SC B6 CrapBook Ver 2

Prepared by: Kaisha Balkish
Form: 2A3
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SCIENCE SCRAPBOOK: FORM 2 (SMK ASSUNTA)
Technological Devices which are suitable to overcome the limitations of sight and hearing.
Table of Contents
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
.
3
lNTRODUCTlON
4
Chapter l: VlSlON AlDS 5
l.lTelescope
l.l.l History
l.l.2 Types of telescope
l.2Microscope
l.2.l History
l.2.2 Types
l.3Binoculars
l.3.l Applications
l.3.l.l General Use
l.3.l.2 Range Finding
l.3.l.3 Military
l.3.l.4 Astronomical
l.4Periscope
l.4.l Early Examples
l.4.2 Armored Vehicle Periscopes
l.4.3 Naval Use
6
7
8
l0
ll
l3
l4
l6
l7
l8
l9
Chapter 2: HEARlNG AlDS 20
2.lStethoscope
2.l.l History
2.l.2 Types of stethoscope
2.2Hearing Aid
2.2.l Types
2.2.l.l Body worn aids
2.2.l.2 Behind the ear aids (BTE)
2.2.l.3 ln the ear aids (lTE)
2.2.l.4 lnvisible in canal hearing aids
2.2.l.5 Extended wear hearing aids
2l
22
23
24
25
26
27
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2.2.l.6 Open-fit devices
2.2.l.7 Disposable hearing aids
2.3Headphones (Earphones)
2.3.l History
2.3.2 Applications
2.3.3 Ear-fitting headphones
2.3.3.l Earbuds
2.3.3.2 ln-ear headphones
2.4Loudspeaker
2.4.l Terminology
2.4.2 History
2.4.3 Subwoofer
2.4.4 Woofer
28
29
30
3l
32
33
34
Chapter 3: Conclusion
36
REFERENCES
..
37
APPENDlCES
..
38
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
l'd like to first thank my teacher Pn. Maragatam for giving us a very interesting topic
to do a scrapbook on. Her guide has been very helpful throughout the process and
l've learned a lot in her class. This topic has opened my eyes to some very new
technologies in the field of science and medicine.
Many thanks to my parents for giving me the support and help l needed to complete
this project in time. l wouldn't have been able to produce a great scrapbook without
their financial support and moral support. They have been very patient and have
been by my side as my walking dictionary for the whole time.
My deepest gratitude to my supporting peers and friends, whom have motivated me
to do my best for this project. We have all spent our time to compare and reflect on
each other's work and by doing so, having a healthy sense of competition that only
helps to improve our work.
Lastly, l wish to thank myself for having the initiative to do a scrapbook that better
reflect me as a good student and a good person. l can only hope that my scrapbook
will be beneficial to whoever wish to use it as an academic reference to my related
topic.
Thanks for reading.
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INTRODUCTION
lt is through our sensory organs that we are able to detect changes around us the
smell of food, the music and the laughter of people around us. We respond to these
changes readily by joining in the celebration.
Our five senses are very important to us. They help us to be sensitive to the changes
around us. These changes in the surroundings are known as stimuli. Light, sound
and smell are examples of stimuli. We use our sensory organs to detect stimuli.
There are certain things that the naked eyes cannot see or a human ear cannot
hear, so we use devices to overcome these limitations by our sensory organs.
Devices such as the periscope help to allow us to view distant object from a different
angle at 360, similar to a chameleon. Other devices such as the ultrasound assists
doctors to view internal organs and most commonly used to diagnose pregnant
moms.
Focusing on two primary sensory organs; the eyes and the ears, this scrapbook will
define what advanced devices that our present society use for functional purposes
and deliberate on each devices to how they work with the human sensory organ.
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1.0 VISION AIDS
l.l TELESCOPE
A telescope is an instrument that aids in the observation of remote objects by
collecting electromagnetic radiation (such as visible light). The first known practical
telescopes were invented in the Netherlands at the beginning of the l7th century,
using glass lenses. They found use in terrestrial applications and astronomy.
Within a few decades, the reflecting telescope was
invented, which used mirrors. ln the 20th century many
new types of telescopes were invented, including radio
telescopes in the l930s and infrared telescopes in the
l960s. The word telescope now refers to a wide range of
instruments detecting different regions of the
electromagnetic spectrum, and in some cases other types
of detectors.
