Textile Research Journal Article

Torque in Worsted Wool Yarns

P. Mitchell, G. R. S. Naylor and D. G. Phillips1
Abstract A direct technique developed for CSIRO Textile and Fibre Technology, Belmont, Victoria
measuring yarn torque is explored for the case of 3216, Australia
worsted wool yarns. The technique balances the
torque in a yarn hank against a wire of known tor-
sional rigidity. It is shown that this technique gives
a reliable measure of the torque per strand inde-
pendent of the size of the hank. The torque per
strand was found to be linearly dependent on the
applied external tension and a finite torque exists
even at zero applied tension. This leads to the con-
cept of resolving the torque into two components,
(a) the torque due to the applied tension and (b)
the intrinsic torque that exists in the untensioned
yarn. The torque due to the applied tension does
not depend on the yarn history but only on yarn
geometric factors such as the yarn twist and lin-
ear density. By comparison the intrinsic torque
depends on factors such as the level of yarn set as
well as the twist and linear density. These compo-
nents of torque due to tension and intrinsic torque
are shown to be consistent with literature models
and lead to estimates of yarn specific volume, yarn
packing fraction and relative fiber relaxation mod-
uli after steaming.

Key words torque, yarn count, yarn twist, pack-

ing fraction, relaxation moduli

During yarn formation by ring spinning the fibers are bent
into approximately helical shapes and an unbalanced
torque or twist-liveliness is created as a result of the fibres’
attempt to straighten. One obvious manifestation of twist-
liveliness in singles yarn is snarling; a condition whereby the
yarn attempts to relieve the unbalanced torque by wrapping
about itself. This undesirable yarn property makes handling
difficult and may cause problems in later processing.
Another important consequence of torque in knitting yarns
is the presence of spirality in plain knitted fabrics [1].
Steaming the yarn can reduce the unbalanced torque or
liveliness. Commercially, a steaming operation after spinning
is commonly used, so that a yarn that is initially twist-lively
after spinning is stabilized. Different types of set have been
observed in wool and they can be usefully classified as
either (i) cohesive1 or temporary if it can be removed by
cold water (20°C) or (ii) permanent if it remains after a wet
treatment at 70°C for 30 minutes [2]. These two types of set
can be linked to two molecular phenomena in the wool pro-
tein. Cohesive set is related to the glass transition tempera-
ture [3], a moisture-dependent transition in the wool matrix
material, whereas permanent set is related to the chemical
rearrangement of disulphide bonds in the wool protein [2].
Gentle steaming of a freshly twisted yarn raises the temper-
ature above the glass transition temperature and the stresses
in the now rubbery matrix of the fiber relax and, on cooling
below the glass transition temperature, the yarn is stabi-
1
Correponding author: e-mail: david.phillips@csiro.au

