Textile Research Journal Article

The Influence of Thread Twist on Alterations in Fibers’

Mechanical Properties
Andreja Rudolf1 and Jelka Geršak
Abstract In order to design high-quality threads, Textile Department, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering
it is necessary to know the properties of threads University of Maribor, SI-2000 Maribor, Slovenia
and fibers, as well as the loadings and deformations
which may occur during the sewing process. Thread
properties depend on the mechanical properties of
the fiber and the constructional parameters of the
thread and its surface treatment, which directly
influence sewing performance. The mechanical
properties of a thread primarily depend on the
fiber mechanical properties and the amount of
twist. Knowledge of the thread dynamic loadings
during the sewing process, depending on the
number of turns and the lubrication method, is
important for planning the required processing
properties of the thread. This paper presents
research into the influence of thread twist and the
lubrication method on the mechanical properties
and dynamic load of PES core-spun thread and its
fibers. Research into the mechanical properties of
the different twisted and surface treated threads,
and separated fibers was carried out for this pur-
pose. The influence of thread dynamic load during
a sewing process was also researched regarding any
alterations in the mechanical properties of the
threads and separated fibers. Analyses of the
results show that the amount of twist depends on
the mechanical properties of the thread and its
constituent fibers, whilst the method of surface
treatment is based on the specific mechanical prop-
erties of the thread. A dynamic load causes greater
or smaller thread deformations, which is reflected
in changes in the thread and fiber mechanical prop-
erties. The occurred changes depend on dynamic
load, amount of twist, and the lubrication method,
which is confirmed with statistical analysis of the
measured results.

Key words sewing thread, fiber, amount of

twist, surface treatment, dynamic load, mechani-
cal properties 1
Corresponding author: University of Maribor, Faculty of
Mechanical Engineering, Textile Department, Smetanova ulica 17,
SI-2000 Maribor, Slovenia. Tel: +386-2-220-7964; fax: +386-2-
220-7990; e-mail: arudolf@uni-mb.si

Textile Research Journal Vol 76(2): 134–144 DOI: 10.1177/0040517506057424 www.trj.sagepub.com © 2006 SAGE Publications
 The Influence of Thread Twist on Alterations in Fibers’ Mechanical Properties A. Rudolf, et al.
When twisting, the fibers parallel to the yarn axis incline
over a defined angle and turn around the yarn axis. This
happens at the effective tensile force because of the torsion
moment the fibers’ rotation around the yarn axis and the
compression forces on the fibers towards the yarn core.
Fibers become closer, adhesion between the fibers in the
yarn increases and yarn fineness decreases [1, 2]. The
stated loadings of the thread cause loadings of the fibers,
which increases with the amount of twist.
A core-spun thread is made of a multifilament core,
which is covered with spun fibers that were twisted around
the core. A filament core gives core-spun thread its neces-
sary strength, while the fibers from the coat assure appro-
priate thread softness and resistance to abrasion, and
protects the filaments against dynamic and thermal load-
ings during the sewing process. When planning such high-
quality thread it is necessary to define the mechanical
behavior of the core-spun thread and determine the opti-
mal degree of twist amount, which will assure suitable
mechanical and processing properties for the thread.
Numerous authors have studied the influence of twist
on the mechanical properties of fiber, yarn and thread.
They have been researching mechanical properties such as:
initial elasticity modulus, breaking tenacity and breaking
extension besides the relationship between tension–exten-
sion using the tensile test for spun and filament yarns and
the threads, respectively, as well as the relationship
between fiber and yarn strength [3–8].
Surface treatment of the thread is very important for
