Evs Notes 2

HS1201-EVS Unit I Chemistry Dept
1
UNIT I
DEFINITION:
The term Environment coined by Jacob Van Uerkul (1864 1944) is derived from French word environ
or environes meaning around, round about, to surround and to encompass. The sum of total of
all the living and non living things around influencing one another is known as environment.
Environment is defined as all external conditions and factors, living and nonliving (chemicals and
energy), that affect an organism or other specified system during its lifetime.
According to IUCN(International Union for Conservation of Nature), Environmental studies is the
process of recognizing values and clarifying concepts in order to develop skills and attitudes necessary to
understand and appreciate the interrelatedness among man, his culture and his bio physical surroundings.
Environmental studies entail practice in decision making and self formulation of a code of
behaviour about issues concurring environment policy.
Environmental Engineering is the application of engineering principles to the protection and
enhancement of the quality of the environment and to the enhancement and protection of public health
and welfare.
Environmental science is the study of the environment, its biotic and abiotic components and
their inter relationship.
Environmental science is a study of how the earth works, how we interact with the earth and how
to deal with environmental problems.
Environmental science is an interdisciplinary study that uses information from the physical
sciences (such as Biology, chemistry, and geology) and social sciences (such as economics, politics, and
ethics) to learn how the earth works, how humans interact with the earth, and how to deal with the
environmental problems we face.
Ecology is a biological science that studies the relationships between living organisms and their
environment.
Environmentalism is a social movement dedicated to protecting the earths life support systems
for us and other species.
SCOPE
The scope and objective of environment studies is to cultivate our public to be aware and
concerned about total environment and its associated problems and commitment to work individually and
collectively towards solutions of current problems and the prevention of new ones.
OBJECTIVES
To reduce the degree of uncertainty in life and living
To bring surface linkages between development and environment
To find ways of integrating environmental consideration in developmental planning
SCOPE OF ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES:
To get an awareness and sensitivity to the total environment and its allied problems.
Acquiring basic understanding of total environment problems and the responsible presence of
humanity in it
Inculcating a set of social values and strong feelings of environment concern.
To motivate the mankind in active participation in environment protection and improvement.
Developing skills to identify and solve environmental related problems.
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Ability to evaluate environmental programmes in terms of ecological, economic social, aesthetic
and educational factors.
Extend help to develop a sense of responsibility and urgency regarding environmental problem
and providing an opportunity to ensure appropriate action plans to solve them.
To promote the value and necessity of local, national, international solution for environmental
problems.
To help the public know the real causes of environmental problems and contribute towards solving
them.
To focus on plans for growth and development through environmental aspects.
To give a clear picture about the current potential of resources and environmental situations.
An environmental study is a long process of learning and it makes the man a more responsible
citizen. By this man can understand how to create a healthier environment.
Environmental studies are a continuous process aimed at creating an environmentally responsible
society.
IMPROTANCE OF ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES:
Through environmental studies one can understand how attitudes and values can affect the
environment at present and as well as in the future.
Environmental studies has a direct relation to the quality of life we live
Environmental studies relates to our surroundings which we observe daily but never think
seriously.
It not only gives more information about environment, but it implies getting right attitudes and
values suitable to environmental protection.
By teaching environment studies the people will understand the concept of need of development
without causing destruction to environment.
Environmental studies develop a concern and respect for the environment
It informs people as to how they can play an effective role in protecting the environment by
demanding changes in laws and enforcement systems.
NEED FOR PUBLIC AWARNESS
On conference on Environment and development held in Rio de Janerio in 1992 popularly known
as Earth summit and it is followed by the World summit on sustainable development at Johannes
burg in 2002 have highlighted key issues of global environmental concern and have attracted the attention
of the general public towards the deteriorating environment.
Any government at its own level cannot achieve the goals of sustainable development until the
public has a participatory role in it.
Public participation is possible only when the public is aware about the ecological and
environmental issues.
Drive by the government to ban the littering polythene cannot be successful until the public
understands the environment implication of the same.
Public has to be educated about the fact that if we are degrading our environment, we are actually
harming our own selves.
We are the part of the complex net work, where every component is interlinked.
The public participation is useful in law making process and controlling the pollution activities
Thus, the public participation plays a major role in the effective environmental management
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It is all the more important to educate the people that sometimes the adverse impact of
environment are not experienced or noticed until a threshold is crossed. So we may be caught
unawares by a disaster.
If we want to manage our planet earth, we have to make all the persons environmentally educated.
Environment is wrongly taken as fashion hardly realizing that it is our real life situation and our
sustenance and security are at stake.
Restoration is expected in the next 40 50 years, if we stop polluting the earth now.
Few have clean ideas about what needs to be done.
Environmental awareness campaigns exploited politically
ENVRIONMENTAL AWARNESS IS ESSENTIAL TO
1. Protect the atmosphere
2. Protect the land resources.
3. Conserve the biological diversity
4. Manage the bio technology and hazardous waste.
5. Prevent illegal movement of toxic product & wastes.
6. Improve the living standards.
7. Check Environmental degradation.
NATURAL RESOURCES
Earth depends on a large number of things and services provided by the nature. A resource is
anything obtained from the environment to meet our needs and wants. Material resources obtained
from the environment are classified as perpetual (such as sunlight, winds and flowing water),
renewable (such as fresh air and water, soils, forest products and food crops), or nonrenewable (such
as fossil fuels, metals and sand)
PERPETUAL RESOURCES:
On a human time scale it is renewed continuously e.g. solar energy. It also includes indirect forms
of solar energy such as winds and flowing water.
RENEWABLE RESOURCES:
Renewable resources can be replenished fairly rapidly through natural processes as long as it is not
used up faster than it is replaced. Renewable resources are inexhaustible and can be regenerated
within a given span of time e.g. forest, wild life, wind energy biomass energy, tidal energy hydro
power etc.
NONRENEWABLE RESOURCES:
Nonrenewable resources exist in a fixed quantity or stock in the earths crust. Nonrenewable
resources which cannot be regenerated within a short span of time e.g. fossil fuel like coal, petroleum
minerals etc. Once we exhaust these reserves the same cannot be replenished.
Even renewable resources can become non renewable if we exploit them to such extent that
their rate of consumption exceeds their rate of regeneration.
It is very important to protect and conserve our natural resources and use them in a judicious
manner so that we dont exhaust them.
It doesnt mean that we should stop using most of natural resources
We should use the resources in such a way that we always save enough of them for our future
generations.
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FOREST RESOURCES
Forest is one of the land area inhabited by dense growth of trees herbs & shrubs. Maximum
biodiversity has been noticed in the forest area.
Produce innumerable material good.
Provide environmental services essential for life.
About 1/3 of the worlds land area is forested which includes closed as well as open forests.
The cover of natural forest has declined over the years.
The greatest loss occurred in tropical Asia where 1/3
rd
of the forest resources have been destroyed.
USES OF FOREST:
Commercial uses:
Forest provide us a large number of commercial goods which include timber, firewood, pulpwood,
food items, gum, resins, non edible oils, rubber, fibers, lac, bamboo canes, fodder, medicine, drugs and
many more items, the total worth of which is estimated to be more than $ 300 billion per year.
Half of the timber cut each year is used as fuel for heating and cooking.
1/3
rd
of the harvest is used for building materials
1/6
th
of harvest is converted into pulp and used for paper.
Many Forest lands are used for mining, agriculture grazing and recreation and for development of dams. It
also serves as tourist spots by which government gets revenue annually.
Ecological uses:
A typical tree produces commercial goods work about $590 whereas it provides environmental
services worth nearly $ 196250.
Ecological services provided by our forests are as follows.
Production of oxygen:
The trees produce O
2
by photosynthesis which is so vital for life on this earth. They are
rightly called as earths lungs.
Reducing global warming:
The forest canopy act as a sink for CO
2
thereby reducing the problem of global warming
caused by green house gas CO
2
.
Wild life habitat:
Forests are the homes of millions of wild animals and plants. About 7 Million species are
found in the tropical forests alone.
Regulation of hydrological cycle:
Forests water sheds act, like giant sponges absorbing rainfall, slowing down the run off
and slowly releasing the water for recharge of springs.
Soil conservation:
Forests bind the soil particles tightly in their roots and prevent soil erosion. They also act
as wind breaks.
Pollution moderators:
Forests can absorb many toxic gases and can help in keeping the air pure. They have also
been reported to absorb noise and thus help in preventing air and noise pollution.
EXPLOITATION OF FOREST RESOURCES:
With growing civilization the demands for raw material like timber, pulp, minerals, fuel wood etc.,
shoot up resulting in large scale logging, mining and road building and clearing of forest.
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Our forests contribute substantially to the natural economy. Excessive use of fuel wood and
charcoal, expansion of urban, agricultural and industrial areas and over grazing have together led to over
exploitation of our forest leading to their rapid degradation.
In the world nearly about 30% of the area is covered by the forest. Developing countries are
rapidly over exploiting their forest wealth by the following two ways.
(i) Increasing agricultural production by destroying forests
(ii) Wood used as fuel.
It has been estimated that minimum area of forests required maintaining ecological balance is about
33% of total geographical area unfortunately at present it is only 22.19% in India which is considered to
be very low. The per capital forest land in India is 0.11 hectares as against the world average of 1.08
hectares.
It is reported that Central American countries may lose forests within next 50 years. Ethiopia has last
all but the remaining 3.5% of its forests. Srilanka may lose valuable tropical forest within a period of 20
years. Thailand lost 45% of it forest up to 1985. Indonesia is chopping rain forest at the rate of one
million hectares a year. In Philliphines, 60% of the forests have been cut during the last 30 years.
It is important to reduce the gap between demand and supply of forest material through regeneration
of forests.
DEFORESTATION:
The destruction of forests cover by the activities of man and domestic animals is called deforestation.
The total forest area of the world in 1900 was estimated to be 7000 million ha which was reduced to
2890 million ha in 1975 and fell down to just 2300 million ha by 2000.
Deforestation rate is relatively less in temperate countries but it is very alarming in tropical countries,
where it is as high as 40-50% and at the present rate it is estimated that in the next 60 years, we would
lose more than 90% of our tropical forests.
Now the rate of deforestation has been estimated to be between 25.55 ha / min. The deforestation in
India is about 3.5 million ha /year. Asia has lost almost 95% of its frontier forest.
MAJOR CAUSES OF DEFORESTATION:
1. Growth of human population:
Due to over population requirements of paper shelter, wood, timber, has been increased. Man
has utilized larger area of forests for housing agriculture, factories & railway tracts.
2. Shifting cultivation:
The replacement of natural forest for monoculture can lead disappearance of number of
plant and animal species. 300 million people lived by shifting cultivation. They are supposed
to clear 5 lakhs ha / annum.
3. Industries & Road, Dam construction:
It causes destruction of forest or submergence of forest under water. Hence developmental
activities in the forest area should be discouraged
4. Mining:
Mining activities destroys forest areas
5. Timber extraction:
Due to the increase in the population, the demand for wood also increases which led to
deforestation.
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6. Over grazing:
It exposes the soil to erosion by water and wind, compact the soil (which diminishes its
capacity to hold water) and is a major cause of desertification.
7. Forest fire:
Due to climatic change, human intervention and rise in temperature cause frequent forest
fires which lead deforestation.
8. Fuel requirement:
Increase in demand for fuel wood has shoot up to 300 500 Million tons in 2001,
compared to 65 Million ton during independence.
EFFECTS OF DEFORESTATION:
1. Soil erosion:
The fertile topsoil is eroded due to deforestation, which eventually leads to desertification.
6000 million tons of soil gets eroded every year in India.
2. Loss of biodiversity:
Destruction of habitat causes extinction of wild life, which in turn affects ecosystem.
3. Climate change:
Deforestation disrupts the climate pattern which cause drought in one area and heavy rain
in another area.
4. Global warming:
The cutting & burning of forest trees increase the CO
2
content in the atmosphere, which in
turn changes the global climate pattern, rising sea levels and depletion of protective ozone layer.
5. Loss of genetic diversity:
The destruction of our forest destroys the greatest store house of genetic diversity on earth,
which provides new food and medicine for the entire world.
6. Hydrological cycle disruption:
Deforestation shifts the hydrologic cycle which cause change in the rainfall pattern in turn
affects the food production.
7. Land slide and floods:
Due to the absence of the trees as barrier, the hilly regions suffer heavy floods and land slides
CASE STUDIES:
Deforestation in hilly regions:
Deforestation in Himalayas involves clearance of natural forest & Plantation of Monocultures like
Pinus, Roxburg, Eucalyptus, Camadulensis etc., have upset the ecosystem, by changing various soil and
biological properties.
The original rich germplasm is lost due to this activity. Areas are invaded by exotic weeds. Areas are not
able to recover & losing the fertility.
The entire west Khosi hill district of Megahalaya in NorthEastern Himalayas, Ladakh, parts of
Kumaon are now facing serious problems of deforestation.
Disappearing Tea gardens in Chhota Nagpur:
This hilly region used to be a good forested area, and used to receive fairly frequent afternoon
showers favouring tea plantation. Towards the turn of the century, following the destruction of forest,
rainfall decline in Chhota Nagpur to such an extent that tea garden also disappeared.
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PREVENTIVE MEASURES:
1. Creating Awareness
2. Strict implementation of law of forest conservation Act.
3. To counter deforestation, afforestation and social forestry should be adopted.
4. To discourage the Migration of people into the islands from Mainland.
TIMBER EXTRACTION:
Uses of timber: Pulp and paper, composite wood furniture, railways, boats and road construction.
CONSEQUENCES OF TIMBER EXTRACTION:
1. Deforestation
2. Soil erosion, loss of fertility, land slides and loss of biodiversity.
3. Loss of tribal culture & extinction of tribal people.
4. Reduce the thickness of the forest.
Indian Scenario:
Industries consume 28 Million cu.mts / year of wood, but annual forest growth is only about 12
Million cu.mts / year
MINING:
Mining is the process of extracting mineral resources and fossil fuels from the earth.
Surface Mining shallow deposits
Subsurface mining deep deposits
80,000ha land of the country is under the stress of mining activities.
Mining and its associated activities required removal of vegetation along with underlying soil
Mantle and overlying rock Masses, this result in defacing the topography and destruction of the landscape
in the area. Large scale deforestation has been repeated in Missouri and Dehradun valley due to
indiscriminate Mining of various minerals over a length of about 40 km. The forest area has declined at an
average rate of 33% and the increase in non forest area due to Mining activities resulted in unstable
zone leading to landslides.
Indiscriminate Mining in forest in Goa, 1961 destroyed more than 50,000 ha of forest land. Coal
mining in Raniganj cause deforestation. Mining of Magnesite and soap stones have destroyed 14 ha in
Khirakut, Kosi, Almora.
Mining of radioactive Mineral in Kerala, TamilNadu and Karnataka rose similar threats of
deforestation. Rich forest of Western Ghats is also facing the same threat due to Mining projects for
excavation of copper, chromite, bauxite, Magnesite
EFFECTS OF MINING:
1. Mining activity not only destroy trees. It also pollutes soil, water, with heavy Metal toxins that are
almost impossible to remove.
2. Destruction of natural habitat
3. Due to continuous removal of Minerals & forest covers, trenches are formed on ground leading to
water logged area which in turn contaminate ground water
4. Noise pollution due to Mining operations
5. Lands slides may also occur as a result of continuous Mining in forest area.
6. During Mining, vibrations are developed which leads to earthquake
7. When materials are distributed in significant quantities, during mining process large quantities of
sediments are transported by water erosion.
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DAMS AND THEIR EFFECTS ON FOREST AND PEOPLE:
India has more number of river valley projects (RVP) referred to as Temples of Modern India.
Dams are responsible for the destruction of vast areas of forest.
India has more than 1550 large dams. Maximum number of dams in the state of Maharastra (600)
followed by Gujarat (more than 250) and Madhya Pradesh (130). The highest one is Tehri dam on river
Bhagirathi in Uttranchal & the largest in terms of capacity in Bhakra dam on river Sutlej in Himachal
Pradesh.
Big dams have been in sharp focus of various Environmental groups all over the world which is
mainly because of several ecological problems related to tribal or native people associated with them.
EFFECTS OF DAM ON FOREST:
Large scale devastation of forests takes place which breaks the natural and ecological balance of
the region.
Big RVP also caused water logging which leads to reduce fertility of land.
Floods, drought & land slides become more prevalent in mining area
The impounding of water in the dam may create Major / Minor earthquakes and leads to flood in
the down stream side of a dam.
Forests are the repositories of invaluable gifts of nature in the form of biodiversity. By destroying
them, we are going to lose these species even before knowing them.
These species could be having marvelous economic or medicinal value and deforestation results in
loss of their store house of species, which have evolved over millions of years in single stroke.
EFFECTS OF DAM ON TRIBAL PEOPLE
1. The greatest social cost of big dam is wide spread displacement of tribal people.
2. The displacement & cultural change affects the tribal people mentally (or) physically. They do not
accommodate the modern food habits and life styles.
3. Tribal people may be ill treated by modern society
4. Tribal people & their culture cannot be questioned and destroyed.
5. Many of the displaced people were not recognized and resettled (or) compensated (Environmental
refugees)
WORLD FOREST DAY MARCH 21
st
Sardar Sarovar Dam (uprooted forests and Tribes):
A case study:
The dam is situated on river Narmada and is spread over three states of Gujarat,
Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh. Although the project is aimed at providing irrigation water,
drinking water and electricity to three states, the environmental impacts of the project have raised
challenging questions.
A total of 1, 44,731 ha of land will be submerged by the dam, out of which 56,547 ha is
forest land. A total of 573 villages are to be submerged by the Narmadha Dam.
Submergence of about 40,000 ha of forest under Narmada sagar, 13,800 ha under Sardar
Sarovar and 2,500 ha under Omkareshwar would further create pressure on remaining forest areas
in adjoining areas submergence area is very rich in wild life e.g. tigers, panthers, bears, wolves,
pangolins, hyenas, jackals, flying squirrels, antelopes, black bucks, chinkara, marsh crocodiles,
turtles etc. Many of these species are listed in schedule 1 & 11 of wild life protection Act, 1972.
Thus massive loss of these wild life species is apprehended due to the devastation of the forest
under the project.
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As per the estimates of the Institute of urban Affairs, New Delhi, the Narmadha Valley
project will lead to eventual displacement of more than one million people, which is probably the
largest rehabilitation issue ever encountered as per the world Bank. Uprooting of the tribes and
their forced shifting in far flung areas may not be easily adjusted to. Besides serious economic
deprivation, the displacement will affect the tribal peoples culture, their beliefs, myths and rituals,
festivals, songs and dances, all closely associated with the hills, forests and streams. Most of these
tribes are being uprooted from a place where they have lived for generation. The displaced
persons have to undergo hardship and distress for the sake of development and prosperity of a
larger section of the society. It is therefore the duty of the project proponents and government to
pay maximum attention for proper rehabilitation of the displaced tribes.
WORLD WATER DAY MARCH 22
WATER RESOURCES
About 71% of the earth surface is salt water. All the organisms are made up mostly of
water.
A tree is about 60% water by weight
Animals having 50 65 % water.
It plays a major role in sculpting earths surface, Moderating climate, diluting pollutants.
IMPORTANT PROPERTIES OF WATER:
There are strong forces of attraction between molecules of water (Hydrogen bond)
Water exists as a liquid over a wide temperature range because of the strong forces of attraction
between water Molecules.
Its high boiling point 100C and low freezing point 0
o
C means that H
2
O remains a liquid in most
climates on the earth.
Water changes temperature slowly because it can store a large amount of heat without a large
change in temperature. High heat capacity helps (1 cal / 1C/ 1 gm)
(i) Protect living organism from temperature fluctuation.
(ii) Moderates climates
(iii) Excellent coolant.
Evaporating liquid water takes large amounts of heat because of strong force of attraction between
its molecules.
1. H
2
O absorbs large amount of heat as it changes into H
2
O vapor and releases this
heat as the Vapour condenses back to liquid
2. This helps distribute heat throughout the world
It can dissolve a variety of compounds
- It enables it to carry dissolved nutrients to tissues.
- It flushes the waste products out of those tissues.
- It serves as an all purpose cleaner
- It helps to remove and dilute the water soluble wastes of civilization.
- It can ionize water Molecules into H
+
& OH
-
- To maintain a balance between acids & bases in cell organism
- Water filters out the wavelengths of UV radiation that would harm some aquatic organism.
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Strong attractive forces between the molecules of water causes it surface to contract (high surface
Tension) and to adhere to and coat a solid (capillary action) (73 dynes /cm at 18C surface
tension of water)
Water expands when it freezes and become less dense than water. Otherwise lakes and streams in
cold climate would freeze solid and lose most of their current forms of aquatic life.
- H
2
O expands on freezing can break pipes (soil formation).
- Water is the life blood of biosphere
- Water is one of our poorly Managed resources.
- We waste it and pollute it we charged too little for making it available. This encourages
still greater waste and pollution of this resource, for which we have no substitute.
- Benjamnin Franklin statement It is not until the well runs dry that we know the worth of
H
2
O.
AVAILABILITY OF FRESH WATER:
Only a tiny fraction of the planets abundant H
2
O is available to us as fresh water.
About 97.4% by volume is found in the oceans and is too salty for drinking irrigation or industries.
Most of remaining 2.6% that is fresh water is locked up in ice caps or glacier or in ground water
too deep or salty to be used.
All water Fresh water Readily accessible water
Thus the only about 0.014% of earths total volume of water is easily available to us as soil
Moisture, usable Ground water, water vapour, lakes and streams. If worlds H
2
O supply were only 100L,
our usable supply of fresh water would be only 0.014 litres (2.5 tea spoons)
This water is continuously collected, purified & recycled & distributed in the solar powered
hydrologic cycle.
This works only as long as we do not overload water system with slowly degradable & non
degradable wastes or with draw water from underground supplies faster than it is replenished.
Differences in average annual precipitation divide the world country and people into water haves and
have nots.
For e.g. Canada with only 0.5% worlds population has 20% of worlds usable water, whereas
China with 21% of worlds population has only 7% of supply.
Global warming can increase global rates of evaporation, shift precipitation pattern and disrupt
H
2
O supplies and thus food supplies.
Some areas will get more precipitation and some less, some rivers flow will change.
O
c
e
a
n
9
7
.
4
%
Fresh water2.6%
Ice caps &
glaciers1.98%
Ground water 0.592%
0.014%
Soil moisture
0.005%
Lakes 0.007%
Water vapour
0.001%
Rivers 0.0001%
Biota 0.0001%
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THE HYDROLOGIC CYCLE:
In hydrologic cycle, H
2
O continuously moves from the atmosphere to the land, plants, oceans and
fresh water bodies and then back into the atmosphere. It consists of number of stages.
1. The largest amount of water transferred in any segment of the total cycle is those involved in the
direct evaporation from the sea to the atmosphere and in precipitation back to the sea.
Evaporation:
By which H
2
O changes from liquid to the gaseous form.
Precipitation:
It includes any liquid H
2
O or ice that falls to the surface through atmosphere.
2. The passage of H
2
O to the atmosphere through leaf pores is called transpiration and term
evapotranspiration encompasses the process by which water evaporates from the land surface and
plants. Evapotranspiration combines with the precipitation of water onto the land surface to play a
quantitatively smaller, but possibly more important.
3. If surplus precipitation at the land surface does not evaporate. It is removed via the surface
network of streams & rivers, a phenomenon called runoff. The runoff includes some H
2
O that
flows beneath the surface & eventually find its way to rivers & Oceans
It can be viewed as closed system, in which water is continuously moved among the component
spheres of earth system.
Water circulates between the lower atmosphere, upper Lithosphere, the plants of the
biosphere and the oceans of hydrosphere. The system can also be split into two subsystems. One
consisting of the precipitation and evaporation over the oceans and the other involving
evapotranspiration and precipitation over land areas. The two subsystems are linked by horizontal
movement in atmosphere and by surface runoff flows.
The time required for H
2
O to traverse the full cycle can be quite brief. A molecule of
water can pass from ocean to the atmosphere and back again within a matter of days. Over land,
cycle is less rapid. Ground water goes into soil or subsurface and can remain there for weeks (or)
months.
The circulation is even slower where H
2
O in the solid form of ice is concerned. Some H
2
O
has been locked up in Major ice sheets and glaciers for many thousand years.