Textile Research Journal Vol 76(2): 169–180 DOI: 10.1177/0040517506060909 www.trj.sagepub.com © 2006 SAGE Publications
Figures 2, 5 appear in color online: http://trj.sagepub.com
TRJ 170 Textile Research Journal 76(2)
lized because the cooled matrix becomes glassy and resists
any residual strains from stressed disulphide bonds and
intermediate filaments. On reheating or wetting of the yarn,
that is, above the glass transition temperature, the yarn again
becomes twist lively due to the strained disulphide bonds and
intermediate filaments. These strains are only reduced by
disulphide interchange in the presence of reducing agents
or heat. Most commercial worsted yarn steaming opera-
tions primarily involve cohesive set and hence during subse-
quent wet processes such as washing or re-steaming, the
cohesive set is released and yarn torque will reappear.
A practical solution to the problem of twist-liveliness is
the formation of a two-fold yarn. For a balanced yarn, the
two-fold twist level is chosen such that the torque created by
the ply structure is equal and opposite to the torque remain-
ing in the two individual strands.
Commonly the amount of torque in a yarn is not meas-
ured directly, but rather the degree of twist-liveliness is
estimated. Quantitative measurement can be achieved by
either counting the number of turns that form in a length
of freely suspended yarn; or by measuring the distance
between the two ends of a length of yarn when snarling just
begins [4, 5]. Milosavljevic and Tadic [4] and Tao et al. [5]
disagree as to which of these techniques is preferable.
Although twist-liveliness is a commercially practical
quantity, yarn torque is a more basic concept and it is desira-
ble to have a direct measure of this quantity. Steinberger
[6], and later Morton and Permanyer [7], introduced a
technique whereby the torque in a yarn is determined
directly by measuring the torque in a calibrated torsion
wire used to counterbalance a twist-lively length of yarn.
There are, however, practical difficulties with this technique.
Firstly, the level of torque manifested by a single length of
yarn is generally small, thus requiring sensitive and often
delicate measuring techniques. In addition, it is very diffi-
cult to attach the ends of a length of twist-lively yarn to the
apparatus without altering the twist and therefore the
torque.
Recently Tavanai et al. [8] extended the torquemeter
concept to the measurement of torque in a yarn hank. In this
approach, a hank of yarn replaces the single strand used in
the earlier systems and the measurement is of the torque in
the whole hank. Using false-twist textured, continuous fila-
ment, nylon yarns Tavanai et al. showed that the torque in a
single strand could be obtained simply by dividing the meas-
ured hank torque by the number of strands; that is, the
measured torque of the hank is proportional to the number
of strands in the hank. The technique allows a more precise
measurement of torque to be made, in compared with meas-
urement of a single strand. The larger value for the hank
reduces relative errors and also the hank measurement is
sampling a longer total length of yarn.
One aspect that Tavanai et al. [8] did not examine was
the influence of externally applied tension on the measure-
ment of torque; instead they simply limited the maximum
applied weight to 3 N. It is well known that the application
of an axial load to a helical structure causes it to rotate
about its axis [9]; that is, a torque is developed. In the case
of a yarn, theoretical considerations indicate that this torque,
arising from external forces, dominates the total yarn
torque under even moderate tensions [1, 10, 11].
In this study we explored the approach of Tavanai et al.
to measure the torque in singles wool worsted yarns includ-
ing the effect of varying the applied external tension to the
hank. Torque measurements are presented for yarns both dry
[under normal laboratory conditions, approximately 65%
relative humidity (RH), 20°C] and wet. The measurement
of wet yarns is of practical importance since with wetting,
the mechanical properties of wool fibers and yarns can
change significantly [12, 13] and this influences the wet fin-
ishing behavior of knitwear.
Materials and Methods
All yarns used in this study were spun from the same
untreated, undyed wool top (21.2 µm mean diameter, 65 mm
mean fiber length). After spinning the yarns were given
one of the following treatments: no steaming, steaming at
85°C for 10 minutes, and steaming at 110°C (1.43 bar) for
10 minutes. Yarn twist was measured using a Zweigle D312
twist tester in untwist/twist mode as specified in test method
AS 2001.2.14 – 87. The reported twist results are the aver-
age of twelve measurements.
Following the approach of Tavanai et al., a torquemeter
was constructed (see Figure 1) to directly measure the
torque in the hanks of yarn. An 800 mm (± 2 mm) length of
stainless steel piano wire, 0.23 mm in diameter, was sus-
pended from a freely rotating protractor that could meas-
ure the angular deflection of the upper end of the wire. A
bob of 120 g, with a pointer to locate the zero position, was
attached to the lower end of the wire. Yarn hanks were cre-
ated by initially wrapping yarn around a frame 1 m in cir-
cumference, removing the hank and tying the free ends
together. The hank was then placed in the torquemeter with
its upper end attached to a hook below the center ring on
the torquemeter. A tensioning mass was hung from the
lower end of the hank and fitted into a slot to prevent rota-
tion while still allowing the mass to hang freely. The distance
between the upper and lower ends of the hank, defined as
the hank length is then 500 mm. Six different masses between
5 and 200 g were used for each trial in this study. For the
measurement of wet hanks, a tube of water could be lifted
to cover the lower half of the torquemeter and totally
immerse the hank. When the water tube was in place, the
change in the applied tension was corrected for the buoy-
ancy forces on the tensioning mass.
Torque generated in the yarn strands induced rotation
of the upper end of the hank causing a torque in the tor-
sion wire. At equilibrium, the torque in the wire was equal