stitch formation without defects, since incorrect and irreg-
ular treatment can cause additional thread loadings during
the sewing process. Therefore, the thread lubricating agent
must first of all fulfill two conditions; it must enable the
uniform and smallest possible friction; as well as protecting
the thread against sewing needle heat. The thread must be
treated with an appropriate lubricating agent, which will
act as a lubricating component, enable easy and uniform
running of the thread under the dynamic conditions of the
sewing process when sliding over the guiding elements and
working mechanisms [9–11].
Thread Dynamic Load
The dynamic loadings of thread during a sewing process
have a negative influence on its processing properties. In
the stitch formation process, especially the needle thread is
exposed to tensional, frictional and bending loadings [11–
13]. Such severe conditions, in combination with the heat
generated in the sewing needle, can reduce the initial
strength of a thread. This is the one of the causes of thread
breakages and damage [13]. The thread must, therefore,
have such properties that it can overcome dynamic and
thermal loadings, which originate due to the cyclic loadings
135 TRJ
during high-speed sewing. They must however, not cause
greater changes in thread strength.
Analyses of the stitch formation process and the forces
acting shows that the thread is exposed to numerous load-
ings on its way from the package to the formed stitch.
This is reflected in the form of strength alteration. Stud-
ies on the thread strength reduction of the sewing threads
have been an important aspect of assessing their perform-
ance during high-speed sewing. The effects of certain
thread properties, machine parameters, and number of
fabric plies have been investigated by many authors [14–
17]. Crow and Chamberlain [14] were two of the earliest
researchers to investigate thread-strength reduction. More
recently, Webster and Laing [32] investigated the effect of
repeated extension and recovery on the physical properties
of lockstitch seams. Studies of dynamic tension in sewing
threads have been carried out by numerous authors [12,
15–24]. They found out that alteration in thread strength is
closely connected to thread passages over the guiding ele-
ments of the sewing machine and, because of this, friction
and bending originates between the needle thread and
touching areas, as well as friction with the bobbin thread
[12, 20, 21]. Furthermore, it is well known that the highest
thread tension force occurs at the moment of stitch tight-
ening [15, 20, 21]. Sundaresan et al. [22–24] discovered that
the range of thread strength alteration is a function of act-
ing dynamic loadings on the thread and its ability to offer
resistance against the applied load. Any alteration in the
thread’s breaking tenacity can be assigned to alterations in
the fiber mechanical properties in regard to dynamic load-
ing and/or in regard to alterations in thread structure. The
majority of these loadings are cyclic by nature, and there-
fore, cause thread and fiber fatigue.
On the basis of the above descriptions, the final value of
any breaking tenacity and extension cannot be one of the
main characteristics for projecting thread properties. The
thread, however, must have appropriate visco-elastic prop-
erties, which are important for its behavior at the lower
loadings, so that they can transmit dynamic conditions
when sewing. It is, therefore, important for the sewing
process that the threads’ dynamic tension, which is defined
as a quotient between tensile force and thread linear den-
sity, does not exceed the value of the tension at the yield
point. Tensile force which, when acting on the thread in the
stitch formation process, only causes elastic thread defor-
mation. Provided this dynamic thread tension exceeds the
tension at the yield point, it then comes to the first plastic
thread deformations, which are reflected through changes
in the threads’ visco-elastic properties [12]. Therefore, the
tension at the yield point must be as high as possible, so
that thread can overcome dynamic loadings during the
sewing process.
TRJ 136 Textile Research Journal 76(2)

