard deviation.
Vol 26, No. 4, October-December 2001 62
* There is significant difference between female ado
lescents' perception toward attractiveness, trustwor
thiness, and expertise of male and female celebrities.
Female adolescents perceive female celebrities to be
more attractive, expert, and trustworthy than male
celebrities (Zatt = 10.98, p < 0.01; Ztrt = 4.213, p
< 0.01; and Zexp = 3.14, p < 0.05).
• On total sample too, irrespective of respondents'
gender, their perception of male and female celeb
rities' attractiveness, trustworthiness, and expertise
differed significantly with female celebrity being
perceived as more attractive, trustworthy, and expert
by adolescents (Zatt = 10.15, p < 0.01; Ztrt = 3.34,
p < 0.05; and Zexp = 3.28, p < 0.05) (Table 2).
As the design used to analyse the data accounted
for controlled manipulation of the gender of both
the subjects (adolescents) and the targets (celebrities),
it can be inferred from the results that the gender
of the perceiver (here the adolescents) is less an
indicator of the perception of celebrity endorser
(Table 2, Study groups 2, 3, and 5). On the other
hand, it is the gender of the celebrity which has
emerged as an influencer of respondents' perception
(Table 2, study groups 1, 4, and 6). It can be argued
that celebrity's gender has some influence on the
judgement of adolescents regarding celebrity's attrac-
tiveness, trustworthiness, and expertise. Even on
cumulative basis, the same pattern can be observed
which can be attributed to the interactive effect of
the gender of both the target and the perceiver.
To further the argument about celebrity's gender
influencing the perceptions of the perceivers (ado*
lescents in this case), analogous support can be drawn'
from the area of sex^roles in consumer behaviow.
It was purported that it is quite common to find
products that are either exclusively or strongly
associated with the members of one sex. For example,
shaving equipments, cigars, ties, etc., are historically
Female Celebrity
B (N = 50)
Attractiveness: 27.78 (5.35)
Trustworthiness: 23.58 (6.21)
Expertise: 25.86 (6.33)
D (N = 50)
Attractiveness: 29.28 (3.55)
Trustworthiness: 24.82 (5.23)
Expertise: 27.50 (5.57)
Vikalpa
Table 2; Critical Ratios for Attractiveness, Trustworthiness, Expertise, and Overall Effectiveness of Male
and Female Celebrities as Perceived by Male and Female Adole scents (N = 200)
Study Groups
1. Male Celebrity- Male
Adolescent and Female Celebrity
- Male Adolescents
2. Male Celebrity - Male
Adolescent and Male Celebrity -
Female Adolescents
3. Male Celebrity - Male
Adolescent and Female Celebrity
- Female Adolescents
4. Female Celebrity - Male
Adolescent and Male Celebrity -
Female Adolescents
5. Female Celebrity - Male
Adolescent and Female Celebrity
- Female Adolescents
6. Male Celebrity - Female
Adolescent and Female Celebrity
- Female Adolescents
•Significant at .05 level.
"Significant at .01 level.
mate products, whereas bracelets, hair dryers, and
sweet smelling colognes are generally considered
feminine products. Though there are researches to
suggest that for most of these products, the sex link
is either diminishing or disappearing blurring the line
between 'male only' or female only' products,
consumer still tend to impute sex or gender to the
products and for this reason in the light of 'cultural
mewrung transfer' proposition, it is reasonable to
argue that advertisers should not only consider the
sex of target market but also the cues associated with
the products which may transfer certain meanings
influencing the perceived sex of the product category
(WiMsie, 1995; Shermach, 1995). In this context, as
the celebrities offer variety of cues through their
personality, achievements, and other attributes, their
gender can be rightly seen as an important variable
affecting ad-effectiveness as indicated by the current
findings & The observations of Kamins (1990),
further lend credence to the present findings that what
makes a celebrity an effective endorser is the
existence of a meaningful relationship or match up
between the audience, and the product.