The word "telescope" (from the Greek Xs, tele "far" and okonsv, skopein "to look
or see"; qXsokno, teleskopos "far-seeing") was coined in l6ll by the Greek
mathematician Giovanni Demisiani for one of Galileo Galilei's instruments presented
at a banquet at the Accademia dei Lincei. ln the Starry Messenger Galileo had used
the term "perspicillum".
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1.1.1 History
The earliest recorded working telescopes were the refracting telescopes that
appeared in the Netherlands in l608. Their development is credited to three
individuals: Hans Lippershey and Zacharias Janssen, who were spectacle makers in
Middelburg, and Jacob Metius of Alkmaar. Galileo heard about the Dutch telescope
in June l609, built his own within a month, and greatly improved upon the design in
the following year.
The idea that the objective, or light-gathering element, could be a mirror instead of a
lens was being investigated soon after the invention of the refracting telescope. The
potential advantages of using parabolic mirrorsreduction of spherical aberration
and no chromatic aberrationled to many proposed designs and several attempts to
build reflecting telescopes. ln l668, lsaac Newton built the first practical reflecting
telescope, of a design which now bears his name, the Newtonian reflector.
The invention of the achromatic lens in l733 partially
corrected color aberrations present in the simple lens and
enabled the construction of shorter, more functional refracting
telescopes. Reflecting telescopes, though not limited by the
color problems seen in refractors, were hampered by the use
of fast tarnishing speculum metal mirrors employed during
the l8th and early l9th centurya problem alleviated by the
introduction of silver coated glass mirrors in l857, and aluminized mirrors in l932.
The maximum physical size limit for refracting telescopes is about l meter (40
inches), dictating that the vast majority of large optical researching telescopes built
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since the turn of the 20th century have been reflectors. The largest reflecting
telescopes currently have objectives larger than l0 m (33 feet).
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1.1.2 Types of telescope
The name "telescope" covers a wide range of instruments. Most detect
electromagnetic radiation, but there are major differences in how astronomers must
go about collecting light (electromagnetic radiation) in different frequency bands.
Telescopes may be classified by the wavelengths of light they detect:
X-ray telescopes, using shorter wavelengths than ultraviolet light
Ultraviolet telescopes, using shorter wavelengths than visible light
Optical telescopes, using visible light
lnfrared telescopes, using longer wavelengths than visible light
Submillimetre telescopes, using longer wavelengths than infrared light
As wavelengths become longer, it becomes easier to use antenna technology to
interact with electromagnetic radiation (although it is possible to make very tiny
antenna). The near-infrared can be handled much like visible light, however in the
far-infrared and submillimetre range, telescopes can operate more like a radio
telescope. For example the James Clerk Maxwell Telescope observes from
wavelengths from 3 m (0.003 mm) to 2000 m (2 mm), but uses a parabolic
aluminum antenna. On the other hand, the Spitzer Space Telescope, observing from
about 3 m (0.003 mm) to l80 m (0.l8 mm) uses a mirror (reflecting optics). Also
using reflecting optics, the Hubble Space Telescope with Wide Field Camera 3 can
observe from about 0.2 m (0.0002 mm) to l.7 m (0.00l7 mm) (from ultra-violet to
infrared light).[ll]
Fresnel lmager, an optical lens technology
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X-ray optics, optics for certain x-ray wavelengths
Another threshold in telescope design, as photon energy
increases (shorter wavelengths and higher frequency) is the
use of fully reflecting optics rather than glancing-incident
optics. Telescopes such as TRACE and SOHO use special
mirrors to reflect Extreme ultraviolet, producing higher
resolution and brighter images then otherwise possible. A larger aperture does not
just mean more light is collected; it is collected at a higher diffraction limit.
Telescopes may also be classified by location: ground telescope, space telescope,
or flying telescope. They may also be classified by whether they are operated by
professional astronomers or amateur astronomers. A vehicle or permanent campus
containing one or more telescopes or other instruments is called an observatory.
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l.2 Microscope
A microscope (from the Ancient Greek: ikp,
mikrs, "small" and okonsv, skopen, "to look" or
"see") is an instrument used to see objects that are
too small for the naked eye. The science of
investigating small objects using such an
instrument is called microscopy. Microscopic
means invisible to the eye unless aided by a
microscope.