Table 1 Properties of the applied single yarn, threads and separated fibers.
Thread Linear density Tt Number of turns Tm Friction Breaking tenacity Breaking extension
type (tex) (t/m) coefficient σb (cN/tex) εb (%)

Nominal Actual Nominal Actual µ Thread Fiber Thread Fiber

Y 13.5 13.37 – 939.21 0.20 42.09 63.2 13.29 19.7
T1A 13.5 × 2 30.43 800 779.68 0.22 39.10 64.8 18.42 20.6
T2A 13.5 × 2 30.96 1036 1124.40 0.21 37.85 64.0 19.01 21.5
T3A 13.5 × 2 31.52 1200 1334.72 0.20 37.74 62.0 19.98 22.3
T1G 13.5 × 2 28.75 800 752.96 0.22 43.24 64.0 18.85 20.4
T2G 13.5 × 2 28.97 1036 1098.96 0.23 42.88 63.6 19.18 20.6
T3G 13.5 × 2 29.51 1200 1378.64 0.22 40.03 61.8 20.23 21.9

Methodology mometer records linear density, breaking force and break-

ing elongation, and automatically calculates the breaking
tenacity, breaking extension and elasticity modulus E0 at
An investigation was carried out to determine any influ- 1% extension.
ence of the number of turns and the lubrication method on
Static pretension was measured with the Coats Tensile
the mechanical properties of the thread and its fibers
Meter instrument. Stitching speed was controlled by a
together with the influence of the dynamic loadings on
tachometer. Measurements of the thread tensile force
alterations in the mechanical properties of the thread and were carried out on a Brother DB2 B737-913 sewing
fibers.
machine, using a specially developed device for measuring
Core-spun thread was used for this research, produced
thread tensile force. The measurement results are given as
from 100% polyester, with nominal linear density 13.5 tex ×
average values of the 50 characteristic tensile force peaks
3 and final twist in Z-direction with different numbers of at the moment of stitch tightening. Thread dynamic ten-
turns, namely t1 = 800 t/m–1, t2 = 1036 t/m–1 and t3 =
sion was calculated for comparison with tension at the
1200 t/m–1. Twisted and dyed threads were then surface-
yield point.
treated using the ‘apparatus lubrication’ procedure (speci-
Statistical analysis was carried out, based on F and t test
mens with types T1A, T2A, T3A), and the ‘galette lubrica- [28]. Using these tests we investigated whether the mean
tion’ procedure (specimens with types T1G, T2G, T3G).
values of the breaking tenacity and breaking extension
The basic properties of the prepared threads, and their fib-
were statistically significant with respect to the number of
ers, are listed in Table 1. Research was carried out on a fab-
turns, the lubrication method and the dynamic load at 95%
ric produced from 100% wool in twill weave with a surface level of confidence.
mass of 196 g/m2, warp density 26 ends/cm and weft density
Picture analysis of the threads and fibers before and
23 picks/cm. The sample of length 80 cm was joined from
after the sewing process was carried out using a Ziess Axio-
two layers and sewn using seam type 1.01.01 [25], stitch
tech 25 HD microscope. Analysis was based on determin-
type 301 [26], stitch length 2.5 cm, Singer sewing needle ing the nature of damage seen on the tested threads and
with metric number Nm 80 at stitching speed 4000 rpm,
fibers. Micrographs were recorded at different magnifica-
with a previously appointed thread pretension, which
tions. In this way it was possible to define the place along
assured a balanced seam.
the thread, and the fiber damage regarding the interlace of
Measurements of the mechanical properties were car- the threads in the seam.
ried out on analyzed threads and their fibers before and
All measurements were carried out under the standard
after the sewing process. The fibers were separated from
testing conditions according to standard ISO 139 [29]. Ten-
the filament core of the thread. The needle thread was
sile loading of the threads was measured according to
carefully taken out of the seam after sewing and individual standard ISO 2062 [30] and tensile loading of the fibers
fibers were separated from the thread core for measuring
according to standard ISO 5079 [31].
any alterations in the mechanical properties. On the basis
of the measured results and using a special computer pro-
gram, the average curve tension-extension and the visco-
elastic parameters of the thread were calculated [27]. The
measurements of the fibers’ mechanical properties were
carried out on a Vibrodyn 400 electronic feeding dyna-
mometer, connected with the Vibroskop 400 linear density
measuring device. Using a suitable program, the dyna-
 The Influence of Thread Twist on Alterations in Fibers’ Mechanical Properties A. Rudolf, et al. 137 TRJ

Table 2 Measurement results of the mechanical properties of the yarn, surface treated threads and separated fibers.
Analyzed properties of the Single Thread type Separated fibers from yarn and threads
threads and fibers yarn
Y T1A T2A T3A T1G T2G T3G Y T1A T2A T3A T1G T2G T3G

σb 42.09 39.10 37.85 37.74 43.24 42.88 40.03 63.2 64.8 64.0 62.0 64.0 63.6 61.8
Breaking tenac-
ity σb (cN/tex) s 3.66 2.95 2.18 2.17 2.97 2.59 2.79 4.3 2.4 2.0 2.3 3.1 2.7 2.3
CV 8.71 7.56 5.76 5.74 6.87 20.84 13.83 6.8 3.8 3.2 3.7 4.9 4.2 3.7
εb 13.29 18.42 19.01 19.98 18.85 19.18 20.23 15.4 20.6 21.5 22.3 20.4 20.6 21.9
Breaking exten-
sion εb (%) s 0.63 0.40 0.46 0.40 0.39 0.54 0.44 1.8 1.6 1.5 1.6 1.8 1.4 1.7
CV 4.73 2.17 2.44 2.02 2.05 1.25 2.18 11.5 7.7 7.0 7.1 8.8 6.9 7.5
Tension in yield point σy (cN/tex) 6.62 5.87 5.58 5.24 6.13 5.97 5.62 – – – – – – –

Extension in yield point εy (%) 1.27 2.14 2.43 2.37 2.11 2.29 2.39 – – – – – – –

Elasticity modulus E0 (cN/tex)* 5.35 2.89 2.43 2.29 3.04 2.72 2.41 457 122 84 76 130 88 74

Extension ε0 (%) 0.54 0.95 1.16 1.06 0.94 1.04 1.06 – – – – – – –

Modulus E1 (cN/tex) 1.41 0.73 0.75 0.68 0.80 0.78 0.75 – – – – – – –

Extension ε1 (%) 2.99 4.67 5.21 5.26 4.64 5.00 5.33 – – – – – – –

Modulus E2 (cN/tex) 4.65 3.66 3.46 3.25 3.89 3.85 3.39 – – – – – – –

Extension ε2 (%) 10.43 15.52 16.06 17.09 15.35 16.41 17.10 – – – – – – –

* Elasticity modulus E0 of the fibers was measured at 1% elongation.