Another theme which supports the influence of
cetebrity endorser's gender on adolescents' percep-
tion of their attractiveness is the fact that the general
concept of attractiveness consists of three related
ideas, similarity, familiarity, and liking (Triandis,
1971). In addition, a study has demonstrated that a
Vol. 26, No. 4, October-December 2001
Critical Ratio (Z-Valtie)
Attractiveness = 9.54**
Trustworthiness = 2.47*
Expertise = 3.492** Overall * 4.64**
Attractiveness = 0.182
Trustworthiness = 0.560
Expertise = 1.108 Overall = 0.233
Attractiveness = 13.86**
Trustworthiness = 3.840**
Expertise = 5.18** Overall = 6.478**
Attractiveness = 8.062**
Trustworthiness = 2.889**
Expertise = 1.861 Overall = 3.904**
Attractiveness •=* 1.652
Trustworthiness = 1.080
Expertise = 1.375 Overall = 1.280
Attractiveness = 10.984**
Trustworthiness = 4.213**
Expertise = 3.139** Overall = 5.390**
match up between spokesperson and audience simi-
larity is specially important when the product or
service in question is one where audience members
are heterogeneous in terms of their tastes and
preferences (Fieck and Higie, 1992). It has also been
observed that advertising researchers have not stud-
ied attractiveness extensively, and what littte research
has been conducted has focused primarily on the
physical attractiveness dimension only fOhnjan> 19|N$,
The findings of the present study can be seen
in the light of the argument that gender of the subjects
had no significant effect on their intention to purchase
or evaluate the attractiveness and expertise of the
celebrities (Ohnian, 1991). The findings of the present
study can be explained with the help of social
comparison theory proposed by Festinger (1954),
which purported that adolescents and pre-adolescents
compare their physical attractiveness witn that of
models. Apart from this, similar influences of the
gender of adolescents on their perception of celebrity
endorser's physical attractiveness irrespective of
celebrity's gender find significant support from earlier
researches which suggested that advertising and mass
media may play a part in creating and reinforcing
a preoccupation with physical attractiveness (Downs
and Harrison, 1985; Myers and Biocca, 1992) and
influence consumer perceptions of what constitutes
an acceptable level of physical attractiveness (Peterson,
1987; Richins, 1991). Further support can be found
63 Vikalpa
in the assertion of Martin and Kennedy (1994a,
1994b) that female college students, adolescents, and
pre-adolescents compare their physical attractiveness
with that of models in advertisements and identify
with the models.
On the other hand, the findings of the present
study are in contrast with some other researches.
According to a study of Franzoi (1995), the nature
of physical attractiveness differs for male and female
children and adolescents as well. He further ex-
plained that girls tend to view their bodies as 'objects'
and their physical beauty determines how they and
others judge their overall value, whereas boys tend
to view their bodies as 'process,' and power and
function are more important criteria for evaluating
their physical self. On similar lines, Lerner, Orlos
and Knapp (1976) reported that female adolescents'
self concepts were derived primarily from attractive-
ness of body, whereas male adolescents' self concepts
were related more strongly to perceptions of physical
instrumental effectiveness. Further, it has been argued
that as the ideal of attractiveness for girls is culturally
more salient, they are more likely to be negatively
affected by the masculine ideal (Franzoi, 1995). The
findings of the study can be supported with the
assertions of social comparison theory which holds
that people have a drive to evaluate their opinions
and abilities, which can be satisfied by 'social
comparisons' with other people. With theory as a
framework, recent researches have established that
fertiale college students, pre-adolescents, and adoles-
cents do compare their physical attractiveness with
that of models in advertisements (Richins, 1991;
Martin and Kennedy, 1993; 1994a).
Levitt (1965) tested whether the effects of sales
people representing a prestigious company, a me-
diup credible company, and an anonymous company
had a differential impact on purchasing agents. It was
found that better the company's reputation, better
were the salespeople's chances of getting a first
hearing for a new product and early adoption of the
product. This may explain the present findings in
terms of no difference in celebrity's effectiveness as
perceived by adolescents of different gender, as they
were exposed to that celebrity prior to their expe-
rience in advertisement and thus they had preset
evaluations about that particular celebrity. On the
other hand, similarity is sometimes important because
a source that is presented as being similar to the
audience in terms of attitudes, opinions, activities,
background, social status or life style could achieve
botii liking and identification. The study can further
Vol., No. 4, October-December 2001
be supported with the association principle of attrac-
tion in which the core idea is that one likes those
who are associated with good experiences and
dislikes those who are associated with bad experi-
ences (Taylor, Peplau and Sears, 1997).