Surface Water:
Surface run off precipitation that does not infiltrate the ground or return to the atmosphere or
return to the atmosphere by evaporation (including transpiration). This runoff flows into streams, lakes,
wetlands, estuaries and reservoirs.
Watershed:
A water shed, also called a drainage basin is a region from which water drains into a stream, Lake,
reservoir, wetland, estuary, or other body of surface water.
Ground Water:
Some precipitation infiltrates the ground and percolates downward through voids (pores, fractures,
crevices, and other spaces) in soil and rock. The water in these voids is called groundwater.
Aquifers:
Porous, water Saturated layers of sand, gravel, or bedrock through which groundwater flows are
called Aquifers.
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Use and over Utilization of fresh water:
Use of fresh water supply:
During the last century the human population tripled. According to a 2002 report by the United
Nations, during this period our global water withdrawing (use) increased sevenfold and per capita
withdrawal quadrupled. As a result, we now with draw about 35% of the worlds reliable runoff. We
lease another 20% of this runoff in streams to transport goods by boats, dilute pollution, and sustain
fisheries and wildlife. Thus we directly or indirectly are already using about 55% of the worlds reliable
run off of surface water. Because of increased population growth and economic development, global
withdrawal rates of surface water could reach more than 70% of the reliable surface runoff by 2025 and
exceed such runoff in growing number areas. Uses of withdrawn water vary from one region to another
and from one country to another. Worldwide, about 69% of water withdrawn each year from rivers, lakes
and aquifers is used to irrigate 17% of the worlds cropland and produce about 40% of the worlds food.
Industry uses about 23% of the water withdrawn each year, and cities and residences use the
remaining 8% Agriculture and manufacturing use large amounts of water.
Some of the water withdrawn from a source may be returned to that source of or reuse.
Consumptive water use occurs when water withdrawn becomes unavailable for reuse in the basin from
which it was removed mostly because of losses such as evaporation or contamination.
FRESHWATER SHORTAGES:
According to Swedish hydrologist Malin Falkenmark, there are four causes of water scarcity i) a
dry climate, ii) drought (a period of 21 days or longer in which precipitation is at least 70% lower and
evaporation is higher than normal), iii) desiccation (drying of exposed soil because of such activities as
deforestation and overgrazing by livestock), and iv) water stress (low per capitation availability of water
caused by increasing number of people relying on limited runoff levels.
Increase Freshwater Supplies
There are several ways to increase the supply of freshwater in a particular area.
Build dams and store reservoirs to run off for release as needed.
To bring in surface water from another area.
Withdraw groundwater and
Convert salt water to fresh water (desalination).
Other strategies are to reduce water waste and import food to reduce water use in growing food. Each
imported metric ton of grain saves roughly, 1,000 metric tons of water needed to produce the grains.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Large Dams and Reservoirs:
Large dams and reservoirs have benefits and drawbacks. Their main purpose is to capture and
store run off and releases it as needed for controlling floods, producing hydroelectric power and supplying
H
2
O for irrigation and for towns and cities.
Reservoirs also provide recreational activities such as swimming, fishing and boating.
Advantages:
1. Generates electricity at cheaper rates.
2. Reduces dependence on coal.
3. Reduces air pollution.
4. Reduces CO
2
emission
5. Reduces chances of downstream flooding
6. Reduces river sitting below dam by eroded soil.
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7. Increases irrigation water for cropland below dam
8. Useful for recreation and fishing.
Disadvantages:
1. Floods large areas of cropland and forests
2. Displaces people
3. Increase water pollution because of reduced water flow
4. Reduce deposits of nutrient rich sediments below dam
5. Increases salt water introduced into drinking water near mouth of river because of decreased water
flow.
6. Disrupts spawning and migration of some fish below dam.
7. Modifies ecosystem and hydrologic regimes in areas both upstream and down stream.
8. Storing water create hydraulic pressure and leads to seismic tremors.
9. Structural defects in the dam, cause it to collapse suddenly and destroy many living organisms
10. High Cost.
With drawing Ground water
Aquifer provides drinking water for about 1/4
th
of the worlds people.
Advantages:
1. Good source of water for drinking and irrigation
2. Available year around
3. Exist almost everywhere
4. Renewable if not over pumped or contaminated
5. No evaporation losses.
6. Cheaper to extract than most surface water.
Disadvantages:
1. Aquifer depletion from over pumping
2. Sinking of tend when water removed
3. Polluted aquifers instable for decades or centuries
4. Salt water intrusion into drinking water supplies near coastal areas.
5. Reduced water flows into streams, lakes, estuaries and wet lands.
6. Increased cost, energy use, and contamination from deeper wells.
Ground Water Depletion:
Prevention:
1. Waste Less Water
2. Subsidize water conservation
3. Ban new wells in aquifers near surface water.
4. Buy and retire ground water withdrawal rights in critical areas.
5. Do not grow water intensive crops in dry areas
6. Reduce birth rates.
Control:
1. Raise price of water to discourage waste
2. Tax water pumped from wells near surface waters.
3. Set and enforce minimum stream flow levels.
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Reducing water Waste:
World Resource Institute estimates that 65- 70% of the water people use throughout the world is
lost through evaporation, leaks and other losses.
It is economically and technically feasible to reduce such water losses to 15% thereby meeting
most of the worlds water needs for the foreseeable future.
Prevention method for reducing water in Irrigation:
1. Lining Canals bringing water to irrigation ditches
2. Irrigation at night to reduce evaporation.
3. Using soil and satellite sensors and computer systems to monitor soil moisture and add water only
when necessary.
4. Poly culture
5. Organic farming
6. Growing water efficient crops using drought resistant and salt tolerant crop varieties
7. Irrigation with treated urban waste water
8. Importing water intensive crops.
Reducing Water waste in Industries, homes and businesses:
1. Redesign manufacturing process
2. Landscape yards with plants that required little water
3. Use drip irrigation
4. Fix water Leaks
5. Use water meter and charge for all municipal water use.
6. Raise water Prices.
7. Require water conservation in water short cities.
8. Using water saving toilets, shower heads and front loading clothes washers.
9. Collect and reuse house hold water to irrigate lawns and non edible plants.
10. Purify and reuse water for houses, apartments and office buildings.
Case Study:
The Cauvery water dispute:
Out of Indias18 major rivers 17 are shared between different states. In all these cases, there are
intense conflicts over these resources, which hardly seem to resolve. The Cauvery river water is bone
of contention between TamilNadu and Karanataka and the fighting is almost hundred years old.
TamilNadu occupying, the downstream region of the river wants water use regulated in the upstream,
whereas the upstream state Karnataka refuses to do so and claims its primacy over the river as
upstream user. The river water is almost fully utilized and both the states have increasing demands for
agriculture and industry. On June 2, 1990 the Cauvery H
2
O dispute tribunal was set up which through
an interim award directed Karnataka to ensure that 205 TMCF of water was made available in Mettur
every year till settlement was reached. In 1995, situation turned into crisis due to delayed rain and an
expert committee was set up to look into the matter which found that there was a complex cropping
pattern in Cauvery basin. Proper selection of crop varieties optimum use of H
2
O better rationing,
rational sharing patterns and pricing of water are suggested as some measures to solve the problems.
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FOOD RESOURCES
Human have depend on three systems for their food supply. Croplands mostly produce grains and
provide about 76% of the worlds food.
Range lands produce meat mostly from grazing live stock and supply about 17% of the worlds
food. Oceanic fisheries supply about 7% of the worlds food.
Since 1950 these has been a staggering increase in global food production from all three systems,
because of technological advantages.
To feed the worlds 9.3 million people projected by 2050, we must produce and equitably
distribute more food than has been produced since agriculture began about 10000, years ago and do this in
an environmentally sustainable manner.
Other analysts contend that environmental degradation, pollution, lack of water for irrigation,
overgrazing by live stock, overfishing and loss of vital ecological services may limit future food
production.
A key problem is that human activities continue to take over or degrade more of plants net primary
productivity.
The earth has perhaps 30,000 plant species with parts that people can eat. However, only 15 plant
and 8 terrestrial animal species supply an estimated 90% of our global intake of calories.
Just three grain crops wheat, rice and corn provide more than half the calories people consume.
These grains are annual. Two thirds of the worlds population survives primarily on traditional grams
mostly because they cannot afford meat. As incomes rise, people consume more grain, but indirectly in
the form of meat, eggs, milk cheese and other products of grain eating domesticated live stock.
Fish and shell fish are an important source of food for about 1 billion people in Asia & in coastal
areas of developing countries. But on global scale, it supply only 7% of the worlds food.
World food problems:
The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of UN estimated that on an average of the
minimum calorie intake on a global scale is 2500 calories/day People receiving less than 90% these
minimum dietary calories are called under nourished and if it is less than 80% they are said to be seriously
undernourished. Besides the minimum calorie intake we also need proteins, minerals etc. Deficiency or
lack of nutrition often leads to malnutrition resulting in severe diseases.
During the lost 50 years world grain production has increased almost three times, thereby
increasing per capita production by about 50%.
But at the same time population growth increased at such a rate in LDC (Less developed
countries) that it outstripped food production.
Every year 40 million people die of undernourishment and malnutrition (fifty percent of which are
young children between 1 to 5 years.
This means that every year our food problem is killing as many people as were killed by the
atomic bomb dropped on Hiroshima during World War II.
These startling statistical figures more than emphasize the need to increase our food production,
equitably distribute it and also to control population growth.
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Indian Scenario:
Although India is the third largest producer of staple crops an estimated 300 million Indians are
still under nourished. India has only half as much land as USA but it has nearly three times population to
feed.
The World food summit, 1996 has set the target to reduce the number of under nourished to just
half by 2015, which still means 410 million undernourished people or earth.
Charges caused by Agriculture:
Agriculture has significant harmful effects on air, soil, water & biodiversity.
Some analyst believes these harmful environmental effects can be overcome and will not limit
future food production. Other analysts disagree. The future ability to produce more food will be limited
by a combination of environmental factors. They include soil erosion, desertification, salinization and
water logging of irrigated land, water deficits and droughts loss of wild species that provide the genetic
resources for improved forms of foods and the effects of global warming in some parts of the world.
According to a 2002 study by UN Department, close to 30% of worlds cropland has been
degraded by sail erosion, salinity and chemical pollution and 17% has been seriously degraded.
Major Environmental effects of Agriculture:
1. Soil Problems:
a) Soil erosion
b) Loss of fertility
c) Salinization
d) Water logging
e) Desertification
2. Water Problems:
a) Aquifer depletion
b) Increased runoff and flooding from land cleared to grow crops.
c) Sediment pollution from erosion
d) Fish kills from pesticides
e) Surface & ground water pollution from pesticides and fertilizers.
f) Over fertilization of Lakes and slow moving rivers from run off of nitrates and phosphates from
fertilizer livestock wastes and food processing wastes.
3.Bio diversity loss
a) Loss and degradation of habitat from clearing grasslands and forests and draining wetlands
b) Killing of wild predators to protect stock
c) Loss of genetic diversity from replacing thousands of wild crop strains with a few mono culture
strains.
4. Air pollution:
a) Green house gas emission from fossil fuel use
b) Other air pollutants from fossil fuel use
c) Pollution from pesticide sprays.
5.Human Health :
a) Nitrates in drinking water
b) Pesticide residues in drinking water food and air
c) Contamination of drinking and swimming water with disease organisms from live stock wastes.
d) Bacterial contamination of meat
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Effects of over grazing:
Overgrazing can limit livestock production. Overgrazing occurs when too many animals graze for
too long and exceed the carrying capacity of a grassland area. Excessive numbers of domestic livestock
feeding for too long in particular area causes most overgrazing.
Such overgrazing lowers the net primary productivity of grassland vegetation and reduces grass cover. It
also and exposes the soil to erosion by water and wind, compacts the soil (which diminishes its capacity
to hold water) and is a major cause of desertification.
Some grass land can suffer from under grazing where; absence of grazing for long periods (at least
5 years) can reduce the net primary productivity of grassland Vegetation and grass cover. Moderate
growing of such areas removes accumulation of standing dead material and stimulates new biomass
production.
Modern Agriculture and its impacts
It makes use of hybrid seeds of selected and single crop variety, high tech equipment and lots of
energy subsidies in the form of fertilizers, pesticides and irrigation water.
i) Impact related to high yielding varieties (HYV)
The uses high yielding varieties (HYV) encourage monoculture. Incase of an attack by some
pathogen, there is total devastation of the crop by the disease due to exactly uniform conditions which
help in rapid spread of disease.
ii) Fertilizer related Problems
a) Micronutrient imbalance:
Excessive use of fertilizers cause micronutrient imbalance. For e.g. excessive fertilizer use in
Punjab and Haryana has caused deficiency of the Micronutrient Zinc in the soils, which is affecting
productivity of the soil.
b) Nitrate Pollution:
Nitrogenous fertilizers applied in the field often reach deep into the soil and ultimately
contaminate the ground water. When their concentration exceeds 25 mg /l, they become the cause of a
serious health hazard called blue baby syndrome or methaemoglobinemia and cause death in infants.
c. Eutrophication:
Excessive use of nitrogen and Phosphate fertilizers in the agricultural fields leads to another
problem (eutrophication). A large proportion of N and P used in crop fields is washed off along with run
off water reach the water bodies causing over nourishment of the lakes a process known as
Eutrophication. Due to eutrophication the lakes get invaded by algal blooms. They are toxic & badly
affect the food chain. The algal species quickly complete there life cycle and die thereby adding a lot of
dead organic matter. The fishes are also killed. Oxygen is consumed in the process of decomposition and
very soon the water gets depleted of dissolved oxygen. This causes an anaerobic condition where,
pathogenic anaerobic bacteria can survive.
iii) Pesticide related problems:
Thousands of types of pesticides are used in agriculture. The first generation pesticides include
chemicals like sulphur, arsenic, lead or mercury to kill the pest. DDT belongs to second generation
pesticide. After 1940, a large number of synthetic pesticides came into use. Although these pesticides
have gone a long way in protecting our crops from huge losses occurring due to pests, yet they have a
number of side effects as discussed below.
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a.Creating resistance in Pests and producing new pests:
Some individuals of pest species usually survive even after Pesticides spray. The survivors
give rise to highly resistant generation. Pests which have become immune to all types of Pesticides are
known as super pests.
b. Death of non target organism:
Many insecticides are broad spectrum poisons which not only kill the target species but also
several non target species that are useful to us.
c. Biological Magnification:
Many of Pesticides are non bio degradable and keep on accumulating in the food chain a process
called biological magnification
Salinity:
Approximately 17% of the worlds cropland that is irrigated produces almost 40% of the worlds
food. Irrigated land can produce crop yields two or three times greater than those from rain watering.
But irrigation has a downside. Most irrigation water is a dilute solution of various salts, picked up
as the water flows over or through soil and rocks. Small quantities of these salts are essential nutrients for
plants, but they are toxic in large amounts.
Irrigation water not absorbed into the soil evaporates leaving behind a thin crust of dissolved salts
in the top soil. This accumulation of salts is called salinization, which stunts crop growth, lowers crop
yields and eventually kills plants and ruins the land.
According to a 1995 study, severe salinization has reduced yields on 21% of the worlds irrigated
cropland and another 30% has been moderately salinized. The most severe salinization occurs in Asia
especially in china, India, and Pakistan.
Water Logging:
Farmers often apply large amounts of irrigation water to leach salts deeper into the soil. Without
adequate drainage, however water accumulates underground and gradually raises the water table.
Saline water then envelops the deep roots of plants, lowering their productivity and killing them
after prolonged exposure. At least one tenth of all irrigated land world wide suffers from water logging
and the problems is getting worse. Under water logged conditions pore spaces in the soil get fully
drenched with water and soil air gets depleted. Water table rises while the roots of plants do not get
adequate air for respiration Mechanical strength of the soil declines, crop plants get lodged and crop yield
falls.
Soil Salinization:
Prevention:
1. Reduce irrigation
2. Switch to salt tolerant crops such as (barley, cotton, sugar beet)
Control
1. Flushing soil (expensive and wastes water)
2. Not growing crops for 2- 5 years
3. Installing underground drainage system (expensive)
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Sustainable Agriculture
Components of more sustainable, low through put agriculture
More Less
1. High yield poly culture 1. Soil erosion
2. Organic fertilizers 2.Soil Salinization
3. Biological pest Control 3.Aquifier depletion
4. Integrated Pest Management 4.Over grazing
5. Irrigation efficiency 5.Over fishing
6. Perennial crops 6.Loss of biodiversity
7. Crop rotation 7.Loss of Prime cropland
8. Use of more water efficient crops 8.Food waste
9. Soil conservation 9.Subsidies for unsustainable farming and
fishing
10. Subsidies for more sustainable farming
and fishing
10.Population growth
11.Poverty
Case Study:
Salinity and water logging in Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan:
The first alarming report of salt affected wasteland formation in connection with irrigation practices
came from Haryana (then Punjab) in 1858. It was reported that several villages in Panipat, Rohtak and
Delhi lying in command area of western Yamuna Canal were suffering from destructive saline
efflorescence. The Reh Committee in 1886 draw the attention of the government on some vital points
showing a close relationship between irrigation, drainage and spread of reh and usar soils.
The foods of 1947, 1950, 1952, 1954 56 in Punjab resulted in aggravated water logging with
serious drainage problems introduction of canal irrigation in 1.2 m ha in Haryana resulted in rise in water
table followed by water logging and salinity in many irrigated areas causing huge economic losses as
a result of fall in crop productivity. Rajasthan too has suffered badly in this regard following the biggest
irrigation project Indira Gandhi Canal Project and the suffering of a big area in western Rajasthan have
changed from a condition of water starved wasteland to that of a water soaked wasteland.
ENERGY RESOURCES
Energy is capacity to do work. Energy resources are classified into renewable energy resources and non
renewable energy resources.
Non renewable energy resources are finite and cannot be replaced after being used.
E.g. fossil fuel, natural gas etc
Renewable energy resources are indefinitely renewable or naturally replenished after being used
by man and are not likely to be exhausted by mans use E.g. Sunlight, wind, tide, biomass etc.
Non Renewable energy
Main sources of energy in the industrialized world are fossil fuel and Mineral fuels
Carbon containing natural resources- include solid (coal), liquid (Petrol) and gas (Natural gas) fuel.
Formed from fossilised remains of pre historic plants and animals
Coal
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- most common source of energy
- 60% of commercial energy consumption is met by coal
- Indian stands 5
th
place.
- Different types of coal Anthracite (high quanlity coal, high heat content) Bituminous,
high heat content as well as high sulphur content) lignite ( low heat content ) peat (low heat
content )
- Coal is Pollutant, when burnt it produces CO
2
and CO
Petroleum:
- Most important component of commercial energy 40% energy fed by Petroleum
- High heat content
- Burns without ash or smoke.
- Produce Pollutants such as sulphur oxides CO, Lead etc.
Natural gas:
- an alternative substitute for oil
- It is one of the cleanest fossil fuel
- It burns completely leaving no ash or smoke
- High heat content.
- Transportation of gas cost is high
- Large reserves are estimated to be located in inaccessible areas.
Renewable energy Sources:
(Non Conventional energy source) Can be renewed again and again either by fostering their growth
with efficient management or they may be available in nature permanently without depletion.
Non Conventional energy: to conserve conventional energy resource and to meet the energy
crisis, efforts were made for developing new sources of energy. These are called non conventional
energy sources.
E.g. Solar, wind, tidal, biogas & geothermal
Growing energy needs:
Development in different sectors relies largely upon energy. Agriculture, Industry mining,
transportation, lighting, cooling & heating in buildings all need energy.
With demands of growing population the world is facing further energy deficit.
Fossil fuels at present are supplying 95% of the commercial energy of the world resources.
Developed countries like U.S.A. & Canada constitute about 5% of the worlds population, but
consume one fourth of global energy resources.
An average person there Ethiopia, Nepal & Bhutan consumes less than 1 GJ in a year.
Our life style and standards of living are closely related to energy needs.
Alternate energy sources:
Solar energy:
A solar collector is basically a flat box and are composed of three main parts, a transparent cover, tubes
which carry a coolant and an insulated back plate. The solar collector works on the green house effect
principle; solar radiation incident upon the transparent surface of the solar collector is transmitted through
though this surface. The inside of the solar collector is usually evacuated, the energy contained within the
solar collect is basically trapped and thus heats the coolant contained within the tubes. The tubes are
usually made from copper, and the backplate is painted black to help absorb solar radiation. The solar
collector is usually insulated to avoid heat losses.
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Active solar water heating
The main components on an active solar water heating system are
Solar collector to capture the suns energy and to transfer is to the coolant medium
A circulation system that moves the fluid between the solar collector and the storage tank
Storage tank
Back up heating system
Control system to regulate the system operation
The two main types of solar water heating systems are the closed loop system and the open loop system.
The open loop system used water as the coolant, the water circulates between the solar collector and the
storage tank.
There are two main types of open loop system these are the draindown system and the recirculating
system, the main principle behind both systems is the activation of circulation from the collector to the
storage tank when the temperature within the solar collector reaches a certain value.
In the drain down system a valve is used to allow the solar collector to fill with water when the collector
reaches a certain temperature.
In the recirculating system water is pumped through the collector when the temperature in the storage
tank reaches a certain critical value.
In applications where there is likely to be a temperature drop below zero degrees then it is necessary to
use a closed loop system. The main difference between the open loop system is the water is replaced with
a coolant which will not freeze in the temperature range which the solar collector may be subject to. The
coolant will usually be refrigerant, oil or distilled water. Closed loop systems are generally more costly
than their open loop counter parts and great care must be taken to avoid contamination of the water with
refrigerant. The energy captured by the coolant is then transferred to the hot water via a heat exchanger. In
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a drainback system the coolant may be distilled water. The system works on the principle that there is
only water in the collector when the pump is operating. This has the benefit that the coolant used in the
system will not have the chance to cool down during the night when temperature may drop to a level
which may cause the coolant to increase in density and thus perhaps cause is not be as free flowing as it
should. The only necessary feature on the drainback system is that the solar collectors are elevated from
the heat exchanger or drainbak tank in order for the coolant to flow out of the collector. This system again
works on the principle that the water is circulated between the collector and the drainback tank when the
designated temperature is reached between the solar collector and the hot water.
Active solar space heating
The system components in a space heating application are the same for water heating with the addition of
radiators for space heating or under floor heating coils or even forced air systems.
A radiator system will generally work in a very similar manner to the hot water application, the main
difference is the inclusion of a boiler, heated water from the collector is passed through the heat
exchanger or drainback tank and is then passed to a boiler with is used to supplement the water hearing
requirements before passing into the radiators to be used for space heating.
Air distribution systems.
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Again the air distribution system works in a manor very similar to the hot water system, the main
difference is the inclusion of a blower and an air duct. The system uses an additional controlled which
will allow air flow over the coil when the temperature in the storage tank is high enough that passing air
over the coils in the return duct of the apparatus will allow the system to make a positive contribution to
the heating space heating demand.
In large commercial or industrial applications system design is slightly different from residential
applications. It is worth noting that the temperature rise across a collector is fairly constant to use an
example if the temperature of supply to the collector is around 60F and the temperature of return is
around 73oC or the return is 173F and the supply is 160C, this basically means that high and low
temperature applications should not be put in series inside a loop. The low temperature application would
basically drag down the higher temperature application. Vacuum collectors are excellent performers in
high temperature applications the collector loop should be dedicated to the higher temperature application
until the load is satisfied. In applications such as for hospitals, hotels or commercial office blocks are may
be necessary for the installation of two or more tanks connected in series.
1. storage tank 2. preheat tank 3. cold feed 4.mixing valve 5. supply and return to collector 6. hot water
out
system operation: Hot water from the collector passes through the coil in tank one (1), Then, depending
on it's temperature, it is diverted by a three way valve (4) to either: the coil in tank (2) if it is above the set
temperature, (meaning tank (1) is hot) or the collector, if it is below the set temperature of the mixing
valve.
Commercial and industrial design considerations: The system can be expanded to include more than one
preheat tanks, the heat exchange coils are linked by three way valves and the water which is to be heated
runs in series through the tanks in the opposite direction. The three way valve can either be thermally
controlled or electrically operated. No more than 100 tubes should be plumbed in series. Care must be
taken when designing the pipe work in each section to ensure that each section receives equal flow.
