JUNG

T
he Rising Tide of Color challenges familiar narratives of
race in American history that all too often present the U.S.
state as a benevolent force in struggles against white supremacy,
especially in the South. Featuring a wide range of scholars spe-
cializing in American history and ethnic studies, this powerful
collection of essays highlights historical moments and move-
ments on the Pacic Coast and across the Pacic to reveal a
dierent story of race and politics. From labor and anticolo-
nial activists around World War I and multiracial campaigns by
anarchists and communists in the s to the policing of race
and sexuality after World War II and transpacic movements
against the Vietnam War, Te Rising Tide of Color brings to light
histories of race, state violence, and radical movements that
continue to shape our world in the twenty-rst century.
MOON-HO JUNG is the Walker Family Endowed Pro-
fessor and associate professor of history at the University of
Washington and the author of Coolies and Cane: Race, Labor, and
Sugar in the Age of Emancipation.
Tis brilliant volume is incisive, intellectually generative, and
analytically rigorous. Te Rising Tide of Color reframes our un-
derstanding of race and social movements by centering the
Pacic Coast in the construction of the nation.
DIANE C. FUJINO
author of Samurai among Panthers: Richard Aoki on
Race, Resistance, and a Paradoxical Life
EMIL AND KATHLEEN SICK SERIES IN
WESTERN HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY
CENTER FOR THE STUDY OF THE PACIFIC NORTHWEST
in association with
UNIVERSITY OF WASHINGTON PRESS
Seattle and London
www.washington.edu/uwpress
ISBN 978-0-295-99360-7
Cover: Brothers meet with
Okinawan students supporting
base workers during a strike
in . Courtesy of GI Press
Project. Design: Dustin Kilgore
case-wrap-mechanical.indd 1 5/9/14 10:02 AM
crii tNb xt1niccN sicx scrics iN
wcs1crN nis1orv tNb siocrtrnv
WiLh supporL rom Lhc CcnLcr or Lhc SLudy o Lhc Pacic NorLhwcsL aL
Lhc UnivcrsiLy o WashingLon, Lhc Sick Scrics in WcsLcrn HisLory and
Biography caLurcs scholarly books on Lhc pcoplcs and issucs LhaL havc
dcncd and shapcd Lhc Amcrican WcsL. Trough inLcllccLually challcng-
ing and cngaging books o gcncral inLcrcsL, Lhc scrics sccks Lo dccpcn
and cxpand our undcrsLanding o Lhc Amcrican WcsL as a rcgion and iLs
rolc in Lhc making o Lhc UniLcd SLaLcs and Lhc modcrn world.
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Te Creat Co|umba P|an. A Hstorca| Ceography, :8o,:,:o, by Donald W. Mcinig
M||s and Markets. A Hstory oj the Pacc coast Lumber !ndustry to :,oo,
by Tomas R. Cox
Radca| Hertage. Labor, Soca|sm, and Rejorm n washngton and Prtsh Co|umba, :88,:,:,,
by Carlos A. SchwanLcs
Te Patt|e jor Putte. Mnng and Po|tcs on the Northern Fronter, :8:,o,
by Michacl P. Malonc
Te Forgng oj a P|ack Communty. Seatt|es Centra| Lstrct jrom :8,o through
the Cv| Rghts Fra, by QuinLard Taylor
warren C. Magnuson and the Shapng oj Twenteth-Century Amerca, by Shclby ScaLcs
Te Atomc west, cdiLcd by Brucc Hcvly and 1ohn M. Findlay
Power and P|ace n the North Amercan west, cdiLcd by Richard WhiLc and 1ohn M. Findlay
Henry M. 1ackson. A Lje n Po|tcs, by RobcrL C. Kauman
Para||e| Lestnes. Canadan-Amercan Re|atons west oj the Rockes,
cdiLcd by 1ohn M. Findlay and Kcn S. CoaLcs
Nkke n the Pacc Northwest. 1apanese Amercans and 1apanese Canadans n the Twenteth
Century, cdiLcd by Iouis FiscL and Cail M. Nomura
Prngng !ndans to the Pook, by AlbcrL FurLwanglcr
Leath oj Ce||o Fa||s, by KaLrinc Barbcr
Te Power oj Promses. Perspectves on !ndan Treates oj the Pacc Northwest,
cdiLcd by Alcxandra Harmon
warshp under Sa|. Te 0SS DccaLur n the Pacc west,
by Iorrainc McConaghy
Shadow Trbe. Te Makng oj Co|umba Rver !ndan !dentty,
by Andrcw H. Fishcr
A Home jor Fvery Ch|d. Re|nqushment, Adopton, and the washngton Ch|drens Home Socety,
:8,:,:,, by PaLricia Susan HarL
Atomc Fronter Lays. Hanjord and the Amercan west,
by 1ohn M. Findlay and Brucc Hcvly
Te Nature oj Porders. Sa|mon, Poundares, and Pandts on the Sa|sh Sea,
by Iissa K. WadcwiLz
Fncounters n Ava|anche Country. A Hstory oj Survva| n the Mountan west, :8.o:,.o
by Diana I. Di SLcano
Te Rsng Tde oj Co|or. Race, State vo|ence, and Radca| Movements across the Pacc,
cdiLcd by Moon-Ho 1ung
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RACE, STATE VI OLENCE,
AND RADI CAL MOVEMENTS
ACROSS THE PACI FI C

Edited by
MOON- HO J UNG
ccN1cr ror 1nc s1ubv or 1nc rtciric Nor1nwcs1
n assocaton wth
uNivcrsi1v or wtsniNc1oN rrcss
sct11ic tNb ioNboN
THE RISI NG
TI DE OF COLOR
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:o by Lhc UnivcrsiLy o WashingLon Prcss
PrinLcd and bound in Lhc USA
Dcsign by DusLin Kilgorc
Composcd in Chaparral, a Lypcacc dcsigncd by Carol Twombly
8 , 6 :
All righLs rcscrvcd. No parL o Lhis publicaLion may bc rcproduccd or LransmiLLcd in
any orm or by any mcans, clccLronic or mcchanical, including phoLocopy, rccording,
or any inormaLion sLoragc or rcLricval sysLcm, wiLhouL pcrmission in wriLing rom
Lhc publishcr.
Iibrary o Congrcss CaLaloging-in-PublicaLion DaLa
Tc rising Lidc o color : racc, sLaLc violcncc, and radical movcmcnLs across Lhc Pacic /
cdiLcd by Moon-Ho 1ung.
pagcs cm. (Fmil and KaLhlccn Sick scrics in WcsLcrn hisLory and biography)
Includcs bibliographical rccrcnccs and indcx.
ISBN ,8-o-:-6o-, (hardcovcr : alkalinc papcr) . Pacic CoasL (U.S.)Racc
rclaLions. :. Pacic ArcaRacc rclaLions. . Pacic CoasL (U.S.)PoliLics and
govcrnmcnL. . Pacic ArcaPoliLics and govcrnmcnL. . PoliLical violcncc
Pacic CoasL (U.S.)HisLory. 6. PoliLical violcnccPacic ArcaHisLory. ,. Social
movcmcnLsPacic CoasL (U.S.)HisLory. 8. Social movcmcnLsPacic Arca
HisLory. . RadicalismPacic CoasL (U.S.)HisLory. o. RadicalismPacic
ArcaHisLory. I. 1ung, Moon-Ho, 6- II. CcnLcr or Lhc SLudy o Lhc Pacic
NorLhwcsL.
F8.R, :o
o.8oo,dc:
:ooo,:,
Tc papcr uscd in Lhis publicaLion is acid-rcc and mccLs Lhc minimum rcquircmcnLs
o Amcrican NaLional SLandard or InormaLion ScicnccsPcrmancncc o Papcr or
PrinLcd Iibrary MaLcrials, tNsi z.88.
CcnLcr or Lhc SLudy o Lhc Pacic NorLhwcsL
PO Box 8,
ScaLLlc, WA 8, USA
UnivcrsiLy o WashingLon Prcss
www.washingLon.cdu/uwprcss
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To my (grandmoLhcr)
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Contents
Acknow|edgments x
PART ONE FRAMI NG RACE, STATE VIOLENCE, AND RADICAL MOVEMENTS
iN1robuc1ioN Openng Sa|vo
Moon-Ho 1ung

1. s1tNbiNc t1 1nc crossrotbs
why Race, State vo|ence, and Radca| Movements Matter Now
Ccorgc IipsiLz 6
PART TWO TRAVERSI NG THE PACI FIC
2. rosiiiziNc rcvoiu1ioNtrv rtNnoob
Race, Cender, and Resstance n the Pacc Northwest Porder|ands
Korncl Chang ,:
3. btNccrous truscrcN1s
Hawas Teaters, Labor Strkes, and Counterpub|c Cu|ture, :,o,:,
Dcnisc Khor o:
PART THREE FORGI NG MULTI RACI AL FRONTS
4. rosi1ivciv s1t1cicss
Marcus Craham, the Ferrero-Sa||tto Case,
and Anarchst Cha||enges to Race and Leportaton
Kcnyon Zimmcr :8
5. rciicr tNb rcvoiu1ioN
Southern Ca|jorna Strugg|es aganst 0nemp|oyment n the :,os
ChrisLina HcaLhcrLon
PART FOUR SEEI NG RADICAL CONNECTIONS
6. roiiciNc ctv it
Mappng Raca| Lvdes n the Homoph|e Fra, :,,o:,,
Fmily K. Hobson 88
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7. ctrccrti ricrt1ioNs
P|ack Power and S|avery n :,,os Ca|jorna Prson Radca|sm
Dan Bcrgcr :
PART FI VE FIGHTI NG A STATE OF VIOLENCE
8. nvrcrvisisiii1v tNb iNvisisiii1v
Asan/Amercan women, Radca| Orenta|sm,
and the Revsonng oj C|oba| Femnsm
1udy Tzu-Chun Wu :8
9. rtbictiiziNc currcN1s
Te C! Movement n the Trd wor|d
Simcon Man :66
Contrbutors .,
!ndex .,8
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i x
Acknowledgments
THE ESSAYS COLLECTED HERE WERE FI RST PRESENTED I N MAY 2011 AT
a concrcncc callcd Racc, Radicalism, and Rcprcssion on Lhc Pacic coasL
and Bcyond, organizcd and hosLcd by Lhc CcnLcr or Lhc SLudy o Lhc Pacic
NorLhwcsL (CSPN) and Lhc Harry Bridgcs CcnLcr or Iabor SLudics aL Lhc
UnivcrsiLy o WashingLon. SupporL rom Lhc UW Iaw School (cspccially
Ron Collins), UW Iibrarics (cspccially Tcrcsa Mudrock), UW DcparLmcnLs
o Fnglish and HisLory, and Lhc Wing Iukc Muscum o Lhc Asian Pacic
Amcrican Fxpcricncc hclpcd Lo makc Lhc concrcncc a rcsounding suc-
ccss. I Lhank 1im Crcgory, Iinda Nash, and Chandan Rcddy or scrving
on Lhc program commiLLcc wiLh mc. Andrcw Hcddcn o Lhc Harry Bridgcs
CcnLcr conLribuLcd his arLisLic and organizing skills. Holly Ccorgc, Wcndi
IindquisL, and cspccially Kim McKaig o CSPN Look carc o all o Lhc dcLails
rclaLcd Lo Lhc concrcncc. Kim also proorcad Lhc cnLirc collccLion.
PuLLing LogcLhcr Lhc collccLion has bccn a collccLivc projccL. For Lhcir
sharp insighLs and collcgial supporL, I Lhank IuLhcr Adams, Fiichiro
Azuma, Mikc Chcng, May Fu, RuLh Wilson Cilmorc, 1cnnicr Cugliclmo,
Dan MarLincz HoSang, Moon-Kic 1ung, Dan KansLroom, Richard S. Kim,
Daryl Macda, Kcvin Mumord, Michacl Omi, Ccorgc Quibuycn (Ccologic/
PromcLhcus Brown), Vincc Raacl, Chandan Rcddy, 1cancLLc Roan, Dylan
Rodrgucz, Davc Rocdigcr, Nayan Shah, Naoko Shibusawa, Mikc Tagawa,
Bcn Wang, and Mark Wild. AL Lhc UnivcrsiLy o WashingLon Prcss, Mari-
annc KcddingLon-Iang providcd cnLhusiasLic supporL in Lhc bcginning
sLagcs. WiLh grcaL carc and incrcdiblc spccd, RanjiL Arab and Mary C.
Ribcsky shcphcrdcd Lhc projccL Lhrough rcvicw and producLion. I also
Lhank Lhc anonymous rcadcr or a carcul and hclpul rcvicw o Lhc cnLirc
collccLion, parLicularly my inLroducLion. Kcrric Mayncs was our sharp-cycd
copycdiLor. KaLhy Woodward o Lhc Simpson CcnLcr or Lhc HumaniLics
providcd criLical supporL or Lhc concrcncc and Lhc collccLion, including
unds or Lhc indcx.
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x ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Wc arc living Lhrough vcry dcprcssing and violcnL Limcs LhaL can makc
us ccl hclplcss and hopclcss. Our collccLion Lrics Lo lay barc somc o Lhc
inLricaLc and insidious rooLs o whiLc suprcmacy and sLaLc violcncc LhaL
havc shapcd Lhc world wc livc in. BuL Lhcrc is hopc. Tcrc is always hopc.
Tc chapLcrs LhaL ollow also scck Lo rcvcal Lhc crcaLivc and ingcnious ways
LhaL human bcings havc pursucd a radically dicrcnL world. From Lhc day
o my birLh, my grandmoLhcr, my parcnLs, and my broLhcr havc guidcd mc
Lo scc injusLicc and Lo scck jusLicc. Tc Iamson and our daughLcrs Mina
and Scri brighLcn my world cvcry day. Tcy arc Lhc sourccs o my hopc.
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THE RI SI NG TI DE OF COLOR
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PART ONE
Framing Racc, SLaLc Violcncc,
and Radical MovcmcnLs
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4
Introduction
Opening Salvo
rooN-no +uNc
Now ths heres jor those who choose ghts
whose jruts mght never not rpen unt| ajter ther |je.
!ts not rght how they martyr our |eaders
And target our ch|dren,
Lsrespect our ssters
And wonder why were m|tant.
Peace to my thrd wor|d equva|ent,
Fven j ! cant ght besde you
! wrte what ! can
To get our jam n other |ands to understand your pan,
Cause your beej s mne and were one and the same.
And ! know about ths prv|ege,
Put j youre jrom where !m jrom
Ten you know a bgger burden comes wth t.
And thats what ! carry when you see me on a hust|e,
!m ta|kng as a wa|kng document oj our strugg|e.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Rght now ! want to thank Cod jor beng me,
My sou| wont rest unt| the co|ony s jree.
:8, revo|uton ncomp|ete,
S|ence s dejeat, my so|uton s to speak.
Resurrect the |egacy oj martyrs ! beseech,
Tme to choose a sde, ts the mghty vs. the meek.
My bg brother Free brought the word jrom the Fast,
were the bu||et n the mdd|e oj the be||y oj the beast.
siuc scnoitrs, Opcning Salvo, Payan (:oo,)
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I NTRODUCTI ON 5
ON THE EVENI NG OF MAY 14, 2011, AN OVERFLOWI NG CROWD GATHERED
aL Lhc Wing Iukc Muscum o Lhc Asian Pacic Amcrican Fxpcricncc in
ScaLLlc Lo aLLcnd a scrccning o Aok, a lm abouL Richard Aoki, an Asian
Amcrican Black PanLhcr. Bcn Wang and Mikc Chcng, Lhc lmmakcrs,
wcrc Lhcrc. Mikc Tagawa, a cllow Asian Amcrican Black PanLhcr, was
Lhcrc. Tc scrccning, in acL, scrvcd as an inormal rcunion o ormcr
PanLhcrs and cllow Lravclcrs, many o Lhcm clad proudly in Lhcir sig-
naLurc black lcaLhcr jackcLs and bcrcLs. Tcrc wcrc a loL o hugs, loLs o
gcnuinc accLion and camaradcric. Whcn Lhc lighLs wcnL ouL and Aokis
imagc rsL appcarcd on Lhc scrccn, Lhc audicncc hollcrcd and applaudcd,
bcsLowing on Lhc promincnL (and, unLil rcccnLly, rclaLivcly unknown)
Black PanLhcr much lovc and rcspccL. IL was a bcauLiul sccnc.