Figure 1 A schematic diagram of the torquemeter used
in this study.
and opposite to the torque in the hank. To return the hank
in its original straight configuration, the upper ring was
rotated until the bob and pointer were returned to their
original positions. Then the torque or torsional moment in
the untwisted hank, MH, equals the torque in the torsion wire,
MW and this is given by:
Torque in Worsted Wool Yarns P. Mitchell et al. 171 TRJ
MH = MW = θ.S (1)
where θ is the angular deflection between the ends of the
wire (read from the protractor on the upper ring) and S is
the torque to produce unit angular displacement of the
wire [14]. With S known, the torque in the hank MH can
easily be found. The torque S is dependent on the torsional
rigidity of the wire JG and the length of the wire l accord-
ing to the equation [14]:
S = JG/l (2)
where G is the shear modulus of the wire and J is its
moment of inertia.
Tavanai et al. [8] determined the torsional rigidity directly
by applying a known torque to the wire. This was achieved by
using a weight suspended over a ceramic guide and attached
to the pointer, at a known distance from the wire, by a fine
line. In our experience, this approach proved to be unsatis-
factory due to friction in the pulley used as a guide and the
difficulty in maintaining the applied force at right angles to
the pointer. Instead, the torsional rigidity of the wire was
determined experimentally by using a torsion pendulum. A
bronze disc, 50.0 mm in diameter and 200.0 g in mass, was
suspended from a length of wire and allowed to oscillate
freely. The period of such a pendulum is given by [14]:
τ = 2π I ⁄ S = 2π lI ⁄ JG (3)
where I is the moment of inertia of the mass. Thus, from
the measured period and the length of the wire, the tor-
sional rigidity of the wire JG can be determined and hence,
the value of the torque S in equations (1) and (2). To deter-
mine the period τ the time for 50 oscillations was measured
for five trials and the mean value used.
The torque of all yarn samples was measured in both
normal ‘dry’ laboratory conditions (approximately 20°C and
65% RH) and wet (20°C in water). The hanks tested in water
were allowed to equilibrate for at least 30 minutes in a
beaker of water before transfer to the torquemeter. With the
water tube on the torquemeter in place these yarns were kept
wet throughout testing.
Results and Discussion
Evaluation of the Instrument and the
Technique
Calibration
Using the approach described in the previous method sec-
tion, the period of a torsional pendulum was used to char-
acterize the torsional properties of the wire. The average
TRJ 172 Textile Research Journal 76(2)

Table 1 Angular deflection in degrees for torque trials using: (A) ten separate hanks and (B) ten repeated trials on a single
hank, each with ten strands.
Measurements on dry hanks Measurements on wet hanks
Applied tension (mN) 1946 976.0 490.6 198.3 98.8 48.4 1718 861.1 434.3 176.3 87.9 43.7
Mean (A) 217.6 117.6 75.2 49 40.7 35.1 231 142.6 105.1 82.5 74.8 69.5
Standard deviation 9.90 4.22 3.08 2.54 2.26 2.13 9.03 8.13 8.18 5.28 4.92 4.14
Mean (B) 211.5 115.6 73.3 47.6 38.5 33.5 197.4 121.5 88.4 69.5 62.9 58.1
Standard deviation 5.28 1.58 1.16 1.65 1.43 1.08 14.98 7.12 6.42 5.36 4.98 4.15