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Advantages Disadvantages
Save money Making solar cells produces toxic chemicals
Reduce air pollution 99% less than coal Solar systems last only 30 40 years.
Greatly reduce CO
2
emissions Solar cells & Solar thermal take large
amounts of land because of diffuse nature of
sunlight.
Last as long as coal and nuclear plants Can damage fragile desert ecosystem used to
collect Solar energy
Back up and storage device available (gas
turbine, batteries, flywheel)
Need back up systems at night and during
cloudy and rainy weather.
Back up need reduced by distributing and
staring solar produced H
2
gas
Solar cells & solar thermal systems still two
costly.
Solar energy:
1. Passive solar heating system.
2. Active Solar heating system.
3. Passive solar heating system absorbs and stores heat from the sun directly within a structures.
4. Active solar heating system collectors absorb solar energy and a fan or a pump supplies part of
building space heating or water heating needs.
Passive SHS
Energy efficient windows and attached green houses face the sun to collect solar energy by direct
gain walls and floors of concrete, brick, store, water in metal or plastic container store much of the
collected solar energy as heat and release it slowly through out the day and night.
Active SHS:
Several connected collectors are usually mounted on the roof with an unobstructed exposure to the
sun some of heat can be used directly. The rest can be stored in insulated tanks containing rocks, water or
a heat absorbing chemical for release needed. It can also supply hot water.
Passive or Active Solar heating
Energy is free Need access to sun 60 % of time.
Net energy is moderate (active ) to high
(passive
Blockage of sun access by other structures.
Quick Installation Need heat storage system.
No CO
2
emission High cost
Very low air & water Pollution Active system needs maintenance and repair
Very low land disturbance (built into roof or
window)
Active collectors unattractive.
Moderate cost ( Passive)
Solar energy to generate high temperature, heat and electricity
Solar thermal systems collect and transform radiant energy from the sun into high temperature thermal
energy, which can be used directly or converted to electricity.
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1. Central receiver system Power tower
Huge arrays of computer controlled mirrors called heliostats track the sun & focus sunlight on a
central heat collection tower.
2. Distributed receiver system, in which sunlight is collected and focused on oil filled pipes running
through the middle of curved solar collectors. This concentrated sunlight can generate temperature high
enough for industrial process or for producing steam to run turbines and generate electricity.
3. A different type of distributed receiver system uses parabolic dish collectors instead of troughs. These
collectors can track sun along two axes and are more efficient than troughs.
Solar cookers:
Concentrate sunlight and cook food. They can be made by fitting an insulated box big enough to
hold three or four pots with a transparent, removable top.
Solar energy for high temperature heat and electricity
Moderate net energy Low efficiency
Moderate environmental impact High cost
No CO
2
emission Needs backup or storage system
Fast construction High land use
Cost reduced with natural gas turbine backup May disturb desert areas.
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Solar Cells:
Solar energy can be converted directly into electrical energy by photovoltaic cells (PV cells) solar
cells. It is a transparent wafer containing a semi conductor material. Sunlight energizer and causes an
electron in the semi conductor to flow creating a current. A single cell produces only tiny amount of
energy. Thus many cells are wired together in modular panels to produce the amount of electricity
needed.
Large scale hydro power:
High dam is built across large river to create a reservoir. Some of the water stored in the reservoir
is allowed to flow through huge pipes at controlled rates, spinning turbines and producing electricity.
Small scale hydro power:
Low dam with no reservoir is built across a small stream and the streams flow of water is used to
spin turbines and produce electricity.
Tidal energy:
Twice a day in high and low tides, water that flows into and out of coastal bays and estuaries can
spin turbines to produce electricity.
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Wave energy:
The kinetic energy in Ocean waves created primarily by wind is another potential source of
electricity.
Ocean Thermal energy conversion
The large temperature difference between the cold water and sun warmed surface water of tropical
oceans are used for producing electricity.
Wind Energy:
The high speed winds have lot of energy in them as KE due to their motion. The driving force of
the wind is sum. It is harnessed by wind mills.
The blades of windmill keep on rotating continuously due to the force of the striking wind. The
rotational motor of blade drives a number of machines like water pumps, flour mills and generator. Ideal
location is coastal region, open grass lands or hilly regions, particularly mountain passes where the winds
are strong and steady.
The wind power potential in our country is estimated to be 20000 MW, while at present we are
generating of about 1020 MW.
Geo thermal energy:
Heat contained in underground rocks & fluid is a source of energy.
Geothermal energy from earths mantle has been transferred to three types of underground
reservoirs.
1. Dry steam which consists of steam with no water droplets
2. Wet stream consists of a mixture of steam & H
2
Odroplets.
3. Hot water trapped in fractured or porous rock at various places in the earths crust.
If such sites are close to surface, wells can be drilled to extract the dry / wet stream or hot water.
This energy can be used to heat homes buildings and to produce electricity.
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Hydrogen fuel:
When H
2
burns in air, it combines with O
2
gas in the air and produces non polluting H
2
O
2H
2
+O
2
2H
2
O
Wide spread use of this fuel would eliminate most of air pollution problem.
It reduces the threat from global warming by enacting noCO
2
H
2
is produced by electrolysis of water
H
2
is produced in high temperature or by chemical processes.
Photolysis of Water:
Decomposition of sewage and wet bio mass produce H
2
.
Energy from Biomass:
Biomass consists of plant materials and animal wastes used as sources of energy.
It can be burned directly as a solid fuel or converted into gaseous or liquid biofuels.
- One way to produce biomass fuel is to plant, harvest and burn large numbers of fast
growing trees (Cotton wood, poplar, willows, leucaenas) (biomass plantation)
- In agricultural areas, crop residues and animal manure can be collected and burned or
converted to biofuels.
Bio gas
Mixture of 60% CH
4
, & 40% CO
2
Bacteria and various chemical processes can convert some forms of biomass into gaseous and
liquid biofuels.
Biogas digesters convert plant and animal wastes into methane fuel for heating and cooking.
These simple devices can be built for about $ 50 including labour.
After biogas has been separated, solid residue is used as fertilizer.
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Ethanol can be made from sugar and grain crops by fermentation and distillation.
Methanol is produced from wood, wood wastes agricultural wastes, sewage, garbage and coal.
LAND RESOURCES
Land as a Resource:
Land is a finite and valuable resource upon which we depend for our food, fibre and fuel wood,
the basic amenities of life. Soil, especially the top soil, is classified as renewable resources because it is
continuously regenerated by natural process through at a very slow rate. About 200 1000 years are
needed for the formation of one inch or 2.5 cm soil, depending upon the climate and the soil type. But,
when rate of erosion is faster than rate of renewal, then the soil becomes a non renewable resource.
Land Degradation:
With increasing population growth the demands for arable land for producing food, fibers and
fuel wood is also increasing. Hence, there is more and more pressure on the limited land
resources which are getting degraded due to over exploitation. Soil degradation is a real
cause of alarm because soil formation is an extremely slow process as discussed above and the
average annual erosion rate is 20 100 times more than the renewal rate.
Factors responsible for land degradation:
1.Soil Erosion:
The literal meaning of soil erosion is wearing away of soil. Soil erosion is defined as the
movement of soil components, especially surface litter and top soil from one place to another soil
erosion results in the loss of fertility because it is the top soil layer which is fertile.
2. Soil pollution:
Application of chemicals in the form of fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides and insecticides into the
field for getting more agricultural production creates soil pollution.
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3. Salinization and water logging
Poor irrigation practices saturate land with salts and reduce the fertility. Excessive usage of water
for agriculture and flooding create water logging problems.
4. Shifting cultivation:
In the recent time, due to exploding population, more and more agricultural land is being
sacrificed for housing. This poses great threat to soil fertility and food production.
5. Desertification:
Soil erosion creates infertility of soil and leads to loss in soil productivity and formation of deserts.
6. Urbanization:
Because of urbanization, grasslands, croplands and forests are affected. Fertile and productive
land deteriorates due to developmental activities such as human settlement, industries, roads, railways,
airports, dams etc.
7. Continuous irrigation:
Sowing crops without fertilizers season after season drains the soil of its lifeblood nutrients.
Methods of Controlling land degradation:
Afforestation: Controls the land degradation
Reforestation: Replanting forests at places where they were destroyed by overgrazing,
excessive felling, forest fires, etc.
Desertification can be checked by planting several rows of trees at right angles to the
prevailing wind direction
Better agricultural practices.
1) Terracing: The sloppy agricultural drainage land can be divided into a number of small
distinct fields.
2) Regular cultivation: To reduce land degradation the fields should not be left bare and there
should be regular cultivation.
3) Rotation of Crop: Sowing of different crops in the same field in the regular sequence for a
number of years.
4) Fallowing: Ploughing the field extensively and then leaving them without sowing for a
year or two by this way, aeration, texture and fertility of soil can be improved
Man induced landslides:
Movement of earthy material from higher region to lower region through a certain plane is called
lands lids.
The occurrence of lands slide is particularly common in geodynamically sensitive belts, the
mountain regions.
Following human activities induces the land slide
Cutting and deep excavations on slopes for buildings, roads, canals and mining activities
trigger mass movement.
The addition on the slopes like dumping of debris or wastes and the construction of heavy
structures increase the chances of landslides.
Due to transport movements in the unstable sloppy regions, landslides occur.
Underground mining activities may cause subsidence of the ground.
Removing of vegetation in the sloppy area creates soil erosion and leads to landslides.
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Soil Erosion:
Loss or removal of the superficial layer of the soil by the action of water, wind by the activities of
man is termed as soil erosion.
Causes of soil erosion:
The mountain ranges are prone to erosion caused by heavy rains that strip topsoil from steep slopes.
Grazing of cattle over vegetal carpet not only damages the forest, but the soil as well.
Deforestation is another reason by which the soil gets eroded easily.
Land slide produces soil erosion.
Wind erosion, carrying away finer particles and creates soil erosion.
Because of the tidal and wave action, varying degrees of erosion is taking place along the coastal regions.
The construction of roads disturbs the stability of the hillside, removes the protective vegetal cover and
leads to soil erosion.
Controlling measures of soil erosion:
It is very important to prepare erodibility maps to control soil erosion.
Soil loss can be avoided by covering the watershed with vegetation.
Soil conservation can be achieved by constructing a series of check dams in the watershed
area.
Channel beds and sides can be protected by introducing vegetation.
In deserts, the movement of the sand can be effectively arrested by building wind breakers.
Further application of chemicals, asphalt and rubber solutions stabilize the surface of the
dunes.
Along the coasts, groynes have proved very effective in controlling erosion and building up
beaches.
Fetties are massive structures, constructed along the channels of estuaries and lagoons for
retarding erosion.
Desertification:
The loss of productivity of soil as a consequence of degradation or pervasive dryness called
Desertification.
Climate is one of the most important factor in the development of desertic conditions the abuse of
land and over exploitation of vegetal and water resources are primarily responsible for the expansion of
desert of aggravation of desertic conditions Measures to combat desertification.
1. Desertification hazard map:
The first step in this process is the preparation of a desertification hazard map.
2. Change in grazing practices:
Livestock should not be allowed to graze freely. The cattle should be protected but
permitted to graze only in the specially fenced reserves.
3. Stabilizing active dunes:
To prevent wind erosion a cover of grasses, shrubs and trees having deep roots may be grown
4. Construction of wind breaks or shelters belts in the wind ward side of the settlements and
agricultural farms reduce the velocity of winds and check the advancement of the dunes.
5. Spray of asphalt mulch and spread of jute nettings on the dunes is another protective measure for
desertification.
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6. The practice of Rain water Harvesting is useful solution for water scarcity problem in desert
regions.
Consequences of Desertification:
Reduction of agricultural land, cattle and vegetal productivity
Loss of fertility and causes soil salinity.
Uncontrolled water losses by evaporation.
Worsens drought and famine
Economic Losses.
Creates lower living standard of the people and environmental refuges.
CONSERVATION NATURAL RESOURCES; ROLE OF AN INDIVINDUAL
Different natural resources like forests, water, soil food, mineral and energy resources play a vital
role in the development of a nation. However, overuse of these resources in our modern society is
resulting in fast depletion of these resources and several related problems. If we want our mankind to
flourish there is a strong need to conserve these natural resources.
Environment belongs to each one of us and all of us have a responsibility to contribute towards its
conservation and protection. With our small individual efforts we can together help in conserving our
natural resources to a large extent. Let us see how individuals can help in conservation of different
resources.
CONSERVE WATER:
Dont keep water taps running while brushing, saving washing or bathing.
In washing machines fill the machine only to the level required for your clothes.
Install water saving toilets (6 litres per flush)
Check for water leaks and repair etc.
Re use the soapy water of washings from clothes for washing off courtyards, drive ways etc.
Water the plants in evening when evaporation losses are minimum.
Use drip and sprinkling irrigation to improve its efficiency and reduce evaporation.
Install a small system to capture rain water and collect normally wasted used water from sinks,
clothe washers, bath tubs etc which can be used for watering the plants.
Build Rain water harvesting system.
PROTECT THE SOIL:
While constructing house, dont uproot the trees as far as possible. Plant disturbed areas with fast
growing native covers.
Grow grass in open area which will bind the soil and prevent its erosion.
Donor irrigate the plants using a strong flow of water as it would wash off the soil
Better use sprinkling irrigation.
Use green manure and mulch in the garden and kitchen garden which will protect the soil.
Use mixed cropping so that specific soil nutrients do not get depleted.
Do not over irrigate your fields without proper drainage to prevent water logging and salinisation.
PROMOTE SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE
Do not waste food. Take as much as you can eat.
Reduce the use of pesticides
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Fertilize the soil with organic fertilizers
Use drip irrigation.
Eat local & Seasonable vegetation. This saves tot of energy on transport storage and preservation.
Control pests by a combination of cultivation and biological control methods.
Do not use endangered species products
RESPONSIBLE CONSUMERISM:
Practice living simply
Recycle or Reuse the materials
Encourage ecofriendly products
Buy organic food
Buy locally grown and made item
Invest green business.
Before buying costly items think twice environmental impacts and yours need.
CONSERVE ENERGY:
Use stair instead of elevators
Use public transportation, walk or ride a bicycle.
Turn off lights, fans and other appliances when not in use
Use solar cooker, solar heater,
Plants trees around the building to make Cool so that it will cut off your electricity charges.
Add more insulation to your house
Recycle and Reuse, glass, metals and paper
Buy always locally made long testing materials.
REDUCING WASTE:
Buy foods that come with less packaging
Take some container / bag from home to market for purchase.
Better to take your own washable, refillable beverage containers to meetings and functions.
Prefer to buy item which can be recyclable / revisable
Buy environmentally degradable products.
Separate at source the plastic papers, glass for recycling.
Compost all garden wastes & Vegetable wastes.
Support government, which will be interested in environmental conservation.
LOWERING YOUR FOREST IMPACTS
Reuse & Recycle paper
Make double sided copies
Use email
Avoid using timber and plywood
Encourage sustainably harvested wood.
Encourage minor forest produce items on which tribal people depend.
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GE2021-EVS Unit - II Chemistry Dept-SUD
1 S.Martin AP/Chemistry
UNIT II
BIODIVERSITY
Some important terms of Biodiversity:
Critical link species : plays essential role in ecosystem functions
Key stone species : Species that plays a central role in controlling the
relative abundance of other species in an ecosystem
Endemism : Native or restricted to particular area
Extinct : Not existing
Endangered : In danger of extinction
Vulnerable : Likely to move into endangered category if casual factors
continue to operate
Rare : Small world population, at present they are not
endangered or vulnerable but are at risk
Threatened : Used in the conservation context for species, which are
in one of the categories endangered, vulnerable or rare
Indeterminate : Suspected of belonging to endangered, vulnerable or rare,
but for which sufficient information is currently not available
The wide variety or variability of organism is known as biodiversity. Biological diversity means
the variability among living organisms from all sources including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other
aquatic ecosystem and the ecological complexes of which they are part; this includes diversity within
species, between species and of ecosystems. The term biodiversity is made up of two words bio and
diversity. Bio means living and diversity means variety. Estimates of the count of living species
range between 5 million and 30 million, but some biologists believe the figure may be as high as 100
million. Biodiversity is central to our existence. We also use plants and animals found in natural
ecosystems to develop new drugs for the treatment of various diseases. In addition, biodiversity provides
us with many amenities; such as ornithology, ecotourism, fishing, and others. Despite the value of
biodiversity to humans, we have destroyed and are destroying natural ecosystems at such a rate that many
biologists fear that in a few decades we will cause an unprecedented number of extinctions. We are so far
from cataloguing the diversity of life on Earth that an unknown number of animals and plants will become
extinct and we will never know what we lost.
Kinds of Biodiversity
It can be divided into three hierarchical categories-genes, species, and living systems and which scientists
measure in different ways. Biodiversity is usually described at three levels.
1. Genetic diversity
Variations among the genes of the same species are known as genetic diversity.
2. Species Diversity
Diversity which arises due to variations among species present in specific areas is called species
diversity.
3. Ecosystem Diversity.
Ecosystem Diversity is, therefore, the diversity of habitats which include the different life forms
within. The term also refers to the variety of eco-systems found within a bio-geographical political
boundary.
Diversity at the community level has three perspectives:-
a) Alpha Diversity (Intra community Diversity) is the diversity of organisms sharing the same
habitat.
b) Beta Diversity (Inter community diversity) is the rate of replacement of species along a gradient of
habitats
c) Gamma diversity is the diversity of habitats over a geographical area.
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Biogeographical Classification of India
India is considered a biodiversity-rich nation. For botanical and geographical purposes, the Indian
subcontinent can be divided into many regions. Biogeography is the study of patterns of distribution of
organisms in space and time.
Physically the country is divided into four relatively well defined regions.
1. The Himalayan mountains
2. The Gangetic river plains
3. The southern (Deccan) plateau
4. The islands of Lakshadweep, Andaman and Nicobar
These regions are discussed in detail below.
The Himalayan Mountains in the far north include some of the highest peaks in the world. The
highest mountain in the Indian Himalayas is Kangchenjunga (8586m) which is located in Sikkim on the
border with Nepal. To the south of the main Himalayan massif lie the Lesser Himalayas, rising to 3600-
4000m, and are represented by Pir Panjal in Kashmir and Dhaula Dhar in Himachal Pradesh. Further
south, flanking the Indo-Gangetic Plain, are the Siwaliks which rise to 900 1,500 m.
The northern plains of India stretch from Assam in the east to Punjab in the west (a distance of
2,400 km), extending south to terminate in the saline swamplands of the Rann of Kachchh (Kutch), in the
state of Gujarat. Some of the largest rivers in India, including Ganga (Ganges), Ghaghara, Brahmaputra,
and Yamuna, flow across this region. The plains are remarkably homogenous topographically: for
hundreds of kilometers the only perceptible relief if formed by floodplain bluffs, minor natural levees and
hollows known as spill patterns and the belts of ravines formed by gully erosion along some of the
larger rivers.
The Andaman and Nicobar islands comprise several small and large islands situated near the equator.
This region has a wide range of forests from coastal vegetation to evergreen forests.
Habitats of India
Depending of the climatic
and physical conditions,
Indian habitats can be
classified into wetland,
forest, and marine habitats.
Wetlands
India has a rich variety of
wetland habitats. The total
area of wetlands
(excluding rivers) in India
is 58,286,000 ha, or 18.4%
of the countrys total area,
70% which comprises of
areas under paddy
cultivation. Two sites
Chilka lake (Orissa) and
Kaeoladeo National Park
(Bharatpur) have been
designated under the Convention of Wetlands of International Importance (Ramsar Convention) as being
especially significant waterfowl habitats.
Zoogeographical regions of India
Region Description
Himalayan region The wild life wealth here consist of Yak,
Gural, snow leopard, kasturi deer Etc.
Malabar region The climate here is moderate.
VariousKinds of Monkeys, deer, etc. are
foundhere
Nilgiri region This region is extremely rich in Varieties of
birds. Elephants are also Found here.
Lions are found very rarely
Northern plains The animals found in this region are
elephants, leopards, Neelgai, jackal,deer,
etc.
Desert land Deer, cheetal, sambhar, neelgai, Snakes,
lizards, etc. are abundantly found in this
area.
Deccan plateau Animals mainly found in this region are
Elephants, lions, tigers, monkeys, deer and
Some varieties of snakes.
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Forests
India possesses a distinct identity because of the great diversity of its natural ecosystems. The panorama
of Indian forests ranges from evergreen tropical rain forests in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, the
Western Ghats, and the North Eastern states, to dry alpine scrubs high in the Himalayas to the north.
Between the two extremes, the country has semi-evergreen rain forests, deciduous monsoon forests, and
thorn forests, subtropical pine forests in the lower mountain zones and temperate mountain forests.
Sixteen major forests types are recognized, subdivided into 221 minor types.
Marine Environment
The coastal waters of India are extremely rich fishing grounds. Coral reefs occur along a few sections of
the mainland, principally the Gulf of Kutch, off the southern mainland coast, and around a number of
Islands opposite Sri Lanka. This general absence is due largely to the presence of major river systems and
the sedimentary regime on the continental shelf. Elsewhere, corals are also found in Andaman Nicobar
and Lakshadweep Island groups although their diversity is reported to be lower than in south-east India.
Value of Biodiversity
1. Survival
Without biological diversity, we would perish. Biodiversity meets the basic survival needs of
a vast number of people. In most communities the livelihood of the people revolves around the
biodiversity of the area. For instance, in the forest belt of Ghana most men are hunters. These
hunters survive on the availability of antelopes, rabbits, snails, etc.
2. Health and healing
Even today, a large number traditional communities depend on traditional medicine for
primary health care, most of which are derived from plants and animals. Approximately 25%
of all prescription drugs are derived from plants.
3. Food Security
Biodiversity is critical for agriculture. All our food is derived from the biological world. Wheat,
potatoes, vegetables, fruits, milk, meat, honey etc are the outcomes of Biodiversity. Many plants
species such as asafetida, ginger, mint, turmeric etc are used as spices all over the world.
Biodiversity is also a source of new crops of improved variety and of bio-degradable pesticides.
4. Productive Value
Biodiversity also has a productive value. There are many products used by human which are
derived from natural sources. Cinchona plant is used to make medicines, and wood is used as
fuel. Production of charcoal is through plants and trees. A number of dyes and dye based
products are also obtained from plants.
5. Ethical Value
Each species is unique and has the rights to exist. Human do not have the right to eliminate any
species. Scientific and ethical principle should guide developmental activities. Ethical use of
natural elements has deep roots within human culture, religion, and society. A sustainable world
requires an ethics that is ultimately incorporated into culture and is long lasting.
6. Aesthetic pleasure
Biodiversity also has great aesthetic value. Each species and ecosystem adds to the richness and
beauty of life on earth. Perhaps no medium can match the sheer joy of watching a sunset over an
ocean, the sight of a leaping deer, the sounds of singing bird, or the smell of wet earth after the
first rains. Other examples of aesthetic rewards include eco-tourism, Ornithology, wild life,
keeping pets, gardening etc.
7. Ecological Services
Species evolve to fill particular niches in an ecosystem or habitat. Many species also depend on
each other in intricate ways of survival. Destroying one species can lead to further extinction or
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changes. Specific life forms present in a particular habitat help to create conditions for other life
forms to live. For example, a single tree provides not only its products, which may have
economic value, but it is also a habitat for innumerable living things. In addition, it also plays a
vital role in conserving soil and water and helping to keep the air clean, nutrient cycling and
climate regulation. In one study, published in 1997, in the science journal Nature, researchers
estimated the value of these ecosystem services at between $ 16 Trillion and $ 54 Trillion a year.
Biodiversity at Global Level
It is estimated that there exists 5-30 million species of living forms on our earth. Of these, only
1.5 million have been identified. These include 300,000 species of green plants and fungi,
800,000 species of insects, 40,000 species of vertebrates, and 360,000 of microorganisms.
According to some recent estimates; the number of insects alone may be as high as 10 million, but many
believe it is more likely to be around 5 million.