Richard Aoki (8:oo) grcw up in a world shapcd by racc, sLaLc
violcncc, and radical movcmcnLs. Whcn hc was Lhrcc ycars old, hc and his
amily wcrc drivcn ouL o Lhc scgrcgaLcd ncighborhoods o WcsL Oakland
and Bcrkclcy, Caliornia, and incarccraLcd aL Lhc Tanoran Racc Track and
Lhcn in a conccnLraLion camp in Topaz, ULah. In Lhc barrcn landscapc o
ULah, Aoki lcarncd carly on Lhc conLradicLions o racc and naLion. His
cxciLcmcnL ovcr bcing pickcd Lo play Ccorgc WashingLon in a school pag-
canL dissipaLcd whcn his aLhcr rcspondcd noL wiLh paLcrnal pridc buL
wiLh violcnL ragc. Ill ncvcr orgcL LhaL lcsson: I should noL Lhink in Lcrms
o Ccorgc WashingLon, Lhis was noL my counLry, hc rccallcd. In acL,
my counLry puL mc in Lhis camp. In his houschold, hc addcd, Franklin
Dclano RooscvclL was Lhc dcvil incarnaLc, Lhc prcsidcnL rcsponsiblc or
Lhc mass incarccraLion o 1apancsc Amcricans.
1
A momcnL o rcprcssion
was simulLancously a radicalizing momcnL o ncw possibiliLics o sccing
and cngaging Lhc world.
Aokis pcrsonal journcy, howcvcr, provcd noL so sLraighLorward Lo Lhc
lcL. Whcn hc passcd away in March :oo, causcd mosL immcdiaLcly by
a scl-inicLcd gunshoL wound in Lhc conLcxL o a longcr scrics o mcdi-
cal aicLions and complicaLions, Aoki mcLiculously kcpL Lwo uniorms
hanging in his closcL: a Black PanLhcr lcaLhcr jackcL (wiLh a Frcc Hucy
buLLon) and a US Army uniorm (wiLh an Amcrican ag). AL Lhc cnd o a
public mcmorial scrvicc Lwo monLhs laLcr, llcd wiLh rcmcmbranccs by
radical acLivisLs, US Army color guards honorcd Aoki wiLh Lhc displaying
and olding o an Amcrican ag, as Taps playcd in Lhc background. How
could a Tird World rcvoluLionary cmbracc Lhc SLars and SLripcs, which
rcprcscnLs or many, cspccially Tird World pcoplcs, Lhc mosL poLcnL
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6 MOON- HO J UNG
cmblcm o cmpirc and miliLarism in Lhc LwcnLy-rsL ccnLury`
2
Such iro-
nics and conLradicLions arc noL casy Lo comprchcnd, buL Lhcy wcrc no lcss
livcd and rcmcmbcrcd.
Aokis pcrsonal sLory Look a dramaLic Lurn in AugusL :o:, whcn jour-
nalisL ScLh Roscncld publicly allcgcd LhaL Aoki had workcd as an inor-
manL or Lhc Fcdcral Burcau o InvcsLigaLion (FBI). Roscnclds chargcs,
madc on Lhc cvc o a publiciLy drivc or his ncw book, Subversves. Te FP!s
war on Student Radca|s, and Reagans Rse to Power, appcarcd Lo bc scl-
scrving, parLicularly wiLh insinuaLions LhaL his documcnLary cvidcncc
could noL susLain. Roscnclds arLiclc, or cxamplc, sLrongly implicd LhaL
Aoki had workcd wiLh Lhc FBI Lo arm Lhc PanLhcrs and LhaL his acLions
had conLribuLcd Lo aLal conronLaLions bcLwccn Lhc PanLhcrs and Lhc
policc. RcuLaLions and rccriminaLions ollowcd quickly and widcly, gcn-
craLing mcdia and acLivisL aLLcnLion or Roscncld and his book, Lhough
noL in ways LhaL hc mighL havc anLicipaLcd or apprcciaLcd. In anoLhcr
sLarLling LwisL, wccks laLcr Roscncld ollowcd wiLh a ncwly rclcascd FBI
lc, Aokis inormanL lc, which sccmcd Lo dcmonsLraLc morc conclusivcly
LhaL Aoki had indccd workcd as an inormanL.
3
In Lhc aLcrmaLh o Lhcsc
rcvclaLions, Aokis imagc mosL likcly would no longcr bc rcccivcd wiLh
unrcscrvcd warmLh and rcvcrcncc.
Tc cssays collccLcd hcrc do noL addrcss Aoki dirccLly, buL his compli-
caLcd lic and aLcrlic poinL Lo Lhis collccLions ovcrriding prcmisc and
Lhcmc: LhaL racc, sLaLc violcncc, and radical movcmcnLs havc ormcd a
criLical dynamic and dialccLic in Lhc shaping o US hisLory. Tcsc cssays
wcrc rsL prcscnLcd aL a concrcncc, Racc, Radicalism, and Rcprcssion
on Lhc Pacic coasL and Bcyond, organizcd and hosLcd by Lhc CcnLcr or
Lhc SLudy o Lhc Pacic NorLhwcsL aL Lhc UnivcrsiLy o WashingLon. (Tc
scrccning o Aok markcd Lhc concrcnccs closing scssion.) Tc concrcncc
soughL in parL Lo ccnLcr in Lhc sLudy o racc and poliLics Lhc Pacic coasL,
a rcgion o Lhc UniLcd SLaLcs LhaL gcncrally rcccivcs liLLlc Lo no noLicc
in scholarly and nonscholarly convcrsaLions on racc. YcL wc know LhaL
radical movcmcnLs cmbracing and dcmanding racial jusLiccrom Lhc
IndusLrial Workcrs o Lhc World and Lhc InLcrnaLional Iongshorc and
Warchousc Union Lo Lhc Black PanLhcrs and Lhc Tird World IibcraLion
FronL sLrikcshavc gurcd promincnLly in Lhc hisLory o Lhc lcL coasL
o Lhc UniLcd SLaLcs. Tcsc movcmcnLs, inLcgral clcmcnLs o whaL rcac-
Lionary IoLhrop SLoddard brandcd long ago as Lhc rising Lidc o color,
havc also gcncraLcd violcnL rcsponscs, parLicularly sLaLc rcprcssion, LhaL
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rcvcrbcraLcd across Lhc UniLcd SLaLcs and around Lhc world.
4
Our collcc-
Lion is a prcliminary aLLcmpL Lo makc scnsc o LhaL widcr hisLory o racc,
sLaLc violcncc, and radical movcmcnLs across Lhc Pacic.
BEYOND THE NATIONAL REDEMPTION OF RACE
In his widcly cclcbraLcd spccch on racc in March :oo8, Lhcn prcsidcnLial
candidaLc Barack Obama sccmcd Lo porLcnd a ncw kind o poliLician, a
gurc capablc o spcaking abouL racc honcsLly and criLically. Icss Lhan
a minuLc inLo Lhc spccch, howcvcr, iL bccamc clcar LhaL Lhcrc would bc
noLhing rcvoluLionary uLLcrcd LhaL day. ALcr an inLroducLory pacan Lo
Amcricas Founding FaLhcrs, Obama Lurncd Lo Lhis naLions original sin
o slavcry. O coursc, hc addcd quickly, Lhc answcr Lo Lhc slavcry qucs-
Lion was alrcady cmbcddcd wiLhin our ConsLiLuLiona ConsLiLuLion LhaL
had aL i[L]s vcry corc Lhc idcal o cqual ciLizcnship undcr Lhc law, a ConsLi-
LuLion LhaL promiscd iLs pcoplc libcrLy, and jusLicc, and a union LhaL could
bc and should bc pcrccLcd ovcr Limc. Tc pcrson dclivcring Lhc spccch
mighL havc lookcd and soundcd dicrcnL, buL his undcrlying mcssagc
was Lhc samc. In racial maLLcrs, Lhc UniLcd SLaLcs was undamcnLally
abouL racial cxclusion (Lhc pasL) and naLional inclusion (Lhc uLurc), a
promisc supposcdly inscribcd in Lhc DcclaraLion o Indcpcndcncc and
Lhc ConsLiLuLion.
5
Obama was cchoing a amiliar rcrain in Amcrican hisLory and poli-
Lics. Tc UniLcd SLaLcs, and Lhc US sLaLc in parLicular, has bccn dcpicLcd
and pcrccivcd prcpondcranLly as a ncuLral or bcncvolcnL orcc in maL-
Lcrs o racc. Bcginning wiLh RcconsLrucLionand pcrhaps cvcn carlicr
wiLh Lhc DcclaraLion o Indcpcndcncc and Lhc ConsLiLuLion, as Obama
invokcdand culminaLing in Lhc Civil RighLs AcL (6) and Lhc VoLing
RighLs AcL (6), Lhc US sLaLc has sccmingly sLcppcd orward Lo advancc
and sancLiy Lhc naLions supposcd commiLmcnL Lo racial cqualiLy and
racial jusLicc. Tc cdcral govcrnmcnL nally musLcrcd a naLional rcsolvc
Lo dccaL racism oncc and or all, Lo orcc dcscgrcgaLion on a rccalciLranL
SouLh, so Lhc sLory gocs. TaL hisLorical dcpicLion, in Lurn, has bccn csscn-
Lial Lo making Lhc US sLaLc appcar nonracial and cvcn anLiracisL rom Lhc
naLions ounding. IL is likc Lhc pcrvasivc imagc o MarLin IuLhcr King,
1r., in Amcrican culLurc Loday, rozcn in Limc, spcaking bcorc Lhc Iincoln
Mcmorial in 6 o a drcam dccply rooLcd in Lhc Amcrican drcam LhaL
onc day Lhis naLion will risc up and livc ouL Lhc Lruc mcaning o iLs crccd.
6
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IL is a highly scducLivc imagc o Lhc UniLcd SLaLcs and o King, buL iL
is aLally awcd and horribly disLorLcd. Kings criLiquc ran much dccpcr,
rmly rooLcd in a black radical LradiLion. On April , 6,, or cxamplc,
hc brokc his public silcncc on Lhc VicLnam War and rcccivcd an avalanchc
o pcrsonal aLLacks in rcsponsc. Iinking domcsLic and orcign policics,
and noLing Lhc irony LhaL black and whiLc soldicrs wcrc dying LogcLhcr in
SouLhcasL Asia whilc bcing disallowcd rom living and lcarning LogcLhcr
in Lhc UniLcd SLaLcs, King said LhaL hc had Lo Lcll Lhc LruLh. I kncw LhaL
I could ncvcr again raisc my voicc againsL Lhc violcncc o Lhc opprcsscd in
Lhc ghcLLos wiLhouL having rsL spokcn clcarly Lo Lhc grcaLcsL purvcyor
o violcncc in Lhc world Lodaymy own govcrnmcnL, hc said. Spcaking
as a ciLizcn o Lhc world, King rccallcd a largcr scnsc o hisLory, bcyond
Lhc prophcsying o smooLh paLrioLism. I spcak or Lhosc whosc land is
bcing laid [Lo] wasLc, whosc homcs arc bcing dcsLroycd, whosc culLurc is
bcing subvcrLcd, hc sLaLcd. I spcak or Lhc poor o Amcrica who arc pay-
ing Lhc doublc pricc o smashcd hopcs aL homc and dcaLh and corrupLion
in VicLnam.
7
For King, Lo sLrugglc or racial jusLicc mcanL cmbracing a
scnsc o bclonging bcyond Lhc naLion-sLaLc and conronLing Lhc rcprcssivc
machinaLions o LhaL sLaLc.
How mighL prcdominanL undcrsLandings o racc, rcsisLancc, and Lhc
US sLaLc look dicrcnL i approachcd rom Kings insighLs and rom a
dccidcdly Pacic ramcwork` Tc cssays collccLcd hcrcin wrcsLlc wiLh LhaL
ccnLral qucsLion Lhrough a varicLy o hisLorics, gcographics, and mcLhods.
Addrcssing disparaLc poliLical, social, and culLural movcmcnLs spanning
Lhc NorLh Amcrican conLincnL and across Lhc Pacic Occan, Lhcy bcgin Lo
shcd lighL on Lhc brcadLh and complcxiLy o radical poliLics in Lhc LwcnLi-
cLh ccnLury, a poliLics LhaL oLcn criLiqucd and appcalcd Lo convcnLional
noLions o racc, gcndcr, scxualiLy, class, and ciLizcnship. Bcorc I inLroducc
Lhc cssays in grcaLcr dcLail, I rsL ocr a bric gcncalogy o racc, rccdom,
and sLaLc violcncc in Lhc nincLccnLh ccnLury LhaL mighL scrvc as a hisLori-
cal prcacc Lo Lhc collccLion.
RACE AND FREEDOM ACROSS THE PACI FIC
(AND THE ATLANTIC)
S
Sccuring and dominaLing commcrcial cxchangcs wiLh Lhc OricnL had
dcncd Amcrica and Amcricans sincc Lhc laLc cighLccnLh ccnLury.
Bcginning in ,8, wiLhin monLhs o Lhc cnd o Lhc RcvoluLionary War,
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Amcrican mcrchanLs compcLcd and ormcd allianccs wiLh Lhcir crsLwhilc
cncmics, Lhc BriLish, and oLhcr Furopcan powcrs Lo opcn up China.
Tc Lradc wiLh Lhc FasL has always bccn Lhc richcsL jcwcl in Lhc dia-
dcm o commcrcc, Tomas HarL BcnLon rcmindcd his collcagucs in
Lhc US ScnaLc in 86. Tc ulLimaLc prizc o conLincnLal cxpansion, hc
cxplaincd, was Lranspacic Lradc. Tc van o Lhc Caucasian racc now
Lop Lhc Rocky MounLains, and sprcad down Lo Lhc shorcs o Lhc Pacic,
BcnLon cxhorLcd. In a cw ycars a grcaL populaLion will grow up Lhcrc,
luminous wiLh Lhc accumulaLcd lighLs o Furopcan and Amcrican civili-
zaLion. Tc sun o civilizaLion musL shinc across Lhc sca: socially and
commcrcially, Lhc van o Lhc Caucasians, and Lhc rcar o Lhc Mongolians,
musL inLcrmix. I his romanLic vision did liLLlc Lo rclicvc Lhc mounLing
rusLraLion o Amcrican Lradcrs, diplomaLs, and missionarics in China,
BriLish miliLary vicLorics Lhcrc accrucd lcgal and commcrcial privilcgcs
or US dclcgaLcs and ciLizcns in 8.
0
Whilc BriLish guns lcd Lhc aLLack on Chincsc impcrial auLhoriLy, Lhc
UniLcd SLaLcs scorcd a hisLoric conccssion rom 1apan in 8. Frcsh rom
Lhc US war wiLh Mcxico and Lhc subscqucnL anncxaLion o lands bordcring
Lhc Pacic Occan, sccrcLary o sLaLc Danicl WcbsLcr dispaLchcd commo-
dorc MaLLhcw C. Pcrry Lo Fdo (Tokyo) Lo rcalizc a long-sLanding naLional
hopcdaLing back aL lcasL Lo Andrcw 1acksons prcsidcncyo gaining
acccss Lo 1apancsc porLs and markcLs. Commanding our naval vcsscls,
including Lwo powcrcd by sLcam, Pcrry cnLcrcd Fdo Bay in 1uly 8
and dcmandcd a hcaring wiLh 1apans highcsL auLhoriLics. Rcinorccd by
Lhrcc addiLional warships, Pcrry rcLurncd scvcn monLhs laLcr and signcd
a LrcaLy allowing US vcsscls Lo land in Lwo 1apancsc porLs and csLablish-
ing a US consul in 1apan. AlLhough Lhc TrcaLy o Kanagawa (Yokohama)
ailcd Lo includc a provision on orcign Lradc1apancsc auLhoriLics wcrc
vcry much awarc o Chinas growing subjccLion Lo WcsLcrn dcmands and
producLsiL noncLhclcss markcd a sca changc in 1apans policics and
poliLics. Tc long doubLul aLLcmpL has bccn cnLircly succcssul, Lhc
New York Tmes rcjoiccd, and Lo Lhc UniLcd SLaLcs bclongs Lhc honor
o making Lhc rsL inLcrnaLional TrcaLy wiLh 1apan! Bcaring giLs and
displaying miliLary mighL, Lhc UniLcd SLaLcs had bccomc a ormidablc
champion o rcc Lradc across Lhc Pacic.