Another view which supports the present find
ings is the argument that likeable personality traits
across a group do not vary significantly. Anderson
(1968) explored amongst a group of college students
about their choice of how much they would like a
person having some of the previously selected per
sonality traits. He found a general agreement among
the students about which characteristics are desirable
and which are undesirable. The findings of the
present study can further be supported by the
assertions of Zajonc (1968). He proposed a theory
of mere exposure effect which purports that simply
being exposed frequently to a person can increase
one's liking for that person. This explains to some
extent the insignificant difference between male and
female adolescents while perceiving either male or
female celebrity. It can be argued that since all the
celebrities under study here are familiar faces, it is
most likely that majority of respondents have «een
them frequently either in movies, television |»o-
grammes or other advertisements. This frequent
encounter of celebrities with the subjects might have
led to similar feelings among the subjects. ,,
Implications of the Study
The present findings provide wider implications for
advertisers as well as marketing practitioners. As the
study has pointed out that gender of celebrity signifi-
cantly influences consumer perceptions about the
product irrespective of consumers' gender, the adwertis*
ers need to come out of 'like attracts like' cage for
gender-specific products. An indication from the present
study is that it is the celebrities' influence in terms of
achievements and image which accounts for greater
influence than the sectoral gender match. Secondly,
celebrity endorsements need to be seen beyond the
gender-product match and audience-celebrity-gender
match alone to leverage the real associative attributions
inherent in any celebrity in order to influence the
consumers positively rather than simply building the
communication campaign for informative or awareness
purposes. Thirdly, tracking consumers' changing
behavioural pattern in the light of socio-cultural and
environmental changes is important in order to adapt
communication and promotional programmes to these
changes. This will help marketers in increasing the
effectiveness of the advertising programmes to extract
greater benefits in terms of correct attributions and
64 Vika l p a
associations for the product and better competitive
effectiveness.
The present study also has the traditional limitations
associated with survey research such as selection error,
measurement error, and non-response error. The study
was limited in its scope due to time constraint. It is
suggested to replicate the study on a larger sample and
for different product categories and celebrities for a
comprehensive perspective of the socio-demographic
influences on the effectiveness of celebrity endorsements
amongst Indian consumers and subsequent implications
for advertising management and consumer behaviour.
More focused studies should be undertaken to explore
other intervening variables, such as educational back-
ground, celebrity familiarity, personality types, etc.
influencing viewers' perception and behaviour through
celebrity endorsements.
References
Agrawal and Kamakura, W (1995). "The Economic Worth of
Celebrity Endorsers: An Event Study Analysis," Journal of
Marketing, Vol 59, (July), pp 56-62.
Anderson, N H (1968). "Likeableness Ratings of 555 Per-
sonality Trait Words," Journal of Social Psychology, Vol 9, pp
272-279.
Atkin, Charles and Block, Martin (1983). "Effectiveness of
Celebrity Endorsers," Journal of -Advertising Research, Vol
23, February-March, pp 57-61.
Belch, G and Belch, M (1995). Introduction to Advertising and
Promotion: An Integrated Marketing Communication Perspective,
US: Irwin.
Burroughs, Jeffrey W; Hooten, Mary-Ann and Knowles,
Patricia (1994). "Celebrity-Product Congruence and En-
dorser Effectiveness," in Achroll, Ravi and Mitchell,
Andrew (eds.), 1994 AMA Educators' Proceedings 5, Chicago:
American Marketing Association.
Deshpande, Rohit and Stayman, Douglas (1994). "A Tale of
Two Cities: Distinctiveness Theory and Advertising Ef-
fectiveness," Journal of Marketing Research, Vol 31, (Febru-
ary), pp 57*64.
Downs, Chris A and Harrison, Sheila K (1985). "Embarrassing
Age Spots or Just Plain Ugly? Physical Attractiveness
Stereotyping as an Instrument of Sexism on American
Television Commercials," Sex Roles, Vol 13, No 1/2, pp 9-
19.
Festinger, Leon (1954). "A Theory of Social Comparison
Processes," Human Relations, Vol 7, pp 117-140.
Fieck, Lawrence and Higie, Robin A (1992). "The Effects of
Preference Heterogeneity and Source Characteristics on
Ad-Processing and Judgements about Endorsers," Journal
of Advertising, Vol 21, No 2, pp 9-24.
Fireworks, R B and Friedman, H H (1977). "The Effects of
Endorsements on Product Evaluations," Decision Sciences,
Vol 8, (July), pp 576-583.
Vol 26, No. 4, October-December 2001
Franzoi, Stephen L (1995). "The Body-as-Object versus The
Body-as-Process: Gender Differences and Gender Consid-
erations," Sex Roles, Vol 33, No 5/6, pp 417-437.
Friedman, Hershey and Friedman, Linda (1979). "Endorser
Effectiveness by Product Type," Journal of Advertising
Research, Vol 19, October-November, pp 63-71.
Homer, Pamela M and Kahle, Lynn R (1990). "Source
Expertise, Time of Source Identification and Involvement
in Persuasion: An Elaborate Processing Perspective,"
Journal of Advertising, Vol 19, No 1, pp 30-39.
Kamins, Michael A (1990). "An Investigation into the 'Match-
up' Hypothesis in Celebrity Advertising: When Beauty
May be Only Skin Deep," Journal of Advertising, Vol 19,
No 1, pp 4-13.