The tropical forests are regarded as the richest in biodiversity. Scientists are of the opinion that whatever
be the absolute number, more than half of the species on the earth live in moist tropical forests which is
only 7% of the total land surface. Insects (80%) and primates (90%) make up most of the species. For
instance, from a single tropical leguminous tree 43 ant species belonging to 26 genera have been
retrieved. This approximately equals the ant diversity of all the British Isles. In 10 selected one hectare
plots in Kalimanathan in Indonesia, Peter S.Aston of the Harvard University found more than 700 species,
are almost equal to the number of tree species native to all of North America.
The following explanations have been put forward with regard to the high species diversity in tropics:
1. In tropics, conditions for evolution were optimum and for extinction fewer;
2. In tropics, species diversity was conserved over geological time. This is because low rates of
extinction prevailing there; and
3. Biological diversity is the result of interaction between climate, organisms, topography, parent
soil materials, time and the heredity. The tropics are the ideal place for such an interaction.
Biodiversity at Country Level
The Indian region geographical area of 329 million hectares is quite rich in biodiversity with a
sizable percentage of endemic flora and fauna. This richness in biodiversity is due to immense variety of
climatic and altitudinal conditions coupled with varied ecological habitats. These vary from the humid
tropical Western Ghats to the hot desert of Rajasthan from the cold desert of Ladakh and the icy mountain
of Himalayas to the warm costs of peninsular India.
The country has over 115,000 species of plants and animals already identified and described. In
addition, the country is very important Vavilovian Center of biodiversity and origin of over 167 important
cultivated plant species, and some domesticated animals.
In fact, our country has been recognizing as one of the worlds top 12 mega diversity nations.
In flora, the country can boast of 45,000 species which accounts for 15 percent of the known world
plants.
Of the 15,000 species of flowering plants, 35 percent are endemic and located in 26 endemic centers.
Among the monocotyledons, out of 588 genera occurring in the country, 22 are strictly endemic.
The family Poaceae has the highest endemism both by genera and species.
The North Eastern region could boast of being unique treasure house of orchids in the country, the
abode of about 675 species out of 1,000 available in the Indian peninsula and against 17,000 species the
world over. The important Indian orchids are: Paphiopedilum fairieyamum (Lindl) pfitz., Cymbidium
aloiflium Sw., Aerides crispum Lindl., etc.
Our country is very rich in faunal wealth also. The country has nearly 75,000 animal species, about 80
percent of which are insects.
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In animals, the rate of endemism in reptiles is 33% and in amphibians 62%. Further there is wide
diversity in domestic animals, such as buffaloes, goats, sheep, pigs, poultry, horses, camels and yaks.
Domesticated animals too have come from the same cradles of civilization as the major crops.
There are no clear estimates about the marine biota though the coastline is 7,000 km long with a
shelf zone of 452,460 sq km and extended economic zone of 20,13,410 sq km. There is an abundance of
seaweeds, fish, crustaceans, mollusks, corals, reptiles and mammals.
Information regarding other flora and fauna are patchy. Hundreds of new species may be present in
our country-awaiting discovery. The Western Ghats in Peninsular India, which extend in the southern
states, are a treasure house of species diversity. Out of the described 15,000 species of the flowering
plants in India about 5,000 species occur on the Western Ghats of Kerala; 235 are exclusive to this
region. It is estimated that almost one-third of the animal varieties found in India have taken refuge in
Western Ghats of Kerala alone.
Biodiversity at local level (Tamil Nadu)
One sixth of landmass of Tamil Nadu is covered with forests. According to State of forest report 2003 by
the Forest Survey of India, the total forest cover of the State is 22643 KM constituting 17.41% of
geographic area. This includes 2440 KM of very dense forest, 9567 KM of moderately dense forest and
10636 KM of open forest. Tamil Nadu ranks 11th among the Indian States and Union Territories with
reference to total forest cover. The recorded forest area of the state is 22,877 KM constituting 17.59% of
the geographic area. Tamil Nadu ranks 13th among the Indian States and Union Territories with reference
to total recorded forest area.
There are 8 wildlife sanctuaries over 2, 82,685.57 ha and 12 bird sanctuaries over 17,074.59 ha, 5
National Parks over 30784.23 ha, 3 Tiger Reserves, 4 Elephant Reserves and 3 Biosphere Reserves for in
situ conservation of wild fauna and flora.
The Angiosperm diversity of India includes 17,672 species. With 5640 species, Tamil Nadu ranks 1st
among all the States in the Country. This includes 533 endemic species, 230 red-listed species, 1559
species of medicinal plants and 260 species of wild relatives of cultivated plant. The Gymnosperm
diversity of the country is 64 species of which Tamil Nadu has 4 species of indigenous Gymnosperms.
The Pteridophytes diversity of India includes 1022 species of which Tamil Nadu has about 184 species.
Tamil Nadu wild plant diversity also includes vast number of Bryophytes, Lichens, Fungi, Algae and
Bacteria.
The faunal diversity of Tamil Nadu includes 165 species of fresh water Pisces, 76 species of Amphibians,
177 species of reptiles, 454 species of birds and 187 species of mammals. According to the CAMP reports
the red-listed species include 126 species of Pisces, 56 species of Amphibians, 77 species of reptiles, 32
species of birds and 40 species of mammals. The endemic fauna includes 36 species of Amphibians, 63
species of reptiles, 17 species of birds and 24 species of mammals
India as a Megadiversity Nation
The mega diverse countries are a group of countries that harbor the majority of the earth species
and are therefore considered extremely biodiverse.
World Conservation Monitoring Centre identified the 17 mega diversity countries are: Australia, Brazil,
China, Colombia, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Ecuador, India, Indonesia, Madagascar, Malaysia,
Mexico, Papua, New Guinea, Peru, Philippines, South Africa, United States and Venezuela.
India is one the megadiverse nation of Asia. It is highly diverse having all the natural resources
required for all kinds of living organisms. In addition to the vast diversity of plants and animals, our
country is rich in cultural, geographical, and climatic diversity. The diversity in India is as follows;
Geographical diversity: India is a vast geographic region. It comprises of Himalayan region,
Ganga plains, Thar Desert, and Deccan plateau. The land form includes the plain of Ganga on one
side to highlands of Deccan plateau on other side. Thus India represent almost all kinds of
geographic variations found else where in the world.
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Climatic diversity: The climatic conditions of the country range from cold temperate and frost
covered regions of Himalayas to low rainfall regions of the dry tropics in the north west of the
country. On the basis of annual rainfall, the country can be divided in to four climatic regions-
wet zone(more than 200cm),intermediate zone(100-200)cm, dry zone (50-100cm) and arid
zone(below 50cm).Hence India has almost all climatic variations found else where in the
world.
Biodiversity: From the point of view of biodiversity, India is divided into nine
phytogeographical regions. A variety of physical and climatic factors lead to the richness in
biodiversity. The country is also one of the12 primary centers of origin of cultivated plants and
domesticated animals. It is considered to be homeland of the167 important plant species of
cereals, millets, fruits, condiments, vegetables, pulses, fibre, crop and oilseeds, and 114 breeds
of domesticated animals. The country is also rich in animal biodiversity along with its rich
plant biodiversity resources.
Habitat diversity: India represents almost all types of habitats of the world. High mountains
ranges, hills, plateau, plains, deserts, etc. provide a variety of habitats for plants and animals.
Similarly a number of fresh water and saline lakes, reservoirs, ponds, rivers, streams provide
diversity of habitats for aquatic plants and animals
Cultural diversity: India is a country with a developed ancient cultivation. Indias culture has
been enriched by successive waves of migration which where absorbed in to Indian way of
life. Our country possesses vast cultural diversity; from Jammu and Kashmir in the north to
Kanyakumari in the south; from West Bengal in the east to Thar Desert in the West. Rajasthan
and Madhaya Pradesh represent a wide array of tribal cultures. Diversity can also be seen in
food habits. Both vegetarian and non vegetarian food habits are common. Languages spoken in
India have also created diverse traditions of culture in India. There are a large number of
languages in India.Thus the country is rich in cultural diversity as well.
HOT SPOTS OF BIODIVERSITY:
The hotspot concept has been designed by Norman Myres in 1988 to designate priority areas for in
situ conservation. Hotspots are the richest and most threatened reservoirs of plant and animal life on
earth.
Criteria for determination of a hotspot:
Number of endemic species
Degree of threat; in terms of habitat loss
Hotspots are areas of exceptionally rich concentration of species with high endemism but at the same
time face high pressure of anthropogenic disturbances. There are 25 such hotspots all over the world.
Out of 25 two hotspots are located in India. The first hotspot in India is the Western Ghats and second
is the hilly region of north east Himalayas up to Myanmar in the east.
ENDANGERED AND ENDEMIC SPECIES:
At present the population of all plants and animals are declining rapidly and numbers of species are
already on the verge of extinction. Such plants and animals species are called endangered species. The
world conservation union has recognized eight red list categories of species; extinct; extinct in the
wild; critically endangered; endangered; vulnerable; lower risk; data deficient and not Evaluated. The
red data book, published in two volumes, lists about 25,000 endangered species from across the world.
Flying squirrel, Gir lion, crocodile, flamingo,wild ass, etc. are some endangered animal species of
India. Commiphora weightii(guggal), Ravolfia serpentine (sarpgandha), Santalum album (sandal),
Adansonia digitata(kalpvrisha), Tecomella undulata(rohida),etc are some of the endangered plant
species of India.
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The plant or animal species confined to a particular region and having originated there or species
which occur continuously in that area are known as endemism. Eletaria repens, ficus religiosa, butea
monosperma,ficus benagalensis,etc some of the endemic plants of India.
THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY
1. Unplanned development and habitat destruction
When people cut down trees, fill a wetland, plough grasslands or burn a forest, the natural habitat
of a species is changed or destroyed. Large scale development projects such as industrial plants or
hydroelectric projects have contributed substantially to the loss of biodiversity rich areas. Projects such as
construction of large dams not only result in submergence of large tracts of forests but also introduce
human settlements and roads within forest areas.
2. Poaching and overexploitation for commercial gain:
Many plants and animals have been over exploited by humans, sometimes to the point of
extinction. Many species such as tigers and elephants are killed or poached for their skin, tusks, claws,
etc. which have high commercial value. Others, such as several snake and bird species are caught and
smuggled out for their value for collectors and as pets. A rapidly expanding pharmaceutical industry, for
which no collections regulations exist, also affects medicinal plants.
3. Environmental pollution:
Soil, water and air pollution affects the functioning of ecosystems and may reduce or eliminate
sensitive species. For example, the decline of fish eating birds and falcons due to pesticide pollution. Lead
poisoning is major cause of mortality of many species such as ducks and swans and cranes. In India,
industrial effluents are destroying coral reefs and other marine life.
4. Global climate change:
In the coming years, climatic change could also affect global biodiversity. Many species which
cannot adjust to the warmer climatic conditions could become extinct. A change in the climatic conditions
may also result in the characteristics of habitats, there by affecting the species within those habitats. Some
habitats such as islands and coastal systems, which are at risk of flooding and submergence due to rising
sea levels, could suffer heavily, particularly high losses of biodiversity.
5. Invasion by introduced species:
The introduction of non native species deliberately or accidently has been a major threat to
biological diversity worldwide. The introduced animals and plants pose a threat to local species of fauna
and flora for eg: Lantana camera originally introduced as the ornamental plant from Brazil is spreading
rapidly in our forests at the expense of local species. Water hyacinth clogs rivers and threatens the
survival of many aquatic species in the several tropical countries, including India.
6. Nature of legal systems:
In planning legal enforcements, a perfect combination of economic realities and involvement of
the people is required. Protection for wildlife in India is negligent. Parks do not have enough rangers
to keep out poachers and villagers are often allowed to live within sanctuaries, which leads to growing
conflicts between the local populations and animals particularly tigers.
7. Mining:
Every mining activity involves digging up tones of earth in orders to get to the ore. In the process
it leads to deforestation and consequently, the biodiversity of the particular place is threatened.
Moreover, the streams are polluted with dangerous chemicals.
8. Exploitation of water resources:
Over exploitation of surface water creates water scarcity in the absence of rainfall and the water
pollution harms the aquatic diversity and ultimately threatens its survival.
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9. Forest life:
Fire plays an important role in the forest ecosystems. Common causes include lightning, human
carelessness, volcanic eruption, etc. Fires in forest due to natural or manmade reasons harm the insects,
birds, and wild animals.
10. Eutrophication
Over the past four decades, nutrient loading has emerged as one of the most important factors of
biodiversity loss in terrestrial, fresh water, and coastal ecosystem. Excessive nutrient enrichment of water
bodies stimulates the growth of algae and lowers oxygen production. It leads to the death of fish and other
aquatic organisms.
11. Waste disposal:
Dumping of nuclear and radioactive waste on land or water kills the plant and animal
species leading to their extinction.
12. Other factors:
Other ecological factors that may also contribute to the extinction of plant and animal species are
as follows;
Distribution range: The smaller the range of distribution, the greater the threat of
extinction.
Degree of specialization: The more specialized an organism is, the more vulnerable it is to
extinction.
Position of organism in food chain: The higher the organism is in food chain, the more
susceptible it becomes.
Reproductive rate: Large organisms tend to produce fewer off springs at widely spaced
intervals.
CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY:
Everyday, around the globe, species are being lost and others are being pushed towards extinction.
This threatened biodiversity needs to be conserved. Biodiversity conservation is scientific management at
its optimum level and derives sustainable benefits for both the present and the future
In situ conservation:
In situ means the natural or the original place. In this method, the plants and animals are
conserved in their natural habitats.
National Parks:
A national park conserves the environment and the wild life therein. National parks are
areas dedicated to conserve wild animals and natural environment. All private rights are non-existent
and all forestry operation and others usages such as grazing of domestic animals are prohibited in
these areas. Conservation of species of a habitat with minimal or very low intensity of human activity
occurs in a natural park. No one apart from the public servant on the duty and permitted persons by
chief wildlife warden resides in the park. In India, there are 90 national parks.
Wild life sanctuary:
A wild life sanctuary is dedicated to protect wild life, but it considers the conservation of species
only and its boundary is not limited by the state legislation. Hunting without permit is prohibited and
grazing and movement of cattle is regulated in sanctuaries and absolutely prohibited in Natural Park
which is established in or outside a sanctuary. In a sanctuary, human activities are allowed but in
national park human interference are totally prohibited. Conservation of species and habitats occurs by
manipulative management. No person resides in the park other than the public servant on duty and
permitted persons by the chief wild life wardens. It comprises of core, buffer and restoration zones. In
India, there are 492 wild life sanctuaries.
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Biosphere reserve:
Biosphere reserves have been described as undisturbed natural areas for scientific study as well as
areas in which conditions of disturbances are under control. They have been set aside for ecological
research and habitat preservation. Conservation of natural resources and improvement of the
relationship between man and environment is the chief objective of biosphere reserves. In India 13
biosphere reserves have been established. A biosphere reserve consists of core, buffer, restoration and
cultural (transition) zones. The core zone comprises of an undisturbed and legally protected
ecosystem. The buffer zone surrounds the core area and is dedicated to research and educational
activities. The transition zone is the outermost part of the biosphere reverse where activities like
settlements, agriculture, forestry and recreational activities occur in harmony with conservation goals.
The in situ conservation application is advantages in many respects, but also has certain limitations.
The advantages of in situ conservation are:
Long term protection
Natural ecosystems spread in large areas provide a good opportunity for conservation as well as
evolution
Cheaper means to protect the species
The limitations of in situ conservation are:
Proper protection against environment pollution may not be enough in natural ecosystems.
Ex situ conservation
In this technique, plant and animal species are conserved their natural habitats. Ex situ
conservation is the chief mode of preservation of genetic resource. This can be done through
establishment of gene banks, zoos, botanical gardens, culture collections etc
Gene banks
Gene banks also known as germplasm banks are established for ex situ conservation. Here seeds,
pollen grains, vegetative propagating parts of various endangered plants can be preserved in viable
conditions. The result of storing seeds under frozen conditions is to slow down the rate at which they lose
their ability to germinate. Seeds of crop plants such as maize and barely could probably survive thousand
of years in such conditions. A range of crops like millets, oil seeds, vegetables, turnip can be maintained
for several years in liquid nitrogen without any decline in viability.
Botanical gardens:
Rare and endangered plant species are conserved in botanical gardens. In addition to conservation
in botanical gardens, they are also used for the purpose of study and research of specific plant characters
and for disseminating scientific information and experience to promote sustainable development
Aquaria
The aquaria are mainly for captive propagation of threatened or endangered fresh water species. It
also finds its role in the educational facilities. However, now it is assuming new importance in captive
breeding programmes. The world conservation Union is currently developing captive breeding
programmes for endangered fish.
Tissue culture technique:
Tissue culture is a special type of asexual propagation where a small piece of shoot apex, leaf
section, or even an individual cell is cut out and placed in sterile culture container containing a special
culture medium. The culture medium contains a gel with the proper mixture of nutrients etc which causes
the plant to grow at very rapid rates to produce new plantlets. A very specialized laboratory is required for
tissue culture. The tissue culture is used for rapid multiplication of plants.
DNA technology
In this technique, the whole DNA of a plant or animal is conserved or a part of it is conserved.
Through the use of recombinant DNA, genes that are important can be isolated and used in other species
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or applications, where they may be some from of genetic illness or discrepancy and provide a different
approach to biodiversity conservation
Cryo preservation:
In vitro conservation in liquid nitrogen at that temperature of -196
o
C is quite useful for
conservation of vegetatively propagated plants.
Advantages
Long term conservation
Due to controlled supervision ,assured food ,shelter and security the species can survive
longer and may breed more offspring than they usually can
The quality of offspring may be improved by genetic techniques
Breeding of hybrid species is possible.
The limitations of exsituconservation:
Not a viable option for protection of rare species due to human interference
Can be adopted for only a few kinds of species
Overprotection may result in loss of natural properties
Steps to Preserve Biodiversity:
No undisturbed land be used for setting industries or other developmental works, because
it leads to loss biodiversity
Population growth should be controlled
Measures should be taken to reduce environmental pollution
Effective measures for conservation of biodiversity be developed and strengthened in all
countries
Germplasm for existing species should be collected
ECOLOGY
Ecology (from the greek word oikos - house or place to live and logos - study of) is the study of how
organisms interact with one another and with their non living environment.
The term ecosystem was proposed by A.G.Tansley in 1935 who defined it as the system resulting from
the integration of all the living and non living factors of environment
Kinds of ecosystem:
1. Natural ecosystem:-
These operate by themselves under natural conditions without any major interference by
man.
I) Terrestrial
II) Aquatic
a) Freshwater
b) Marine
2. Artificial ecosystem: - These are maintained artificially by man, where by addition of energy and
planned manipulations natural balance is disturbed regularly.
Structure and Function of an ecosystem:-
The two major aspects of an ecosystem are the structure and function.
By structure we mean
i) The composition of Biological community including species, numbers, biomass, life history
and distribution in space.
ii) The quantity and distribution of non-living materials such as nutrients, water etc.
iii) The range or gradient of conditions of existence such as temperature, light etc.
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By Function we mean
i) The rate of Biological energy flow.
ii) The rate of materials or nutrient cycle
iii) Biological or ecological regulation (including both regulation of organisms by environment
and regulation of environment by organisms.
Thus in any ecosystem, structure and function are studied together.
Ecosystem concepts and components
Earth consists of large masses of land and vast expanse of oceans. Biologists classified terrestrial portion
of the biosphere into biomes. They are large regions such as forests, deserts, and grasslands characterized
by a distinct climate and specific life forms adapted to it.
Climate is the long term patterns of weather. It is the main factor determining what type of life, especially
what plants will thrive in a given land area.
Each biome consists of a patch work of many different ecosystems whose communities have adapted to
differences in climate, soil and other factors through the biome.
Marine and fresh water portions of biosphere can be divided into aquatic life zones each containing
numerous ecosystems.
Freshwater life zones lakes, ponds, streams, rivers
Ocean life zone estuaries, coastal lines, coral reef & deep oceans.
Some important definitions
Species: Organism can be classified into species or groups of organisms that resemble one another in
appearance, behavior, chemistry and genetic make up.
Population: A population consists of a group of interacting individuals of the same species that occupy a
specific area at the same time.
Habitat: The place where a population (an individual organism) normally lives is its habitat.
Community: Populations of the different species occupying a particular place makeup a community or
Biological community. It is a complex network of plants animals and micro organisms.
Ecosystem: An ecosystem is a community of different species interacting with one another and with their
nonliving environment of matter and energy.
Biosphere: All of the earths ecosystem together makeup the biosphere.
Components of an ecosystem
Two types of components
a) Abiotic component consists of nonliving chemical and physical components such as water
air, nutrients in the soil or water and solar energy
b) Biotic component consists of living and dead plants, animals and micro organism.
Major physical & chemical components of ecosystem Terrestrial Aquatic
* Sunlight * Light penetration
* Temperature * Water currents
* Precipitation * Dissolved nutrient concentration
*Wind * Suspended solids
* Latitude * Salinity
* Altitude
* Fire frequency
* Soil
Each population in an ecosystem has a range of tolerance to variations in its physical & chemical
environment.
Limiting Factor Principle
Too much or too little of any abiotic factor can limit or prevent growth of a population, even if all
other factors are all or near the optimum range of tolerance.
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On land, precipitation often is limiting factor.Soil nutrients act as a limiting factor.
Important limiting factors for aquatic ecosystem include temperature, sunlight, dissolved oxygen content,
nutrient availability and salinity.
Biological Component (biotic)
Living organisms in ecosystem based on how they get food, are classified into
i) Producers (autotrophs)
ii) Consumers (heterotrophs)
Producers/Autotrophs can make their own food from the compounds that are obtained from their
environment.
Producers are the source of all food in an ecosystem
Most Producers capture sunlight to make carbohydrates by photosynthesis
6 CO
2
+6H
2
O+Solarenergy C
6
H
12
O
6
+6O
2
A few producers, mostly specialized bacteria can convert simple compounds from their environment into
more complex nutrient compounds without sunlight a process called chemosynthesis
Consumers/Heterotrophs are the organisms, which depend directly or indirectly on food provided by
producers.
All other organisms in an ecosystem are consumers or heterotrophs which get their energy and nutrient by
feeding on other organism or their remains. Consumers are classified as follows
i) Herbivores/Primary consumers: They feed directly on producers are known as primary
consumers (Rabbit, cow)
ii) Carnivores: They feed on other consumers. If they feed on herbivores they are called
secondary consumers and if they feed on other carnivores are known as tertiary consumers.
iii) Omnivores: They feed on both plants and animals.
iv) Detritivores (or) Detritus feeders: They feed on the parts of dead organisms, wastes of
living organism, their cast off and partially decomposed matter eg beetles, termites and crab.
v) Decomposers: They are specialized consumers that recycle organic matter in ecosystem.
They do this by breaking down dead organic material to get nutrients and releasing the
resulting simple inorganic compounds into the soil and water where they can be taken up as
nutrients by producers.
Producers, consumers and decomposers use the chemical energy stored in glucose and other organic
compounds to fuel their life process. In most cells this energy is released by aerobic respiration which
uses oxygen to convert organisms nutrients back into CO
2
& H
2
O.
C
6
H
12
O
6
+6CO
2
6CO
2
+6H
2
0+energy
Some decomposers get the energy they need by breaking down glucose in the absence of oxygen. This
form of cellular respiration is known as anaerobic respiration or fermentation. The end product of this
process is compounds such as CH
4
, C
2
H
5
OH, CH
3
COOH and H
2
S.
The survival of any individual organisms depends on the flow of matter and energy through its body.
However an ecosystem as a whole survives primarily through a combination of matter recycling and one
way energy flow.
Food chain & Food web
The sequence of eating and being eaten in an ecosystem is known as food chain. It determines how
energy and nutrient move from one organism to another through an ecosystem.
Ecologists assign each organism in an ecosystem to a feeding level or trophiclevel, depending on whether
it is a producer or a consumer and on what it eats or decomposes.
Producers belong to first trophic level, primary consumers to the second trophic level and secondary
consumers to the third and so on.
Detritivores process detritus from all trophic levels.
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Characteristics of Grazing Food Chain
a) These are directly dependent upon solar radiations as the primary source of energy and the producers
(green plants) synthesize their plant biomass by the process of photosynthesis. Producers form the first
trophic level.
b) Herbivores or primary consumers eat upon the producers and form the second trophic level.
c) Herbivores are in-turn eaten by different categories of carnivores forming the higher trophic levels.
d) Grazing food chains are longer food chains and they always end at decomposer level.