1u
Impcrial cncounLcrs and rclaLions in Asia, in Lurn, prooundly accLcd
Lhc coursc o racc, poliLics, and labor on Lhc oLhcr sidc o Lhc Pacic,
or Lhc opcning o Asia cncompasscd Lhc cxchangc o human bodics in
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addiLion Lo LrcaLy righLs and maLcrial goods. In Lhc wakc o Lhc widcning
aboliLion o Lhc slavc Lradc and slavcry, Furopcan and Amcrican shippcrs
convcrgcd in souLhcrn China in Lhc 8os and 8os Lo gcncraLc and Lo
supply Lhc dcmand or planLaLion workcrs in Lhc Caribbcan, cspccially
Cuba. Tcrc sccms Lo bc a ragc aL Lhis Limc or spcculaLing in Chincsc
Lhc Lradc, which givcs cnormous proLs, is cngaging Lhc aLLcnLion o
Lhc rsL commcrcial houscs and largcsL capiLalisLs o Lhis ciLy, Lhc US
consul in Havana rcporLcd in 8. Chincsc arc coming in asL, and
Lhcsc laborcrs arc, on somc planLaLions, LrcaLcd no bcLLcr and cvcn worsc
Lhan ncgro slavcs. And, Lo Lhc consuls consLcrnaLion, his counLrymcn
dominaLcd Lhc Lradc rom China. For my parL, hc wroLc Lo his supcriors,
I assurc you LhaL I rcgrcL vcry much Lo scc vcsscls undcr our ag cngagcd
in such a Lrac. Tc apoLhcosis o rcc Lradc in impcrial discoursc, as
anLhropologisL Sidncy W. MinLz has obscrvcd, cmcrgcd sidc by sidc wiLh
Lhc gradual cmancipaLion o cnslavcd labor and Lhc simulLancous migra-
Lion o indcnLurcd Asian labor.
11
Asian workcrs, I havc argucd clscwhcrc, cmbodicd Lhc hopcs, cars, and
conLradicLions o cmancipaLion in Lhc middlc dccadcs o Lhc nincLccnLh
ccnLury. Originally inLroduccd and jusLicd as rcc improvcmcnLs Lo
cnslavcd labor, Lhcy also cpiLomizcd Lhc backwardncss o slavcry, uniL-
ing proslavcry and anLislavcry Amcricans in anLcbcllum campaigns Lo
dcnouncc and prohibiL whaL camc Lo bc known as Lhc coolic Lradc. WhaL
is Lhc plain Fnglish o Lhc wholc sysLcm` 1. D. B. Dc Bow askcd his souLh-
crn brcLhrcn in 8. Is iL noL jusL Lhis`LhaL Lhc civilizcd and powcrul
raccs o Lhc carLh havc discovcrcd LhaL Lhc dcgradcd, barbarous, and wcak
raccs, may bc induccd vo|untar|y Lo rcducc Lhcmsclvcs Lo a slavcry morc
crucl Lhan any LhaL has ycL disgraccd Lhc carLh, and LhaL humaniLy may
compound wiLh iLs conscicncc, by plcading LhaL Lhc acL is onc o jree w||`
NoL Lo bc ouLdonc, US diplomaLs in China characLcrizcd Lhc coolic Lradc
as irrcdccmablc slavcry undcr Lhc orm o rccdom LhaL dcmandcd US
sLaLc inLcrvcnLion, boLh or humaniLys sakc and or Lhc Chincsc gov-
crnmcnLs rccogniLion o rcc Lradcs virLucs. Tc racializaLion o Asian
workcrs as coolics bcorc Lhc Civil War had Lhc dual, impcrial cccL o
raLionalizing US slavcry and iLs cxpansion souLhward and US diplomaLic
missions in China, Cuba, and bcyond.
12
Tc cnjoincd logics o rcc Lradc and rcc labor LhaL poscd Asia and
Asian workcrs as anLiLhcLical and pivoLal Lo boLh dccpcncd during Lhc
Civil War and, in conccrL wiLh miliLary and poliLical baLLlcs ovcr slav-
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cry in Lhc UniLcd SLaLcs, incrcascd Lhc powcr o Lhc cdcral govcrnmcnL
Lo dcnc and advancc rccdom. Drivcn by ycars o horriying accounLs
by US consuls in Chincsc porL ciLics, anLislavcry Rcpublicans passcd a
major lcgislaLion againsL Lhc coolic Lradc in Fcbruary 86:. AlLhough
inLcrprcLing and cnorcing Lhc law would conound cdcral ocials aLcr
Lhc war, iLs sponsors cmphasizcd Lhc uncquivocal nccd Lo supprcss whaL
Lhcy prcscnLcd as a ncw slavc Lradc. IcL us hcrc, by lcgislaLion, dcclarc iL
illcgalnoL a piracy, Lhis bill docs noL so dcsignaLc iL, argucd Tomas D.
FlioL, a rcprcscnLaLivc rom MassachuscLLs, and ycL no sLaLuLc piraLc who
has broughL slavcs rom Lhc coasL o Arica morc Lruly, in my judgmcnL,
dcscrvcs cxccraLion Lhan Lhosc mcn who knowingly havc cngagcd in
Lhc work o bringing coolics rom Lhcir naLivc homcs Lo Lhc island o
Cuba. Tc law cmpowcrcd US ocials noL only Lo prohibiL Lhc LransporL
o Chincsc subjccLs known as coolics abroad buL also Lo idcnLiy and
aciliLaLc Lhc rcc and volunLary cmigraLion o Chincsc subjccLs. Tcy
prcsumably posscsscd Lhc inLcgriLy and auLhoriLy Lo disLinguish Lhc rcc
rom Lhc unrcc.
13
In Lhc mcanLimc, US diplomaLs, backcd by Lhc miliLary, madc grcaL
sLridcs in convincing 1apan Lo allow commcrcial cxchangcs wiLh orcign-
crs. WiLh BriLish and Frcnch Lroops prcparing or war againsL China ycL
again, 1apancsc lcadcrs clL compcllcd Lo sign LrcaLics wiLh WcsLcrn pow-
crs Lo shorc up Lhcir auLhoriLy wiLhin and wiLhouL. 1apan concludcd a
LrcaLy wiLh Lhc UniLcd SLaLcs in Lhc summcr o 88 LhaL opcncd vc porLs
Lo orcign Lradc, csLablishcd rcsidcnL minisLcrs in Fdo and WashingLon,
DC, and shicldcd US ciLizcns rom 1apancsc laws Lhrough cxLraLcrriLo-
rial righLs. Such conccssions, howcvcr, only produccd grcaLcr Lcnsions
and conccssions. In Lhc summcr o 86, during Lhc hcighL o Lhc US
Civil War, WcsLcrn ships, including a US warship, wcrc rcd upon in Lhc
SLraiLs o Shimonoscki, locaLcd in Choshu, an ouLlying arca o 1apan lcad-
ing Lhc aLLack againsL Lhc ccnLcr o sLaLc powcr in Fdo. Fivc Amcricans
wcrc killcd. UndcLcrrcd by Lhc unavailabiliLy o US naval vcsscls, mosL o
which wcrc in scrvicc againsL Lhc ConcdcraLc SouLh, sccrcLary o sLaLc
William H. Scward commiLLcd Lhc US miliLary Lo rcsLorc Amcrican honor.
In ScpLcmbcr 86, an alliancc o BriLish, Frcnch, DuLch, and Amcrican
orccs bombardcd Choshu or our days and rcopcncd Lhc sLraiLs. Tc
cnsuing ConvcnLion o 866 cxacLcd morc advanLagcs or WcsLcrn Lradcrs
and lcgalizcd Lhc righL o 1apancsc subjccLs Lo Lravcl abroad or Lhc rsL
Limc in morc Lhan Lwo ccnLurics.
14
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Tc conclusion o Lhc Civil War cmboldcncd Lhc UniLcd SLaLcs Lo
cxhibiL, wiLh grcaLcr orcc, iLs miliLary prowcss across Lhc Pacic. By 866,
Lhc US Navy shiLcd iLs ocus back Lo rcorganizing ccicnL squadrons
abroad or Lhc proLccLion o Amcrican inLcrcsLs and Lhc asscrLion o
Amcrican righLs on Lhc high scas and in commcrcial porLs around Lhc
world. Tc Hartjord, Lhc agship o Lhc AsiaLic Squadron, apprchcnsivcly
and conspicuously sailcd Lhrough Lhc SLraiLs o Shimonoscki LhaL sum-
mcr Lo cnsurc Lhc conLinucd passagc o commcrcial Lrac. Four ycars
laLcr, sccrcLary o sLaLc HamilLon Fish conccivcd a morc ambiLious naval
cxpcdiLion Lo Korca, osLcnsibly Lo ncgoLiaLc a LrcaLy wiLh Lhc HcrmiL
Kingdom Lo proLccL shipwrcckcd Amcrican sailors. An awcsomc ccL o
vc hcavily armcd ships, wiLh ,:o mcn and cighLy-vc cannons aboard,
scL ouL Lo ulll, in Lhc ironic words o sccrcLary o Lhc navy Ccorgc M.
Robcson, a pcaccul and ricndly mission in Lhc spring o 8,. Tc
sccrcLary noL only promoLcd Lhc cxpcdiLion buL also dcmandcd improvc-
mcnLs and invcsLmcnLs in Lhc US Navy Lo carry ouL oLhcrs. Barbarism
will sLill rcspccL noLhing buL powcr, hc procsscd, and barbaric civiliza-
Lion rcpcls alikc inLcrcrcncc, associaLion, and insLrucLion. Amcricans,
on Lhc oLhcr hand, carry wiLh Lhcm armaLivc, and somcLimcs aggrcs-
sivc, idcas o rccdom and progrcss, anLagonisLic alikc Lo Lhc LradiLions,
cusLoms, and habiLs o Lhc pcoplc, and Lhc idcas and pracLiccs o Lhc local
govcrnmcnLs. Tcir work on bchal o progrcss, hc argucd, rcquircd Lhc
US Navys supporL.
15
Fuclcd by racial drcams o prosclyLizing rccdom and crushing bar-
barism, Lhc US cxpcdiLion provokcd a bloody war in Korca LhaL cxposcd
and undcrscorcd iLs impcrial rooLs and rouLcs. Using Chincsc and 1apancsc
porLs as launching poinLs and cmulaLing Pcrrys conronLaLional LacLics
in 1apan, rcar admiral 1ohn Rodgcrs, Lhc AsiaLic Squadrons commandcr,
dirccLcd his ccL in May 8, Lo a miliLarily scnsiLivc arca o Lhc Korcan
coasL, only Ly milcs rom Scoul, Korcas capiLal. Rodgcrs and Frcdcr-
ick F. Iow, Lhc US minisLcr Lo China hcading Lhc cxpcdiLion, prompLly
dcmandcd a hcaring bcorc Lhc kings courL and inormcd Korcan cmis-
sarics LhaL Lhc smallcr vcsscls o Lhc ccL will makc cxploraLions urLhcr
on, in ordcr LhaL Lhc largc ships may movc ncarcr Lhc capiLal, in casc
Lhc minisLcr dccms iL ncccssary. Whcn a visibly armcd survcying parLy
procccdcd uprivcr Loward Scoul on 1unc , Korcan orccs madc a suddcn
and Lrcachcrous assaulL on Lhc Amcricans, according Lo Rodgcrs. A US
conLingcnL o ncarly ,ooo mcn, many o Lhcm vcLcrans o Lhc Civil War,
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rcLaliaLcd Lcn days laLcr, killing aL lcasL :o Korcans, scizing vc orLs, and
ransacking and burning ncarby villagcs. Tc inLcnsc, bruLal war shockcd
cvcn Lhc baLLlc-worn US orccs and gcncraLcd amiliar racial and impc-
rial jusLicaLions. Human lic is considcrcd o liLLlc valuc, Iow wroLc o
Korcans, and soldicrs, cducaLcd as Lhcy havc bccn, mccL dcaLh wiLh Lhc
samc indicrcncc as Lhc Indians o NorLh Amcrica.
16
ShorLly aLcr Lhc Korcan pcninsula cll wiLhin Lhc US sphcrc o inu-
cnccIow and Rodgcrs lcL Korca wiLh LhrcaLs o urLhcr acLionLhc
UniLcd SLaLcs ormalizcd iLs dominanL and csscnLially colonial rclaLions
wiLh Hawaii. By 8o, scvcn dccadcs aLcr BriLish capLain 1amcs Cook
had discovcrcd Hawaii in his scarch or a ncw passagc Lo Asia, hao|e
(whiLc orcigncrs) had cnginccrcd a dramaLic LransormaLion o Lhc
islands. AcLing as chic advisors Lo Hawaiis king, Lhcy had succcssully
prcsscd or Lhc privaLizaLion o land and Lhc passagc o a labor law largcly
modclcd on BriLish WcsL Indian indcnLurcship. Tc dcvasLaLing cccLs
o war and cmancipaLion on Iouisianas sugar indusLry in Lhc 86os,
Lhcn, providcd a major impcLus Lo sugarcanc producLion in Hawaii. Tc
RcciprociLy TrcaLy (8,6) bcLwccn Lhc UniLcd SLaLcs and Hawaii, which
allowcd Hawaiian sugar Lo cnLcr Lhc US markcL duLy-rcc, signicd and
solidicd Lhc kingdoms growing dcpcndcncc on Lhc UniLcd SLaLcs. Sugar
producLion incrcascd sharply, rom :,o Lons in 8, Lo :8, Lons in
oo. Tc Hawaiian islands had bccomc, according Lo sccrcLary o sLaLc
1amcs C. Blainc in 88, pracLically mcmbcrs o Lhc Amcrican zollvcrcin,
an ouLlying disLricL o Lhc SLaLc o Caliornia. A subscqucnL LrcaLy, raLi-
cd in 88,, granLcd Lhc UniLcd SLaLcs cxclusivc righLs Lo dcvclop a naval
sLaLion aL Pcarl Harbor.
17
I US miliLary, diplomaLic, and commcrcial cndcavors across Lhc Pacic
sancLicd rcc Lradc as an unqucsLioncd hallmark o US orcign policy,
Lhc LransporL o Asian workcrs on Lhosc samc impcrial rouLcs Lriggcrcd
inLcnsc poliLical dcbaLcs on Lhc nccd Lo proLccL rcc labor in Lhc UniLcd
SLaLcs. Hawaiis sugar indusLry, or cxamplc, rclicd almosL cxclusivcly on
Chincsc and 1apancsc migranL workcrs in Lhc sccond hal o Lhc ninc-
LccnLh ccnLury, madc availablc in no small mcasurc by dccadcs o gunboaL
diplomacy in Asia. BuL Lhc racializaLion o Asian workcrs as cnslavcd and
slavish coolics appcarcd Lo piL Lhc inLcrcsLs o rcc Lradc and rcc labor
againsL onc anoLhcr. Tc Iouisiana Sugar PlanLcrs AssociaLion vigorously
proLcsLcd Lhc RcciprociLy TrcaLy, which iL claimcd was supporLing Lhc
slavc or coolic grown sugars o Lhc Lropics aL Iouisianas cxpcnsc. Rcp-
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rcscnLaLivc Randall Icc Cibson o Iouisiana Look up Lhc losL causc in
WashingLon, DC. Will you noL aord cqual proLccLion Lo Lhc rccdmcn
o Iouisiana and rccmcn o LhaL SLaLc againsL Lhc unpaid labor, Lhc slavc
labor o Cuba and Lhc gang or cooly labor o Lhc Lropics, LhaL is sLill morc
cxacLing` hc askcd. Hc dcmandcd Lhc cdcral proLccLion o Amcrican
sugar, in Lhc causc o rccdom and jusLicc againsL slavcry and injusLicc,
Amcrican rccdom againsL Cuban slavcry and Hawaiian coolyism.