period was found to be 11.70 ± 0.009 s for a 990 ± 2 mm
pendulum. This length of wire included the 800 mm section
subsequently used in the torquemeter. The moment of
inertia of the rotating mass was (62.49 ± 0.03) × 10–6 kg m2
which, using equation (3), gives a value of (17.83 ± 0.07) ×
10–6 N.m2 for JG. For the torquemeter l = 800 mm and, from
equation (2), the torque value S is (22.28 ± 0.14) µN.m/rad.
At the end of the experiments reported in this paper (about
5 months after the initial calibration) the torsional rigidity
of the 800 mm length of wire used throughout was re-meas-
ured. The measured value (17.82 ± 0.07 µN.m2) indicated
that there had been no significant change in the properties
of the wire during the course of the experiments.
Sensitivity and Reproducibility
To test the sensitivity and reproducibility of the torqueme-
ter, trials were made on ten identical hanks. Each of these
hanks consisted of ten strands (five wraps) of 81 tex yarn
with a metric twist factor of 142 previously steamed at 85°C
for 10 minutes. Each hank was hung in place and the torque
measured in the dry state (conditioned state in laboratory
at 20°C and approximately 65% RH) for each of six different
tensions, beginning with the largest (Table 1). The experi-
ment was then repeated using the same hanks wet (Table 1).
Ten repeated measurements were also made on a single hank
in the dry state. This hank was removed from the torquem-
eter and left untensioned for at least 5 minutes between
repeats (Table 1). The same hank was also tested ten times
while wet, resting in a beaker of water (i.e. removed from
the torquemeter) for about 5 minutes between trials (Table 1).
The results in Table 1 show that, except for the results from
the repeated trials on the single wet hank, the deflection
given by the torquemeter could be used with an accuracy of
approximately 5%. (As noted previously, the applied ten-
sion values in Table 1 for measurements on wet hanks have
been corrected for buoyancy effects.)
The results from the repeated trials on the single wet
hank showed a consistent decrease over the ten trials. A
similar decrease was found in a hank left in water under
tension for approximately 16 hours. In both cases the meas-
ured deflection dropped by about 20%. It is assumed that
this phenomenon is related to time-dependent relaxation
processes in the wet fibers. Since the established procedure
takes less than 5 minutes and each sample hank was only
measured once, these relaxation effects are not significant
in the rest of this study.
To test that the sensitivity and reproducibility are not
dependent on a particular hank size, the same exercise
(i.e. Table 1 data) was repeated with hanks from the same
yarn but containing four strands each. Similar results were
achieved.
Properties of the Torque per Strand
Figure 2 shows the measured deflection as a function of
tensioning weight for ten different hank sizes (10, 20, 30 etc,
up to 100 strands per hank) using an unsteamed 76 tex yarn
with a metric twist factor of 81 tested dry about 10 months
after spinning. It can be seen that, for each hank size, the
relationship is close to linear. For a given absolute tensioning
weight, the deflection increases as the number of strands in
the hank increases.
When these results are plotted as the torque per strand
as a function of the tension per strand, all data points in
Figure 2 collapse into one line depicted by the open circles
in Figure 3. [The measured deflections have been converted
into a torque value using equation (1).] This demonstrates
that the technique can be used successfully to measure the
torque per strand independent of the size of the hank. This
validates the approach of deducing the torque in a single
strand from the torque in a hank. Figure 3 also includes the
results of repeating this experiment with wet yarns. This
confirmed that the measured torque per strand for a given
applied tension per strand is also independent of hank size
for the wet yarn.
Figure 4 shows the results for a similar experiment using
a higher twist yarn (81 tex with a metric twist factor of 140).
In this case it can be seen that, at low values of tension per
strand, the curve deviates from linearity. This deviation
coincided with the observation that the hank was no longer
being held straight by the applied tension but rather some
buckling and minor localized snarling was occurring. This
will reduce the net torque and explains the phenomenon
in Figure 4 where the data points fall below the line for
very small values of tension per strand. The regression
coefficients for the low twist factor dry yarn in Figure 3 and
high twist factor dry yarn in Figure 4 were the same,
r2 = 0.96, indicating that the method was independent of
twist level.
 Torque in Worsted Wool Yarns P. Mitchell et al. 173 TRJ

Figure 2 Hank torque is plotted

against the applied tension for an
unset 78 tex yarn of twist factor 80
measured dry using hanks of dif-
ferent sizes. The bottom line cor-
responds to a hank with 10 strands
and each subsequent line corre-
sponds to increasing the hank size
by 10 strands up to a maximum of
100 strands.

Figure 3 A plot of torque per

strand as a function of tension per
strand for an unset 78 tex yarn
with a twist factor of 80. The open
circles represent all the data from
Figure 2 (i.e. dry yarns) and the
closed circles represent the corre-
sponding data for wet yarns.