Results and Discussion
Influence of the Number of Turns and the
Lubrication Method
Measurement results for the mechanical properties of the
analyzed yarn and threads, as well as the mechanical prop-
erties of the separated fibers from yarn and threads show
the important influence of the number of turns on the
mechanical properties of the threads and fibers (Table 2).
This also confirms the statistical analysis of the measured
results (Table 3). On the basis of the measured results it
was discovered that the values of the breaking tenacity σb,
modulus E0, E1, E2 and the tension at the yield point σy
decreased with an increasing number of turns, whereas the
breaking extension increased with the number of turns
(Figure 1). Values for the breaking tenacity of the thread
changed from 37.74 to 39.10 cN/tex for the apparatus-
lubricated thread and from 40.03 to 43.24 cN/tex for gal-
ette-lubricated thread. In addition, this thread with the
highest nominal number of turns 1200 t/m was perceived to
have the highest fall in breaking tenacity. A similar trend in
breaking tenacity decrease with increasing numbers of
turns was also indicated for separated fibers, as shown in
Figure 2(a). An increase in breaking extension with the
number of turns was also shown for the threads and fibers,
as shown in Figures 1(b) and 2(b). Furthermore, the elas-
ticity modulus E0 showed a drastic fall with an increasing
number of turns for the threads and their fibers, as shown
in Figures 1(c) and 2(c). The values of the modulus E1 and
E2 indicate that the continuing slopes of the tension-exten-
sion curve fell with an increasing number of turns (Table 2).
The tension value at the yield point is highest for apparatus
and galette-lubricated threads, at the nominal number of
turns 800 t/m (Figure 1(d)).
Comparison of the measured results for the mechanical
properties of the yarn, threads and separated fibers shows
that the individual fiber has the higher values for all
mechanical properties, as was expected. The most interest-
ing cognizance is that the mechanical behavior of the ana-
lyzed core-spun yarn and threads is similar to the behavior
of the separated filament fibers. This means that any
decrease in breaking tenacity, elasticity modulus, and ten-
sion at the yield point comes with an increasing number of
turns because of the fibers’ loadings. According to the
amount of twist the orginated shear and compressive forces
probably caused critical thread loading, and weakened fib-
ers in their initial elastic regions. This is reflected firstly in
the intensive reduction of the elasticity modulus E0.
On the basis of this analysis it can be seen that the nom-
inal number of turns 800 t/m gives the apparatus, as well as
the galette-lubricated thread, their highest values for
TRJ 138 Textile Research Journal 76(2)

Table 3 Statistical analyses of the significant differences of the mean values of the breaking tenacity and breaking
extension regarding the number of turns and the lubrication method.
Test magnitude Thread type Fcalc. Ftab. H(0): σ1 = σ 2 tcalc. ttab. H(0), α = 0.05

T1A – T2A 1.838 confirmed 2.411 rejected

T1A – T3A 1.860 1.88 confirmed 2.627 1.98 rejected
T2A – T3A 1.012 confirmed 0.251 not rejected
Breaking tenacity
T1G –T2G 1.316 confirmed 0.648 not rejected
T1G – T3G 1.127 1.88 confirmed 5.568 1.98 rejected

Influence of the number T2G – T3G 1.168 confirmed 5.289 rejected

of turns T1A –T2A 1.340 confirmed 6.824 rejected
T1A –T3A 1.020 1.88 confirmed 19.415 1.98 rejected
T2A – T3A 1.313 confirmed 11.149 rejected
Breaking extension
T1G –T2G 1.935 unconfirmed 3.426 rejected
T1G – T3G 1.305 1.88 confirmed 17.067 1.98 rejected
T2G – T3G 1.483 confirmed 10.764 rejected
T1A – T1G 1.011 confirmed 7.082 rejected
Breaking tenacity T2A – T2G 1.412 1.88 confirmed 10.529 1.98 rejected

Influence of the lubrica- T3A – T3G 1.669 confirmed 4.584 rejected

tion method T1A – T1G 1.074 confirmed 1.514 not rejected
Breaking extension T2A – T2G 1.345 1.88 confirmed 1.637 1.98 not rejected
T3A – T3G 1.192 confirmed 2.967 rejected
Note: If null hypothesis H(0): µ1 = µ2 is rejected, the differences between mean values are significant.