1S
Fcdcral lcgislaLion cxcluding Asian workcrs rom Lhc UniLcd SLaLcs
propcr rcsolvcd Lhc discursivc conLradicLions o rcc Lradc and rcc labor.
Building on Lhc anLi-coolic rhcLoric o Lhc 86: law LhaL had casL Lhc
UniLcd SLaLcs as a libcraLing cmpirc across Lhc scas, Lhc US Congrcss
bcgan passing laws grcaLly cxLcnding cdcral auLhoriLy on maLLcrs
rclaLcd Lo immigraLion. ProhibiLing coolics, prcviously a orcign con-
ccrn, bccamc a domcsLic prioriLy, a sccuriLy mcasurc Lo proLccL a rcc
UniLcd SLaLcs. RcprcscnLaLivc Horacc F. Pagc, a Rcpublican rom Calior-
nia, lcd Lhc chargc. In Dcccmbcr 8,, hc inLroduccd a rcsoluLion, which
was rccrrcd Lo Lhc CommiLLcc on Forcign Aairs, Lo inquirc whcLhcr any
lcgislaLion or oLhcr acLion on Lhc parL o Lhc CovcrnmcnL o Lhc UniLcd
SLaLcs is ncccssary Lo prcvcnL Lhc immigraLion or imporLaLion o coo-
lics undcr conLracL or scrvilc labor, and Chincsc womcn broughL Lo Lhc
UniLcd SLaLcs or Lhc purposc o prosLiLuLion. Fvcn aLcr Lhc passagc
o Lhc law bcaring his namc, Lhc Pagc Iaw (8,), barrcd US vcsscls and
ciLizcns rom LransporLing conLracL laborcrs rom Asia and womcn or
Lhc purposc o prosLiLuLion, Pagc was noL saLiscd. Hc and his collcagucs
conLinucd Lo rail againsL cooly slavcs and scrs in Lhcir campaign Lo
prohibiL Chincsc migraLions LhaL rcsulLcd in Lhc Chincsc Fxclusion AcL
in 88:, Lhc samc ycar Lhc UniLcd SLaLcs ormalizcd a commcrcial LrcaLy
wiLh Korca.
10
Frcc Lradc and rcc labor madc Lhc US cmpirc and aggrcgaLcd
iLs claims Lo sLaLc powcr Lo wagc wars and Lo sLimulaLc and rcgulaLc Lhc
ows o goods and pcoplcs.
THE RI SI NG TI DE OF COLOR AT THE
DAWN OF THE TWENTI ETH CENTURY
In o, W. F. B. Du Bois amously proclaimcd in Te Sou|s oj P|ack Fo|k,
Tc problcm o Lhc LwcnLicLh ccnLury is Lhc problcm o Lhc color-linc,
Lhc rclaLion o Lhc darkcr Lo Lhc lighLcr raccs o mcn in Asia and Arica,
in Amcrica and Lhc islands o Lhc sca. His prophcLic obscrvaLion Licd US
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I NTRODUCTI ON 15
hisLory Lo world hisLory, opcning a visLa onLo a widcr world dcncd by
whiLc suprcmacy and colonialism. ScvcnLccn ycars laLcr in Tc Souls o
WhiLc Folk, a scaring cssay in his collccLion Larkwater, Du Bois dcclaimcd
Lhc lunacy o war and sLaLc violcncc. Tc causc o war is prcparaLion or
war, hc argucd, and o all LhaL Furopc has donc in a ccnLury Lhcrc is
noLhing LhaL has cqualcd in cncrgy, LhoughL, and Limc hcr prcparaLion or
wholcsalc murdcr. And Du Bois placcd Amcrica rmly alongsidc Furopc
in iLs appcLiLc or wholcsalc murdcr and Lhc subjugaLion o Lhc darkcr
naLions. Shc sLands Loday shouldcr Lo shouldcr wiLh Furopc in Furopcs
worsL sin againsL civilizaLion, hc sLaLcd. AL Lhc samc Limc, Du Bois ound
hopc in Lhc world, a radicalism brcwing wiLhin and bcyond Amcrica. A
bclic in humaniLy is a bclic in colorcd mcn, hc wroLc in Tc Souls o
WhiLc Folk. And hc warncd unabashcdly in LhaL cssay, Tc Dark World
is going Lo submiL Lo iLs prcscnL LrcaLmcnL jusL as long as iL musL and noL
onc momcnL longcr.
2u
Tc global dynamics o racc, sLaLc violcncc, and radical movcmcnLs
LhaL Du Bois idcnLicd vcry much dcncd Lhc closing o Lhc nincLccnLh
ccnLury and Lhc opcning o Lhc LwcnLicLh. Hccding calls or a modcrn
navy Lo rival Lhc grcaL Furopcan powcrs, in Lhc 88os and 8os, Congrcss
appropriaLcd unds Lo ovcrhaul Lhc US Navys ccL wiLh ncw cruiscrs and
baLLlcships. Tc dccadcs o miliLary invcsLmcnL appcarcd Lo pay o in Lhc
waLcrs o Manila Bay on May , 88, in a bric baLLlc LhaL opcncd Lhc
Spanish-Amcrican War. Tc ncws o a rcsounding vicLory by commodorc
Ccorgc Dcwcy and his AsiaLic Squadron ovcr Lhc Spanish in Lhc Philip-
pincs claLcd Amcricans back homc and cliciLcd naLional dcclaraLions o
cpochal Lriumph rom coasL Lo coasL. Dcwcy has silcnccd Lhc baLLcrics
complcLcly, assisLanL sccrcLary o Lhc navy Tcodorc RooscvclL, who had
cnginccrcd Dcwcys coursc Lo Lhc Philippincs, Lold a jubilanL crowd in
WashingLon, DC. Hc simply smoLhcrcd Lhc Spanish rc rom Lhc bcgin-
ning. Tc Los Ange|es Tmes likcwisc boasLcd LhaL Dcwcys caLs scrvcd Lo
show Lo Spain, and Lo Lhc world, how uLLcrly uLilc iL is or Lhc Spaniards
Lo opposc Lhc Amcrican arms.
21
DccaLing Lhc vcsLigcs o Lhc Spanish Fmpirc in Lhc spring and sum-
mcr o 88, howcvcr, produccd Lcnsions and conLradicLions LhaL nciLhcr
RooscvclL nor Dcwcy had planncd or. Tc US cmpirc accd rcvoluLions
on Lhc ground. Spain had bccn Lrying or Lhrcc ycars Lo supprcss anLico-
lonial insurgcncics in Lhc Philippincs and Cuba, campaigns LhaL had lcL
iLs orccs dcplcLcd and bcsicgcd cvcn bcorc Lhc Amcricans arrivcd. As
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16 MOON- HO J UNG
Dcwcy awaiLcd rcinorccmcnLs Lo wagc war on land, Fmilio Aguinaldo,
Lhc Filipino rcvoluLionary lcadcr cxilcd in Hong Kong, rcLurncd aboard
a US cruiscr and prompLly dcclarcd Lhc Philippincs indcpcndcnL on 1unc
:, 88. Tc UniLcd SLaLcs ncvcr rccognizcd Aguinaldos dcclaraLion and,
wiLh Lhc arrival o US Army Lroops, saw Filipino rcvoluLionarics no lon-
gcr as ncccssary allics buL as Lroublcsomc obsLaclcs Lo Lhc US mission.
Whcn US commandcrs prcparcd Lhcir nal ocnsivc on Manila, Lhcy
had alrcady agrccd wiLh Lhcir Spanish counLcrparLs Lo kccp Aguinaldos
Lroops ouL o Lhc ciLy, a plan LhaL rcsulLcd in Lcnsc cncounLcrs and skir-
mishcs bcLwccn puLaLivc allics. Tc raising o Lhc US ag ovcr Manila in
AugusL 88 hardly rcsLorcd pcacc Lo whaL a US Army occr callcd Lhis
rcvoluLionary and insurrccLionary ciLy o :o,ooo inhabiLanLs o Lhc
mosL divcrsc naLionaliLy.
22
WiLh Lhc Spanish surrcndcr maLcrializcd a
grcaLcr cncmy, a racial, rcvoluLionary cncmy.
Tc cnsuing US-Philippinc War was a racc war, as hisLorian Paul A.
Kramcr argucs, in LhaL US impcrial orccs cngagcd in a muLually rcinorc-
ing proccss o casLing Lhc indigcnous cncmy and Lhcmsclvcs as racially
dicrcnL (and innaLcly uncqual) and jusLiying Lhc LacLics o colonial vio-
lcncc in racial Lcrms. Whilc Aguinaldo aLLcmpLcd Lo gain US rccogniLion
o his govcrnmcnL in Lhc monLhs lcading up Lo Lhc signing o Lhc TrcaLy
o Paris bcLwccn Spain and Lhc UniLcd SLaLcs in Dcccmbcr 88, US prcsi-
dcnL William McKinlcy rcvcalcd his inLcnL Lo claim sovcrcignLy ovcr Lhc
cnLirc archipclago. Tc UniLcd SLaLcs agrccd Lo pay Spain LwcnLy million
dollars or Lhc Philippincs. McKinlcy, in Lurn, vowcd LhaL his naLion camc
noL as invadcrs or conqucrors, buL as ricnds, and would sLrivc Lo win
Lhc condcncc, rcspccL, and accLion o Lhc inhabiLanLs o Lhc Philippincs
by assuring Lhcm in cvcry possiblc way LhaL ull mcasurc o individual
righLs and libcrLics which is Lhc hcriLagc o rcc pcoplcs, and by prov-
ing Lo Lhcm LhaL Lhc mission o Lhc UniLcd SLaLcs is onc o bcncvolcnL
assimilaLion, subsLiLuLing Lhc mild sway o jusLicc and righL or arbiLrary
rulc. His racializing languagc o upliLand aLLcndanL dcmand o sub-
missionound a rcccpLivc audicncc on Lhc domcsLic ronL buL noL on
Lhc ronL lincs, whcrc a sLando bcLwccn US and Filipino Lroops crupLcd
in gunrc on Fcbruary , 8. A proLracLcd war o US impcrial conqucsL
had bcgun.
23
UniLcd SLaLcs miliLary pcrsonncl and poliLicians prcdicLably Lurncd
Lo dccply cnLrcnchcd racial idioms Lo makc scnsc o an armcd cncmy in
a disLanL land. I ccl sorry or Lhcsc pcoplc and all LhaL havc comc undcr
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I NTRODUCTI ON 17
Lhc conLrol o Lhc UniLcd SLaLcs, an Arican Amcrican scrgcanL wroLc.
Tc rsL Lhing in Lhc morning is Lhc Niggcr and Lhc lasL Lhing aL nighL
is Lhc Niggcr. WhiLc Lroops, anoLhcr black soldicr rclaLcd, Lalkcd wiLh
impuniLy o niggcrs Lo our soldicrs, ncvcr oncc Lhinking LhaL Lhcy wcrc
Lalking Lo homc niggcrs and should Lhcy bc broughL Lo rcmcmbcr LhaL
aL homc Lhis is Lhc samc vilc cpiLhcL Lhcy hurl aL us, Lhcy bcg pardon
and makc somc cminaLc [sc] cxcusc abouL whaL Lhc Filipino is callcd.
Tcodorc RooscvclL, or his parL, likcd Lo draw a dicrcnL racial analogy.
Wc havc no morc righL Lo lcavc Lhc Filipinos Lo buLchcr onc anoLhcr and
sink slowly back inLo savagcry, hc prcachcd bcorc domcsLic audicnccs,
Lhan wc would havc Lhc righL, in an cxccss o scnLimcnLaliLy, Lo dcclarc
Lhc Sioux and Apachcs rcc Lo cxpcl all whiLc scLLlcrs rom Lhc lands Lhcy
oncc hcld. Tc US orccs wcrc ghLing or Lhc grcaLncss o Lhc NaLion
Lhc grcaLncss o Lhc racc.
24
Tc ncw conLcxL (across Lhc Pacic rom Lhc conLincnLal UniLcd SLaLcs)
and Lhc ncw cncmy (o AsiaLic and mixcd origins) also gcncraLcd a ncw
racc vcrnacular conducivc Lo pcrpcLraLing violcncc on Filipinos morc spc-
cically. Tc Philippincs was noL an cxLcnsion o Lhc Dccp SouLh or Lhc
Amcrican WcsL, crowdcd as Lhc islands wcrc wiLh, in RooscvclLs worldvicw,
hal-casLc and naLivc ChrisLians, warlikc Moslcms, wiLh wild pagans.
Indccd, Lhc indcnabiliLy o Filipinos camc Lo dcnc Lhc Philippincs, a
criLical mcans Lo dclcgiLimizc Lhc insurrccLion and insurrccLos. Tc
Filipinos arc noL a naLion, buL a varicgaLcd asscmblagc o dicrcnL Lribcs
and pcoplcs, and Lhcir loyalLy is sLill o Lhc Lribal Lypc, concludcd Lhc
Philippinc Commission, a body dclcgaLcd Lo invcsLigaLc condiLions on Lhc
islands in 8. Scl-govcrnmcnL, Lhus, was ouL o Lhc qucsLion or Lhc
mulLipliciLy o Lribcs and Lhc mulLiarious phascs o civilizaLionrang-
ing all Lhc way rom Lhc highcsL Lo Lhc lowcsLcxhibiLcd by Lhc naLivcs
o Lhc scvcral provinccs and islands. UniLcd SLaLcs Lroops on Lhc ground
had liLLlc usc or cLhnological disLincLions, prccrring Lo call all Filipinos
niggcrs or, incrcasingly, gu-gus or goo-goos. Dcrivcd rom a Tagalog
word or a slippcry shampoo madc o coconuL oil or US soldicrs masculin-
isL LaunLs o Filipinas making goo-goo cycs, Lhc word gaincd widc usagc
and cvcnLually cvolvcd Lo gook, soon Lo bccomc a sLaplc o US miliLary
occupaLion in Asia, IaLin Amcrica, and Lhc Caribbcan.
25
Cu-gus Lurncd morc slippcry in Novcmbcr 8, whcn US gcncrals
rsL dcclarcd Lhcir mission accomplishcd and Aguinaldo adopLcd a ncw
sLraLcgy o gucrrilla wararc. Blcnding inLo Lhc rural populacc, which
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providcd crucial ncLworks o nancial and maLcrial supporL, Filipino
orccs wrcakcd havoc on US dcsigns Lo, as Lhc Philippinc Commission
puL iL, prosccuLc Lhc war unLil Lhc insurgcnLs arc rcduccd Lo submis-
sion. Tc cncmy cxisLcd unsccn in Lhc dripping junglc, in Lhc moldcring
Lowns and in Lhc smoky clcarings on Lhc hillsidcs, and sincc a naLural
prudcncc badc him noL risk any opcn cncounLcr, Lhc cncmy was noL Lo
bc ound, a US vcLcran rccallcd. BuL Lhcy cxisLcd noncLhclcss. Fili-
pinos had LhaL parLicular aculLy o all OricnLals Lo say onc Lhing and
mcaning anoLhcr, anoLhcr sLaLcd, procsscd Lo bc mucho amigo (good
ricnds) Lo our accs, whilc sccrcLly aiding Lhc insurrccLion wiLh all Lhc
mcans aL Lhcir command. Organizing inLo gucrrilla uniLs urLhcr racial-
izcd Filipinos as uncivilizcd and, in Lurn, sccmcd Lo jusLiy US soldicrs
own cmbracc o savagc wararc. Tis sLrugglc on Lhc islands has bccn
naughL buL a giganLic schcmc o robbcry and opprcssion, a black pri-
vaLc obscrvcd in o. Cravcs havc bccn cnLcrcd and scarchcs havc bccn
madc or richcs, churchcs and caLhcdrals havc bccn cnLcrcd and robbcd
o Lhcir prccious ornamcnLs, homcs havc bccn pillagcd and moncys and
jcwclry sLolcn.