There are many types of microscopes, the most
common and first to be invented is the optical
microscope which uses light to image the sample. Other major types of microscopes
are the electron microscope (both the transmission electron microscope and the
scanning electron microscope) and the various types of scanning probe microscope.
1.2.1 History
The first microscope to be developed was the
optical microscope, although the original inventor is
not easy to identify. An early microscope was made
in l590 in Middelburg, Netherlands. Two eyeglass
makers are variously given credit: Hans Lippershey
(who developed an early telescope) and Zacharias Janssen. Giovanni Faber coined
the name microscope for Galileo Galilei's compound microscope in l625 (Galileo
had called it the "occhiolino" or "little eye").
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1.2.2 Types
Microscopes can be separated into several different classes. One grouping is based
on what interacts with the sample to generate
the image, i.e., light or photons(optical
microscopes), electrons (electron microscopes)
or a probe (scanning probe microscopes).
Alternatively, microscopes can be classed on
whether they analyse the sample via a scanning
point (confocal optical microscopes, scanning
electron microscopes and scanning probe microscopes) or analyse the sample all at
once (wide field optical microscope and transmission electron microscopes).
Wide field optical microscopes and
transmission electron microscopes use
the theory of lenses (optics for light
microscopes and electromagnet lenses
for electron microscopes) in order to
magnify the image generated by the
passage of a wave transmitted through
the sample, or reflected by the sample. The waves used are electromagnetic (in
optical microscopes) or electron beams (in electron microscopes). Resolution in
these microscopes is limited by the wavelength of the radiation used to image the
sample, where shorter wavelengths allow for a higher resolution.
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Scanning optical and electron microscopes, like the confocal microscope and
scanning electron microscope, use lenses to focus a spot of light or electrons onto
the sample then analyze the reflected or transmitted waves. The point is then
scanned over the sample to analyze a rectangular region. Magnification of the image
is achieved by displaying the data from scanning a physically small sample area on a
relatively large screen. These microscopes have the same resolution limit as wide
field optical, probe, and electron microscopes.
Scanning probe microscopes also analyze a
single point in the sample and then scan the
probe over a rectangular sample region to build
up an image. As these microscopes do not use
electromagnetic or electron radiation for
imaging they are not subject to the same
resolution limit as the optical and electron
microscopes described above.
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l.3 Binoculars
Binoculars, field glasses or binocular
telescopes are a pair of identical or
mirror-symmetrical telescopes mounted
side-by-side and aligned to point
accurately in the same direction,
allowing the viewer to use both eyes
(binocular vision) when viewing distant objects. Most are sized to be held using both
hands, although sizes vary widely from opera glasses to large pedestal mounted
military models. Many different abbreviations are used for binoculars, including
glasses, nocs, noculars, binos and bins.
Unlike a (monocular) telescope, binoculars give users a three-dimensional image: for
nearer objects the two views, presented to each of the viewer's eyes from slightly
different viewpoints, produce a merged view with an impression of depth.
1.3.1 Applications
1.3.1.1 General Use
Hand-held binoculars range from small 3 l0
Galilean opera glasses, used in theaters, to
glasses with 7 to l2 diameters magnification and
30 to 50 mm objectives for typical outdoor use.
Many tourist attractions have installed pedestal-mounted, coin-operated binoculars
to allow visitors to obtain a closer view of the attraction.
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1.3.1.2 Range Finding
Many binoculars have range finding reticle (scale) superimposed upon the view. This
scale allows the distance to the object to be estimated if the object's height is known
(or estimable). The common mariner 750 binoculars have these scales with the
angle between marks equal to 5 mil.[l6] One mil is equivalent to the angle between
the top and bottom of an object one meter in height at a distance of l000 meters.
Therefore to estimate the distance to an object that is a known height the formula is:
where:
is the Distance to the object in meters.
is the known Object Height.
is the angular height of the object in number of Mil.
With the typical 5 mil scale (each mark is 5 mil), a lighthouse that is 3 marks high
that is known to be l20 meters tall is 8000 meters distance.
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1.3.1.3 Military
Binoculars have a long history of military use.