breaking tenacity, elasticity modulus and, especially, ten-
sion at the yield point, which is decisive for its good resist-
ance against loadings in the sewing process.
Furthermore, it can be seen that the lubrication method
has an influence on the mechanical properties of the
threads (Figure 1), while essential changes in the mechani-
cal properties of the thread filament core-separated fibers
were not registered (Figure 2). Statistical analysis shows
the significant influence of the lubrication method first of
all on the thread breaking tenacity (Table 3). Research into
the influence of the lubrication method on the analyzed
thread mechanical properties indicates that apparatus-
lubricated threads show lower values. The lower values for
the apparatus-lubricated thread mechanical properties are
probably a reflection of the lubricant penetration between
the fibers from the coat and, thus, a greater amount of
imbibed lubricant. This is reflected in the higher values for
thread linear density, which moved from 30.43 to 31.52 tex,
in comparison with the galette-lubricated thread, which
registered lower values of linear density, namely from
28.75 to 29.51 tex (Table 1). On the basis of this, it can be
considered that apparatus-lubricated threads produce
lower values for actual linear density. Penetration of the
lubricating agent between the fibers in the coated area, at
the same time, reduces friction between the fibers, which is
reflected in the lower values for modulus E0, E1, E2 and the
tension at the yield point σy of the apparatus-lubricated
threads compared to the corresponding values for the gal-
ette-lubricated threads. This also show the values of break-
ing forces for differently lubricated threads, as can be seen
in Table 1.
Alterations in Mechanical Properties after
the Sewing Process
Table 4 give the results for the static pretension, tensile
force and dynamic tension of the analyzed threads at a
stitching speed 4000 rpm. The values for dynamic tension,
which is a quotient between tensile force and thread linear
density, show that, for different twisted threads, the
dynamic tension falls with an increasing number of turns.
This is probably a reflection of the greater smoothness of
more twisted thread. Alternatively, the dynamic tension
results of the analyzed threads show some influence from
the lubrication method. Comparisons between the appara-
tus-lubricated and galette-lubricated threads show lower val-
ues of dynamic tension for apparatus-lubricated threads.
The only exception is the apparatus-lubricated thread with
 The Influence of Thread Twist on Alterations in Fibers’ Mechanical Properties A. Rudolf, et al.
Figure 1 Influence of the number of turns and the lubri-
cation method on the mechanical properties of the
thread: (a) breaking tenacity; (b) breaking extension; (c)
elasticity modulus e0; (d) tension at the yield point.
139 TRJ
Figure 2 Influence of the number of turns and the lubri-
cation method on the mechanical properties of the fibers:
(a) breaking tenacity; (b) breaking extension; (c) elasticity
modulus E0.
type T1A, which also has the highest friction coefficient
value, static pretension and tensile force.
Measurement results for the mechanical properties of
the analyzed threads and separated fibers after the sewing
process are presented in Table 5. These measurement
results show the influence of dynamic loadings, amount of
twist, and the lubrication method on the mechanical prop-
erties of the threads and fibers.
Analysis of the measured results for the thread mechan-
ical properties shows that loading in the sewing process
TRJ 140 Textile Research Journal 76(2)

Table 4 Results of the static pretension, tensile force and dynamic tension of the analyzed threads at stitching speed
4000 rpm.

Static pretension Tensile force Ft Dynamic tension

Thread type
Fst (N) Average value Ft (N) Standard deviation s (N) Variation coeff. CV (%) σD (cN/tex)

T1AS 1.6 1.24 0.06 4.88 4.08

T2AS 1.4 1.08 0.08 7.63 3.48
T3AS 1.4 1.07 0.08 7.66 3.40
T1GS 1.4 1.13 0.09 8.34 3.93
T2GS 1.9 1.13 0.08 7.19 3.90
T3GS 1.6 1.10 0.09 8.56 3.74

Table 5 Measurement results of the mechanical properties analyzed threads after the sewing process at stitching speed
4000 rpm.
Thread type
Analyzed properties of the
Threads Separated fibers from threads
threads and fibers
T1AS T2AS T3AS T1GS T2GS T3GS T1AS T2AS T3AS T1GS T2GS T3GS
σb 37.41 35.40 35.55 39.61 37.99 37.28 64.5 63.8 62.8 64.2 58.1 59.7
Breaking tenac-
ity σb (cN/tex) s 2.66 2.46 2.26 2.42 2.81 2.53 2.2 2.08 2.3 3.4 8.2 3.1
CV 7.12 6.94 6.37 6.10 7.39 6.78 3.3 3.3 3.7 5.3 14.1 5.3
εb 16.73 16.60 18.02 16.81 16.77 18.76 18.1 18.7 19.4 16.8 17.2 18.5
Breaking exten-
sion εb (%) s 0.47 0.58 0.50 0.64 0.67 0.51 1.6 1.5 1.5 1.6 2.8 1.6
CV 2.83 3.48 2.76 3.82 4.02 2.71 8.8 8.0 7.5 9.7 16.3 8.6
Tension in yield point σy (cN/tex) 5.52 5.38 5.04 5.87 5.97 5.61 – – – – – –
Extension in yield point εy (%) 2.56 2.78 2.80 2.70 2.92 3.09 – – – – – –