26
As Lhc war draggcd on, ocially unLil o: and unocially or aL lcasL
anoLhcr dccadc, Lhc US miliLary cmulaLcd Furopcan impcrial powcrs LhaL
dcalL wiLh colonial subjccLs, whcLhcr armcd or noL, as poLcnLial insur-
gcnLs. In Dcccmbcr oo, gcncral ArLhur MacArLhur, Lhc commanding
US gcncral and miliLary govcrnor, announccd a ncw and morc sLringcnL
policy Loward brcaking up Lhc organizcd sysLcm susLaining Filipino
gucrrilla uniLs, sLaLing ominously LhaL whcncvcr acLion is ncccssary Lhc
morc drasLic Lhc applicaLion Lhc bcLLcr. Following MacArLhurs ordcrs,
US commandcrs in many hosLilc arcas adopLcd a LacLic madc noLorious
worldwidc by Spanish gcncral Valcriano Tc BuLchcr Wcylcr in Cuba
in 86 and rcvivcd morc rcccnLly by BriLish Lroops againsL Lhc Bocrs
in SouLh Arica. WiLh Lhc largcsL miliLary orcc dispaLchcd across Lhc
ALlanLic, Wcylcr had sysLcmaLically orccd Lhc Cuban populaLion inLo con-
ccnLraLion camps Lo isolaLc Lhc anLicolonial insurgcnLs, a campaign LhaL
PrcsidcnL McKinlcy had dcnounccd as LanLamounL Lo cxLcrminaLion.
Amcrican ordcrs Lo Filipino pcasanLs Lo rclocaLc Lo proLccLcd zoncs di-
crcd liLLlc in orm. OuLsidc Lhcsc rcconccnLraLion camps, US Lroops
Lorchcd rcsidcnccs and scL crops ablazc wholcsalc, Lo cuL o Lhc gucrril-
las ood supply and Lo punish Lhcir supporLcrs, and rcd on anyonc Lhcy
camc across.
27
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Whilc US miliLary occrs ordcrcd Lhcir mcn Lo makc Lhc Philippincs
inLo a howling wildcrncss, as onc dcscribcd Lhcir objccLivc, Lhcy and
Lhcir supporLcrs claimcd ovcr and ovcr LhaL Lhc wiLhdrawal o US orccs
would lcad Lo anarchy in Lhc Philippincs. Tcy camc as an army o libcra-
Lion, noL o cnslavcmcnL. Should our powcr by any aLaliLy bc wiLhdrawn
Lhc govcrnmcnL o Lhc Philippincs would spccdily lapsc inLo anarchy,
which would cxcusc, i iL did noL ncccssiLaLc, Lhc inLcrvcnLion o oLhcr
powcrs, and Lhc cvcnLual division o Lhc islands among Lhcm, Lhc Philip-
pinc Commission sLaLcd. Only Lhrough Amcrican occupaLion, Lhcrcorc,
is Lhc idca o a rcc, scl-govcrning, and unicd Philippinc commonwcalLh
aL all conccivablc. Racc ncccssiLaLcd impcrial rulc. I Fngland wcrc Lo
abandon all claim Lo inucncc Lhc inLcrnal aairs o Lhc Transvaal and
givc up Lhc LiLlc Lo suzcrainLy Lhc SLaLc would rcmain an organizcd
communiLy likcly Lo work ouL iLs problcms aLcr Lhc gcncral ashion
o modcrn socicLy, Lhc New York Tmes waxcd bcncvolcnL. I Lhc UniLcd
SLaLcs should abandon Lhc Philippincs. Tcrc is no rcason Lo incr
LhaL anarchy, and Lhc worsL orm o iL, would noL cnsuc. Unlikc Lhc DuLch
dcsccndanLs o SouLh Arica, Filipinos sccmcd incapablc o culLivaLing a
modcrn socicLy on Lhcir own.
2S
AlLhough Lhcsc uLLcranccs counLcrposcd modcrniLy and anarchy
(cquaLcd wiLh disordcr and backwardncss), anarchism as a radical
criLiquc and movcmcnL cmcrgcd in Lhc modcrn world o Furopc in Lhc
8,os and 88os. Following Lhc dissoluLion o Lhc FirsL InLcrnaLional in
8,6 and cmphasizing pcrsonal auLonomy and propaganda by Lhc dccd,
rcvoluLionary anarchism inspircd and aLLracLcd working-class audicnccs
across Furopc, cspccially in Spain, ILaly, and Francc. A wavc o spccLacular
assassinaLions by scl-idcnLicd anarchisLs in Lhc 8os placcd anarchism
rmly on Lhc world map, a poliLical orcc LhaL sLaLc lcadcrs ignorcd aL Lhcir
own pcril. BuL, as BcncdicL Andcrson argucs, anarchism was noL simply
a mcLropoliLan phcnomcnon. Colonial subjccLs and budding anLicolonial
naLionalisLs, including promincnL gurcs such as 1osc Rizal o Lhc Philip-
pincs, Lravclcd on impcrial rouLcs Lo Furopc, dcvcloping worldly visions
and connccLions LhaL cxcccdcd and challcngcd Lhc bounds o cmpirc. Tc
poliLics o mcLropolcs and colonics, or domcsLic and orcign poliLics,
wcrc indivisiblc, somcLhing LhaL Tcodorc RooscvclL, soon Lo asccnd Lo
Lhc WhiLc Housc, rccognizcd rcadily. Tosc who would cncouragc anar-
chy aL homc mosL naLurally sLrikc hands wiLh Lhc cncmics o our counLry
abroad, hc pronounccd. FundamcnLally Lhc causcs which Lhcy champion
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arc Lhc samc. Tc sLcp cncouraging Lhc assassinaLion o Lhc guardians o
Lhc law aL homc, Lo Lhc aiding and abcLLing o Lhc shooLing down o our
soldicrs abroad is buL a shorL onc.
20
Framing any corL Lo rcsisL impcrial conqucsL as an acL o scdiLion,
Lhc US sLaLc laid Lhc groundwork or a rcprcssivc rcgimc dcLcrmincd Lo
gaLhcr inLclligcncc and mainLain a survcillancc o Lhc gcncral populaLion.
Tc ScdiLion AcL, passcd by govcrnor-gcncral William TaLs civilian com-
mission in Novcmbcr o, madc iL clcar LhaL McKinlcys iniLial promisc
o cxLcnding a ull mcasurc o individual righLs and libcrLics would ring
hollow in Lhc Philippincs. Tc law prohibiLcd any pcrson Lo advocaLc
orally or by wriLing or prinLing or by likc mcLhods Lhc indcpcndcncc o
Lhc Philippinc Islands or Lhcir scparaLion rom Lhc UniLcd SLaLcs, ciLhcr
by pcaccul or orciblc mcans. Civil libcrLics had no placc in Lhc war-Lorn
Philippincs, islands ull o acLivc and poLcnLial rcvoluLionarics. TaL par-
Licular conLcxL, hisLorian Alrcd W. McCoy argucs, rccd US miliLary and
civilian pcrsonncl Lo build a modcrn survcillancc sLaLc unaLhomablc
back homc in NorLh Amcrica. In Fcbruary o, Lhc War DcparLmcnL
dispaLchcd an occr rom Lhc MiliLary InormaLion Division (MID) Lo
Manila, who, wiLhin a cw monLhs, hircd undcrcovcr agcnLs Lo rcporL on
Lhc civilian populaLion and sysLcmaLizcd inLclligcncc rcporLs on oppo-
siLion Lo US rulc. On Lhc cvc o Lhc US dcclaraLion o vicLory, Lhc War
DcparLmcnL urLhcr ccnLralizcd iLs inLclligcncc ncLwork, making Manila
homc Lo iLs rsL MID cld occ, which was ordcrcd Lo rcporL dirccLly Lo
MID hcadquarLcrs in WashingLon, DC.
3u
Tc long war in Lhc Philippincs, a culminaLion o dccadcs o US miliLary
and Lradc missions across Lhc Pacic, gcncraLcd an cxLcnsivc inrasLruc-
Lurc o inLclligcncc and survcillancc. In Lhc bcginning o Lhc Spanish-
Amcrican War, Lhc MID had so liLLlc inormaLion on Lhc Philippincs LhaL
iLs occrs hasLily copicd condcnLial cxccrpLs rom Lhc Fncyc|opaeda
Prtannca. WiLhin vc ycars, Lhc US Army Signal Corps laid , milcs
o cablc on land and anoLhcr ,6 milcs undcrsca across Lhc archipclago,
connccLing ncarly oo Lclcgraph and Lclcphonc sLaLions. In o alonc,
Lhis ncLwork carricd . million mcssagcs. A war againsL anarchy and
anarchism was a war or inormaLion. And US soldicrs admiLLcdly com-
miLLcd LorLurc in Lhc Philippincs, mosL inamously Lhrough Lhc waLcr
curc, in Lhc namc o gaLhcring inormaLion. Whcn govcrnor-gcncral
TaL appcarcd bcorc a US ScnaLc commiLLcc invcsLigaLing war aLrociLics
in o:, hc conccdcd LhaL Lhc so callcd waLcr curc had bccn cmploycd
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I NTRODUCTI ON 21
on somc occasions Lo cxLracL inormaLion. BuL, hc cxplaincd, Lhcrc arc
somc amusing insLanccs o Filipinos who camc in and said Lhcy would noL
say anyLhing unlcss LorLurcd, LhaL Lhcy musL havc an cxcusc or saying
whaL Lhcy proposcd Lo say. In Lhc cnd, TaL insisLcd, Lhcrc ncvcr was
a war conducLcd, whcLhcr againsL incrior raccs or noL, in which Lhcrc
wcrc morc compassion and morc rcsLrainL and morc gcncrosiLy.
31
InsLi-
LuLionalizing a LradiLion o unilaLcral miliLary inLcrvcnLion in Asia, Lhc
US-Philippinc War produccd a sLaLc wiLh immcnsc auLhoriLy Lo rcprcss
radical movcmcnLs, a dcvclopmcnL LhaL would rcsonaLc and rcvcrbcraLc
immcdiaLcly and prooundly on Lhc oLhcr sidc o Lhc Pacic.
PrcsidcnL William McKinlcys assassinaLion in o by a scl-procsscd
anarchisL, whosc lcLward driL had coincidcd wiLh his broLhcrs rcLurn
rom miliLary scrvicc in Lhc Philippincs, sparkcd a ncw war, a global war
againsL anarchism linking miliLary acLion and immigraLion rcsLricLions.
Anarchy is a crimc againsL Lhc wholc human racc, and all mankind
should band againsL Lhc AnarchisL, Lhc ncw prcsidcnL Tcodorc Roos-
cvclL dcclarcd in Dcccmbcr o. His crimc should bc madc an ocnsc
againsL Lhc law o naLions, likc piracy and LhaL orm o man-sLcaling
known as Lhc slavc Lradc, or iL is o ar blackcr inamy Lhan ciLhcr. Tc
Philippincs dcmandcd a sLrong miliLary, which RooscvclL rcqucsLcd rom
Congrcss, sincc wars wiLh barbarous or scmi-barbarous pcoplcs [wcrc]
mcrcly a mosL rcgrcLLablc buL ncccssary inLcrnaLional policc duLy which
musL bc pcrormcd or Lhc sakc o Lhc wclarc o mankind. To dcal wiLh
anarchisLs closcr Lo homc, RooscvclL askcd or a ncw immigraLion law,
implying LhaL Lhc problcm lay undamcnLally bcyond Lhc UniLcd SLaLcs.
AnarchisLs, RooscvclL bclicvcd, should bc kcpL ouL o Lhis counLry, and i
ound hcrc Lhcy should bc prompLly dcporLcd Lo Lhc counLry whcncc Lhcy
camc, and ar-rcaching provision should bc madc or Lhc punishmcnL o
Lhosc who sLay.
32
Congrcss rcspondcd Lo RooscvclLs rccommcndaLions wiLh a major
immigraLion law in o, cncompassing and cxpanding Lhc lisL o cxcludcd
classcs compilcd ovcr Lhc prcvious quarLcr ccnLury. IL now includcd
All idioLs, insanc pcrsons, cpilcpLics, paupcrs, pcrsons likcly Lo
bccomc a public chargc, procssional bcggars, pcrsons aicLcd wiLh
a loaLhsomc or wiLh a dangcrous conLagious discasc, pcrsons who
havc bccn convicLcd o a clony or oLhcr crimc or misdcmcanor
involving moral LurpiLudc, polygamisLs, anarchisLs, or pcrsons
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who bclicvc in or advocaLc Lhc ovcrLhrow by orcc or violcncc o
Lhc CovcrnmcnL o Lhc UniLcd SLaLcs or o all govcrnmcnL or o all
orms o law, or Lhc assassinaLion o public ocials, prosLiLuLcs, and
pcrsons who procurc or aLLcmpL Lo bring in prosLiLuLcs or womcn
or Lhc purposc o prosLiLuLion, Lhosc who havc bccn, wiLhin onc
ycar rom Lhc daLc o Lhc applicaLion or admission Lo Lhc UniLcd
SLaLcs, dcporLcd as bcing undcr ocrs, soliciLaLions, promiscs or
agrccmcnLs Lo pcrorm labor or scrvicc o somc kind Lhcrcin.
Rcinorcing laLc-nincLccnLh-ccnLury rcprcscnLaLions o prosLiLuLcs and
conLracL laborcrs as cmbodimcnLs o cnslavcmcnL aLcr slavcry, Lhc o
law conLinucd Lo dwcll on Lhcsc LradiLionally proscribcd classcs. Tc
Chincsc, whosc cxclusion had inauguraLcd and cnlargcd Lhc cdcral sur-
vcillancc o bodics and bordcrs bcginning in 88:, wcrc noL includcd in
Lhc laLcsL lisL, sincc Lhis AcL shall noL bc consLrucd Lo rcpcal, alLcr, or
amcnd cxisLing laws rclaLing Lo Lhc immigraLion, or cxclusion o, Chincsc
pcrsons or pcrsons o Chincsc dcsccnL.
33
Tc laws mosL signicanL addiLion was anarchisLs, whom RooscvclL
had dcnounccd as csscnLially scdiLious and Lrcasonablc. Morc Lhan a
ccnLury aLcr cars o rcvoluLionary idcas and pcoplcs rom Francc and
SainL Dominguc (HaiLi) had lcd Lo Lhc passagc o Lhc Alicn and ScdiLion
AcLs in ,8, Lhc US govcrnmcnL again scL cxpliciL paramcLcrs on lcgiLi-
maLc poliLical idcology and poliLical cxprcssion, bcyond which nonciLizcns
in parLicular bccamc subjccL Lo cdcral scruLiny, cxclusion, and dcporLa-
Lion. Tc provisions spccically LargcLing anarchisLs prohibiLcd Lhc immi-
graLion and naLuralizaLion o anyonc
who disbclicvcs in or who is opposcd Lo all organizcd govcrnmcnL,
or who is a mcmbcr o or aliaLcd wiLh any organizaLion cnLcrLain-
ing and Lcaching such disbclic in or opposiLion Lo all organizcd
govcrnmcnL, or who advocaLcs or Lcachcs Lhc duLy, ncccssiLy, or pro-
pricLy o Lhc unlawul assaulLing or killing o any occr or occrs,
ciLhcr o spccic individuals or o occrs gcncrally, o Lhc Covcrn-
mcnL o Lhc UniLcd SLaLcs or o any oLhcr organizcd govcrnmcnL,
bccausc o his or Lhcir ocial characLcr.