Galilean designs were widely used up to the end of
the l9th century when they gave way to porro prism
types. Binoculars constructed for general military
use tend to be more rugged than their civilian counterparts. They generally avoid
fragile center focus arrangements in favor of independent focus, which also makes
for easier, more effective weatherproofing. Prism sets in military binoculars may
have redundant aluminized coatings on their prism sets to guarantee they don't lose
their reflective qualities if they get wet.
One variant form was called "trench binoculars", a combination of binoculars and
periscope, often used for artillery spotting purposes. lt projected only a few inches
above the parapet, thus keeping the viewer's head safely in the trench.
Military binoculars of the Cold War era were sometimes fitted with passive sensors
that detected active lR emissions, while modern
ones usually are fitted with filters blocking laser
beams used as weapons. Further, binoculars
designed for military usage may include a
stadiametric reticle in one ocular in order to facilitate range estimation.
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There are binoculars designed specifically for civilian and military use at sea. Hand
held models will be 5 to 7 but with very large prism sets combined with eyepieces
designed to give generous eye relief. This optical
combination prevents the image vignetting or going
dark when the binoculars are pitching and vibrating
relative to the viewer's eye. Large, high-
magnification models with large objectives are also used in fixed mountings.
Very large binocular naval rangefinders (up to l5 meters separation of the two
objective lenses, weight l0 tons, for ranging World War ll naval gun targets 25 km
away) have been used, although late-20th century technology made this application
redundant.
1.3.1.4 Astronomical
Binoculars are widely used by amateur astronomers; their wide field of view makes
them useful for comet and supernova seeking (giant binoculars) and general
observation (portable binoculars). Binoculars specifically geared towards
astronomical viewing will have larger aperture
objectives (in the 70 mm or 80 mm range) because
the diameter of the objective lens increases the
total amount of light captured, and therefore
determines the faintest star that can be observed.
Binoculars designed specifically for astronomical viewing (often 80 mm and larger)
are sometimes designed without prisms in order to allow maximum light
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transmission. Such binoculars also usually have changeable eyepieces to vary
magnification. Binoculars with high magnification and heavy weight usually require
some sort of mount to stabilize the image. l0x is generally considered the practical
limit for observation with handheld binoculars. Binoculars more powerful than l570
require support of some type. Much larger binoculars have been made by amateur
telescope makers, essentially using two refracting or reflecting astronomical
telescopes.
l.4 Periscope
A periscope is an instrument for observation from a concealed position. ln its
simplest form it consists of an outer case with mirrors at each end set parallel to
each other at a 45-degree angle. This form of periscope, with the addition of two
simple lenses, served for observation purposes in the trenches during World War l.
Military personnel also use periscopes in some gun turrets and in armoured vehicles.
More complex periscopes, using prisms instead of
mirrors, and providing magnification, operate on
submarines. The overall design of the classical
submarine periscope is very simple: two telescopes
pointed into each other. lf the two telescopes have
different individual magnification, the difference
between them causes an overall magnification or
reduction.
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1.4.1 Early Eamples
Johannes Gutenberg, better known for his
contribution to printing technology, marketed a kind
of periscope in the l430s to enable pilgrims to see
over the heads of the crowd at the vigintennial
religious festival at Aachen. Johannes Hevelius
described an early periscope with lenses in l647 in his work Selenographia, sive
Lunae descriptio [Selenography, or an account of the Moon]. Hevelius saw military
applications for his invention.
ln l854 Hippolyte Mari-Davy invented the first naval periscope, consisting of a
vertical tube with two small mirrors fixed at each end at 45. Simon Lake used
periscopes in his submarines in l902. Sir Howard Grubb perfected the device in
World War l. Morgan Robertson (l86ll9l5) claimed to have tried to patent the
periscope: he described a submarine using a
periscope in his fictional works.
Periscopes, in some cases fixed to rifles, served in
World War l to enable soldiers to see over the tops
of trenches, thus avoiding exposure to enemy fire
(especially from snipers).
Later, during World War ll, specifically
manufactured periscope binoculars with different
mountings were used by artillery observers and
officers. Some of them also allowed estimating the
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distance to a target, as they were designed as stereoscopic rangefinders. Some
periscopes can be used on playgrounds.