It is interesting to note that, at a tension per strand in the
region of 5 mN, the low twist factor dry yarn in Figure 3 has
a similar measured torque as the high twist factor wet yarn
in Figure 4 but does not show the same non-linear behav-
ior. Snarling is dependent, not only on yarn torque but
also yarn stiffness and thus the wet yarn, with a lower stiff-
ness, is more prone to snarling and hence the non-linear
behavior.
Another estimate of the error of each data point was made
using the following approach. In some instances, independent
measurements of the torque per strand at the same tension
per strand can be obtained from different combinations of
number of strands and the applied strand weight. For exam-
ple using different weight (in grams) and strand number
combinations of 20 : 10, 100 : 50, 200 : 100, respectively, the
same tension per strand is obtained, namely, 2 g/strand. Sin-
gle factor analysis of variance of the corresponding torque
per strand has been made to estimate the error in the indi-
vidual results. This shows that the mean coefficient of vari-
ation across 42 data sets for the torque per strand to be
4.6% (dry) and 5.4% (wet). These independent estimates are
in good agreement with the ten replicate measurements
described in the previous section.
Effect of Hank Length
The effect of hank length was investigated using 10 strand
hanks of 80 tex unsteamed yarn with a twist factor of 80
and measured dry, 12 months after spinning. Figure 5
shows that, as expected theoretically, the measured torque
TRJ 174 Textile Research Journal 76(2)
per strand is independent of hank length. This is an impor-
tant result for the experimental protocol since after mount-
ing the hank on the torquemeter, there will inevitably be
some variation in the lengths of individual strands.
Components of Yarn Torque
The testing of the instrument over the range of different
conditions presented above indicates that it is experimentally
a robust technique for measuring and analyzing the torque
characteristics of yarns. This section of the paper will now
focus on how the technique can be used to gain a fuller
understanding of the physical mechanisms associated with
yarn torque.
Figure 4 The torque per strand as
a function of tension per strand for
an unset 81 tex yarn of twist factor
140. Open circles represent the
data from dry yarns and closed
circles represent the data from
wet yarns.
Figure 5 The effect of changing
hank length on the measured
torque per strand of a dry 78 tex
unsteamed yarn with a twist factor
of 80. The different lines relate to
the six tensions used in Figure 2.
The Concepts of Torque due to Applied
Tension and Intrinsic Torque
The linear relationship between the torque per strand and
the applied tension per strand (as seen in Figure 3) provides
a useful insight about the origins of yarn torque. The slope
of the line represents the change in torque with a corre-
sponding change in yarn tension and therefore provides a
measure of the component of torque due to external forces.
The intercept of the line with the vertical axis gives the
value of the yarn torque at zero tension and therefore rep-
resents the residual or intrinsic torque in the yarn due to the
bending and twisting of the fiber during spinning. It is clear
from Figure 3 that the component of the yarn torque due to

the application of an external tension can easily be similar
to the intrinsic torque at low levels of applied tension; for
example, for the dry yarn in Figure 3, the torque developed by
a 0.1 N/strand external load is equal to the intrinsic torque.
Previous workers [15, 16] had to estimate the residual
or intrinsic yarn torque in continuous nylon filaments due
to fiber bending and twisting (called the net torque) by sub-
tracting a theoretical calculated value of the yarn torque
due to tension from the total torque measured experimen-
tally. The technique described here is a significant improve-
ment and allows the intrinsic (or net torque) to be
measured directly.
Analysis of the Two Components of Yarn Torque
Nine 40 tex yarns with metric twist factors between 60 and
140 were examined. The torque generated by these yarns,
both when unsteamed and when steamed at 110°C (1.43 bar)
for 10 minutes, was measured about 1 week after spinning.
For each experiment the torque per hank as a function of
the tension per hank was obtained for 48 data points [hank
sizes of 4, 8, 12, and 16 strands for six different applied ten-
sions as in Figure 2 (performed twice)]. For each yarn a plot
of torque per strand as a function of tension per strand was
obtained and the best-fit straight line determined (r2 > 0.96
in all cases), similar to Figure 3. As explained above, the
gradient is interpreted as the component of torque due to
applied tension and the measured intercept as the intrinsic
torque.
Torque due to Applied Tension
Figure 6 plots the gradient data, namely the incremental
change in strand torque per unit applied external tension,
as a function of twist factor. The data from the four different
experimental series of 40 tex yarns (unsteamed, steamed,
dry, wet) all fall on the same straight line in Figure 6. This
Torque in Worsted Wool Yarns P. Mitchell et al. 175 TRJ
Figure 6 The torque due to applied
tension (i.e. the slope of plots simi-
lar to Figure 3) as a function of yarn
twist factor. Circles show unset
40 tex yarns and squares show the
set yarns (110°C for 10 minutes).
Diamonds indicate 78 and 81 tex
yarns with three different steam-
ing histories (Table 2). Open points
represent dry yarns and closed
points represent wet yarns.
demonstrates that the torque generated by a given applied
external tension increases with increasing twist factor and is
independent of the level of set and physical state of the yarn.
This is also apparent in Figures 3 and 4 where the fitted lines
for both wet and dry yarn results are parallel.
A smaller data set was formed from 78 and 81 tex yarns
with metric twist factors of 82 and 142 respectively, processed
in three ways (unsteamed, steamed at 85°C for 10 minutes,
steamed at 110°C for 10 minutes) and tested both dry and wet.
These 12 results shown in Table 2 are also plotted on Fig-
ure 6 and again this data demonstrates clearly that the
torque due to applied tension at a given twist factor is inde-
pendent of the history or environment of the yarns and
directly related to twist factor.
The theoretical calculations of Bennett and Postle [10]
indicate that the torque due to applied tension is purely
determined by yarn geometry. In the case of a staple fiber
yarn with perfect fiber migration, their equation has the
solution:
LP  sec 3 β – 3sec β + 2
------ = R  --------------------------------------------- (4)
P  3tan β ( sec β – 1 ) 
where LP is the torque arising from an applied tension, P is
the applied tension, R is the yarn radius and β is the helix
angle of the surface fibres. Note that in the original paper,
Bennett and Postle mistakenly included a factor of 2 in the
right-hand side of equation (4) [personal communication:
R. Postle]. (While both R and β are dependent on yarn exten-
sion, for the current experiments using the torquemeter,
the maximum observed extension is less than 2% and this
will not significantly alter the value of the right-hand side
of equation (4).)
From equation (4)
LP
------ = R f { β } (5)
P
TRJ 176 Textile Research Journal 76(2)