34
An unmisLakablc rcsponsc Lo McKinlcys assassinaLion, Lhc laws anLi-
radical clauscs csLablishcd a vasL and loosc dcniLion o whaL consLiLuLcd
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criminal poliLical bclics and aliaLions, a rcccLion and an cxLcnsion o
Lhc scdiLion acL in Lhc Philippincs, now casL onLo Lhc domcsLic popula-
Lion o Lhc UniLcd SLaLcs.
Tc o immigraLion sLaLuLc allocaLcd immcnsc adminisLraLivc and
discrcLionary powcrs Lo Lhc cdcral govcrnmcnL LhaL would provc ccnLral
in iLs mission Lo dcnc and dccnd naLional sccuriLy cvcr sincc. In par-
Licular, Lhc burcaucraLs who ovcrsaw Lhc admission and cxclusion o all
alicnsLhc commissioncr-gcncral o immigraLion and Lhc immigraLion
commissioncrs, occrs, clcrks, and oLhcr cmployccs aL individual porLs
o cnLryhcld Lhc ulLimaLc auLhoriLy Lo cxcludc or cxpcl alicns, subjccL
Lo no judicial ovcrsighL whaLsocvcr. All alicns noL clcarly and bcyond a
doubL cnLiLlcd Lo land wcrc Lo rcccivc hcarings bcorc a board o spc-
cial inquiry o Lhrcc immigraLion occrs appoinLcd by Lhc immigraLion
commissioncrs. Tcsc hcarings wcrc Lo bc scparaLc and aparL rom Lhc
public, wiLh Lhc boards majoriLy voLc Lo bc nal. DisconLcnL alicns
(or disscnLing board mcmbcrs), howcvcr, could appcal Lhc boards ruling
Lhrough Lhc immigraLion commissioncrs and Lhc commissioncr-gcncral
o immigraLion Lo Lhc sccrcLary o Lhc Lrcasury (changcd laLcr Lo Lhc scc-
rcLary o commcrcc and labor), whosc dccision shall Lhcn bc nal. Such
proccdurcs and dccisions conccrncd cascs noL only o cxclusion buL also o
dcporLaLion. Any alicn ound Lo havc cnLcrcd Lhc UniLcd SLaLcs unlawully
wiLhin Lhrcc ycars o landing was Lo bc Lakcn inLo cusLody and rcLurncd
Lo Lhc counLry whcncc hc camc.
35
AlLhough Lhc US ConsLiLuLion cnumcraLcd no such auLhoriLy, laws
and lcgal cascs on Chincsc cxclusion ovcr Lhc prcvious Lwo dccadcs had
cndowcd Lhc cdcral govcrnmcnL wiLh unilaLcral and cxclusivc powcr in
all maLLcrs rclaLcd Lo immigraLion and dcporLaLion, which wcrc dccmcd
oundaLional Lo naLional sccuriLy. To prcscrvc iLs indcpcndcncc, and givc
sccuriLy againsL orcign aggrcssion and cncroachmcnL, is Lhc highcsL duLy
o cvcry naLion whcLhcr rom Lhc orcign naLion acLing in iLs naLional
characLcr or rom vasL hordcs o iLs pcoplc crowding in upon us, Lhc US
Suprcmc CourL rulcd in Chae Chan Png v. 0nted States (also known as
Lhc Chnese Fxc|uson Case, 88). Tc govcrnmcnL, posscssing Lhc pow-
crs which arc Lo bc cxcrciscd or proLccLion and sccuriLy, is cloLhcd wiLh
auLhoriLy Lo dcLcrminc Lhc occasion on which Lhc powcrs shall bc callcd
orLh, and iLs dcLcrminaLion, so ar as Lhc subjccLs accLcd arc conccrncd,
arc [sc] ncccssarily conclusivc upon all iLs dcparLmcnLs and occrs. I
Lhc US govcrnmcnL caLcgorizcd orcigncrs o a dicrcnL racc as dan-
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24 MOON- HO J UNG
gcrous Lo iLs pcacc and sccuriLy, Lhc courL rcasoncd, iLs dcsignaLion and
cxclusion could noL bc sLaycd bccausc aL Lhc Limc Lhcrc arc no acLual
hosLiliLics wiLh Lhc naLion o which Lhc orcigncrs arc subjccLs. ScdiLion
kncw no bounds bcLwccn war and pcacc. Four ycars laLcr, Lhc Suprcmc
CourL sLrongly armcd Lhc sLaLcs powcr Lo cxpcl or dcporL orcigncrs
as absoluLc and unqualicd as Lhc righL Lo prohibiL and prcvcnL Lhcir
cnLrancc inLo Lhc counLry.
36
In sLriking ashion, Chincsc cxclusion, long idcnLicd wiLh whiLc
suprcmacy on Lhc Pacic coasL, had scL Lhc lcgal oundaLion or a massivc
sLaLc o rcprcssion LargcLing radical movcmcnLs. Ovcr Lhc cnsuing dccadcs
o Lhc LwcnLicLh ccnLury, Lhc US sLaLc would pass a barragc o laws on scdi-
Lion and immigraLion, culminaLing in anLicommunisL crusadcsand now
Lhc war on LcrrorLhaL would haunL radical movcmcnLs, parLicularly
Lhosc sccking Lo ovcrLhrow whiLc suprcmacy and colonialism. Tc Lurn o
cvcnLs musL havc plcascd IoLhrop SLoddard, who had prcscribcd in :o
Lhc nccd Lo conLain Pan-Colorcd and Colorcd-BolshcvisL allianccs,
Lhc vanguard o Lhc rising Lidc o color. As Lhc arch-cncmy o civiliza-
Lion and Lhc racc, SLoddard insisLcd, Bolshcvism musL bc crushcd ouL
wiLh iron hccls, no maLLcr whaL Lhc cosL. Tc hisLorical rooLs o 1. Fdgar
Hoovcrs noLorious characLcrizaLion o Lhc Black PanLhcr ParLy as Lhc
grcaLcsL LhrcaL Lo Lhc inLcrnal sccuriLy o Lhc counLry can bc Lraccd back
Lo SLoddard, back Lo Lhc Philippinc RcvoluLion and Lhc US-Philippinc War,
and back Lo Chincsc cxclusion, i noL carlicr.
37
As Lhc US sLaLc claimcd
auLhoriLy Lo moniLor, imprison, and dcporL radicals, iL simulLancously
racializcd Lhcm, a cyclical proccss ccnLral and indccd csscnLial Lo sLaLc
rcprcssion in Lhc LwcnLicLh ccnLury. IL is Lhosc parLicular dynamics o
racc, sLaLc violcncc, and radical movcmcnLs across Lhc Pacic LhaL Lhc
cssays collccLcd hcrcin rcvcal and cxplorc.
RACE, STATE VIOLENCE,
AND RADICAL MOVEMENTS ACROSS THE PACI FIC
Our iLcraLion o Te Rsng Tde oj Co|or docs noL prcLcnd Lo ocr a com-
prchcnsivc picLurc o racial and radical poliLics in Lhc LwcnLicLh ccnLury,
buL iL bcgins Lo ploL a hisLorical proccss LhaL Michacl Omi and Howard
WinanL Lhcorizcd ycars ago. In Lhcir scminal work, Omi and WinanL
proposcd LhaL wc approach racc as an unstab|e and de-centered comp|ex
oj soca| meanngs constant|y beng transjormed by po|tca| strugg|e. Racc
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I NTRODUCTI ON 25
was always in ormaLion, Lhcy argucd, boLh giving shapc Lo and bcing
shapcd by social, cconomic, and poliLical orccs aL parLicular hisLorical
momcnLs. For mosL o US hisLory, Lhcy obscrvcd, racially subordinaLcd
groups had no choicc buL Lo cngagc in a racial war oj maneuver, culLivaL-
ing insLiLuLions, movcmcnLs, and communiLics ouLsidc Lhc hcgcmonic
racial sLaLc. Such mancuvcrs laid Lhc groundwork or a racial war o
posiLion, in Lhc Cramscian scnsc, an opcn assaulL on Lhc racial sLaLc
or dcmocraLic LransormaLion. WriLing amid Lhc Rcagan RcvoluLion,
Omi and WinanL undcrsLood and undcrscorcd Lhc dialccLical rclaLionship
bcLwccn Lhc sLaLc, whaL Lhcy callcd Lhc racial sLaLc, and social movc-
mcnLs in dcning racial poliLics in Lhc UniLcd SLaLcs. Tc racial sLaLc did
noL cmbody and cnacL a lincar, libcral progrcss Loward cqual righLs and
dcmocracy. RaLhcr, iL has soughL consLanLly Lo cquilibraLc (or sLabilizc)
Lhc racial ordcr, according Lo Omi and WinanL, Lhrough laws, policics,
and a rcprcssivc apparaLus in rcsponsc Lo criscs iniLiaLcd by racially
bascd social movcmcnLs. SLaLc rcorm and sLaLc rcacLion procccdcd apacc,
csLablishing a ncw unstab|e equ|brum in Lhc racial ordcr.
3S
Tc ninc cssays LhaL ollow opcn our cycs Lo a scrics o racial criscs in
Lhc LwcnLicLh ccnLury, prccipiLaLcd in no small mcasurc by radical movc-
mcnLs or racial jusLicc. In Lhc World War I cra, anLicolonial naLional-
isLs and labor organizcrs builL powcrul local movcmcnLs in Hawaii, on
Lhc Pacic coasL, and clscwhcrc, moLivaLcd by and wiLhin a Lranspacic
world o wars, migraLions, and rcvoluLions. SLrcngLhcning Lhc rcprcssivc
apparaLus arising rom carlicr immigraLion laws and Lhc US-Philippinc
War, Lhc US sLaLc mobilizcd and cxpandcd iLs anLiradical laws and agcnLs
in Lhc os and :os Lo counLcr movcmcnLs againsL whiLc suprcmacy
and colonialism. Tc racializcd LargcLs o anLiradical rcprcssion, in Lurn,
organizcd imaginaLivcly around anarchism and communism in Lhc os,
cxploiLing Lhc poliLical and culLural spaccs opcncd up (and orccloscd) by
a crisis in global capiLalism and a US libcral sLaLc Lrying Lo addrcss LhaL
crisis. AlLhough local and global crics or social jusLicc and dcmocracy
compcllcd Lhc US sLaLc Lo disavow racism, colonialism, and violcncc in
Lhc middlc dccadcs o Lhc LwcnLicLh ccnLury, iLs capaciLy Lo carry ouL
and jusLiy violcncc, parLicularly againsL pcoplcs o color, incrcascd Lo a
scalc unprcccdcnLcd in Lhc hisLory o our plancL. OuL o Lhosc conLradic-
Lions cmcrgcd inLcrracial and global visions and solidariLics in Lhc dccadcs
ollowing World War IIin working-class ncighborhoods, in prisons, in
SouLhcasL Asiacvcn as Lhc US sLaLc provcd all Loo cccLivc in rcndcring
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26 MOON- HO J UNG
such radical movcmcnLs illcgiblc and illcgiLimaLc. Tcsc arc somc o Lhc
hisLorical rupLurcs, conLinuiLics, and dialccLics LhaL our collccLion maps.
Ccorgc IipsiLz, whosc scholarship has shapcd and advanccd Lhc sLudy
o racc, social movcmcnLs, and popular culLurc ovcr Lhc pasL quarLcr ccn-
Lury, bcgins Lhc collccLion wiLh a picrcing cssay on Lhc inLcllccLual and
poliLical sLakcs o sLudying racc, sLaLc violcncc, and radical movcmcnLs
in our currcnL momcnL. An claboraLion o his opcning kcynoLc addrcss
aL our concrcncc in May :o, SLanding aL Lhc Crossroads dcmands
LhaL wc, as cngagcd scholars, pursuc our work wiLh konesans (knowlcdgc)
and ba|ans (balancc), conccpLs aL Lhc hcarL o Aro-diasporic LradiLions.
Konesans ows noL rom cmpirical daLa or LhcorcLical masLcry buL rom
cxpcricncc and wisdom, ba|ans docs noL scck ncuLraliLy or objccLiviLy buL
gcncraLcs opporLuniLics Lo cmbracc and cxplain conLradicLions. Spcaking
Lo Lhc currcnL ncolibcral, color-blind momcnL, IipsiLz idcnLics a scrics
o poliLical and inLcllccLual Lraps LhaL acLivisLs and scholars on Lhc lcL
can all inLo, whcrc opposiLional rhcLoric, poliLical idcology, and radical
posLuring can dcvolvc all Loo casily inLo individualizcd cscapism, anLi-
dcmocraLic dogmaLism, and shoddy scholarship. Wc nccd Lo sLudy Lhc
hisLory o racc, sLaLc violcncc, and radical movcmcnLs criLically and rigor-
ously, IipsiLz argucs, Lo rcvcal Lhcir inLimaLc connccLions ovcr Limc and
spacc, Lo undcrsLand and inLcrrogaLc Lhc rclcvancc o Lhc pasL Lo Lodays
sLrugglcs. Wallowing in Lhc pasL or romanLicizing radical movcmcnLs can-
noL dcnc our agcnda, hc suggcsLs, or Lhc problcms wc acc Loday arc Loo
proound and immcnsc. Tc rcmaining cssays in Lhc collccLion, organizcd
chronologically and LhcmaLically, sLrivc Lo rcspond individually and col-
lccLivcly Lo IipsiLzs call.
Fssays in Lhc sccond sccLion, Travcrsing Lhc Pacic, ocus on spc-
cic localcs Lo illusLraLc broadcr connccLions Lo a widcr world o poliLical
and culLural movcmcnLs across Lhc Pacic in Lhc carly dccadcs o Lhc
LwcnLicLh ccnLury. Tc US-Canadian bordcrlands o Lhc Pacic NorLh-
wcsL, Korncl Chang dcmonsLraLcs, was a hoLbcd o radical organizing
during Lhc World War I cra, aLLracLing and gcncraLing poliLical discourscs
and pracLiccs across racial dividcs. Tc IndusLrial Workcrs o Lhc World
(IWW), pcrhaps Lhc mosL noLablc and visiblc o Lhcm all, or cxamplc,
cmbraccd Lhc conccpL o inLcrracial working-class inLcrnaLionalism and
cxLollcd Lhc virilc and manly virLucs o SouLh Asian anLicolonial rcvolu-
Lionarics and miliLanL 1apancsc workcrs. Tc rccupcraLion o Asian man-
hood likcwisc prcoccupicd SouLh Asian radicals in Lhc NorLh Amcrican
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I NTRODUCTI ON 27
WcsL, Chang argucs, as Lhcy soughL Lo inciLc an armcd rcvoluLion againsL
Lhc BriLish Fmpirc. AL lcasL in ccrLain radical circlcs, Asian mcn camc Lo
rcprcscnL ncarly Lhc idcal man, cmbodying qualiLicsmasculinc, coura-
gcous, dcLcrmincd, and rcvoluLionaryLhaL challcngcd and undcrmincd
Lhcir hisLorical cminizaLion. Tc poliLical possibiliLics cngcndcrcd by a
common xaLion on rcvoluLionary manhood provcd inhcrcnLly limiLing,
Lhough, Chang concludcs, or nciLhcr Wobblics nor SouLh Asian radicals
could cscapc Lhc binding logic o manlincss and whiLcncss aL Lhc hcarL o
racc, naLion, and cmpirc. Claiming and rcclaiming Asian manhood ulLi-
maLcly challcngcd and rcproduccd racial and gcndcr norms, a poliLical lcs-
son along Lhc lincs LhaL Audrc Iordc would capLurc piLhily: Tc masLcrs
Lools will ncvcr dismanLlc Lhc masLcrs housc.