Grazing type food chain
Detritus food chain, the dominant primary consumers (herbivores) are the insects, which usually consume
less than ten percent of the net primary production. The major remaining portion of more than 90% is
consumed later as dead plant material by small detritus feeding organisms such as micro arthropods,
oligochaetes and microorganisms.
The detritus feeding organisms process the detritus in their gut by reducing it into small pieces, digesting
it partially or completely, thus making organic material available for bacterial or fungal attack. These
microorganisms also act as food for many soil animals.
This food chain is decomposer organism based and is called 'detritus or decomposer food chain'.
Characteristics of Detritus Food Chain
a) Primary source of energy is dead organic matter called 'detritus' which are fallen leaves, plant parts or
dead animal bodies.
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b) Primary consumers are 'detritivores' including protozoans, bacteria, fungi, etc which feed upon the
detritus saprophytically.
c) Detritivores are inturn eaten by secondary consumers such as insect larvae, nematodes, etc.
d) Detritus food chains are generally shorter than grazing food chains
e) In nature, detritus food chains are indispensable as the dead organic matter of grazing food chain is
acted upon by the detritivores to recycle the inorganic elements into the ecosystem.
Detritus food chain
Differences between Grazing and Detritus food Chains
Real ecosystems are more complex than this. Most consumers feed on more than one type of organisms
and most organisms are eaten by more than one type of consumers.
Detritus Detritivores Detritivores Consumers
Small
Carnivores
Large
Carnivores
Mangrove Fallen
Leaves and Dead
Bodies
Fungi,Bacteria
and Protozoans
Insect Larvae,Certain
Crustaceans,Molluscs and
Fishes
Minnows Small
game fish etc.
Large
Fish,Fish eating
Birds
Characters
Grazing food
chain
Detritus food chain
Primary source of
energy
Solar
radiations
Detritus
First trophic level All herbivores
Detritivores (a mixed group in terms of trophic levels and may be
herbivores, omnivores and primary carnivores)
Size
Long-sized
chains
Small-sized chains
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Because most species participate in several different food chains the organisms in most ecosystem form a
complex network of interconnected food chains called a food web.
Food Web is a network of food chains where different types of organisms are connected at different
trophic level so that there are a numbers of options of eating and being eaten at each trophic level.
Ecological pyramids
Graphical representation of trophic structure & function of an ecosystem starting with producers at the
base and successive trophic levels forming the apex is known as ecological pyramid. It is of three types.
Pyramid of numbers:
It represents the number of individual organisms at each trophic level.
We may have upright or inverted pyramid of numbers depending upon the type of ecosystem and food
chain.
In grassland, grasses are small in size and very large in numbers so the producers form a broad base. The
herbivores in a grass lands are insects while tertiary carnivores are hawks or other birds which are
gradually less and less in number and hence the pyramid apex becomes gradually narrower forming an
upright pyramid.
TERTIARY CONSUMERS
SECONDARY CONSUMERS
PRIMARY CONSUMERS
PRODUCERS
In a forest ecosystem, big trees are the producers which are less in number. A large number of herbivores
and form much broader middle level. The secondary consumers like for snakes etc are less in number &
top carnivores like lion, tiger are stall smaller in number.
TERTIARY CONSUMERS
SECONDARY CONSUMERS
PRIMARY CONSUMERS
PRODUCERS
Parsitic food chain shows an inverted pyramid of number. The producers like a few big trees harbours
fruit eating birds acting like herbivores which are larger in number. A much higher number of lice, bugs
etc grow as parasites on these birds while a still greater number of hyperparasites like bugs, fleas and
microbes feed upon them, thus making an inverted pyramid.
HYPER PARASITE
PARASITE
PRIMARY CONSUMERS
PRODUCERS
FLEAS,MICROBES
TREE
BIRDS
LICE,BUGS
INSECTS
SNAKE
GRASSES
HAWK
INSECTS,BIRDS
FOX
BIG TREES
LION
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Pyramid of Biomass:
It is based upon the total biomass at each trophic level in a food chain.
The pyramid of Biomass can also be upright or inverted.
The pyramid of biomass in a forest is upright in contrast to its pyramid of numbers. This is because the
producers accumulate a huge biomass while the consumers total biomass feeding on them declines at
higher trophic levels resulting in broad base and narrowing top.
The pond ecosystem shows an inverted pyramid of Biomass the total biomass of producer is much less as
compared to Herbivores (Zooplankton, insects), carnivores and tertiary carnivores. Thus the pyramid
takes an inverted shape with narrow base & broad apex.
Pyramid of energy:
The amount of energy present at each trophic level is considered for this type of pyramid.
Pyramid of energy gives the best representation of the trophic relationships and it is always upright.
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At every successive trophic level there is a huge loss of energy in the form of heat, respiration etc. Thus
at each next higher level only 10% of the energy passes on. Hence there is a sharp decline in energy level
of each successive trophic level as we move from producer to carnivores.
Energy flow in an ecosystem
Each trophic level in a food chain or web contains a certain amount of biomass, the dry weight of all
organic matter contained in its organisms.
In a food chain or web, the chemical energy stored in Biomass is transferred from one trophic level to
another.
With each transfer some usable energy is degraded and lost to the environment as low quality heat. Thus
only a small portion of what is eaten and digested is actually converted into an organisms bodily material
or biomass, and the amount of usable energy available to each successive trophic level declines.
The percentage of usable energy transferred as biomass from one trophic level to the next is called
Ecology efficiency. It rages from 5% to 20% depending on the types of species and the ecosystem
involved, but 10% is typical.
Assuming 10% Ecological efficiency (90% loss) at each trophic transfer, if green plants in an area
manage to capture 10,000 units of energy from the sun, than only about 1000 units of energy will be
available to support herbivores and only about 100 units to support carnivores.
The more trophic levels or steps in a food chain or web, the greater the cumulative loss of usable energy
as energy flows through the various trophic le vels.
Energy flow pyramid explains why the earth can support more people if they eat at lower trophic levels by
consuming grains rather than passing such crops through another trophic level and eating grain eaters.
The large loss in energy between successive trophic levels also explains why food chains and webs rarely
have more than four or five trophic levels.
In most cases too little energy is left after four or five transfer to support organisms feeding at these high
trophic levels. This explains why there are so few top carnivores. It also explains why such species
usually are the first to suffer when the ecosystem that support them are disrupted and why they are so
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vulnerable to
extinction.
Ecological succession:-
One characteristic of all communities and ecosystems is that their structures change constantly in
response to changing environmental conditions. The gradual change in species composition of a given
area is called Ecological succession.
During succession some species colonize on area and their populations become more numerous, whereas
populations of other species decline and may even disappear.
Ecologistrecognize two types of Ecological succession, depending on the conditions present at the
beginning of the process.
Primary succession - This involves the gradual establishment of biotic communities on nearly lifeless
ground.
Secondary succession - which involves the establishment of biotic communities in an area where some
type of biotic community is already present.
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Ecological successions starting on different types of areas or substrate are named differently as follows.
i) Hydrarch (or) hydrosere:- Starting in watery area like swamp, bog and pond.
ii) Mesarch:- Starting in an area of adequate moisture.
iii) Xeraarch (or) xerosere:- starting in a dry area with little moisture they can be of the following
types.
Lithosere: Starting on a base rock
Psammosere : Starting on sand
Halosere: Starting on saline soil
Primary succession:
It begins with an essentially lifeless area where there is no soil in a terrestrial ecosystem or no
bottom sediment in an aquatic ecosystem.
Examples include base rock exposed by retreating glaciers or severe soil erosion, newly cooled lava, an
abandoned high way or parking lot or a newly created shallow pond or reservoir.
Before a community of plants can become established on land there must be soil. Depending mostly on
the climate it takes natural processes several hundred to several thousand years to produce fertile soil.
Soil formation begins when hardy pioneer species attach themselves to inhospitable patches of base rock.
Lichens & mosus which can with stand the lack of moisture and soil nutrients and extreme temperature.
As patches of soil build up and spread, eventually the community of lichens and mosses is replaced by a
new community.
Typically it consists of small perennial grasses and herbs.
These early successional plant species grow close to the ground, can establish large populations quickly
under harsh conditions and have short lives. Some of their roots penetrate the rock and help break it up
into more soil particles. The decay of their wastes and dead bodies also adds more nutrients to the soil.
After hundreds of years, the soil may be deep and fertile enough to store enough moisture and nutrients to
support the growth of less hardy mid successional plant species of herbs, grasses and low shrubs. Trees
that need lots of sunlight and are adapted to the areas climate and soil usually replace those species.
As these tree species grow and create shade, they are replaced by late successional plant species that can
tolerate shade, unless fire flooding, severe erosion, tree cutting, climate change or other natural or human
processes disturb the area, what was once bare rock becomes a complex forest community.
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HS1201-EVS Unit IV Chemistry Dept/SuDEC
S.Martin AP / Chemistry
1
CLIMATE CHANGE
Context - The Earth's climate has changed over the last century and by 2001 there was strong evidence that
most of the warming observed the previous 50 years was attributable to human activities.
Moreover, computer models already predicted that temperatures would continue to rise over the 21
st
century.
This was revealed by the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
(Daphnia) which involved many hundreds of scientists from many countries.
An increasing number of observations indicates that the world has warmed:
Variations of the Earths surface temperature over the last 140 years.
Variations of the Earths surface temperature over the last 1000 years.
The average surface temperature has increased over the 20th century by about 0.6C ( 0.2C). This increase
occurred mainly from 1910 to 1945 and 1976 to 2000. The increase is larger at night time and over land
area.
It is likely that in the Northern Hemisphere, over the past 1000 years:
the temperature increase in 20th century was the largest,
the 1990s was the warmest decade and 1998 the warmest year.
Temperatures have risen during the past four decades in the lowest 8 kilometers of the atmosphere.
Snow cover and ice extent have decreased.
The sea level has risen by 10 to 20 cm (4 to 8") during the 20th century. Ocean temperature has
increased since the late 1950s
CLIMATE CHANGE OBSERVED
Precipitation is likely to have increased in the 20th century in some land areas and decreased in
others.
It is likely that there has been some increase in cloud cover.
It is very likely that there has been less extreme low temperatures and slightly more extreme high
temperatures.
There have been more warm episodes of the El Nio since the mid-1970s.
There were relatively small global increases in severe drought or severe wetness over the century
but an increase in droughts in some regions in recent decades.
What aspects of our climate have NOT changed?
No warming is apparent in some parts of the Southern Hemisphere oceans and parts of Antarctica.
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No systematic rainfall change over the Southern Hemisphere.
No significant trends of Antarctic sea-ice extent.
No clear change in tropical and extra-tropical storm intensity and frequency or in the frequency of
tornadoes, thunder days, or hail events.
CAUSES OF CLIMATE CHANGE
Changes in climate are the result of both internal variability within the climate system and external factors
(both natural and anthropogenic).Human emissions are significantly modifying the concentrations of some
gases in the atmosphere. Some of these gases are expected to affect the climate by changing the earth's
radiative balance, measured in terms of radiative forcing.
Greenhouse gases, which have a global effect, tend to warm the earth surface by absorbing some of the
infrared radiation it emits.
The principal anthropogenic greenhouse gas is carbon dioxide (CO
2
), whose concentration has
increased by 31% since 1750 to a level which is likely to have not been exceeded for 20 million
years. This increase is predominantly due to fossil fuel burning, but also to land-use change,
especially deforestation.
The other significant anthropogenic greenhouse gases are methane (CH
4
) (151% increases since
1750, 1/3 of CO
2
's radiative forcing), halocarbons such as CFCs and their substitutes (100%
anthropogenic, 1/4 of CO
2
's radiative forcing) and nitrous oxide (N
2
O) (17% increases since 1750,
1/10 of CO
2
's radiative forcing).
Anthropogenic aerosols, which have a regional effect, are short-lived and mostly tend to cool the earth
down. Known natural factors such as changes in solar irradiance and volcanic eruptions are expected to
have only made small contributions to radiative forcing over the past century.
Although more research is needed, understanding of climate processes and computer models have
improved (More...), leading the IPCC to draw the following conclusion
Most of thewarmingover thelast 50yearsislikelytohavebeenduetoman-madeactivities.
CONSEQUENCES OF CLIMATE CHANGE
Regional changes in climate, particularly increases in temperature, have already affected some physical and
biological systems.
Both natural and human systems are vulnerable to climate change because of their limited adaptive
capacity. This vulnerability varies with geographic location, time, and social, economic and environmental
conditions.
Some extreme weather events and the damage, hardship, and death they cause are projected to increase
with global warming. There is also a potential for large-scale and possibly irreversible impacts which pose
risks that have yet to be reliably quantified; their likelihood is probably very low but is expected to increase
with the rate, magnitude, and duration of climate change.
Man will have to adapt to and cope with the climate change consequences that are not prevented by
mitigation. Economic losses can be expected, especially in poorest regions; the higher the warming, the
greater the losses. Promoting adaptation, sustainable development and equity can be mutually reinforcing.
EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE IN THE FUTURE
Projected changes in climate are expected to have both beneficial and adverse effects on water resources,
agriculture, natural ecosystems and human health. But the larger the changes in climate the more the
adverse effects should dominate.
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For instance, some crop and forest productivities could benefit from a small climate change. But for many
other natural systems, the adverse effects should be dominant, especially if warming exceeds a few
degrees.
Human populations are expected to face increasing flooding and heat waves but reduced cold spells. The
geographic range for infectious diseases should increase
The vulnerability of human populations and natural systems to climate change differs substantially across
regions and across populations within regions.
CONTROL OF GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS
Climate change is a unique, global, long-term problem, involving complex interactions.
There are many technological options for reducing greenhouse gas emissions, some at low or negative cost.
Forests and agricultural lands provide significant but not necessarily permanent carbon sinks, which may
allow time for other options.
There will be both costs and benefits to reducing greenhouse gases. Most studies project that in 2010, the
Kyoto Protocol should cost developed countries a reduction in projected GDP of about 0.2% to 2% without
emission trading and about half of that with emission trading. Greenhouse gas reduction programs need to
overcome many barriers. Governments have a wide array of instruments at their disposal. With coordinated
actions and international regimes, efficiency and equity should improve. Further research is required to
strengthen future assessments and to reduce uncertainties.
ECOSYSTEMS AND CLIMATE CHANGE
Ecosystems have a limited capacity to adapt to climate change; some might not be able to cope as they had
done in earlier periods and are expected to suffer damages because:
The rate and extent of climate change is expected to be faster and greater than in the past and could
exceed nature's maximum adaptation speed;
Human activities and pollution have increased the vulnerability of ecosystems.
CONCLUSION
The earth's climate has changed over the last century. There is new and stronger evidence that most of the
warming observed the last 50 years is attributable to human activities. Evolving computer models are
predicting that, because of greenhouse gas emissions, temperatures should continue to rise over the 21
st
century), impacting nature and mankind both positively and negatively.
The impacts should vary among regions, but they can not yet be predicted accurately, especially for small-
scale areas. However, it is expected that:
1. the more the greenhouse gases are emitted, the higher the tendency for the earth to warm
2. the greater and faster the warming, the more the adverse effects will dominate,
3. and the higher the possibility, although probably remote, of large-scale and possibly irreversible
impacts.
Therefore, although an acceptable level for greenhouse gases has not yet been determined, reducing
emissions should reduce the risk of adverse effects. Many options for emission reductions are available
;their costs need to be balanced with the risks left for future generations.
GLOBAL WARMING
Global warming is the increase in the average temperature of the Earth's near-surface air and oceans since
the mid-20th century and its projected continuation. Global surface temperature increased 0.74 0.18 C
(1.33 0.32 F) during the last century. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) concludes
that increasing greenhouse gas concentrations resulting from human activity such as fossil fuel burning and
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deforestation caused most of the observed temperature increase since the middle of the 20th century. The
IPCC also concludes that variations in natural phenomena such as solar radiation and volcanoes produced
most of the warming from pre-industrial times to 1950 and had a small cooling effect afterward. These
basic conclusions have been endorsed by more than 40 scientific societies and academies of science,
including all of the national academies of science of the major industrialized countries. A small number of
scientists dispute the consensus view.
Climate model projections summarized in the latest IPCC report indicate that the global surface
temperature will probably rise a further 1.1 to 6.4 C (2.0 to 11.5 F) during the twenty-first century.
GREEN HOUSE EFFECT
Life on earth depends on energy from the sun. About 30 percent of the sunlight that beams toward Earth is
deflected by the outer atmosphere and scattered back into space. The rest reaches the planets surface and is
reflected upward again as a type of slow-moving energy called infrared radiation.
As it rises, infrared radiation is absorbed by greenhouse gases such as water vapor, carbon dioxide, ozone
and methane, which slows its escape from the atmosphere.
Although greenhouse gases make up only about 1 percent of the Earths atmosphere, they regulate our
climate by trapping heat and holding it in a kind of warm-air blanket that surrounds the planet.
This phenomenon is what scientists call the "greenhouse effect." Without it, scientists estimate that the
average temperature on Earth would be colder by approximately 30 degrees Celsius (54 degrees
Fahrenheit), far too cold to sustain our current ecosystem.
While the greenhouse effect is an essential environmental prerequisite for life on Earth, there really can be
too much of a good thing.
The problems begin when human activities distort and accelerate the natural process by creating more
greenhouse gases in the atmosphere than are necessary to warm the planet to an ideal temperature.
Burning natural gas, coal and oil including gasoline for automobile enginesraises the level of
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.
Some farming practices and land-use changes increase the levels of methane and nitrous oxide.
Many factories produce long-lasting industrial gases that do not occur naturally, yet contribute
significantly to the enhanced greenhouse effect and global warming that is currently under way.
Deforestation also contributes to global warming. Trees use carbon dioxide and give off oxygen in
its place, which helps to create the optimal balance of gases in the atmosphere. As more forests are
logged for timber or cut down to make way for farming, however, there are fewer trees to perform
this critical function.
Population growth is another factor in global warming, because as more people use fossil fuels for
heat, transportation and manufacturing the level of greenhouse gases continues to increase. As more
farming occurs to feed millions of new people, more greenhouse gases enter the atmosphere.
Ultimately, more greenhouse gases means more infrared radiation trapped and held, which gradually
increases the temperature of the Earths surface and the air in the lower atmosphere.
The Average Global Temperature is Increasing Quickly
Today, the increase in the Earths temperature is increasing with unprecedented speed. To understand just
how quickly global warming is accelerating, consider this:
During the entire 20th century, the average global temperature increased by about 0.6 degrees Celsius
(slightly more than 1 degree Fahrenheit).
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Using computer climate models, scientists estimate that by the year 2100 the average global temperature
will increase by 1.4 degrees to 5.8 degrees Celsius (approximately 2.5 degrees to 10.5 degrees Fahrenheit).
What are greenhouse gases?
Many chemical compounds present in Earth's atmosphere behave as 'greenhouse gases'. These are gases
which allow direct sunlight (relative shortwave energy) to reach the Earth's surface unimpeded. As the
shortwave energy (that in the visible and ultraviolet portion of the spectra) heats the surface, longer-wave
(infrared) energy (heat) is reradiated to the atmosphere. Greenhouse gases absorb this energy, thereby
allowing less heat to escape back to space, and 'trapping' it in the lower atmosphere. Many greenhouse
gases occur naturally in the Atmosphere, such as carbon dioxide, methane, water vapor, and nitrous
oxide, while others are synthetic. Those that are man-made include the chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs),
hydro fluorocarbons (HFCs) and Per fluorocarbons (PFCs), as well as sulfur hexafluoride (SF6).
Atmospheric concentrations of both the natural and man-made gases have been rising over the last few
centuries due to the industrial revolution. As the global population has increased and our reliance on
fossil fuels (such as coal, oil and natural gas) has been firmly solidified, so emissions of these gases have
risen.
Causes of Global Warming
1. Carbon Dioxide from Power Plants
Coal emits around 1.7 times as much carbon per unit of energy when burned as does natural gas and 1.25
times as much as oil. Natural gas gives off 50% of the carbon dioxide, the principal greenhouse gas,
released by coal. Coal contains about 80 percent more carbon per unit of energy than gas does, and oil
contains about 40 percent more.
2. Carbon Dioxide Emitted from Cars
Vehicles with poor gas mileage contribute the most to global warming. For each gallon of gas a vehicle
consumes, 19.6 pounds of carbon dioxide are emitted into the air.
If car manufacturers were to increase their fleets' average gas mileage about 3 miles per gallon, this
country could save a million barrels of oil every day, while US drivers would save $25 billion in fuel costs
annually.
3. Carbon Dioxide from Airplanes
The UN's Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change estimates that aviation causes 3.5 percent of global
warming, and that the figure could rise to 15 percent by 2050.
4. Carbon Dioxide from Buildings
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Buildings structure account for about 12% of carbon dioxide emissions.
5. Methane
While carbon dioxide is the principal greenhouse gas, methane is second most important. According to the
IPCC, Methane is more than 20 times as
effective as CO2 at trapping heat in the atmosphere.
6. Water Vapor in the Atmosphere Increasing
Water vapor is the most prevalent and most poweful greenhouse gas on the planet, but its increasing
presence is the result of warming caused by carbon dioxide, methane and other greenhouse gases. Water
vapor holds onto two-thirds of the heat trapped by all the greenhouse gases. As the Earth heats up relative
humidity is able to increase, allowing the planet's atmosphere to hold more water vapor, causing even more
warming.
7. Nitrous oxide
Another greenhouse gas is Nitrous oxide (N2O), a colourless, non-flammable gas with a sweetish odour,
commonly known as "laughing gas", and sometimes used as an anaesthetic. Nitrous oxide is naturally
produced by oceans and rainforests. Man-made sources of nitrous oxide include nylon and nitric acid
production, the use of fertilisers in agriculture, cars with catalytic converters and the burning of organic
matter.
8. Deforestation
After carbon emissions caused by humans, deforestation is the second principle cause of atmospheric
carbon dioxide. Deforestation is responsible for 20-25% of all carbon emissions entering the atmosphere,
by the burning and cutting of about 34 million acres of trees each year.
9. Permafrost
Permafrost is a solid structure of frozen soil, extending to depths of 2.200 feet in some areas of the arctic
and subarctic regions, containing grasses, roots, sticks, much of it dating back to 30,000 years. About 25%
of the land areas of the Northern Hemisphere hold permafrost, which is defined as soil whose temperature
has been 32 degrees Fahrenheit (0 degrees Celsius) for a period of at least 2 years. Permafrost is under 85%
of Alaska land surface and much of Canada, Scandinavia and Siberia and holds about 14 per cent of the
world's carbon.
Present Danger of Global Warming
As the eagle was killed by the arrow winged with his own feather, so the hand of the world is wounded by
its own skill. -Helen Keller
Deaths due to climate change
Increasing Storms and Floods
Weather-Related Natural Disasters
Killer Heat Waves
Islands are Endangered by Rising Seas
Coral Bleaching
The Trend to Dead Zones in Oceans
Decline in Antarctic Krill
Severe Diseases Caused by Climate Change
Forest's Enemy, Beetles
Threat to Animals
Coastal Flooding
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Wildfires Increasing
Warming Ocean Waters Kills Plankton
The Danger to Birds
Australia may be facing a permanent drought
Besides global warming, here's what fossil fuel dependency gives us
1. Deaths Due to Climate Change
A study, by scientists at the World Health Organization (WHO) determined that 154,000 people die every
year from the effects of global warming, from malaria to malnutrition, children in developing nations
seemingly the most vulnerable. These numbers could almost double by 2020.
2. Increasing Storms and Floods
Global warming has produced an increase in precipitation during the 20th century, mostly in the form of
heavy rainstorms, little in moderate, beneficial rainstorms.
Scientists are saying that global warming is causing early snowmelts.
3. Weather-Related Natural Disasters
On November 28, 1998 the San Francisco Chronicle ran an Associated Press article reporting that dollar
damages from weather-related natural disasters (floods, storms, droughts, fires) worldwide for 1998 totaled
$89 billion. Total damages for the entire decade of the 1980's were $83 billion
4. Killer Heat Waves
In June, 2003, 1700 people died during a heat wave that hit India, while 35,000 Europeans died in a heat
wave the following August.