Elasticity modulus E0 (cN/tex) * 2.23 2.04 1.84 2.25 2.14 1.88 307 136 113 302 141 95

Extension ε0 (%) 1.32 1.54 1.47 1.40 1.64 1.61 – – – – – –

Modulus E1 (cN/tex) 1.19 1.26 1.08 1.27 1.39 1.07 – – – – – –
Extension ε1 (%) 4.72 4.80 5.15 4.84 4.88 5.54 – – – – – –
Modulus E2 (cNtex) 3.65 3.40 3.15 3.79 3.55 3.34 – – – – – –
Extension ε2 (%) 13.84 13.54 14.94 13.78 13.46 15.59 – – – – – –
* Elasticity modulus E0 of the fibers was measured at 1% elongation.

causes the decrease of the breaking tenacity values, break-
ing extension, tension at the yield point and, especially, the
elasticity modulus, E0 (Tables 2 and 5). It also shows the
greatest alteration after the sewing process for all analyzed
threads (Table 6). The influence of the thread’s dynamic
loadings on alterations in its mechanical properties also
confirms the statistical analysis of the measured results
(Table 7).
A similar influence of dynamic load in the sewing proc-
ess also shows alterations in the mechanical properties for
separated fibers (Table 6). A decrease in breaking exten-
sion values and an increase in the elasticity modulus was
perceived for the fibers of the analyzed threads, but no
great changes resulted in breaking tenacity.
Investigations into alterations in the thread mechanical
properties after the sewing process show that they depend
on the amount of twist. The apparatus-lubricated thread
with type T1AS and nominal number of turns 800 t/m, still
has, after the sewing process, the highest breaking tenacity
value, tension at the yield point and modulus E0 and E2. A
similar dependence is also shown for the galette-lubri-
cated thread with type T1GS, which only has a little lower
tension value at the yield point. The influence of the
amount of twist on the behavior of the thread in the sew-
ing process is statistically significant for almost all samples
(Table 7).
Analysis of the measured results for the mechanical
properties of the fibers separated from the threads after
 The Influence of Thread Twist on Alterations in Fibers’ Mechanical Properties A. Rudolf, et al. 141 TRJ

Table 6 Alteration in the mechanical properties of analyzed threads and separated fibers after loading in the sewing
process at a stitching speed of 4000 rpm.
Tension at yield
Breaking tenacity alteration Breaking extension alteration Elasticity modulus alteration
Thread point alteration
∆σb (%) ∆ε (%) ∆E0 (%)
type ∆σy (%)

Thread Fiber Thread Fiber Thread Fiber Thread

T1AS 4.31 0.46 9.21 12.14 22.75 –151.64 6.03
T2AS 6.46 0.31 12.70 13.02 15.90 –61.90 3.51
T3AS 5.79 –1.29 9.81 13.00 19.78 –48.68 3.82
T1GS 8.41 –0.31 10.83 17.65 25.77 132.31 4.11
T2GS 11.42 8.65 12.57 16.50 21.48 –60.23 0.10
T3GS 6.86 2.40 7.28 15.53 22.14 –28.38 0.18
Note: Minus sign signifies increase of particular mechanical property.