30
I Wobblics Lappcd inLo circuiLs o knowlcdgc across Lhc Pacicor
cxamplc, by valorizing sLriking 1apancsc workcrs in Hawaiiworkcrs in
Hawaii likcwisc livcd and sLrugglcd in Lranspacic conLcxLs. Bcginning
aL Lhc Lurn o Lhc LwcnLicLh ccnLury, Dcnisc Khor argucs in hcr chapLcr,
Dangcrous AmuscmcnLs, planLaLion workcrs in Hawaii orgcd a coun-
Lcrpublic in parL Lhrough Lhc consumpLion o popular lms, imporLcd
iniLially rom 1apan and incrcasingly rom Hollywood. SilcnL lms, inLro-
duccd Lo Hawaii by 1apancsc migranL cnLrcprcncurs and LranslaLcd inLo
Lhc local conLcxL by a casL o livc narraLors and musicians, produccd,
according Lo Khor, a homosocial spacc whcrc planLaLion workcrs could
congrcgaLc and culLivaLc a common consciousncss criLical o Lhc planLa-
Lion hicrarchy. ParLicularly in Lhc aLcrmaLh o spccLacular planLaLion
sLrikcs, which Lransormcd 1apancsc-owncd movic LhcaLcrs inLo union
halls and makcshiL homcs or cvicLcd workcrs and Lhcir amilics, Lhc
planLcr cliLc camc Lo scc Lhc nccd Lo rcgulaLc and Lo supprcss Lhc LhcaLcrs
prcscncc and inucncc in Lhc islands. Hawaiis cliLc, howcvcr, could ncvcr
dicLaLc Lhc Lcrms o culLural consumpLion and LranslaLion on Lhc ground,
Khor concludcs, or workcrs rcjccLcd Lhc cducaLional lms avorcd by Lhcir
cmploycrs and subvcrLcd Lhc racial and impcrial mcssagcs aL Lhc hcarL o
Lhc Amcrican WcsLcrn. IL was ironically Lhrough silcnL WcsLcrn lms, a
culLural archcLypc o US impcrial cxpansion, LhaL 1apancsc and Filipino
workcrs dcvclopcd a radical working-class culLurc LhaL planLcrs ound so
LhrcaLcning.
Tc Lhird sccLion, Forging MulLiracial FronLs, shiLs Lhc ocus gco-
graphically Lo Lhc conLincnLal UniLcd SLaLcs and chronologically Lo Lhc
os, whcn Lhosc on Lhc lcL wagcd a vibranL movcmcnL Lo conLcsL and
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28 MOON- HO J UNG
rcdcnc sLaLc powcr Lo challcngc whiLc suprcmacy. In his capLivaLing
accounL o Lhrcc anarchisLs, Kcnyon Zimmcr rcvcals how Lhcy subvcrLcd
US immigraLion laws Lo claim and proclaim Lhcir sLaLclcssncss and Lo
rcjccL a primary wagc o whiLcncss: inclusion in Lhc US naLion-sLaLc.
Branding and racializing Shmucl Marcus (Marcus Craham), Domcnico
SalliLLo, and Vinccnzo Fcrrcro as anarchisLs, Lhc US sLaLc aLLcmpLcd Lo
dcporL Lhcm, buL Lhc anarchisLs rcuscd Lo play along. In placcs such as
San Francisco, Zimmcr argucs, anarchisLs orgcd a mulLiracial sLrugglc
againsL Lhc US sLaLc, in parL bccausc US immigraLion laws had posiLioncd
Asians, Mcxicans, and anarchisLs in Lhc samc racializing and racializcd
caLcgorysubjccL Lo cxclusion and dcporLaLion. I Lhc lcgal and poliLical
campaigns in dccnsc o Lhc anarchisLs gcncraLcd widcsprcad supporL
and idcological Lcnsionson Lhc lcL, Lhcy also conLinually rusLraLcd
US ocials. By hiding his placc o origin, in Lhc casc o Marcus, or dis-
scmbling Lhcir radical poliLics, Zimmcr concludcs, Lhc Lhrcc anarchisLs
cxposcd Lhc alsiLy o univcrsal claims Lo naLional sovcrcignLy. Tc cdcral
govcrnmcnL claimcd Lhc auLhoriLy Lo cxpcl anarchisLs, buL iL ailcd Lo nd
Lhc mcans Lo carry ouL LhaL powcr in Lhcsc Lhrcc cascs. Trough Lhcir caL-
and-mousc gamc wiLh Lhc US sLaLc in Lhc os, Zimmcr wriLcs, Marcus,
Fcrrcro, and SalliLLo rcmaincd dcanLly wiLhin, buL noL o, Lhc naLion.
ChrisLina HcaLhcrLon idcnLics similar Lcnsions and dynamics aL work
in souLhcrn Caliornia in Lhc carly ycars o Lhc CrcaL Dcprcssion, whcn
divcrsc and ovcrlapping radical LradiLions convcrgcd Lo makc racc ccn-
Lral Lo working-class sLrugglcs. In Lhc Lhrocs o an cconomic crisis, shc
argucs, workcrs o color, parLicularly Mcxican workcrs, who rcpcaLcdly
crosscd bordcrs and caLcgorics in Lhc capiLalisL landscapcurban and
rural, ciLizcn and alicn, cmploycd and uncmploycdbandcd LogcLhcr
wiLh whiLc allics Lo challcngc prcvailing social rclaLions o producLion
and rcproducLion. Tcy wcrc inspircd and propcllcd Lo acLion noL only
by dirc circumsLanccs buL also by Lhc organizing corLs o Lhc Commu-
nisL ParLy and viLal mcmorics and hisLorics o rcvoluLionary sLrugglcs,
cspccially Lhc Mcxican RcvoluLion. Trough Uncmploycd Councils in Ios
Angclcs and widcsprcad sLrikcs in Lhc surrounding agriculLural clds,
according Lo HcaLhcrLon, working pcoplcs o souLhcrn Caliornia simulLa-
ncously madc claims on Lhc sLaLc or rclic and gcncraLcd radical criLiqucs
o sLaLc rcprcssion aL Lhc hcarL o cmploycrs drivc Lo makc Lhc rcgion a
widc opcn shop. On onc lcvcl, Lhc rcvoluLionary movcmcnL Lo rcdcnc
rclicas a collccLivc dcmand or immcdiaLc susLcnancc and widcr Lrans-
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I NTRODUCTI ON 29
ormaLionsmarkcd an cxLcnsion o Lhc Mcxican RcvoluLion, which, shc
argucs, had mobilizcd Lhc masscs againsL Lhc prcscncc and inucncc o US
capiLal. On anoLhcr lcvcl, HcaLhcrLon adds, iL rcvcalcd Lhc dcpLhs Lo which
Lhc communisL movcmcnL rcsonaLcd wiLh pcoplcs o color in Lhc os,
osLcring radical visions o social jusLicc across racial and naLional dividcs.
Tc ourLh sccLion, Sccing Radical ConnccLions, rcLains Lhc ocus
on Caliornia, Lhc cpiccnLcr o scgrcgaLcd housing, miliLarizcd policing,
and radical organizing in Lhc LwcnLicLh ccnLury, parLicularly aLcr World
War II.
4u
Fmily K. Hobsons cssay Policing Cay IA cxplains cogcnLly
how racc and scxualiLy camc Lo bc scgrcgaLcd spaLially and poliLically
in posLwar Ios Angclcs, a rcccLion and a producL o Lhc policics and
LacLics o Lhc Ios Angclcs Policc DcparLmcnL (IAPD) and o gay acLivisLs
cmbracc o minoriLy idcnLiLy. For dccadcs Lhrough Lhc os, Hobson
obscrvcs, Lhc sLaLc campaign againsL vicc conccnLraLcd on illiciL scx
work and visiblc homoscxual conLacL in working-class ncighborhoods o
color. Whilc middlc-class whiLc mcn ound rcugc in Lhc privaLc spaccs o
whiLc ncighborhoods, quccr spaccs cmcrgcd in racially divcrsc, working-
class ncighborhoods LhaL incrcasingly subjccLcd gay mcn, lcsbians, and
pcoplcs o color Lo policc survcillancc and mass arrcsLs. Tosc hisLorical
conLcxLs, Hobson argucs, gcncraLcd a bric momcnL o radical possibil-
iLy, whcn inLcrracial mobilizaLions againsL Lhc IAPD joinLly conronLcd
Lhc policing o scxualiLy and Lhc policing o racc. Tc insurgcnL poliLics
o conLcsLing Lhc sLaLc, howcvcr, soon gavc way Lo a poliLics o rcspccL-
abiliLy, including among libcral homophilc acLivisLs, who posiLioncd gay
idcnLiLics and communiLicsconccpLually and physicallyas analogous
Lo and Lhcn aparL rom communiLics o color. Tc cnd rcsulL, Hobson con-
cludcs, was a wholcsalc disaggrcgaLion o racc and scxualiLy, a proccss o
hisLorical orgcLLing LhaL has cndurcd and dccpcncd Lhrough Lhc cra o
gay libcraLion and bcyond.
In Carccral MigraLions, Dan Bcrgcr invcsLigaLcs Lhc Lransrcgional
rooLs o black prisoncr radicalism in Lhc ,os, spccically in Lhc ways
black subjccLion and black rcsisLancc camc Lo bc ramcd and undcrsLood
around slavcry. In Lhc wakc o civil righLs lcgislaLion and amid Lhc risc
o Lhc prison indusLrial complcx, hc argucs, black prisoncr acLivisLs inLc-
graLcd Lhcir pcrsonal and amilial backgrounds in Lhc US SouLh and Lhcir
impcnding or immcdiaLc incarccraLion in Caliornia Lo gcncraLc a radical
criLiquc o sLaLc violcncca disciplinary rcgimc o cocrccd mobiliLy and
conncmcnL aL Lhc hcarL o planLaLions in Lhc Old SouLh and o prisons
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30 MOON- HO J UNG
in Lhc Coldcn SLaLc. Tc invocaLion o slavcry by Angcla Davis, Ccorgc
1ackson, Ruchcll Magcc, and many oLhcrs Lo condcmn conLcmporary
imprisonmcnL in Lhc Amcrican WcsL rcprcscnLcd morc Lhan a hisLorical
or liLcrary mcLaphor. IL simulLancously rccallcd a collccLivc black mcmory
and idcnLiLy rooLcd in slavcryand rcsisLancc againsL slavcryand a
largcr hisLory o slavcrys ccnLraliLy Lo Lhc dcvclopmcnL o Lhc UniLcd
SLaLcs and Lhc modcrn world. Trough Lhcir spccchcs, wriLings, and
courLroom dccnscs, Bcrgcr argucs, black prisoncr acLivisLs cngcndcrcd
a pcncLraLing rcbukc o libcral narraLivcs o racc LhaL Lcndcd Lo rcducc and
isolaLc whiLc suprcmacy and whiLc suprcmacisLs Lo Lhc SouLh. Tcy drcw
aLLcnLion Lo Lhc dccp connccLions bcLwccn souLhcrn racial violcncc and
whaL Danicl MarLincz HoSang calls bluc sLaLc racism, a poliLical lcsson,
Bcrgcr illusLraLcs, cnablcd and cmbodicd by black prisoncr acLivisLs own
journcys rom Lhc SouLh Lo Lhc Pacic coasL.
41
Tc Lh and nal sccLion, FighLing a SLaLc o Violcncc, highlighLs
a scrics o Lranspacic movcmcnLs in Lhc 6os and ,os LhaL likcwisc
spawncd radical criLiqucs o Lhc US sLaLcLhc grcaLcsL purvcyor o vio-
lcncc in Lhc world Loday, in MarLin IuLhcr King, 1r.s words. 1udy Tzu-
Chun Wus HypcrvisbiliLy and InvisibiliLy builds on Fdward W. Saids
conccpL o oricnLalismLhaL Lhc producLion o inLcllccLual and culLural
knowlcdgc o Lhc FasL dcncd and jusLicd WcsLcrn colonial idcnLiLy and
auLhoriLyLo inLcrprcL corLs by various womcn rom SouLhcasL Asia
and NorLh Amcrica Lo orgc a global sisLcrhood againsL Lhc US cmpirc.
Trough Lours and concrcnccs in VicLnam and Canada and Lhrough
rcporLs and rcccLions on Lhosc mccLings in radical publicaLions, Wu
argucs, womcn o dicrcnL racial and poliLical backgrounds culLivaLcd
a gcndcrcd analysis o war and cmpirc LhaL cumulaLivcly rcplicaLcd,
invcrLcd, and subvcrLcd an oricnLalisL logicwhaL shc calls radical ori-
cnLalism. Tcir rcndcrings o Lhc FasL during Lhc hcighL o Lhc VicLnam
War xaLcd parLicularly on Lhc promincnL rolcs assumcd by womcn in
SouLhcasL AsiamoLhcrs, wivcs, vicLims, hcroincs, and, pcrhaps mosL
undamcnLally, rcvoluLionarics. WhcLhcr projccLcd by SouLhcasL Asian
womcn Lhcmsclvcs or projccLcd onLo Lhcm by womcn o Lhc WcsL, Lhosc
rcprcscnLaLions, according Lo Wu, produccd ncw idcnLiLics, allianccs, and
discourscs LhaL cxposcd and cxcccdcd racial and naLional boundarics. For
womcn o color in Lhc UniLcd SLaLcs, cspccially Asian Amcrican womcn,
shc argucs, pcrsonal cncounLcrs wiLh sisLcrs rom Asia awakcncd Lhcm
Lo a widcr world o radical possibiliLics.
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I NTRODUCTI ON 31
In Radicalizing CurrcnLs, Simcon Man cxplorcs Lranspacic movc-
mcnLs LhaL allicd and radicalizcd acLivisLs o dicrcnL backgrounds in
mulLiplc localcs. AlLhough inLcndcd Lo diusc Lhc anLiwar movcmcnL on
Lhc homcronL, hc argucs, prcsidcnL Richard M. Nixons policy Lo VicL-
namizc Lhc war in VicLnam drovc anLiwar acLivisLs across Lhc Pacic
Lo Lhc bascs o Lhc US miliLary cmpirc, whcrc Lhcy orgcd allianccs wiLh
local acLivisLs in 1apan, Okinawa, and Lhc Philippincs. Man Lraccs Lhc
LrajccLory o Lhc Pacic Counscling Scrvicc (PCS) in parLicular, an orga-
nizaLion oundcd in 6 Lo lcnd supporL Lo disaccLcd CIs in Lhc Bay
Arca. PCS organizcrs movcd arLhcr and arLhcr Lo Lhc lcL o Lhcir paci-
sL origins in Lhc carly ,os, hc argucs, as Lhcir work wiLh CIs on Lhc
Pacic coasL and Lhcn in Asia and wiLh local poliLical movcmcnLs in Asia
compcllcd Lhcm Lo scc Lhc VicLnam War as a phasc o a largcr hisLory o
Lhc US cmpirc. Tcir organizing corLs in Okinawa and Lhc Philippincs
cspccially cxposcd Lhcm Lo an urgcnL poliLics shapcd by vcxcd hisLorics
o colonialismhisLorics LhaL wcrc, Man suggcsLs, Lhcn bcing clidcd and
rcncwcd Lhrough Lhc US sLaLcs pacLs wiLh Lhc 1apancsc and Philippinc
sLaLcs. Tosc cmcrgcnL inLcrnaLional rclaLions provcd crucial Lo Lhc vio-
lcnL rcprcssion o radical movcmcnLs aooL in Asia, hc concludcs, buL Lhcy
also hclpcd Lo dccpcn global rcvoluLionary allianccs and commiLmcnLs Lo
libcraLc Tird World pcoplcs rom Lhc yokc o racism and impcrialism.