5. Islands are Endangered by Rising Seas
Many islands and beaches are in danger of flooding all over the world.
The island state of Kiribati (population, 75,000) is being threatened with rising seas, engulfing
homes and crops. These are rising sea levels, surges during sunny weather. Says one islander, "It's
nice weather, and all of a sudden water is pouring into your living room."
6. Coral Bleaching
Although coral reefs cover less than 0.2% of the ocean's area, they contain 25% of marine fish species. An
example of coral reef biodiversity are the reefs of the Florida Keys, which sustain 500 species of fish, more
than 1700 species of mollusks, five species of sea turtles, and hundreds of species of sponges.
Coral bleaching is happening all over the world in many countries. Whenever coral is stressed by higher
water temperatures, even only 2 or 3 degrees Fahrenheit warmer, it may expel the algae that nourishes it
and gives the coral its color, thus coral bleaching. Coral usually recovers from bleaching, but it cannot
survive the stress of constant warming waters.
7. The Trend to Dead Zones in Oceans
In a study released February 15, 2008 researchers noted that coastal waters are showing dead zones,
extending from the state of Washington down to California. The reason for the areas of depleted oxygen is
the persistent, strong winds that are pushing surface waters. The unusually strong winds promote the
growth of plankton and hold low-oxygen water on the continental shelf for longer periods.
8. Decline in Populations of Antarctic Krill
Because of increasing temperatures, areas of sea ice in the Antarctic Peninsula region have diminished
significantly. And the algae that grows on the underside of the shrinking sea ice is therefore also
diminishing. The algae is a food source of krill, which is also disappearing in antarctic waters. Scientists
report a tenfold decline in krill populations during the past 10 years.
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9. Severe Diseases Caused by Climate Change
A recent study by New Zealand doctors, researchers at the Wellington School of Medicine's public health
department said outbreaks of dengue fever in South Pacific islands are directly related to global warming.
"Many of the most important diseases in poor countries, from malaria to diarrhoea and malnutrition are
highly sensitive to climate," said Diarmid Campbell-Lendrum, of the World Health Organization (WHO),
and a co-author of a report published in the science journal Nature on November 17, 2005. The report says
that climate change is the driving force behind an increase in debilitating illnesses such as malaria,
malnutrition and diarrhea.
10. Threat to Animals
Habitats of many wildlife animals are threatened due to change in the temperature.
Polar Bear-Temperatures in the Antarctic and Arctic has increased significantly to the point that sea ice
has diminished in the both regions. In the Arctic this has meant a decreased habitat for the polar bear.
11. Coastal Flooding
Global warming is melting ice to the tune of 50 billion tons of water a year from the Greenland ice sheet. A
NASA high-tech aerial survey shows that more than 11 cubic miles of ice is disappearing from the ice sheet
annually. This is increasing the likelihood of coastal flooding around the world, if this meltdown trend
continues.
12. Wildfires Increasing
The forests of Canada, Alaska and the former Soviet Union including Siberia are apparently burning like
never beforeThe likely reason: Global warming is drying out northern timber and brush. As a result,
lightning bolts spark infernos of colossal extent.
FUTURE THREAT OF GLOBAL WARMING
"Global warming is real; the risks it poses are real; and the American people have a right to know it and a
responsibility to do something about it. The sooner Congress understands that, the sooner we can protect
our nation--and our planet--from increased flood, fire, drought, and deadly heat waves." President Bill
Clinton, July 25, 1998. (Quotation from transcript of President Clintons radio address of July 25, 1998)
Deaths Due to Global Warming
1. The Threat of Mass Extinction
2. Species Threatened by Climate Change
3. Coral Bleaching & Disintegration
4. The Trend to Dead Zones in Oceans
5. Floods
6. More Intense Hurricanes on the Way
7. Heat Waves
8. Increasing Power Outages
9. Forests and Wildfires
10. Global Warming, Forests & Bark Beetles
11. Threat to Boreal Forests
12. Sea Level Rise & Climate Change Refugees
13. Sea Level Rise & Impact on US Cities
14. Coastal Wetlands
15. Spread of Infectious Diseases
16. Escalating Increase in Allergens
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17. Global Warming And Asthma
18. Loss of Arctic Sea Ice
19. Weather-Related Damage
20. Disappearing Beaches
21. Damage & Loss of World's Ecosystems & Biomes
22. Effect on Stratospheric Ozone
23. Effect on World's Food Production
24. Thawing Permafrost & Tundra As Sources of CO2 Emissions
25. Disappearing Glaciers
26. Water Shortages & More Droughts
27. Increasing ocean storms and coastal erosion
28. Greenland - A key to accelerating climate change
29. The Sky is Rising
30. Disappearing Plankton - Bottom of the Food Chain
31. Threat to Krill - Food Source of Fish, Seabirds, Squids, Whales, Seals, Penguins
32. Threat to Winter Sports Industry
33. Carbon dioxide emissions increase acidity of ocean waters
SOLUTIONS
en Personal Solutions to Global Warming
Individual choices can have an impact on global climate change. Reducing your family's heat-trapping
emissions does not mean forgoing modern conveniences; it means making smart choices and using energy-
efficient products, which may require an additional investment up front, but often pay you back in energy
savings within a couple of years.
Since Americans' per capita emissions of heat-trapping gases is 5.6 tonsmore than double the amount of
western Europeanswe can all make choices that will greatly reduce our families' global warming impact.
1. The car you drive: the most important personal climate decision.
When you buy your next car, look for the one with the best fuel economy in its class. Each gallon of
gas you use is responsible for 25 pounds of heat-trapping gases in the atmosphere. Better gas
mileage not only reduces global warming, but will also save you thousands of dollars at the pump
over the life of the vehicle. Compare the fuel economy of the cars you're considering and look for
new technologies like hybrid engines.
2. Choose clean power. More than half the electricity in the United States comes from polluting coal-
fired power plants. And power plants are the single largest source of heat-trapping gas. None of us
can live without electricity, but in some states, you can switch to electricity companies that provide
50 to 100 percent renewable energy. (For more information go to Green-e.org.)
3. Look for Energy Star. When it comes time to replace appliances, look for the Energy Star label on
new appliances (refrigerators, freezers, furnaces, air conditioners, and water heaters use the most
energy). These items may cost a bit more initially, but the energy savings will pay back the extra
investment within a couple of years. Household energy savings really can make a difference: If each
household in the United States replaced its existing appliances with the most efficient models
available, we would save $15 billion in energy costs and eliminate 175 million tons of heat-trapping
gases.
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4. Unplug a freezer.
One of the quickest ways to reduce your global warming impact is to unplug the extra refrigerator
or freezer you rarely use (except when you need it for holidays and parties). This can reduce the
typical family's carbon dioxide emissions by nearly 10 percent.
5. Get a home energy audit.
Take advantage of the free home energy audits offered by many utilities. Simple measures, such as
installing a programmable thermostat to replace your old dial unit or sealing and insulating heating
and cooling ducts, can each reduce a typical family's carbon dioxide emissions by about 5 percent.
6. Light bulbs matter.
If every household in the United States replaced one regular light bulb with an energy-saving
model, we could reduce global warming pollution by more than 90 billion pounds over the life of
the bulbs; the same as taking 6.3 million cars off the road. So, replace your incandescent bulbs with
more efficient compact fluorescents, which now come in all shapes and sizes. You'll be doing your
share to cut back on heat-trapping pollution and you'll save money on your electric bills and light
bulbs.
7. Think before you drive.
If you own more than one vehicle, use the less fuel-efficient one only when you can fill it with
passengers. Driving a full minivan may be kinder to the environment than two midsize cars.
Whenever possible, join a carpool or take mass transit.
8. Buy good wood.
When buying wood products, check for labels that indicate the source of the timber. Supporting
forests that are managed in a sustainable fashion makes sense for biodiversity, and it may make
sense for the climate too. Forests that are well managed are more likely to store carbon effectively
because more trees are left standing and carbon-storing soils are less disturbed.
9. Plant a tree.
You can also make a difference in your own backyard. Get a group in your neighborhood together
and contact your local arborist or urban forester about planting trees on private property and public
land. In addition to storing carbon, trees planted in and around urban areas and residences can
provide much-needed shade in the summer, reducing energy bills and fossil fuel use.
10. Let policymakers know you are concerned about global warming.
Our elected officials and business leaders need to hear from concerned citizens. Sign up for the
Union of Concerned Scientists Action Network to ensure that policymakers get the timely, accurate
information they need to make informed decisions about global warming solutions.
Causes for ozone depletion:-
Chloroflouro carbons (CFC) commonly known as Freons. These chemically stable (non reactive),
odorless, nonflammable, nontoxic and non corrosive compounds are cheap to make.
They are used as coolants in air conditioners and refrigerators (replacing toxic sulfur dioxide and
ammonia), propellants in aerosol spray can, Cleaners for electronic parts, sterility for hospital instruments,
Fumigants of granaries and bubbles in plastic foam used for Insulation and packaging.
In 1974, Chemists Sherwood Rowland and Mario Molina at the University of California indicated
that CFCS were lowering the average concentration of ozone in the stratosphere.
CFCs remain the troposphere because they are insoluble in water and are chemically unreactive.
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Over, 11-20 years, they rise into the stratosphere mostly through convection, random drift and the
turbulent mixing of air in the troposphere.
Once they reach the stratosphere, the CFC, molecules break down under the influence of high
energy UV radiation.
It releases highly reactive ozone (O
3
) into O
2
and O in a cyclic chain of chemical reactions. This
causes ozone in various parts of the stratosphere to be destroyed faster than it is formed.
CFCl
3
+ UV___ CFCl
2
+ Cl
Cl + O
3
---- ClO + O
2
ClO + O ----- Cl + O
2
Finally each CFC can last in the stratosphere for 65 -385 years. Depending on its type the most
widely used CFCs last 75-111 years. During that time, each chlorine atom released from these molecules
can convert unto 1,00,000 molecules of O
3
to O
2
.
Ozone depletion in Stratosphere:
A layer of ozone in the lower stratosphere keeps about 95% of the suns harmful UV
radiation from reaching the earths surface.
Formation of Ozone:-
Ozone is a form of oxygen and it contains three atoms of oxygen (O
3
)
-In the stratosphere ozone is continuously being created by the absorption of
short wave UV radiations.
UV radiations less than 242nm decompose molecular oxygen into atomic (O)
by photolytic decomposition.
(O
2
+UVB ---- O+O)
The atomic oxygen rapidly reacts with molecular oxygen to form ozone.
(O
2
+O ---- O
3
)
Some free oxygen atoms combine with O
3
to form two oxygen molecules.
O+ O
3 --------
O
2
+ O
2
When ozone absorbs UVB, it is converted to free oxygen and molecular oxygen.
O
3
+ UVB ------O + O
2
The amount of ozone in the stratosphere is dynamic.
However, the presence of CFC and other chemicals may alter this equilibrium. Ozone Concentration in
stratosphere is about 10ppm. This is disturbed by reactive atoms of chlorine, bromine etc, which destroy
ozone, molecules. It results in thinning of ozone layer generally called ozone hole. The amount of
atmospheric ozone is measured by Dobson spectra Photoemission and is expressed in Dobson units (DU).
One DU =0 .01 mm.
Other Chemicals deplete ozone:-
CFCs are not the only ozone depleting compounds. Other examples are halons. Methyl bromide (
fumigant ), hydrogen chloride ( emitted by US space shuttles) and cleaning solvents such as carbon tetra
chloride, methyl chloroform, n-propyl bromide and hexachloride butadiene.
Effects of ozone layer depletion
Human health
Worse sunburn
Skin Cancer
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Cataracts
Pterygium
Photo allergy
Premature ageing
Suppressed immune system
Crops
Impaired growth
Impaired photosynthesis
Poor crop yield
Affects nitrogen fixing bacteria
Damage DNA
Impaired reproductive capacity
Animals
Affects reproduction
Cancer
Affects whole eco system
THE RESPONSE TO OZONE LAYER DEPLETION
Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer was entered into force in 1985 and agreement
was made to take appropriate measures to protect the ozone layer and to do research, monitoring and
exchange of information
The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer was entered into force in 1989. It
controls on production, consumption and use of ozone depleting substances (ODS)
United Nations declared September 16 as International Ozone Day
ACID RAIN
Acid rain is rain or any other form of precipitation that is unusually acidic. It has harmful effects on plants,
aquatic animals, and infrastructure. Acid rain is mostly caused by human emissions of sulfur and nitrogen
compounds which react in the atmosphere to produce acids.
Definition
"Acid rain" is a popular term referring to the deposition of wet (rain, snow, sleet, fog and cloudwater, dew)
and dry (acidifying particles and gases) acidic components. A more accurate term is acid deposition.
Distilled water, which contains no carbon dioxide, has a neutral pH of 7. Liquids with a pH less than 7 are
acidic, and those with a pH greater than 7 are bases. Clean or unpolluted rain has a slightly acidic pH of
about 5.2, because carbon dioxide and water in the air react together to form carbonic acid, a weak acid (pH
5.6 in distilled water), but unpolluted rain also contains other chemicals.
[1]
H
2
O (l) + CO
2
(g) H
2
CO
3
(aq)
Carbonic acid then can ionize in water forming low concentrations of hydronium and carbonate ions:
2 H
2
O (l) + H
2
CO
3
(aq) CO
3
2
(aq) + 2 H
3
O
+
(aq)
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Emissions of chemicals leading to acidification
The most important gas which leads to acidification is sulfur dioxide. Emissions of nitrogen oxides which
are oxidized to form nitric acid are of increasing importance due to stricter controls on emissions of sulfur
containing compounds. 70 Tg(S) per year in the form of SO
2
comes from fossil fuel combustion and
industry, 2.8 Tg(S) from wildfires and 7-8 Tg(S) per year from volcanoes.
[15]
Natural phenomena
The principal natural phenomena that contribute acid-producing gases to the atmosphere are emissions
from volcanoes and those from biological processes that occur on the land, in wetlands, and in the oceans.
The major biological source of sulfur containing compounds is dimethyl sulfide.
Human activity
The principal cause of acid rain is sulfur and nitrogen compounds from human sources, such as electricity
generation, factories, and motor vehicles. Coal power plants are one of the most polluting. The gases can be
carried hundreds of kilometres in the atmosphere before they are converted to acids and deposited.
Chemical processes
Combustion of fuels creates sulfur dioxide and nitric oxides. They are converted into sulfuric acid and
nitric acid.
Gas phase chemistry
In the gas phase sulfur dioxide is oxidized by reaction with the hydroxyl radical via an intermolecular
reaction.
SO
2
+ OH HOSO
2
which is followed by:

HOSO
2
+ O
2
HO
2
+ SO
3
In the presence of water, sulfur trioxide (SO
3
) is converted rapidly to sulfuric acid:
SO
3
(g) + H
2
O (l) H
2
SO
4
(l)
Nitrogen dioxide reacts with OH to form nitric acid:
NO
2
+ OH HNO
3
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Wet deposition
Wet deposition of acids occurs when any form of precipitation (rain, snow, etc.) removes acids from the
atmosphere and delivers it to the Earth's surface. This can result from the deposition of acids produced in
the raindrops (see aqueous phase chemistry above) or by the precipitation removing the acids either in
clouds or below clouds. Wet removal of both gases and aerosols are both of importance for wet deposition.
Dry deposition
Acid deposition also occurs via dry deposition in the absence of precipitation. This can be responsible for
as much as 20 to 60% of total acid deposition. This occurs when particles and gases stick to the ground,
plants or other surfaces.
Adverse effects
Acid rain has been shown to have adverse impacts on forests, freshwaters and soils, killing insect and
aquatic life-forms as well as causing damage to buildings and having impacts on human health.
Surface waters and aquatic animals
Both the lower pH and higher aluminum concentrations in surface water that occur as a result of acid rain
can cause damage to fish and other aquatic animals. At pH lower than 5 most fish eggs will not hatch and
lower pH can kill adult fish. As lakes and rivers become more acidic biodiversity is reduced. Acid rain has
eliminated insect life and some fish species.
Soils
Soil biology and chemistry can be seriously damaged by acid rain. Some microbes are unable to tolerate
changes to low pH and are killed. The enzymes of these microbes are denatured (changed in shape so they
no longer function) by the acid. The hydronium ions of acid rain also mobilize toxins such as aluminium,
and leach away essential nutrients and minerals such as magnesium.Soil chemistry can be dramatically
changed when base cations, such as calcium and magnesium, are leached by acid rain thereby affecting
sensitive species, such as sugar maple (Acer saccharum).
Forests and other vegetation
Adverse effects may be indirectly related to acid rain, like the acid's effects on soil (see above) or high
concentration of gaseous precursors to acid rain. High altitude forests are especially vulnerable as they are
often surrounded by clouds and fog which are more acidic than rain.
Other plants can also be damaged by acid rain, but the effect on food crops is minimized by the application
of lime and fertilizers to replace lost nutrients.
Human health
Scientists have suggested direct links to human health. Fine particles, a large fraction of which are formed
from the same gases as acid rain (sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide), have been shown to cause illness
and premature deaths such as cancer and other diseases.
Other adverse effects
Acid rain can also cause damage to certain building materials and historical monuments. This results when
the sulfuric acid in the rain chemically reacts with the calcium compounds in the stones (limestone,
sandstone, marble and granite) to create gypsum, which then flakes off.
This result is also commonly seen on old gravestones where the acid rain can cause the inscription to
become completely illegible. Acid rain also causes an increased rate of oxidation for iron. Visibility is also
reduced by sulfate and nitrate aerosols and particles in the atmosphere.
Prevention methods
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1. Improvement in technologies and switching to clean combustion technologies are highly
essential in order to monitor the air pollution.
2. Emissions of SO
2
and NO
2
from industries and power plants should be reduced by using
pollution control equipments.
3. Coal with lower sulphur content is desirable to use in thermal plants. Replacement of coal
by natural gas would also reduce the problem.
4. Liming of lakes and soils should be done to correct the adverse effect of acid rain.
5. The real solution is to cut back on the use of fossil fuels by reducing our dependency on
motor vehicles and unnecessary utility of motor articles.
Environmental laws
In the Constitution of India it is clearly stated that it is the duty of the state to protect and improve the
environment and to safeguard the forests and wildlife of the country. It imposes a duty on every citizen to
protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers, and wildlife. Reference to the
environment has also been made in the Directive Principles of State Policy as well as the Fundamental
Rights. The Department of Environment was established in India in 1980 to ensure a healthy environment
for the country. This later became the Ministry of Environment and Forests in 1985.
The constitutional provisions are backed by a number of laws acts, rules, and notifications. The EPA
(Environment Protection Act), 1986 came into force soon after the Bhopal Gas Tragedy and is considered
an umbrella legislation as it fills many gaps in the existing laws. Thereafter a large number of laws came
into existence as the problems began arising, for example, Handling and Management of Hazardous Waste
Rules in 1989.
Following is a list of the environmental legislations that have come into effect:
General, Forest and wildlife, Water, Air
General
1986 - The Environment (Protection) Act authorizes the central government to protect and improve
environmental quality, control and reduce pollution from all sources, and prohibit or restrict the setting and
/or operation of any industrial facility on environmental grounds.
1986 - The Environment (Protection) Rules lay down procedures for setting standards of emission or
discharge of environmental pollutants.
1989 - The objective of Hazardous Waste (Management and Handling) Rules is to control the
generation, collection, treatment, import, storage, and handling of hazardous waste.
1989 - The Manufacture, Storage, and Import of Hazardous Rules define the terms used in this context,
and sets up an authority to inspect, once a year, the industrial activity connected with hazardous chemicals
and isolated storage facilities.
1989 - The Manufacture, Use, Import, Export, and Storage of hazardous Micro-organisms/
Genetically Engineered Organisms or Cells Rules were introduced with a view to protect the
environment, nature, and health, in connection with the application of gene technology and
microorganisms.
1991 - The Public Liability Insurance Act and Rules and Amendment, 1992 was drawn up to provide
for public liability insurance for the purpose of providing immediate relief to the persons affected by
accident while handling any hazardous substance.
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1995 - The National Environmental Tribunal Act has been created to award compensation for damages
to persons, property, and the environment arising from any activity involving hazardous substances.
1997 - The National Environment Appellate Authority Act has been created to hear appeals with respect
to restrictions of areas in which classes of industries etc. are carried out or prescribed subject to certain
safeguards under the EPA.
1998 - The Biomedical waste (Management and Handling) Rules is a legal binding on the health care
institutions to streamline the process of proper handling of hospital waste such as segregation, disposal,
collection, and treatment.
1999 - The Environment (Siting for Industrial Projects) Rules, 1999 lay down detailed provisions
relating to areas to be avoided for siting of industries, precautionary measures to be taken for site selecting
as also the aspects of environmental protection which should have been incorporated during the
implementation of the industrial development projects.
2000 - The Municipal Solid Wastes (Management and Handling) Rules, 2000 apply to every municipal
authority responsible for the collection, segregation, storage, transportation, processing, and disposal of
municipal solid wastes.
2000 - The Ozone Depleting Substances (Regulation and Control) Rules have been laid down for the
regulation of production and consumption of ozone depleting substances.
2001 - The Batteries (Management and Handling) Rules, 2001 rules shall apply to every manufacturer,
importer, re-conditioner, assembler, dealer, auctioneer, consumer, and bulk consumer involved in the
manufacture, processing, sale, purchase, and use of batteries or components so as to regulate and ensure the
environmentally safe disposal of used batteries.
2002 - The Noise Pollution (Regulation and Control) (Amendment) Rules lay down
such terms and conditions as are necessary to reduce noise pollution, permit use of loud speakers or public
address systems during night hours (between 10:00 p.m. to 12:00 midnight) on or during any cultural or
religious festive occasion
2002 - The Biological Diversity Act is an act to provide for the conservation of biological diversity,
sustainable use of its components, and fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the use of
biological resources and knowledge associated with it
Forest and wildlife
1927 - The Indian Forest Act and Amendment, 1984, is one of the many surviving colonial statutes. It
was enacted to consolidate the law related to forest, the transit of forest produce, and the duty leviable on
timber and other forest produce.
1972 - The Wildlife Protection Act, Rules 1973 and Amendment 1991 provides for the protection of
birds and animals and for all matters that are connected to it whether it be their habitat or the waterhole or
the forests that sustain them.
1980 - The Forest (Conservation) Act and Rules, 1981, provides for the protection of and the
conservation of the forests.
Water
1882 - The Easement Act allows private rights to use a resource that is, groundwater, by viewing it as an
attachment to the land. It also states that all surface water belongs to the state and is a state property.
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1897 - The Indian Fisheries Act establishes two sets of penal offences whereby the government can sue
any person who uses dynamite or other explosive substance in any way (whether coastal or inland) with
intent to catch or destroy any fish or poisonous fish in order to kill.
1956 - The River Boards Act enables the states to enroll the central government in setting up an Advisory
River Board to resolve issues in inter-state cooperation.
1970 - The Merchant Shipping Act aims to deal with waste arising from ships along the coastal areas
within a specified radius.
1974 - The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act establishes an institutional structure for
preventing and abating water pollution. It establishes standards for water quality and effluent. Polluting
industries must seek permission to discharge waste into effluent bodies.
The CPCB (Central Pollution Control Board) was constituted under this act.
1977 - The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act provides for the levy and collection of
cess or fees on water consuming industries and local authorities.
1978 - The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Rules contains the standard definitions
and indicate the kind of and location of meters that every consumer of water is required to affix.
1991 - The Coastal Regulation Zone Notification puts regulations on various activities, including
construction, are regulated. It gives some protection to the backwaters and estuaries.
Air
1948 The Factories Act and Amendment in 1987 was the first to express concern for the working
environment of the workers. The amendment of 1987 has sharpened its environmental focus and expanded
its application to hazardous processes.
1981 - The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act provides for the control and abatement of air
pollution. It entrusts the power of enforcing this act to the CPCB .
1982 - The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Rules defines the procedures of the meetings of
the Boards and the powers entrusted to them.
1982 - The Atomic Energy Act deals with the radioactive waste.
1987 - The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Amendment Act empowers the central and state
pollution control boards to meet with grave emergencies of air pollution.
1988 - The Motor Vehicles Act states that all hazardous waste is to be properly packaged, labelled, and
transported.