Table 2 Summary of torque measurements on twelve yarns (two levels of linear density, two twist factors, three steaming
treatments) all produced from the one parent wool. The torque/tension and intrinsic torque values were derived from the
gradient and intercept of the line of best fit to the torque per strand versus tension per strand graph (n = 48 and r2 > 0.98
for all data).
Linear density (tex) 78 78 78 81 81 81 40 40 40 40 40 40
Metric twist factor 80 80 80 140 140 140 140 140 140 87 87 87
Steaming treatment (10 mins) none 85oC 110oC none 85oC 110oC none 85oC 110oC none 85oC 110oC
Torque/tension gradient dry (µNm/N) 16.56 18.29 18.62 36.18 34.34 34.88 25.13 26.21 22.32 12.44 13.31 13.97
Intrinsic torque dry(µNm) 2.635 0.634 0.437 4.621 1.186 0.176 2.854 0.568 0.13 0.947 0.251 0.205
Torque/tension gradient wet (µNm/N) 17.42 18.41 18.71 34.24 34.58 36.80 25.02 23.32 23.70 14.41 13.08 14.73
Intrinsic torque wet (µNm) 0.426 0.363 0.183 2.643 2. 371 1.598 1.569 1.259 0.634 0.280 0.224 0.071
Normalized intrinsic torque values 1.0 0.85 0.43 1.0 0.9 0.6 1 0.8 0.4 1 0.8 0.25

where the slopes in Figure 6 are in the ratio of Tex1/2 and this is
also observed in the data in Figure 6; that is, the ratio of the
 sec 3 β – 3sec β + 2 slopes is 1.43, which is close to that predicted from the square
f { β } =  --------------------------------------------- (6)
 3tan β ( sec β – 1 )  root of the ratio of the 78 and 81 tex yarns with the 40 tex
yarns, approximately √2.
For worsted yarns, the surface angle of twist β is less Furthermore by substituting for α, equation (10)
than 45° for the range of worsted yarns used [17] and a becomes
simple plot of equation (6), (not displayed here), shows
that for β < 45° L
-----P- = 9.64 × 10–4 vy T Tex (11)
P
f{β} = 0.482 tan β r2 = 0.999 and
Also on the basis of yarn geometry, tan β = 2 π RT,
and L
-----P- ÷ Tex = 9.64 × 10–4 vy T. (12)
P
Tex = π R2 vy–1 1000 (7) LP
P ÷ Tex)
To test equation (12), Figure 7 is a plot of ( ------
where T is the yarn twist in turns/metre, vy is the yarn-spe- against twist for all the 42 experiments from Figure 6; that
cific volume in m3/g; that is, vy = (packing fraction × fiber is, the sets of 40 tex yarns (unset and set, dry and wet) over
density(σ))–1 and R, the yarn radius, is measured in m, see a range of twists and the nominally 80 tex yarns (actually 78
[17]. Hence it can be shown that and 81) with two twist factors (80 and 140), unset and set, dry
and wet (as shown in Table 2). This combined data set plot-
tan β = 2 π1/2 vy1/2 α (8) ted in this manner forms one straight line through the origin
as predicted by equation (12). The slope of the line of best fit
where α is the metric twist factor, α = T(Tex/1000)1/2. through the origin, (r2 = 0.94) was 8.05 × 10–10 tex–1 m(tpm)–1
Furthermore by combining equations (5), (6), (7) and (8) and from equation (12) the yarn-specific volume was esti-
mated as 0.835 × 10–6 m3/g. Using a fiber density of 1.31 ×
LP 106 g/m3 for wool gives a packing fraction of 0.91, somewhat
------ = 0.964 π1/2 vy1/2 R α (9) higher than the literature values of about 0.45–0.65 for
P
worsted yarns [17]. One possibility is consolidation of the
packing of the fibers due to the effect of applied tension or
or twist. This seems unlikely because, interestingly, the linear
LP relationship in Figure 7 suggests that the packing of fibers
------ = 0.964 vy (Tex/1000)1/2 α (10) does not change over the range of twist factors used. Simi-
P
larly the effect of tension in Figures 3 and 4 indicate no
Equation (10) predicts that the data sets for constant lin- effect of tension on packing density.
ear density in Figure 6 form straight lines passing through Interestingly the packing fraction value of 0.91 equals
the origin, as observed. Further, equation (10) predicts that that expected when uniform circular cross-section fibers are