1.4.2 Armored !e"icle #eriscopes
Tanks use periscopes extensively: they enable drivers or
tank commanders to inspect their situation without leaving
the safety of the tank. An important development, the
Gundlach rotary periscope, incorporated a rotating top;
this allowed a tank commander to obtain a 360-degree
field of view without moving his seat. This design,
patented by Rudolf Gundlach in l936, first saw use in the
Polish 7-TP light tank (produced from l935 to l939). As a part of PolishBritish pre-
World War ll military cooperation, the patent was sold to Vickers-Armstrong for use
in British tanks, including the Crusader, Churchill, Valentine, and Cromwell models.
The technology was also transferred to the American Army for use in its tanks,
including the Sherman. The USSR later copied the design and used it extensively in
its tanks (including the T-34 and T-70); Germany also made and used copies.
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1.4.3 $a%al Use
Periscopes allow a submarine, when submerged at a shallow depth, to search
visually for nearby targets and threats on the
surface of the water and in the air. When not in use,
a submarine's periscope retracts into the hull. A
submarine commander in tactical conditions must
exercise discretion when using his periscope, since
it creates a visible wake (and may also become
detectable by radar), giving away the sub's position.
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2.0 HEARING AIDS
A person with a normal sense of hearing can only detect sounds between 20 Hz and
20 000 Hz (hertz). Different people have different ranges of hearing. As we grow
older, our range of hearing decreases. There is also a limit to how far our ear is able
to hear sounds from a distance. We also cannot hear very soft sounds like our
heartbeat. We can overcome these limitations using devices as said below:
2.l Stethoscope
The stethoscope is an acoustic medical device for auscultation, or listening to the
internal sounds of an animal or human body. lt is often used to listen to lung and
heart sounds. lt is also used to listen to
intestines and blood flow in arteries and veins.
ln combination with a sphygmomanometer, it is
commonly used for measurements of blood
pressure. Less commonly, "mechanic's
stethoscopes" are used to listen to internal
sounds made by machines, such as diagnosing
a malfunctioning automobile engine by listening to the sounds of its internal parts.
Stethoscopes can also be used to check scientific vacuum chambers for leaks, and
for various other small-scale acoustic monitoring tasks. A stethoscope that intensifies
auscultatory sounds is called phonendoscope.
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2.1.1 History
The stethoscope was invented in France in l8l6 by Ren
Laennec at the Necker-Enfants Malades Hospital in Paris.
[l] lt consisted of a wooden tube and was monaural. His
device was similar to the common ear trumpet, a historical
form of hearing aid; indeed, his invention was almost
indistinguishable in structure and function from the
trumpet, which was commonly called a "microphone". The
first flexible stethoscope of any sort may have been a
binaural instrument with articulated joints not very clearly described in l829.[2] ln
l840, Golding Bird described a stethoscope he had been using with a flexible tube.
Bird was the first to publish a description of such a stethoscope but he noted in his
paper the prior existence of an earlier design (which he thought was of little utility)
which he described as the snake ear trumpet. Bird's stethoscope had a single
earpiece.[3] ln l85l, lrish physician Arthur Leared invented a binaural stethoscope,
and in l852 George Cammann perfected the design of the instrument for
commercial production, which has become the
standard ever since. Cammann also wrote a major
treatise on diagnosis by auscultation, which the refined
binaural stethoscope made possible. By l873, there
were descriptions of a differential stethoscope that could connect to slightly different
locations to create a slight stereo effect, though this did not become a standard tool
in clinical practice.
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2.1.2 Types of &tet"oscope
Acoustic - Acoustic stethoscopes are familiar to
most people, and operate on the transmission of
sound from the chest piece, via air-filled hollow
tubes, to the listener's ears.
Electronic - An electronic stethoscope (or stethophone) overcomes the low
sound levels by electronically amplifying body sounds.
Recording stethoscope - Some electronic stethoscopes feature direct audio
output that can be used with an external recording device, such as a laptop or
MP3 recorder. The same connection can be used to listen to the previously-
recorded auscultation through the stethoscope headphones, allowing for more
detailed study for general research as well as evaluation and consultation
regarding a particular patient's condition and telemedicine, or remote
diagnosis.