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION ACT, 1986
The Bhopal gas mass disaster on 3
rd
December 1984 led the government to enact EPA. According to
this act the definitions of environment, environmental pollution and hazardous substances are given
below.
Environment: It includes water, air and land and the inter relationship which exists among and between
water, air and land and human beings, other living creatures, plants, microorganisms and property.
Environmental pollution: It means any solid, liquid or gaseous substances present in such concentration
as may be or tend to be injurious to environment.
Hazardous substances: Any substance which by reason of its chemical or physiochemical properties is
liable to cause harm to human being, other living creatures, plants, microorganisms, property or the
environment.
This act is a broad based environmental legislation. Under this act, central government is
authorized to develop new national standard for the quality of the environment; to regulate cities of big
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industries; to prescribe procedure for manufacturing hazardous chemicals; for preventing accidents and to
collect and disseminate information regarding environmental pollution
OBJECTIVES
1. Plans and executes a nationwide programme for the prevention, control and abatement of
environmental pollution.
2. Provision to tackle various types of pollution, such as water pollution, air pollution, noise
pollution etc.
3. Lays down standards for emission or discharge of environmental pollutions from various
sources whatsoever.
4. An individual person can also approach court against the polluter.
PENALTIES:
1. Imprisonment for a term which may extend to five years or fine, which may extend to one
lakh rupees or both.
SUGGESTIONS
1. Having a knowledge of standards for various pollution,
2. Adhering to the laws strictly,
3. Representing any public causes in the court,
4. Participating in the awareness activities, and
5. Celebrating eco-concern days.
AIR (PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF POLLUTION) ACT, 1981
To obligate the U.N conference on the human environment held at Stockholm in June 1972, our parliament
enacted the air (Prevention and control of pollution) Act in 1981.The main objective of enacting this law
is to control air pollutant sources so that ambient pollutant concentration are reduced to levels considered
safe. The framework of this act is similar in the line of water act.
OBJECTIVES
1. It deals only with air pollution.
2. This act leads to establishment of state and central to control measures.
3. It empowers the state government to declare air pollution areas and to prohibit the use of
any fuel which is likely to cause air pollution.
4. This act helps to maintain performance standards of anti- pollution control measures.
5. The state boards are required to prescribe emission standard for industry and automobiles in
consultation with central boards.
6. Under this act, all industries operating within designated areas shall have to obtain a permit
from the respective state boards.
The act was amended in 1987 to strengthen the enforcement machinery and prescribing stiffer
penalties. Under this amendment act the state boards may close down a defaulting industrial plant or may
stops its supply of electricity or water or may move to the court.
The other acts relating to air pollution are,
1. The factories Act,1948.
2. The Industries ( Development and regulation) Act, 1951
3. The Indian Explosives Act, 1884
4. The explosive substances Act,1908
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PENALTIES
Each violation may be punished with imprisonment for six months to one year which may
extend upto six years, with additional fine of five thousand rupees.
SUGGESTIONS
1. Reducing the usage of fuels for example instead of using motor cycles to travel a short
distance, we can walk or can use bicycles.
2. We can reduce the usage of green house gases, which creates hole in the ozone layer.
3. We can file complaints against the violating industries, in a court of law.
WATER (PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF POLLUTION) ACT 1974
In 1974 Indian parliament came out for the first time legislation for controlling water pollution by enacting
Water (prevention and Control of pollution) Act. It was passed with the object of prevention and control of
water pollution and restoring the wholesomeness of the water quality.
OBJECTIVES
1. This act makes provision for constituting the central and state pollution control boards.
2. The central board should advice central government on matters pertaining to prevention and control
of water pollution.
3. It restricts the usage of wells, ponds or lakes to discharge the waste water.
4. The board has power to take appropriate remedial action when an accident occur causing pollution.
5. The board has the power to enter and inspect any plant, record, register, document etc and give
directions.
The Boards function includes advice to control government concerning the prevention and control
of water pollution and coordinating the efforts of state boards, giving technical assistance and guidance to
states. Sponsoring of research and training of person engaged in the field of water pollution. The act was
amended in 1988 to strengthen the acts implementation provisions.
PENALTIES
1. Imprisonment for a period of three months or fine upto Rs.5000 or both.
2. In cases of continuing violations, an additional fine extending to Rs.1000 per day of violations.
SUGGESTIONS
1. Avoiding wastage of water
2. Preventing water pollution
3. Recycling the wastewater
WILDLIFE (PROTECTION) ACT,1972
India is probably the first country to enact a wildlife protection act. The wild birds and
animals protection act was first enacted in 1887 and in 1912. A new Wildlife (protection) Act was again
enacted in 1972. Under this act, possession, trapping, shooting of wild animals, serving their meat for
eating, their transport and export(alive or dead) are all controlled and watched by chief wildlife warden
and other authorized officers under him.
OBJECTIVES
1. Mainly aims at the protection of wild animals and plants.
2. Hunting of wild animals is strictly prohibited especially female and young ones.
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3. Threatened species are completely protected and others have been provided protection according to
their state of population size etc.
4. Under this act provisions are given to establish sanctuaries, national parks and biosphere reserves.
5. It empowers individuals to file complaints against offends.
6. The acts and laws enforced for wildlife protection should be given to those who are found guilty.
The other Acts related to wild life conservation are.
1. The Madras elephant preservation Acts (1873 and 1879)
2. The Indian Arms Acts (1978)
3. The wild birds and animals Protection Act 1932.
PENALTIES
Violators of this law are punishable with simple imprisonment for a term, which may extend to 3
years or with fine which may extend toRs.25,000/- or with both.
SUGGESTIONS
1. Hunting of animals should be stopped
2. Killing of animals for profit though sale of their fur & products and buying them should be
avoided.
3. Birds and animals should be protected; we should love them and care for them.
4. We should visit the sanctuaries, national parks and biosphere reserves to see the natural life
style of animals.
FOREST (CONSERVATION) ACT, 1980
Today we have only 74mha of officially notified forests land. The area covered by good natural
forests is substantially lesser than that. Thus with a view to conserve forests and to stop the
growing deforestation and the resulting environment degradation the parliament enacted this act.
OBJECTIVIES
I. To protect the forests from illegal cutting, encroachment, fire, grazing and shifting cultivation.
II. To develop a network for future planning
III. To improve forest productivity
IV. It mainly aims at preventing deforestation activity
V. The reserved forest should not dereserved without prior permission of central government
VI. A committee is constituted under the act to look into above said proposals.
Six regional offices have been established at Bangalore, Bhopal, Bhubaneshwar, Lucknow, Shillong
and Chandigarh to monitor the implementation of the conditions imposed while conveying approval
for diversion of forest land non-forest use and also to evaluate on going forest development projects
and schemes.
PENALTIES
Whoever contravenes or abates the contravention of any of the provisions in this law shall
be punishable with simple imprisonment for a period which may extend to 15 days.
SUGGESTIONS
1. Cutting of trees should be avoided
2. we should practice the habit of planting trees
3. creating awareness among people
4. Minimizing the use forest products must be practiced (Eg. Paper, wood etc.)
ISSUES INVOLVED IN THE ENFORCEMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL LEGISLATION
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At present Indian environmental law is in era of new developments. The Environment
protection bill was passed to rectify some loopholes that were noticeable in earlier laws.
Environmental law is an open system of various legal tools and instruments to combat pollution.
These instrument vary greatly and may be used alternatively or cumulatively such as, administrative
measures accompanied by penal and civil actions. The other problems which are involved in the
enforcement of environmental legislation are as follows:
1. Lack of awareness among the people,
2. Lack of cooperation between the people and the various responsible agencies,
3. Lack of direction in line of attack,
4. Lack of inter-linkages among the various agencies,
5. Lack of proper infra structure,
6. Lack of funds,
7. Lack of truthfulness on the part of industries,
8. Lack of sufficient manpower in pollution control boards,
9. Lack of information storage,
10. Lack of surveillance to identify willful defaulters,
11. Lack of innovative approach in the study and
12. Frequent change of the chairman and the member secretary.
THE NEED FOR PUBLIC AWARENESS
Man started playing a very important part in shaping his environment, and he has been
responsible for degrading the quality of his environment ever since he appeared on this earth. At
first he contaminated the atmosphere by the use of fire, which added gases, smoke and ash to it.
When he came out of the cave age and began to settle into village, towns and cities, the situation
gradually worsened. The degradation of the environment was caused mostly by his activities such as
burning of wood, smelting of ores, tanning leather, primitive methods of sewage disposal and so on.
With the advent of industrial revolution, coupled with urbanization, all kinds of impurities began to
be added to the natural air, water, as well as soil, causing almost irreparable damage to
environment. Some of the problem such as depletion or resource, soil erosion, pollution,
deforestation and extinction of wild animals due to increased human population has reached global
level.
Legal and regulatory framework
Basis for action
Laws and regulations suited to countrys specific conditions are among the most important
instruments for transforming into a better and friendly environment and development policies into
action, not only through command and control methods, but also a formative framework for
economic planning and market instruments. Yet, although the volume of legal texts in this field is
steadily increasing, much of the law making in many countries seems to adhoc and piecemeal, or
has not been endowed with the necessary institutional machinery and authority for enforce and
timely adjustment.
While there is continuous need for law improvement in the countries, many developing
countries have been affected by shortcomings of law and regulations. To effectively integrate
environment and development in the policies and practices of each country, it is essential to develop
and implement integrated, enforceable and effective laws and regulations that are based upon social,
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ecological, economic and scientific principles. It is equally critical to develop workable
programmes to review and enforce compliance with the laws, regulations and standards that are
adopted. Technical support may be needed for many countries to accomplish these goals. Technical
cooperation requirements in this field include legal information, advisory services and specialized
training and institutional capacity building.
The enactment and enforcement of laws and regulations (at the regional, national,
state/provincial or local/municipal level) are also essential for the implementation of most
international agreements in the field of environment and development, as illustrated by the frequent
treaty obligation to report on legislative measures. The survey of existing agreements undertaken in
the context of conference preparations has indicated problems of compliance in this respect, and the
need for improved national implementation. In developing their national priorities, countries should
take account of their international obligations.
Objectives
The overall objective is to promote, in the light of country-specific conditions, the
integration of environment and development policies through appropriate legal and regulatory
policies, instruments and enforcement mechanisms at the national, state, provincial and local level.
Recognizing that countries will develop their own priorities in accordance with their needs and
national and, where appropriate, regional plans, policies and programme.
Making laws and regulations more effective
Governments, with the support, where appropriate, of competent international organizations,
should regularly assess the laws and regulations enacted and the related institutional/administrative
machinery established at the national/ state and local/municipal level in the field of environment
and sustainable development, with a view to rendering them effective in practice.
Programmes for this purpose could include the promotion of public awareness, preparation
and distribution of guidance material, and specialized training, including workshops, seminars,
education programmes and conferences, for public officials who design, implement, monitor and
enforce laws and regulations.
Public awareness
At this juncture, it is unavoidable and essential to have knowledge about the environment in
which we are living, its status, and our position and role in the environment degradation, and our
responsibility to reconstruct and establish a harmonious living pattern with other forms of life.
Knowing, understanding, and applying the technology in accordance with the rules and
regulations of environmental ethics is vital to the sustainable development, and prosperity of
humanity.
Awareness Generation
The awareness on the above lines could be generated through the following
agencies/programmes:
1. Governmental agencies, 2. Environment Campaign, 3. Non-Governmental agencies, 4. Educational
Institutions, 5. Youth clubs, 6. Environment Activists, 7. Mass media, 8. Visual Communication, 9.
Building local partnerships, 10. Eco-Development camps, 11. National Public Awareness campaign,
12.ENVIS Nodes, 13. Environmental Awareness Education, 14. Information Technology,
15.Observing/Celebrating various eco-concern days.
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HS1201-EVS Unit V Chemistry Dept/SuDEC
1
UNIT V
POPULATION
The term population, as defined by Clarke in 1954, refers to the total number of individuals of
the same species occupying a particular geographical area at a given time.
Human population is increasing at a great rate all over the world, and India, unfortunately, is leading the
charge. A rise in population directly affects the environment and development. In the beginning of human
civilization, during the stone age, the population was quite stable. The 14
th
century experienced large
scale deaths due to plague when about 50% people in Asia and Europe died due to diseases. With
scientific and technological advancement, life expectancy increased. People started living in definite
settlements which lead to a stable life. Scientists conquered infant mortality and famine-related deaths.
Population growth climbed to unprecedented heights, at the rate of 3-4% a year, accounting for about 90-
95% of the total population growth of the world in the last 50 years
The population of the world, which was 2.5 billion in 1950, had increase to 6.6 billion by 2006. It is
expected to increase to about 8 billion by 2020. The rapid growth in population has caused a global
environment crisis. A larger population means a requirement of greater Natural resources. To this end,
people are gradually converting natural ecosystems of the world to man-managed ecosystem.
EFFECT OF POPULATION GROWTH
Increase in population has lead to several socio-economic problems. Some of them are described below:
1. More deforestation activities arising to meet the requirements of fuel wood,
agriculture, settlement, and also for industrial establishments.
2. Excessive exploitation of natural resources causes ecological imbalance in nature. An
increase in the number of people means that a majority of them end up living in
poverty and have decreased access to social, health, and education services.
Unemployment is another serious problem arising because of overpopulation.
3. The indiscriminate felling of trees for agricultural expansion and timber products has
lead to the degradation of watersheds, thereby affecting the water catchments areas.
4. Due to the increasing population pressure, water resources are exploited more and
more for various uses including domestic, livestock, and industrial uses further, it has
lead to the extensive economic activities and rising pollution in rivers, lakes, and
ponds. Water crisis also lead to water allocation and user conflicts.
5. Population growth affects the availability of nature resources. It causes increase in
demand for food, water, arable land other essential materials, such as firewood.
VARIATION OF POPULATION AMONG NATIONS
WORLD POPULATION DISTRIBUTION
Population growth rates vary greatly among countries and also between regions of the same
countries. It is so because climatic conditions and reproductive potential of various countries vary. For
example, the population of china in 2002 was 1285 million and that of Naru (located in south pacific) in
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2002 was 11,845 only. Asia accounts for over 60% of the world population with almost 3.8 billion people.
China and India alone comprise 20% and 16% respectively. Africa follows with 840 million people, 12%
of the world population. Europes 710 million people make up 11% of the worlds population. North
America is home to 514 million (8%), and South America to 371 million (5.3%).
Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and the United States have the highest population growth rates,
which may be due to the effect of immigration. Hungary, Italy, Latvia, Portugal, the Russian Federation,
and Spain are countries which have population growth near zero, a number of eastern European countries
are reflecting negative population growth due to poorer health and rising death rates, as well as
emigration. The population of south central Asia, which includes the Indian sub-continent, Iran , and five
former soviet republics, is likely to increase by about 50 percent over the next 30 years, while Pakistans
fertility rates remain persistently high, family size in Bangladesh in now declining steadily. India presents
a mixed picture, with high rates of fertility in the north of the country and low ones in the south.
Throughout the region, efforts to improve the states of women, including better reproductive health care
and education, are gaining momentum.
FACTORS AFFECTING VARIATION OF POPULATION
Following are the factors affecting the variation of population among nations:
1. Age of human settlement:
Australia and the USA have low density of population. Human habitation in these countries is of
recent origin. Besides this, these countries also practice strict immigration procedures which manage to
keep the population density far below the total potential.
2. Means of transport and communication
Highly developed means of air, surface, and water transport and communication add to the density of
population in a particular region because people can carry on agricultural, commercial, and industrial
activities very safely and swiftly.
3. Cultural factors
The density of population is low in areas where nomadic tribes live who are engaged in food gathering
to support their families.
4. Soils
East and south East Asian region, and the northern plains of India are densely populated because these
lands are fertile and produce a variety of crops to support dense populations.
5. Climatic conditions
Moderate climate leads to the growth of population because it is pleasant and refreshing. In these
regions, density of population is high. Similarly, Canada is sparsely populated because of the cold climate
prevailing there. In India, Rajasthan, Deccan hills and the Himalayan regions are sparsely populated.
6. Natural resources
Areas having rich wealth of natural resources like coal, water, minerals, and forest wealth favour the
growth of population, because these resources help in the development of trade and industry.
POPULATION CONTROL
High population growth adversely affects growth economy through its harmful
effects on production, natural resources, labour supply, and capital formation. There is an increase of
three humans per second in human population because in every second, five children are born and two
other people die. The difference between birth rate and death rate is three. This boom in population
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growth is known as population explosion. Population control is the practice of limiting population
increase, usually by reducing birth rate.
A. TEMPORARY METHODS
These methods are used for the temporary avoidance of pregnancy. These include:
1. MECHANICAL METHODS
THE DIAPHRAGM
The diaphragm works by keeping the sperm from entering the cervix and going
into the uterus.
INTRAUTERINE DEVICES
An intrauterine device (IUD) usually is a small, flexible plastic frame. It often
has a copper wire or copper sleeves on it. It is inserted into a womens uterus through her vagina.
CONDOM
A condom is a device, usually made of latex, or polyurethane, that is used during
sexual intercourse.
2. CHEMICAL METHODS
SPERMICIDES are chemicals that make the sperm unable to function, or, we can say,
they kill sperm.
ORAL CONTRACEPTIVES are medically prescribed drugs that inhibit normal fertility.
3. NATURAL METHODS
The rhythm method is a method of natural birth control that involves counting the days of
a womens menstrual cycle in order to achieve or avoid pregnancy.
STERILIZATION
These methods of contraception are permanent in their effect on the ability to conceive.
These include:
Vasectomy provides permanent contraception for men who have decided that they
do not want more children.
Female sterilization provides permanent contraception for women who do not want
more children.
ABORTION
In India, abortion is not a family planning measure . In 1971, a law called the Medical
Termination of pregnancy act was passed permitting legal abortion on grounds, of health of the mother,
humanitarian grounds, or in case of risk of physical and mental abnormalities to the child.
FAMILY WELFARE PROGRAMMES
A family planning programme is a programme that works on checking the problem of
population explosion. Unfortunately, the family welfare programme is widely misunderstood in India as
a family planning programme. Most experts believe that it is a powerful tool to check the population
growth for lesser developed countries. Family welfare programme can accelerate the decline in birth rate.
The Family Welfare programme in India has been initiated by the Heath Department of the Indian
Government. A combination of good access to family planning services and high levels of education
among women has supported declining fertility rates in southern India and Sri Lanka. Family planning is
directly related to the health and welfare of women and prosperity of nation in general terms. The success
of the programme depends upon public awareness, education of women, proper family counseling, and
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easy availability of means of birth control. Better medical facilities and nutritional programmes also
support such family welfare programmes.
Family Welfare Programmes
Measures for population control
India chalked out and adopted the policy of family planning. Upto fifth Five year plan
Government allotted good sum of money but it was not satisfactory.
In 1976 the Government announced revised population policy, marriage age for boys 21 and for
the girls it was fixed 17.
The census of 1971 was considered as the base for allocating central grants to the plans of
different states in the sphere of family planning. Population control and related family welfare
programmes.
Special stress and necessary efforts were made for the education of women, particularly in the
rural and backward areas to imbue the knowledge of family planning.
Basic infrastructure related programmes
a. Family Welfare services are provided to the community through a network of Subcentres,
Primary Health Centres(PHCs) and Community Health Centres(CHCs) in the rural areas and hospitals
and dispensaries etc. in the urban areas. This network, being set up under the minimum needs
programme (now reorganized as Basic Minimum Services (BMS) programme), is also supported by
an expanding number of Post Partum Centres at district and sub-district levels.
b. The Child Survival and safe Motherhood (CSSM) programme
c. Reproductive child Health (RCH) programme
d. Child Health Programme
e. Universal Immunization Programme
ENVIRONMENT AND HUMAN HEALTH
Definitions of Environment Health
Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry-Environment health is the branch of
public health that protects against the effects of environmental hazards that can adversely effect health
or the ecological balances essential to human health and environmental quality.
The Archives of Environmental Health publishes articles dealing with the effects of
environmental agents on human health. These include epidemiological, clinical, or experimental
studies of man. Environment involves occupational or personal environments as well as the global
environment, land, water, and air.
Types of Pollution and Health Problems-Air Pollution and Health
Atmospheric pollution is on a global scale. However, it is not only that air over our cities that is
polluted, the entire atmosphere of our planet is now affected to some degree. Automobiles and
industries are responsible for the largest part of this form of pollution, which in some cities is so bad
as to have resulted in number of diseases. Air pollution had also resulted in heart diseases, increased
blood pressure, cancer, and bronchitis amongst other diseases. Long periods of heavy air pollution in
cities have increased the illness and death rate significantly. Most materials get soiled and wear out
faster in pollutes air. Metals like silver and brass get tarnished quickly on long exposure to polluted
air.
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Housing Shelter and Health
Shelter is one of the essential requirements for human life. Uncontrolled migration from rural to
urban areas makes housing a major problem. Poor housing has been shown to be associated with
tuberculosis, streptococcal infection, rheumatic fever and rheumatic heart diseases. Housing must be
so designed and constructed as to allow adequate air and sunlight to enter and at the same time,
protect its dwellers from the elements. Where firewood, coal or cow dung cakes are used for cooking,
housing must be provided with smokeless chulhas and proper ventilation to let out the smoke from
the burning fire, thereby keeping the indoor clean. Residents should have access to safe drinking
water, waste disposal sites and sanitary latrines.
Water and Health
Water pollution reduces the amount of pure, clear, fresh water that is available for drinking
and personal use and for such activities like fishing, swimming and water sports.
Like air, water pollution is also directly related to population growth, modernization and
insensitivity to the hazards of pollution. Day by day, larger volumes of wastes from industries and
homes are dumped into water bodies. Cycle, which was earlier maintained by the forces of nature,
cannot deal with the new harmful products produced by industries, which are non-biodegradable. In
fact, these products are a threat to marine life and to humans. Humankind is directly affected if such
water is used for drinking or personal use. Food from contaminated waters or food grown using such
water is consumed, toxins and pathogens are transferred to humans.
Solid Waste and Health
Solid wastes are the most visible pollutants which litter roadsides and surroundings and
are seen floating in rivers and streams. Unsightly dumps are seen around heavily populated urban
areas. Solid wastes include rubble from demolished buildings, garbage and litter like used cars, broken
bottles, polythene bags, metal scraps, tyres and tubes, rags, rusty equipment, broken furniture, old
automobiles etc. Garbage pollution makes the local conditions unhygienic which affects the lives of
residents of surrounding areas. To solve the problem of solid waste should ideally be sorted at the
source, collected in separate bags and sent for recycling or composting. This will help in saving
valuable resources. In India rag pickers collect recyclable waste from garbage dumps for their
livelihood. This will drastically reduce the volume of garbage to be disposed off daily and indirectly
reduce pollution.
Radiation and Health
Radioactive pollution or Nuclear Radiation is a potential health hazard of modern times.
Radioactive substances emit extremely dangerous invisible radiation, which can bring about biological
and chemical changes in body cells. Nuclear radiation comes from testing of nuclear weapons and
from nuclear power plants. Ionizing radiation causes mutations, abnormality and lethality in many
organisms, including man. Cancer is commonly caused even under low-level exposures. Radiation
effects persist for a very long period in the environment. Therefore, an utmost caution and complete
foolproof of technology is needed in handling such scientific activities to prevent radioactive
pollution. Lasers, microwave ovens, computer, televisions set and X-ray machines produce
electromagnetic radiation effect on human health in small doses.
Noise Pollution
Sound is produced in many kinds of work and we use and enjoy sound in talk and music. Only
when sound is not liked or unwanted we call it as noise. With rapid urbanization and technological
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development, people living in or near cities are often exposed to loud noises. The loud screeching,
gritting or vibrating noise is created by various machines and means of transport. Blaring music,
announcements, television broadcast and fire crackers can affect work and sleep.
Noise can also cause psychological disorders due to a constant strain on the nervous system. It
may also be responsible for development for ulcers and high blood pressure and sometimes it
damages eyesight, brain and liver functioning. While fighting noise pollution it should be remembered
that silence is not only golden but healthy also.