Figure 7 The incremental torque
due to applied tension is normal-
ized by tex and plotted against
twist as per equation (12) using all
the data in Figure 6.
Figure 8 The intrinsic torque as a
function of yarn twist factor for the
same 40 tex yarns as in Figure 6.
Open circles represent unset yarns
and open squares represent set
yarns.
hexagonally close packed. This ideal result may be a conse-
quence of the model used and needs further evaluation.
For example, Bennett and Postle [10] show in their theo-
retical analysis that yarn torque is significantly affected by
fiber migration and predict a fivefold decrease in torque
between a 68 tex yarn of 600 tpm, a metric twist factor of
114, with perfect migration compared with no migration.
The discovery described in this paper of a direct means to
measure the torque/tension relationship will allow a more
detailed evaluation of these theoretical models and alter-
native estimates of the yarn structural parameters.
Intrinsic Torque
Figure 8 plots the intercepts of the torque/tension relation-
ships, namely the intrinsic torque, as a function of twist fac-
tor for the nine 40 tex yarns either unsteamed or steamed
at 110°C for 10 minutes. For the dry unsteamed yarn the
Torque in Worsted Wool Yarns P. Mitchell et al. 177 TRJ
intrinsic torque increases linearly with the twist factor and
if extrapolated the curve passes through the origin, as seen
from Figure 9.
The intrinsic torque for the dry, steamed yarn in Figure 8
is very low and shows no dependence on twist factor. The
steaming treatment results in both cohesive and permanent
set and when the wool yarns are heated by steaming, the wool
exceeds the glass transition temperature [3] and some set
can occur through thiol-disulphide interchange while in the
rubbery state. Subsequent cooling of the yarn back to the
glassy state leads to the stabilization of any residual torque
with cohesive set sufficient to stabilize the yarn in its twisted
configuration. The fibers are unable to straighten and no
intrinsic torque will manifest in the yarn. The observed small
constant value of torque can be explained as a consequence
of the sample preparation for the torquemeter. In preparing
the hanks for measurement, the yarn is drawn off the top of
the bobbin and, for a package of approximately 3 cm diam-
TRJ 178 Textile Research Journal 76(2)
eter; this will introduce an additional twist of approximately
10 turns per meter. By extrapolation of the dry unsteamed
curve in Figure 8, the torque corresponding to this addi-
tional twist can be estimated to be approximately 0.1 µNm,
which is in good agreement with the measured values.
The work of Platt et al. [18] can be applied to the phe-
nomenon of intrinsic torque identified in this study. Platt
et al. [18] modeled the torsion in a yarn due to fiber bend-
ing and fiber torsion and derived the expression for yarn
torque due to fiber bending MB and fiber torsion MT as:
N f E f I f  log e sec 2 β – sin 2 β
-  ----------------------------------------------
M B = ---------------
Ry  tan β
and
N f G f K f  sin 2 β
M T = -------------------  --------------
R y  tan β 
where Nf, Ef, Gf, If and Kf are the number of fibers, the
fiber bending and torsional moduli and the bending and
torsional moment of inertia of the fibers, respectively, or
Nf Ef Kf
- ( f1 { β } + w f2 { β } )
M Total = ------------------
Ry
where w is the ratio of the torsional rigidity Gf Kf to the
bending rigidity Ef If and f1{ß} and f2{ß} are the two trigo-
nometric factors in equations (13) and (14), respectively.
Figure 9 of the paper by Platt et al. [11] graphs the influ-
ence of w on MTotal as a function of yarn surface helix angle.
In the case of wool, w is expected to be about 0.71 in the
dry state [18] in comparison with about 0.17 in the wet state
[19] (i.e. equation (15) shows that the torsional contribution
to the total torque is higher in the dry condition). Figure 9
Figure 9 A comparison of the dry
and wet intrinsic torque for the
unset 40 tex yarns in Figure 8.
Open diamonds are the dry values
and the closed diamonds are the
wet values.
plots the observed dry and wet intrinsic torque for the 40 tex
unset yarns in Figure 8, as a function of metric twist factor.
The similarity in the form of the observed data to the curves
plotted by Platt et al. for a w value of approximately 0.71
and 0.17 is clear (In this region of twist, β is approximately
linearly related to the metric twist factor α.) The full appli-
cation of Platt’s model to the yarn torque data will be
described in more detail in a subsequent paper with analy-
sis across a wider range of yarns.
Another feature consistent with both the torque model
in equation (15) and wool physics is seen in Figure 10. The
wet intrinsic torque is shown for the unset yarn and the
(13) steamed 40 tex yarns. After steaming at 110°C (1.43 bar)
 for 10 minutes, the wet intrinsic torque decreases and this
is consistent with stress relaxation of the disulphide bonds
within the intermediate filaments. Consequently the restor-
ing force decreases and this is equivalent to a decrease in
the bending and torsional moduli. If the fractional decay in
(14)
these relaxation moduli after steaming, that is setting, is
equal then equation (15) would predict that the shape of
the intrinsic torque curve with twist factor would be similar,
because w remains constant but the overall value of intrin-
sic torque will decrease as influenced by E in the factor,
(Nf Ef Kf)/Ry, see equation (15). These features are evident
in the wet data shown in Figure 10. Similar behavior can be
seen in the wet torque data given in Table 2, for four sets of
(15)
yarn, unsteamed and steamed under two conditions for set-
ting. The effect of the steaming treatments on the relative
wet fiber relaxation moduli is shown when the intrinsic
torque data for the steamed yarns is normalized against the
wet intrinsic torque for the unsteamed yarn. For example
the 81 tex, 140 twist factor yarns show relative wet relaxa-
tion moduli of 1, 0.9 and 0.6. This trend is consistent with
stress relaxation in the fiber during setting as a conse-
quence of the rearrangement of disulphide cross-links and
a reduction in the bending and torsional fiber relaxation
moduli.