Table 7 Statistical analyses of the significant differences of the mean values regarding the dynamic load, number of turns
and the lubrication method after the sewing process.
Test
Thread type Fcalc. Ftab. H0: σ1 = σ 2 tcalc. ttab. H(0), α = 0.05
magnitude
T1A – T1AS 1.230 1.88 confirm 1.858 not rejected
T2A – T2AS 1.176 1.88 confirmed 5.267 rejected
Breaking T3A – T3AS 1.093 1.88 confirmed 4.930 1.98 rejected
tenacity T1G – T1GS 1.512 1.88 confirmed 6.714 rejected
T2G – T2GS 1.175 1.88 confirmed 9.027 rejected
Influence of the T3G – T3GS 1.226 1.88 confirmed 5.152 rejected
dynamic load T1A – T1AS 1.398 1.88 confirmed 19.186 rejected
T2A – T2AS 1.553 1.88 confirmed 17.273 rejected
Breaking T3A – T3AS 1.519 1.88 confirmed 21.408 1.98 rejected
extension T1G – T1GS 2.766 1.88 unconfirmed 19.255 rejected
T2G – T2GS 1.575 1.88 confirmed 19.504 rejected
T3G – T3GS 1.322 1.88 confirmed 15.344 rejected
T1AS – T2AS 1.18 confirmed 3.93 rejected
T1AS – T3AS 1.38 1.88 confirmed 3.77 1.98 rejected
Breaking T2AS – T3AS 1.18 confirmed 0.32 not rejected
tenacity T1GS – T2GS 0.74 confirmed 3.08 rejected
T1GS – T3GS 0.91 1.88 confirmed 4.71 1.98 rejected
Influence of the T2GS – T3GS 1.23 confirmed 1.31 not rejected
number of turns T1AS – T2AS 0.67 confirmed 1.21 not rejected
T1AS – T3AS 0.90 1.88 confirmed 13.22 1.98 rejected
Breaking T2AS – T3AS 1.34 confirmed 13.19 rejected
extension T1GS – T2GS 0.91 confirmed 0.36 not rejected
T1GS – T3GS 1.60 1.88 confirmed 16.78 1.98 rejected
T2GS – T3GS 1.77 confirmed 16.54 rejected
T1AS – T1GS 1.22 confirmed 4.32 rejected
Braking
T2AS – T2GS 0.76 1.88 confirmed 4.87 1.98 rejected
tenacity
Influence of the T3AS – T3GS 0.80 confirmed 3.61 rejected
lubrication method T1AS – T1GS 0.54 confirmed 0.79 not rejected
Breaking
T2AS – T2GS 0.73 1.88 confirmed 1.33 1.98 not rejected
extension
T3AS – T3GS 0.96 confirmed 7.39 rejected
Note: If null hypothesis H(0): µ1 = µ2 is rejected, the differences between mean values are significant.
TRJ 142 Textile Research Journal 76(2)
the sewing process show the influence of twist amount on
alterations in mechanical properties, because the sepa-
rated fibers from threads with types T1AS and T1GS, have
the highest values for breaking tenacity and elasticity mod-
ulus E0 (Table 5). This means that the stated threads, in
spite of having the highest dynamic tension during the sew-
ing process, still kept the highest values for mechanical
properties after loadings, which is essential for any further
applied thread properties in the formed stitch.
Research to determine the influence of amount of twist
showed that a greater number of turns offer greater
smoothness to the thread and, thus, lower tensile force val-
ues when sewing. The relation between the lower number
of turns and the higher breaking tenacity, yield point ten-
sion, elasticity modulus, and lower breaking extension,
shows that those threads with lower number of turns assure
better production properties.
Analysis of the results for tension at yield point σy and
the thread dynamic tension σD at the moment of stitch
tightening (Tables 4 and 5) shows that dynamic tension
does not exceed tension value at the yield point. This is
also reflected in a small change in tension at the yield point
for all analyzed threads after sewing (Table 6). The fact is
that the thread dynamic tension during the sewing process
exceeds the value of elasticity modulus E0, which is proba-
bly the reason for alterations in the mechanical properties
after the sewing process.
Furthermore, analysis of the measured results shows
the important influence of the lubrication method on the
mechanical properties of the thread and fibers, after the
sewing process. A greater alteration in breaking tenacity is
caused for galette-lubricated threads (Table 6), which is
also confirmed by statistical analysis (Table 7). Separated
fibers from galette-lubricated threads also show greater
breaking tenacity alteration, namely to 8.65%, whereas the
apparatus-lubricated threads only reach a breaking tenac-
ity alteration value of 1.29%. The alteration in breaking
extension for the separated fibers, which moves from a
value of 12.14 to 13.02% for apparatus-lubricated threads
and for galette-lubricated threads from 15.53 to 17.65%,
also shows the influence of the lubrication method. Altera-
tion in elasticity modulus E0 moves from a value of 15.90 to
22.75% for apparatus-lubricated threads, whereas it is
greater for galette-lubricated threads, namely from 21.14
to 25.77%. Fibers undergo greater alteration in elasticity
modulus E0. On this basis, it can be considered that gal-
ette-lubricated threads are less resistant to dynamic load-
ings than apparatus-lubricated threads.
Picture Analysis
The results of the picture analyses of the threads, before
and after dynamic loading in the sewing process, show that
the amount of twist influences the fineness and smooth-
ness. In Figure 3 the thread damage, caused by tensional
and frictional forces, is visible during the sewing process.
Damage was indicated especially at the needle and the
bobbin thread interlace points, which is reflected in the