Environmental Protection
Environment protection includes within its compass a wide range of activities such as prevention
and control of water and air pollution, the maintenance of ecological balance and conservation of non-
renewable resources and proper and careful use of renewable resources. A major issue confronting is
ecology. The term ecology is taken from since, where it means the interrelation of organism and its
environment. In the present century, scientists and technologies have been made greater technological
advances, but the break-through create ecological imbalances. The uncontrolled cutting of trees has
led to extensive impairment of potential cultivable areas and compounded the problems of draught and
nutrition. Of course the most important issue confronting the industrial house and prevention and
control for air, water, noise and solid waste pollution and protecting the society from the leakage of
toxic gasses, explosion and fires resulting out of industrial activity.
Sustainable Approach and Health
Environment deterioration is the main factor in aggravating poverty and disease. Investment in
providing clean, fresh drinking water and sanitation-better drainage, latrines and clean streets and
roads is sustainable approach to environment, human and health and human resource development.
Costs of such an environmental and preventive approach are much smaller, wider in reach than the
mere curative approach of modern medicine. Improvement in environment and health conditions
should be attempted through peoples education, which is participatory in nature. Poverty alleviation
programmes and improvement in food and nutrition have to be undertaken. In brief holistic approach
to disease and health taking into account the economic, socio-cultural and environmental factors has
to be adopted in India. The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development the Rio
Declaration, the Agenda 21, the convention on biodiversity and the statement on Forest principles
states: Indigenous people and their communities and other local communities have a vital role in
environmental management and development because of their knowledge and traditional practices
Regarding the importance of indigenous or traditional medicine, Bodekar notes that an integrated
approach involving traditional and modern health system of medicine is environment friendly and the
case of new strains of malaria resistance virus indicates that the herbal medicine such as cinchona bark
is more effective because of its synergistic or all round effectiveness. In WHOs word, a holistic
view of environment and human health is gaining recognition. Thus, traditional as well as modern
health practices must adopt such a sustainable approach to environment as well as human health.
Suggestions
Convert polluting wastes into harmless products, which are environmentally acceptable.
Recycle the wastes in the same process
Use the waste as the resource or raw material for another process
The raw material used for combustion should be changed. For example, triethyl lead has been
replaced in gasoline as lead was the major pollutant in automobile exhausts.
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Equipment should be designed to trap particulates and prevent their release into the
atmosphere, for example, through use of filters in equipment.
Effluent from factories should be treated before it is released
Control on the use of pesticides, fertilizers and radioactive materials should be practiced.
While planning cities and industrial areas, the environment should be preserved, trees should be
planted, parks and gardens should be included in the plan and congestion should be avoided.
Awareness should be created among citizens about environment related health problems arising
because of rapid and unplanned development and population growth. Collective action on their part
can greatly help in prevention and control of pollution.
HUMAN RIGHTS
UNDERSTANDING HUMAN RIGHTS
Human beings have every right to lead a happy and healthy life. Alone with evolution,
relationships of human within nature and society have also changed. They raised their voice against
religions compulsions, socioeconomic restraints and sometimes against scientific discoveries, right from
the 13
th
century. How ever, the concept of human right came into existence after the United Nations
universal declaration of human right (UNDHR) in December 1948. UNDHR empowers man with right to
life, freedom, security, law, freedom of thought and expression, equal pay for work, education health care
and rest.
Once out of every five persons does not have enough energy to cook and one out of every five
persons is very poor. Such people hardly think in terms of education, prevention of child labour, or
anything but a loaf of bread for their families.
Economic and social disparity occurs amongst developed, developing, and poor countries. World
conference on human right held at Vienna in 1993, stressed upon the equal economic and social rights.
The concept of human right in India mainly focuses upon bonded labour, child and women abuse,
torture of poor people, custodial deaths, and violence in society. Although the Indian constitution equips
every citizen of India with civil, political, economic, and social right, yet violation of right occurs in India
quite frequently.
The significance of Human Right
Human rights are universal in nature. A classical definition of human right given by Ganston is as
follows: human right by definition is a universal moral right, something which all men, everyone, at all
time ought to have, something of which no one may be deprived of without grave affront to justice,
something which is belonging to every human being simply because they are human.
The main points of universal concept of human right are as follows.
1. All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and right.
2. Every one is entitled to all rights and freedom without distinction of any kind such as race, colour,
sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, nation or social origin, property, birth or other
status.
3. Everyone has the right to life liberty and security.
4. No one shall be held in slavery or captivity.
5. No on shall be subject to torture or to cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment or punishment.
6. Everyone has the right to recognition everywhere as a person before the law.
7. All are equal before the law and are entitled to protection.
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8. Everyone has right to an effective remedy by competent national tribunals for acts violating the
fundamental right granted to him or her by the constitution or by law.
9. No one shall be subjected to arbitrary arrest, detention, or exile.
10. Everyone is entitled full equality and public hearing by an independent and impartial tribunal in
the determination of his rights and obligations of any criminal charges against him.
Human Right and Environment
The first draft on human right and environment was declared on May 16, 1994 at Geneva. It offers
every human being the right to enjoy a healthy, secure, and ecologically sound environment. A
sustainable society should affirm equity security and environment justice to its entire people. This draft
contains five parts:
Part I deals with human right for ecologically sound environment, sustainable development, and
peace for all. Its also emphasizes the present generations right to fulfill its needs to lead a dignified and
good quality of life.
Part II mainly deals with human right related to an environment free from pollution and
degradation. It also emphasizes the right to enjoyment of natural ecosystems with their rich biodiversity.
Part III deals with the right of every person to environmental information, education, awareness,
and also public participation in environment decision-making.
Part IV deals with the duties to protect and preserve the environment and prevent environmental
damage.
Part V lay stress on social justice and equality with respect to use of natural recourse and
sustainable development.
VALUE EDUCATION
Though India is a land of rich cultural and spiritual heritage, a look at the current scenario poses a
number of challenges it is becoming clear that several ethical of yester years such as adherence to truth,
discipline, respect for the environment, commitment to morality, sense of duty, etc are losing their
priority. The youth of our country are confronted with misinterpreting values. One of the effective tools to
revitalize our youth and bring meaning and purpose in life is value education.
What is Value?
Values are the yardstick of beliefs that influence our behaviour and help in making of choices.
Faced with many choices man makes his decisions based upon his personal values. Besides, creating
awareness, value education helps an individual to opt for choices which would contribute towards integral
growth and ultimate happiness of the individual and society.
Objectives of Value Education
To bring about an integral personality development.
To develop right understanding among the students about their role and
responsibility towards the society and world around them.
To create an attitude of genuine appreciation for the value and respect for all forms of life.
To create a sense of consciousness among the students by exposing them to the environment
issues.
To equip the students with the capacity to take a stand as responsible human being on
ecology and development.
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Goals of Value Education on Environmental Issues
A clear understanding that we are an inseparable part of the bio-sphere.
A broad understanding of the bio-physical environment.
To develop a sense of responsibility to guarantee the preservation and improvement of our
environment.
A fundamental understanding of the nature of the environmental problems confronting us
today.
The 21
st
century is witnessing an explosion of scientific knowledge and its impact on various
social, environmental, and cultural aspects and on the economy. If we pay attention to the use of science
and technology in current times, we see that human are exploiting natural recourse to fulfill their desires
and aspirations. Therefore, natural resources are depleting day by day and cannot compete with the
desires of population, industrialization, and social and economic development has increased pollution. As
a result the planet is facing a severe crunch in terms of resources available for the present as well as the
future it can be rightly said that the world today is changed with technocratic individualism ,which
ignore the fact that natural resources are under tremendous pressure. The fast development in various
fields is leading to environmental and economic destruction. It is an act of violence against nature.
Value education is the demand of the day and it is required to ensure the available of natural
recourses like air, water, energy, forest, etc. for future generations for successful as well as sustainable
survival of human beings. Behavioral change of human society is required to preserve natural resources
for the human race tile it survives. It can be only possible if a society has well defined right and duties.
Therefore, the following duties are very important.
i. Humans should act as the custodians of all natural resource and all their possible uses must be
planned for the present as well as the future.
ii. Peaceful coexistence of all living organisms must be ensured.
iii. Necessary precaution to avoid hazardous effects of various technological developments must be
worked out and listed, so that the human race can be made a ware of all detrimental outcomes.
Value education should not only encourage the above mentioned traits in a person, but must also make
human beings understand that to save the environment for our future generations ,it is extremely
essential for a person to learn and practice the age-old traits of sacrifice and sympathy for others.
HIV/AIDS
What is HIV/ADIS?
The epidemic that has spread all over world is the acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS).
It was first recognized as a disease in 1981, and is caused by human immuno-deficiency virus (HIV)
which perhaps came from chimpanzees to humans during the late 1600s.
AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome), sometimes called slim disease, is a fatal illness
caused by a retrovirus known as the human immuno deficiency virus (HIV) which breaks downs the
bodys immune systems, leaving the victim vulnerable to a host of life threatening opportunistic
infections, neurological disorders, or unusual malignancies. Thus, AIDS is not one particular disease but
one that has a variety of symptoms leading to various disorders and a set of diseases.
Transmission of HIV/ADIS
It is a transmissible disease, transmitted by the following means from one person to another. UNAIDS
suggests that gender inequality in knowledge about HIV transmission is a key factor in the high levels of
infection among African women.
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If a person engages in sexual intercourse with an infected person without using a condom, they
can get infected. The sexual act can be both vaginal and anal. Sexual intercourse with a
homosexual/bisexual HIV infected person can also leads to an infection.
On sharing the needle or syringe used by / on an infected person, either for injecting drugs,
drawing blood or for any other purpose involving piercing, one can get infected. Instruments used
for piercing and tattooing also carry a small risk of infection.
Transfer of infected blood from infected person to blood receiving patients. A person can get the
infection if they are given a transfusion of infected blood.
If surgical devices like syringes and scalpels or even certain instruments, used on an infected
person, are used on another person without proper sterilization, they can transmit the infected.
Children born out of infected mother can be HIV positive because an HIV positive mother can
transmit the virus to a child during pregnancy or birth. Breast milk can also act as a transmission-
medium.
Theoretically, oral sex without condom (on men or barriers like dental dam, vaginal dams or
plastic wrap (on women) can also transmit the infection.
Many people do not develop symptoms after getting infected with HIV. Some people feel ill within
several days to a few weeks after exposure to the virus. They complain of fever, headache, tiredness and
enlarged lymph glands in the neck. These symptoms usually disappear automatically within a few weeks
and are often mistaken for some viral infection. During this time, the virus continues to multiply actively
and infects and kills cells of the immune systems. The virus destroys the cells that are the primary
infection fighters, called CD4+ or T4 cells. Once the immune system weakens, a person infected with
HIV can develop the following symptoms.
Lack of energy
Weight loss
Frequent fever and sweats
Persistent or frequent yeast infections
Persistent skin rashes or flaky skin
Short term memory loss
Mouth, genital, or anal sores from herpes infections
AIDS is the most advanced stage of HIV infection. AIDS refers to all HIV-infected people who have
fewer than 200 CD4+ cells per micro liter of blood. Most of these conditions are infections caused by
bacteria, virus, fungi, and other organisms.
Almost all the organs is affected. Some of the common symptoms include the following:
Cough and shortness of breath
Seizures and lack of coordination
Difficulty or pain in swallowing
Mental symptoms such as confusion and forgetfulness
Severe and persistent diarrhea
Fever
Vision loss
Nausea, abdominal cramps and vomiting
Weight loss and extreme fatigue
Coma
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People with AIDS are prone to develop various cancers such as Kaposi sarcoma, cervical and cancers
of the immune system known as lymphomas.After the diagnosis of AIDS is made, the average survival
time has been estimated to be two to three years.
Protection from HIV/ADIS
There is no effective vaccine and no cure for HIV. The only way to protect oneself is prevention.
People should either abstain from having sex or use latex condoms, during oral, anal, or vaginal sex.
The risk of HIV transmission from a pregnant woman to her baby is significantly reduced if she
takes AZT during pregnancy, labour, and delivery, and her baby take it for the first six weeks of life.
Following are some of the measures that could prevent HIV infection:
i. The youth should abstain from penetrative sexual contact.
ii. Have sexual intercourse only with a faithful uninfected parent.
iii. Use sterile needles, syringes, and other instruments.
iv. Use blood that is certified HIV free.
v. Avoid pregnancy on infection with the HIV virus.
vi. General awareness and education to people about AIDS.
Misconception regarding AIDS
HIV does not spread by shaking hands, shared use of crockery, glasses, towels, etc. by donating
blood, caring for AIDS patients or HIV positive people or scratches and bites by pests, massage, physical
therapy, cosmetic treatment, acupuncture, piercing of ears, use of public toilets, swimming pools, etc.
HIV Tests
EIA or ELISA
Western blot
Radioimmunoprecipitation assay (RIPA)
Dot-blot immunobinding assay
Immunoflourescence assay
Nucleic acid testing polymerase chin reaction (PCR)
HIV in India
India had a sharp increase in the estimated number of HIV infections, from a few thousand in the
early 1990s.to a working estimate of between 38 million and 4.6 million children and adults living with
AIDS in 2006. The Indian government is criticized for clinging to the idea that the epidemic is limited to
high-risk groups such as sex workers, drug users and truck drivers, and that targeting them is the best
strategy; but this approach no longer reflects the reality of at least some Indian states, where the epidemic
is widely prevalent in the general population.
In 2006, UNAIDS estimated that there were 5.6 million people living with indicated that there
were more people with HIV in India than in any other country in the world. However, the national AIDS
control organization (NACO) disputed this estimate, and claimed that effective figure was lower. In 2007,
using a more effective surveillance system, UNAID Sand NACO agreed on a new estimate between 2
million and 3.6 million people living with HIV. This puts India behind South Africa and Nigeria in
numbers living with HIV.
In terms of AIDS cases, the most recent estimate comes from August 2006, at which stage the
total number of AIDS cases reported to NACO was 124,995. Overall, around 0.36% of Indias
population is living with HIV. While this may seem a low rate, Indias population is vast, so the actual
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number of people living with HIV is remarkably high. There are so many people living in India that a
mere 0.1% increase in HIV prevalence would increase the estimated number of people living with HIV
by over half a million.
In India, as elsewhere, AIDS is often seen as someone elses problem as something that affects
people living on the margins of society, whose lifestyles are considered immoral. Even as it moves into
the general population, the HIV epidemic in misunderstood and stigmatized among the Indian public.
People living with HIV have faced violent attacks; been rejected by families, spouses and communities;
been refused medical treatment; and even, in some reported cases, denied the last rites before they die.
A 2006 study found that 25% of people living with HIV in India had been refused medical
treatment on the basis of their HIV-positive status. It also found strong evidence of stigma in the
workplace, with 74% of employees not disclosing their status to their employees for fear of
discrimination. Of the 26% who did disclose their status, 10% reported having faced prejudice as a result.
People in marginalized groups female sex workers, hijras (transgender), and gay men are often
stigmatized not only because of their HIV status, but also because they belong to socially excluded
groups.
20-9 WOMEN AND CHILD WELFARE
Social welfare has, in all ages, been invariably aiming at protecting individuals, groups, and
communities belonging to weaker and vulnerable sections of the society include women and children.
Women and children have an important place in every society. The condition of women in ancient
India was very good. They were placed on a pedestal and worshipped like goddesses. But later this
situation of women changed. A good society treats men and women at par with each other.
Health of children and their up bringing in a suitable atmosphere is a prerequisite for a healthy
society and a healthy nation as well. For better development of children, the following measures are
essential:
i) Nutritious food
ii) Proper education
iii) Ethical and value education
iv) Healthy environment
To create an atmosphere, in which women can acquire equal status, it is necessary to evolve a strategy
to create awareness in the society regarding womens role responsibilities, and rights in todays
context. With this view in mind, the government of India established a department of women and
child development in 1985 as a part of the ministry of Human Resource development, which is a
nodal agency responsible for coordinating the activities of women and child development organization
(NGOs), and the government departments. This department has four autonomous organizations:
1) National Commission of Women
2) National Institute of public cooperation and child development
3) Rashtriya mahila kosh
4) Central social welfare board
To support the pursuit of economic independence, to encourage independence of women, and to
encourage women girls facing situations of abuse by providing them with the basic necessities of shelter
and rehabilitation, the department is providing financial assistance to voluntary organizations, local bodies
and cooperative institutions state governments, etc. to construct hostels for working women, crches for
children below the age of five years, short stay homes for women and girls, etc.
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The department of women and child development was setup in the year 1985 to work for
the betterment of women and children. The department formulates plans, policies and programmes,
enact/amends legislation, guides and coordinates the efforts of both governmental and non-governmental
organizations working in the filed of women and child development. It also forms innovative
programmes for children emphasize on nutrition, pre-school education and aspects of health while those
for women relate to welfare and support services, training for employment and income generation,
awareness generation, and gender sensitization. The department has three autonomous organizations viz.
National Institute of Public Cooperation and child development (NIPCCD), Rashtriya mahila kosh
(RMK), and the central social welfare Board (CSWB).
Following is the list of important laws and rules in India to safeguard the interest of women;
o The protection of women against sexual harassment at workplace bill, 2007.
o Protection of women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005
o Dowry prohibition Act, 1961.
o Dowry prohibition rules.
o Indecent Representation of women
o The commission of sati (prevention) Act and rules
o National Commission for Women Act
Female Infanticide
Female infanticide, the prevalent form of sex-Selective infanticide, is the systematic killing of
girls at, or soon after birth. It normally occurs when a society values male children to the point that
producing a female is considered dishonourable, shameful, or an unacceptable investment by the
individuals. Female infanticide is still existent in developing countries, especially developing countries
where males are valued over females.
Child welfare
The department of women and child development has taken several steps to fulfill the needs of
children, taking special care of the girl child. Another Department in 1992 undertook a National plan of
action for the Girl child. Balika Samridhi Yojana, a scheme for prosperity of the girl child was started in
1997 with the objective of raising the overall status of the girl child by bringing about altitudinal changes
in the families.
Child Immunization
The government has started a program, EPI, from 1971, for the control of six diseases in
children viz. TB, diphtheria, Pertussis, Tetanus, polio and Measles.
Integrated child development services (ICDS)
This scheme provides a package of services including supplementary nutrition, immunization,
medical checkups and referral and nutrition education.
In addition to the efforts made by the department of Women and child development,
government of India social welfare department of the state government, a number of national and state
level organizations are undertaking various projects and schemes towards women and child welfare in our
country.
o The juvenile justice (Care and protection of children) amendment act 2006.
o The juvenile justice (care and protection of children) act2000
o The juvenile justice (care and protection of children) rules
o The commissions for protection of child rights act 2005
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o National commissions for protection of child Rights rules, 2006
o The commission for protection of child rights (Amendment) act, 2006
o Child marriage restraint act,1929
o The prohibition of child marriage act, 2006
o The infant milk substitutes act,2003
o Notification issued by the MWCD regarding enforcement of IMS amendment act
o The infant milk substitutes, feeding bottles, and infant foods (regulation of production,
supply, and distribution)act 1992
o The infant milk substitutes, feeding bottles, and infant foods (Regulation of production,
supply and distribution) Amendment act, 2003
o Notification Guidelines on infant and young child feeding
o Amendment proposed in immoral traffic (prevention) act 1956
ROLE OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY IN ENVIRONMENT AND HUMAN HEALTH
INTRODUTION
Today is information age and tremendous flow of information is emerging in all fields through out
of the world. Information in this competitive era is more precious than life and without information one
cannot live at all. In India, during the last decade of 20
th
century, Information Technology (IT) has
emerged as the most important technology revolutionizing the various spheres of life. This has created
many new avenues of employment. During this period Indians have occupied senior positions in IT
industries in developed countries like USA, UK, and Europe etc. India is a vast country endowed with
rich natural resources while facing the problems of poverty, illiteracy, population growth, environment
degradation etc.. IT is creating new possibilities to tackle problems.
What is information technology?
Informatique in French and informatika in Russian encompasses the notion of information
handling and it can be defined accordingly as tools and applications support through which information is
transferred, recorded, edited, stored, manipulated and disseminated with enormous quantities in the
minimum possible time. The Working Group on IT for Masses explains IT as a set of media, devices
and services out of which proper solutions can be configured based on the needs and affordability of the
target clientele in the country
Components of Information Technology
The use and implementation of information technology involves various components namely a)
Hardware, b) Software, c) Date, e)Storage and Communications.
Role of IT
Information technology will play a crucial role in this new operating environment by altering
methods of student evaluation, professors duties and responsibilities, and the central role of classroom
lectures as a mode of institutions. Distance learning systems are likely to become increasingly important
as institutions use this technology to enable students to forego lectures and demonstrations in favor of
multimedia presentations. Teaching skills could change accordingly and shift from instructional delivery
to instructional design.
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Application of IT in environment
Remote Sensing
It is an art (aesthetic), science (optic/sensor), and technology (rocket/orbit) of obtaining
information about the terrestrial objects (Land/water/Air) through aerial cameras/sensors from space
platforms (balloons/kites/airplanes/satellites) for preparation of thematic maps for the benefit / solving
problems of the society. The military surveyors and mapping organizations (survey of India) and urban
planner use aerial photographs of various scales (1:1000 to 1million) for the said purposes. The uses from
agriculture, forestry, earth sciences, meteorology, engineering, planning, and other discipline use the
explosive satellite data (digital and analog) for preparation of various thematic maps.
Geographic Information System (GIS)
It is a computer based information processing / thematic map preparation system using vector
(line) and raster (pixel) data. It is applied to update the maps / layers, preparation of complex thematic
maps and also for various mapping practices.
Global Positioning System (GPS)
It is a new addition in mapping of resources, survey of terrestrial positions and understanding the
location of various stationary and moving objects. It was developed for identifying / locating the ships and
later it is applied in various fields including identification of location in non-inhabited areas, higher
altitude zones, moving vehicles etc.
Meteorology
We have already come across various instances, in which lives of thousands of people were saved
due to prediction of cyclones quite in advance, giving time for safeguarding one self. Thus saving lives
and property. This could not have been achieved without use of IT. The weather is studied throughout the
globe with the help of various weather stations on land as well as through satellites. The data generated is
processed, analyzed and projected using computer system, which are directly connected to satellites, there
by giving a chance for forewarning of probable calamities.
Application of IT in health
A part from helping in the administration of hospitals, IT is playing a key role in the health
industry. On the medical care, the IT has varied applications right from the diagnosis, where there are
latest tools like CT scans, Ultrasound Sonography etc. which use IT as their basis for diagnosis of
ailments. Most of the ICUs (Intensive Care Units) are now using computers to monitor the progress and
condition of the patient, under going treatments, apart from this, with help of IT, expert opinions from
doctors away from the place can be sought with help of IT tools like video conferences/ drugs to be used
in medical treatments.
Bioinformatics
It is an interdisciplinary field using computational techniques to analyze the biological data. With
the progress of human society being rapid, industrialization taking long leaps and at the same time human
population increasing forever, unforeseen problems are cropping up and human society has to find an
urgent answer to maintain a healthy and happy state. Problems like systemic diseases, infectious diseases
(that were once conquered) are cropping up once again, crop plants suffering from large scale destruction
due to pathogens and above all the curse and challenge to human beings from the tiniest of the creatures-
the AIDS virus; all these need a solution urgently. In the quest to find an answer to this-speed is the by
word and that is possible only with computers.
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Bioinformatics became so much popular only after the release of human genomic project. Here,
once we identify all genes we can then go on studying the genes causing hereditary diseases and also can
discover drugs for that individual.
GIS and Health
Information technologies are transforming the way health care is delivered. Innovations such as
computer-based patient records, hospital information systems, computer-based decision support tools,
community health information networks, telemedicine, and new ways of distributing health
information to consumers are beginning to affect the cost, quality, and accessibility of health care.
The Role of Information Technologies discusses the synergy between information technologies
and trends in the health care delivery system as health care is brought online. It identifies some of the
opportunities to improve health care delivery through increased use of information technology, and
discusses some of the conceptual, organizational, and technical barriers that have made its adoption
uneven.
Applications of IT in Environment and Health
Environmental Information System-ENVIS
The ENVIS was set by the MOEF in 1982 as a decentralized information network for collection,
storage, retrieval and dissemination of environmental information. ENVIS network presently consists of
25 subject oriented centres known as ENVIS centres. The focal point brings out a quarterly journal,
paryavaran abstracts which are arranged under major categories like Environment Management,
Pollution, Health, Biodiversity etc.,
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