Figure 10 The effect of setting on
the wet torque. Squares are the
unset values and diamonds are the
set values.
This approach to measuring the torsional properties of
yarn has potential to be applied to yarn quality and long-
standing problems of the dimensional stability of knitwear
[20]. Further studies will apply this technique to a wider
range of yarn structures and evaluate the effects on the
problem on spirality in knitwear.
Conclusion
The technique of measuring the torque in yarn hanks
reported by Tavanai et al. [3] has been shown to be suitable
for measuring the torque in single worsted wool yarns. The
torque per strand, for a given strand tension was found to
be independent of hank size and length over a wide range
of hank sizes. In extending the approach of Tavanai et al.
by measuring the torque as a function of applied tension
for the first time, it was possible to directly resolve the
measured torque into two components: the torque due to
the applied tension and the intrinsic torque due to fiber
bending and twisting. The torque due to applied tension was
observed to depend only on the yarn geometry; that is, the
twist and count of the yarn consistent with theoretical studies.
Analysis of a wide range of wool yarns has lead to the esti-
mate of the yarn-specific volume and a packing factor of
0.91 for ring spun yarns. The intrinsic yarn torque is related
to the yarn history and physical state of the fiber, for exam-
ple, level of set and moisture content, as well as the yarn
geometry. This has been shown to be consistent with an
existing model of yarn torque with components due to fiber
bending and twisting. The method for measuring the yarn
intrinsic torque allows the relaxation modulus of the fiber
after various setting treatments to be estimated.
Torque in Worsted Wool Yarns P. Mitchell et al. 179 TRJ
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