forms of thread turn motions and the loosening structure
of the thread, as well as in the fibers projecting out of the
thread and their entanglements.
Furthermore, on the basis of picture analysis results for
separated fibers, it can be seen, that damage has already
been done during their production and processing into yarn
and thread, respectively. Different structural fiber damage is
indicated, namely local softening, mechanical damage and
fiber folding. On this basis, the fiber structural damage anal-
yses after the sewing process also indicate, besides the men-
tioned damage, axial splitting as in Figure 4(a), surface
fiber peeling (Figure 4(b)) and transverse and longitudinal
cracks (Figure 4(c)). Damages, which were seen especially
at the interlace points of the needle and the bobbin thread
can be attributed to the tensional, frictional and bending
loadings of the thread during the sewing process. It is well
known that axial splitting is the continuation of transversal
crack caused by tensional fatigue because of additional
shear tension at the top of the crack. It is almost always
parallel with the fiber axis for polyester fiber. Transversal
and longitudinal cracks can be attributed to strong thread
bending in the area of the sewing needle eye and the inter-
lacing points of the needle and bobbin thread, whereas the
fiber surface peeling is a reflection of frictional thread
overloading, on account that this leads to rubbing of the
fibers forming the thread.
Figure 3 Appearance of the ana-
lyzed threads after sewing at 50 ×
magnification: (a) thread with type
T2GS; (b) thread with type T1AS; (c)
thread with type T3GS.
 The Influence of Thread Twist on Alterations in Fibers’ Mechanical Properties A. Rudolf, et al.
Figure 4 Appearance of the ana-
lyzed fibers separated from
threads after sewing at 500 × mag-
nification: (a) thread with type T1GS;
(b) thread with type T2GS; (c) thread
with type T2GS.
Conclusions
Research into the mechanical properties of twisted core-
spun threads has shown that technologically conditional
forces during thread twisting also influence the thread prop-
erties. The influence of twist shows that the increase in the
number of turns, results in a decrease in breaking tenacity
values, elasticity modulus and tension at the yield point, and
an increase in breaking extension. The described trend also
follows for the separated fibers. It is established that the
researched core-spun thread corresponds to the lowest nom-
inal number of turns 800 t/m, because it is assigned to the
highest breaking tenacity, elasticity modulus and especially
tension at the yield point, which is fundamental for process-
ing thread properties during the sewing process.
Furthermore, this analysis of the results shows that the
lubrication method imparts specific mechanical properties
to the thread. It showed that the lubrication method has an
influence on the fibers from the sheath of the core-spun
thread, because there are no essential changes in the
mechanical properties of the fibers from the core. The dif-
ferences in values for the mechanical properties of the dif-
ferently lubricated threads can be attributed to the amount
of imbibed lubricating agent between the fibers from the
thread sheath, which is also reflected by the change in lin-
ear density and friction between the fibers. The higher lin-
ear density of the apparatus-lubricated threads in contrast
to the galette-lubricated threads shows that apparatus-
lubricated threads, because of their greater amount of
imbibed lubricating agent, produce lower values for actual
linear density. This is also confirmed by the breaking force
values of the differently lubricated threads.
Research into the sewing performance of the analyzed
threads, was shown by dynamic tension evaluation and
alteration in their mechanical properties after the sewing
process, that the resulting alterations in the mechanical
properties are a consequence of thread loadings and its
fibers during the sewing process. On the basis of picture
analysis it is clear that fiber damage, which originates
during the sewing process as a consequence of tensional,
frictional and bending deformation of the fibers in the
thread, shows a reduction of the breaking tenacity, break-
143 TRJ
ing extension, initial elasticity modulus and tension at the
yield point.
A comparison between the analyzed threads shows that
the threads with types T1AS and T1GS, in spite of the
highest dynamic tension during the sewing process, still
have the highest breaking tenacity values and elasticity
modulus E0. The same holds for the separated fibers from
the threads. On the basis of this it can be expected that
threads, which offer the highest, and for the sewing proc-
ess, the needed resistance in its initial area, will also offer
good resistance against further loadings.
Research on the influence of lubrication methods on
thread behavior during the sewing process has shown that
smaller alterations in mechanical properties were achieved
for apparatus-lubricated threads, because of better resist-
ance to dynamic loading.
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