* * *
As I compilcd and cdiLcd Lhis collccLion o cssays, I ound myscl lisLcn-
ing a loL Lo Lhc music o Bluc Scholars. Tis dynamic duo rom ScaLLlc has
bccn rclcasing somc o Lhc mosL radical albums in hip hop ovcr Lhc pasL
dccadc, arLiculaLing a hisLorical apprcciaLion o poliLical sLrugglc and a
global vision o social jusLicc LhaL would makc IoLhrop SLoddard Lurn ovcr
in his gravc. In Lhcir own ways, Lhc cssays collccLcd hcrc dclivcr a similar
mcssagc o hopc, a hopc rooLcd noL in simplc prcscripLions buL in com-
plcx conLradicLions. Tc ninc chapLcrs o Lhc collccLion cmcrgcd in parL
by happcnsLanccwho chosc Lo prcscnL aL Lhc concrcncc, who dccidcd
(and who dcclincd) Lo submiL a rcviscd cssay aLcrwardbuL Lhcy LcsLiy
collccLivcly Lo Lhc nccd Lo rcoricnL Lhc sLudy o racc in US hisLory. By
ocusing on hisLorical momcnLs on Lhc Pacic coasL and across Lhc Pacic,
Lhcy call or inLcrprcLivc ramcworks bcyond parLicular rcgions, naLions,
and cmpircs, noL or a ncw brand o naLional or rcgional cxccpLionalism.
And Lhcrc is a long lisL o Lopics and subjccLs LhaL Lhc collccLion surcly
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32 MOON- HO J UNG
could and should havc addrcsscd, orcmosL among Lhcm Lhc sLrugglcs o
Amcrican Indians Lo grapplc wiLh Lhc dialccLics o racc, sLaLc violcncc, and
radical movcmcnLs. Tcrc is a loL o work Lo bc donc. I anyLhing, I hopc
our collccLion scrvcs as a rcsounding call or ncw hisLorics, gcographics,
and idcnLiLics Loward building ncw radical possibiliLics in Lhc LwcnLy-rsL
ccnLury. TaL is my hopc.
Dianc C. Fujino, Samura among Panthers. Rchard Aok on Race, Resstance, and a
Paradoxca| Lje (Minncapolis: UnivcrsiLy o MinncsoLa Prcss, :o:), , . I Lhank
Ccorgc Quibuycn (Ccologic) o Bluc Scholars or allowing mc Lo quoLc rom Opcn-
ing Salvo.
: Fujino, Samura among Panthers, :,,.
ScLh Roscncld, AcLivisL Richard Aoki Namcd as InormanL, San Francsco Chronc|e,
AugusL :o, :o:, Trcvor Cricy, Whcn a CclcbraLcd AcLivisL Turns OuL Lo Bc an FBI
InormanL, Truthout, Novcmbcr , :o:, availablc aL LruLh-ouL.org (acccsscd 1anu-
ary , :o). Cricys arLiclc covcrs Lhc varicd rcsponscs Lo Roscnclds chargcs.
IoLhrop SLoddard, Te Rsng Tde oj Co|or aganst whte wor|d-Supremacy (Ncw York:
Charlcs Scribncrs Sons, :o).
Barack Obama, Racc Spccch, March 8, :oo8, hLLp://www.consLiLuLionccnLcr.org/
amorcpcrccLunion/docs/Racc_Spccch_TranscripL.pd (acccsscd April :, :o:).
6 1amcs Mclvin WashingLon, cd., A Testament oj Hope. Te Fssenta| wrtngs oj Martn
Luther Kng, 1r. (San Francisco: HarpcrSanFrancisco, ), :.
, Nikhil Pal Singh, P|ack !s a Country. Race and the 0nnshed Strugg|e jor Lemocracy
(Cambridgc: Harvard UnivcrsiLy Prcss, :oo), 6, WashingLon, Testament oj Hope,
:, :, :8.
8 Tc ollowing Lwo sccLions o Lhc inLroducLion arc adapLcd rom my arLiclc Scdi-
Lious SubjccLs: Racc, SLaLc Violcncc, and Lhc U.S. Fmpirc, 1ourna| oj Asan Amercan
Studes , no. : (1unc :o): ::,.
1ohn Kuo Wci Tchcn, New York bejore Chnatown. Orenta|sm and the Shapng oj Amer-
can Cu|ture, :,,:88. (BalLimorc: 1ohns Hopkins UnivcrsiLy Prcss, ), :o,
Congressona| C|obe, :Lh Congrcss, sL Scssion, 6, 8, SLuarL CrcighLon Millcr,
Te 0nwe|come !mmgrant. Te Amercan !mage oj the Chnese, :,8,:88. (Bcrkclcy:
UnivcrsiLy o Caliornia Prcss, 6), 68o, Cary Y. Okihiro, Margns and Man-
streams. Asans n Amercan Hstory and Cu|ture (ScaLLlc: UnivcrsiLy o WashingLon
Prcss, ), o, Bradord Pcrkins, Te Cambrdge Hstory oj Amercan Foregn Re|a-
tons, vol. , Te Creaton oj a Repub|can Fmpre, :,,:8, (Cambridgc: Cambridgc
UnivcrsiLy Prcss, ), :o.
o FxLcnsion o Amcrican CommcrccProposcd Mission Lo 1apan and Corca, :8Lh
Congrcss, :nd Scssion, Housc o RcprcscnLaLivcs DocumcnL 8, :, WalLcr IaFc-
bcr, Te C|ash. A Hstory oj 0.S.-1apan Re|atons (Ncw York: W. W. NorLon and Com-
pany, ,), ,, New York Tmes, 1uly , 8.
Wm. H. RobcrLson Lo SccrcLary o SLaLc William I. Marcy, AugusL 6, 8, Lh Con-
grcss, sL Scssion, ScnaLc FxccuLivc DocumcnL , , Wm. H. RobcrLson Lo SccrcLary
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I NTRODUCTI ON 33
o SLaLc William I. Marcy, 1uly :,, 8, Lh Congrcss, sL Scssion, Housc FxccuLivc
DocumcnL o, 68, Sidncy W. MinLz, Sweetness and Power. Te P|ace oj Sugar n Modern
Hstory (Ncw York: Pcnguin Books, 8), 6,:.
: Moon-Ho 1ung, Coo|es and Cane. Race, Labor, and Sugar n the Age oj Fmancpaton
(BalLimorc: 1ohns Hopkins UnivcrsiLy Prcss, :oo6), (quoLcs rom :6 and o).
1ung, Coo|es and Cane, 8 (quoLc rom ,).
IaFcbcr, C|ash, ,:.
RcporL o Lhc SccrcLary o Lhc Navy, Dcccmbcr , 866, Lh Congrcss, :nd Scs-
sion, Housc FxccuLivc DocumcnL , , 6, Cordon H. Chang, Whosc Barbarism`
Whosc Trcachcry` Racc and CivilizaLion in Lhc Unknown UniLcd SLaLcsKorca War
o 8,, 1ourna| oj Amercan Hstory 8, no. (March :oo): , 8, Ccorgc M.
Robcson, RcporL o Lhc SccrcLary o Lhc Navy, Novcmbcr :, 8,, :nd Congrcss,
:nd Scssion, Housc FxccuLivc DocumcnL , ParL , , :.
6 Chang, Whosc Barbarism` Whosc Trcachcry` 6 (quoLcs rom and
6), 1no. Rodgcrs Lo Ccorgc M. Robcson, 1unc , 8,, :nd Congrcss, :nd Scssion,
Housc FxccuLivc DocumcnL , ParL , :,6.
, Cary Y. Okihiro, Cane Fres. Te Ant-1apanese Movement n Hawa, :8,:,, (Phila-
dclphia: Tcmplc UnivcrsiLy Prcss, ), , Moon-Kic 1ung, Reworkng Race. Te
Makng oj Hawas !nterraca| Labor Movement (Ncw York: Columbia UnivcrsiLy Prcss,
:oo6), :, Fric T. I. Iovc, Race over Fmpre. Racsm and 0.S. !mpera|sm, :8,:,oo
(Chapcl Hill: UnivcrsiLy o NorLh Carolina Prcss, :oo), , (Blainc quoLc rom
).
8 1ung, Coo|es and Cane, :8.
Ccorgc AnLhony Pccr, !j Tey Lont Prng Ter women Here. Chnese Fema|e !mmgra-
ton bejore Fxc|uson (Urbana: UnivcrsiLy o Illinois Prcss, ), , 1ung, Coo|es
and Cane, o, 8, Chang, Whosc Barbarism` Whosc Trcachcry` 6:.
:o W. F. B. Du Bois, wrtngs. Te Suppresson oj the Ajrcan S|ave-Trade, Te Sou|s oj P|ack
Fo|k, Lusk oj Lawn, Fssays and Artc|es (Ncw York: Iibrary o Amcrica, 86), ,:, W.
F. B. Du Bois, Larkwater. voces jrom wthn the ve| (Ncw York: WashingLon Squarc
Prcss, :oo), , 6.
: NaLhan Millcr, Te 0.S. Navy. A Hstory, rd cd. (Annapolis, MD: Naval InsLiLuLc
Prcss, ,), , New York Tmes, May :, , ,, 8, 88, Los Ange|es Tmes, May ,
88.
:: Brian McAllisLcr Iinn, Te Ph|ppne war, :8,,:,o. (Iawrcncc: UnivcrsiLy Prcss
o Kansas, :ooo), 8:, Paul A. Kramcr, Te P|ood oj Covernment. Race, Fmpre, the
0nted States, and the Ph|ppnes (Chapcl Hill: UnivcrsiLy o NorLh Carolina Prcss,
:oo6), ,, Alrcd W. McCoy, Policing Lhc Impcrial Pcriphcry: Philippinc Paci-
caLion and Lhc Risc o Lhc U.S. NaLional SccuriLy SLaLc, in Co|ona| Crucb|e. Fmpre
n the Makng oj the Modern Amercan State, cd. Alrcd W. McCoy and Francisco A.
Scarano (Madison: UnivcrsiLy o Wisconsin Prcss, :oo), o6.
: Kramcr, P|ood oj Covernment, 8 (McKinlcy quoLc, o).
: Willard B. CaLcwood, 1r., Smoked Yankees and the Strugg|e jor Fmpre. Letters jrom
Negro So|ders, :8,8:,o. (FaycLLcvillc: UnivcrsiLy o Arkansas Prcss, 8,), :,, :8o,
New York Tmes, ScpLcmbcr :, 8.
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34 MOON- HO J UNG
: New York Tmes, April , 8, Kramcr, P|ood oj Covernment, :::, David R. Rocdi-
gcr, Towards the Abo|ton oj whteness. Fssays on Race, Po|tcs, and workng C|ass Hs-
tory (Iondon: Vcrso, ), ,:o.
:6 Kramcr, P|ood oj Covernment, o, (vcLcrans quoLcs, ), New York Tmes, Novcm-
bcr , 8, CaLcwood,Smoked Yankees, o.
:, Iinn, Te Ph|ppne war, :, Kramcr, P|ood oj Covernment, :, BcncdicL
Andcrson, 0nder Tree F|ags. Anarchsm and the Ant-Co|ona| !magnaton (Iondon:
Vcrso, :oo), 6.
:8 Iinn, Ph|ppne war, , New York Tmes, Novcmbcr and ScpLcmbcr :6, 8.
: Andcrson, 0nder Tree F|ags, ,8, New York Tmes, ScpLcmbcr :, 8.
o Kramcr, P|ood oj Covernment, ,, McCoy, Policing Lhc Impcrial Pcriphcry, o8,
1oan M. 1cnscn, Army Surve||ance n Amerca, :,,,:,8o (Ncw Havcn, CT: Yalc Uni-
vcrsiLy Prcss, ), oo.
1cnscn, Army Surve||ance n Amerca, :, McCoy, Policing Lhc Impcrial Pcriphcry,
o8, SLuarL CrcighLon Millcr,Te Penevo|ent Assm|aton. Te Amercan Conquest oj
the Ph|ppnes, :8,,:,o (Ncw Havcn, CT: Yalc UnivcrsiLy Prcss, 8:), : (TaL
quoLcs), Paul Kramcr, Tc WaLcr Curc, New Yorker, Fcbruary :, :oo8, 8.
: Fric Rauchway, Murderng McKn|ey. Te Makng oj Teodore Rooseve|ts Amerca (Ncw
York: Hill and Wang, :oo), ,o, New York Tmes, Dcccmbcr , o.
Te Statutes at Large oj the 0nted States oj Amerca, jrom Lecember, :,o:, to March,
:,o, vol. :, parL (WashingLon, DC: CovcrnmcnL PrinLing Occ, o), :,
::, Amy Dru SLanlcy, From Pondage to Contract. wage Labor, Marrage, and the Mar-
ket n the Age oj S|ave Fmancpaton (Cambridgc: Cambridgc UnivcrsiLy Prcss, 8),
Iucy F. Salycr, Laws Harsh as Tgers. Chnese !mmgrants and the Shapng oj Modern
!mmgraton Law (Chapcl Hill: UnivcrsiLy o NorLh Carolina Prcss, ), Nayan
Shah, Contagous Lvdes. Fpdemcs and Race n San Francscos Chnatown (Bcrkclcy:
UnivcrsiLy o Caliornia Prcss, :oo), Frika Icc, At Amercas Cates. Chnese !mmgra-
ton durng the Fxc|uson Fra, :88.:, (Chapcl Hill: UnivcrsiLy o NorLh Carolina
Prcss, :oo).
New York Tmes, Dcccmbcr , o, Danicl KansLroom, Leportaton Naton. Outsd-
ers n Amercan Hstory (Cambridgc, MA: Harvard UnivcrsiLy Prcss, :oo,), 66,
Statutes at Large, ::::.
Statutes at Large, ::o.
6 KansLroom, Leportaton Naton, o, Chac Chan Ping v. UniLcd SLaLcs, o US
8 (88), Fong Yuc Ting v. UniLcd SLaLcs, Wong Quan v. UniLcd SLaLcs, Icc 1oc v.
UniLcd SLaLcs, US 68 (8).
, Mac M. Ngai, !mpossb|e Subects. !||ega| A|ens and the Makng oj Modern Amerca
(PrinccLon: PrinccLon UnivcrsiLy Prcss, :oo), William PrcsLon, 1r., A|ens and Ls-
senters. Federa| Suppresson oj Radca|s, :,o:,, :nd cd. (Urbana: UnivcrsiLy o
Illinois Prcss, ), 1oshua Bloom and Waldo F. MarLin, 1r., P|ack aganst Fmpre.
Te Hstory and Po|tcs oj the P|ack Panther Party (Bcrkclcy: UnivcrsiLy o Caliornia
Prcss, :o), (Hoovcr quoLc).
8 Michacl Omi and Howard WinanL, Raca| Formaton n the 0nted States. From the
:,os to the :,8os (Ncw York: RouLlcdgc, 86), 68, ,, ,, 8: (cmphascs in original).
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I NTRODUCTI ON 35
Audrc Iordc, Sster Outsder (Bcrkclcy: Crossing Prcss, 8), o.
o Scc, c.g., Mikc Davis, Cty oj Quartz. Fxcavatng the Future n Los Ange|es (Ncw York:
Vcrso, :oo6), Mark Wild, Street Meetng. Mu|tethnc Neghborhoods n Far|y Twen-
teth-Century Los Ange|es (Bcrkclcy: UnivcrsiLy o Caliornia Prcss, :oo), ScoLL
Kurashigc, Te Shjtng Crounds oj Race. P|ack and 1apanese Amercans n the Makng
oj Mu|tethnc Los Ange|es (PrinccLon: PrinccLon UnivcrsiLy Prcss, :oo8), 1oo H.
CosLa Vargas, Catchng He|| n the Cty oj Ange|s. Lje and Meanngs oj P|ackness n South
Centra| Los Ange|es (Minncapolis: UnivcrsiLy o MinncsoLa Prcss, :oo6), RuLh Wilson
Cilmorc, Co|den Cu|ag. Prsons, Surp|us, Crss, and Opposton n C|oba|zng Ca|jorna
(Bcrkclcy: UnivcrsiLy o Caliornia Prcss, :oo,).
Danicl MarLincz HoSang, Raca| Propostons. Pa||ot !ntatves and the Makng oj Post-
war Ca|jorna (Bcrkclcy: UnivcrsiLy o Caliornia Prcss, :oo), :6.
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