Kelman, Herbert C (1961). "Process of Opinion Change,"
Public Opinion Quarterly, Vol 25, Spring, pp 57-78.
Langmeyer, Lynn and Walker, Mary (1991). "A First Step
to Identify the Meaning in Celebrity Endorsers," in
Holman, Rebecca H and Solomon, Michael R (eds.),
Advances in Consumer Resaerch, Provo, UT:.Association for
Consumer Research.
Lautman, Martin R (1991). "End-Benefit Segmentation and
Prototypical Bonding," Journal of Advertising Research, June-
July, pp 9-18.
Lemer, Richard M; Orlos,James B and Knapp,John R (1976).
"Physical Attractiveness, Physical Effectiveness and Self
Concept in Late Adolescents," Adolescence, Vol 11, No 43,
pp 313-326.
Levitt, Theodore (1965). Industrial Purchasing Behaviour, Bos-
ton: Harvard University Press.
Martin, Mary C and Kennedy, Patricia F (1993). "Advertising
and Social Comparison: Consequences for Female Pre-
adolescents and Adolescents," Psychology and Marketing, Vol
10, November/December, pp 513-530.
Martin, Mary C and Kennedy, Patricia F (1994a). "Social
Comparison and the Beauty of Advertising Models : The
Role of Motives for Comparison," in Allen, C T and John,
Roedder D (eds.), Advances in Consumer Research, Provo,
UT: Association for Consumer Research.
Martin, Mary C and Kennedy, Patricia F (1994b). "The
Measurement of Social Comparison to Advertising
Models: A Gender Gap Revealed," in Costa, J A (ed.),
Gender and Consumer Behaviour, Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
McCraqken, Grant (19S9). "Who is the Celebrity Endorser?
Cultural Foundations of the Endorsement Process," Journal
of Consumer Research, Vol 16, December, pp 310-321.
Miciak, Allan R and Shanklin, William L (1994). "Choosing
Celebrity Endorsers," Marketing Management, Vol 3, Winter,
pp 51-59.
Myers, Phillip N and Biocca, Frank A (1992). "The Elastic
Body Image: The Effect of Television Advertising and
Programming on Body Image Distortions in Young
Women," Journal of Communication, Vol 42, Summer, pp
108-133.
65 Vikalpa
Ohnian, R (1990). "Construction and Validation of a Scale
to Measure Celebrity Endorsers' Perceived Expertise,
Trustworthiness and Attractiveness,1' Journal of Advertising,
Vol 19, No 3, pp 39-52.
Ohnian, R (1991). "The Impact of Celebrity Spokespersons'
Perceived Image on Consumers' Intention to Purchase,"
Journal of Advertising Research, February-March, pp 46-53.
O'Keefe, Daniel J (1990). Persuasion Theory and Research,
Newbury Park, California: Sage.
Peterson, Robert A and Kerin, Roger A (1977). "The Female
Role in Advertisements: Some Experimental Evidence,"
Journal of Marketing, Vol 41, October, pp 59-63.
Peterson, Robert T (1987). "Bulimia and Anorexia in an
Advertising Context," Journal of Business Ethics, Vol 6, pp
495-504.
Richina, Marsha L (1991). "Social Comparison and the
Idealised Image of Advertising," Journal of Consumer
Research, Vol 18, June, pp 71-83.
Scott, Linda M (1991). "The Troupe: Celebrities as Dramatis
Personae in Advertisements," in Holman, Rebecca H and
Voi 26, No. 4, October-December 2001
Solomon, Michael R (eds.), Advances in Consumer Research,
Provo, UT: Association for Consumer Research.
Shermach, Kelly (1995). "Putting the 'Men' into Vitamin,"
Marketing News, February, Vol 27, p 39.
Spielman, H M (1987). "Pick Product Presenter Prudently,"
Marketing News, September Vol 8, p 5.
Taylor, Shelly E; Peplau, Letitia Anne and Sears, David O
(1997). Social Psychology, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Triandis, Harry C (1971). Attitudes and Attitude Change, New
York: John Wiley and Sons.
Tripp, C; Jensen, T and Carlson, L (1994). "The Effect of
Multiple Product Endorsement by Celebrities on Consum-
ers' Attitudes and Intentions," Journal ef Consumer Research,
Vol 20, March, pp 535-547.
Wilkie, Maxine (1995). "Scent of a Market," American De-
mographics, August, pp 40-49.
Zajonc, R B (1968). "Attitudinal Effects of Mere Exposure,"
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Monograph Supple-
ment-Part II, pp 1-29.
66 Vikalpa