Fetal stethoscope - A fetal stethoscope or fetoscope is an acoustic
stethoscope shaped like a listening trumpet. lt is placed against the abdomen
of a pregnant woman to listen to the heart sounds of the fetus.
Doppler stethoscope - A Doppler
stethoscope is an electronic device which
measures the Doppler effect of ultrasound
waves reflected from organs within the
body.
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2.2 Hearing Aid
A hearing aid is an electroacoustic device which typically fits in or behind the
wearer's ear, and is designed to amplify and
modulate sound for the wearer. Earlier devices,
known as ear trumpets or ear horns, were passive
funnel-like amplification cones designed to gather
sound energy and direct it into the ear canal. Similar
devices include the bone anchored hearing aid, and cochlear implant.
2.2.1 Types
There are many types of hearing aids (also known as hearing instruments), which
vary in size, power and circuitry. Among the different sizes and models are:
2.2.1.1 'ody (orn aids
This was the first type of hearing aid invented by Harvey Fletcher while working at
Bell Laboratories. Body aids consist of a case and an earmold, attached by a wire.
The case contains the electronic amplifier components, controls and battery while
the earmold typically contains a miniature loudspeaker. The case is typically about
the size of a pack of playing cards and is carried in a pocket or on a belt. Without the
size constraints of smaller hearing devices body worn aid designs can provide large
amplification and long battery life at a lower cost. Body aids are still marketed in
emerging markets because of their lower cost.
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2.2.1.2 'e"ind t"e ear aids )'TE*
BTE aids consist of a case, an ear mold or dome and a connection between them.
The case contains the electronics, controls, battery,
microphone(s) and often the loudspeaker.
Generally, the case sits behind the pinna with the
connection from the case coming down the front
into the ear. The sound from the instrument can be routed acoustically or electrically
to the ear. lf the sound is routed electrically, the speaker (receiver) is located in the
ear mold or an open-fit dome, while acoustically coupled instruments use a plastic
tube to deliver the sound from the case's loudspeaker to the ear mold.
2.2.1.3 +n t"e ear aids )+TE*
These devices fit in the outer ear bowl (called the concha); they are sometimes
visible when standing face to face with someone. lTE hearing aids are custom made
to fit each
individual's ear.
They can be used
in mild to some
severe hearing
losses.
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Feedback, a squealing/whistling caused by sound (particularly high frequency
sound) leaking and being amplified again, may be a problem for severe hearing
losses. Some modern circuits are able to provide feedback regulation or cancellation
to assist with this. Venting may also cause feedback. A vent is a tube primarily
placed to offer pressure equalization. However, different vent styles and sizes can be
used to influence and prevent feedback. Traditionally, lTEs have not been
recommended for young children because their fit could not be as easily modified as
the earmold for a BTE, and thus the aid had to be replaced frequently as the child
grew. However, there are new lTEs made from a silicone type material that mitigates
the need for costly replacements. lTE hearing aids can be connected wirelessly to
FM systems, for instance with a body-worn FM receiver with induction neck-loop
which transmits the audio signal from the FM transmitter inductively to the telecoil
inside the hearing instrument.
2.2.1.4 +n%isi,le in canal "earing aids )++-*
This style of hearing aids fits inside the
ear canal completely, leaving little to
no trace of an installed hearing aid
visible. This is because it fits deeper in
the canal than other types, so that it is
out of view even when looking directly
into the ear bowl (concha). A
comfortable fit is achieved because the shell of the aid is custom-made to the
individual ear canal after taking a mould.
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2.2.1.. Etended (ear "earing aids
Extended wear hearing aids are hearing devices that are non-surgically placed in the
ear canal by a hearing professional. The extended wear hearing aid represents the
first "invisible" hearing device. These devices are worn for l3 months at a time
without removal. They are made of soft material designed to contour to each user
and can be used by people with mild to moderately severe hearing loss. Their close
proximity to the ear drum results in improved sound directionality and localization,
reduced feedback, and improved high frequency gain.
2.2.1./ 0pen1fit de%ices
"Open-fit" or "over-the-ear" (OTE) hearing aids are small behind-the-ear type
devices. This type is characterized by a minimal amount of effect on the ear canal
resonances, as it traditionally leaves the ear canal as open as possible, often only
being plugged up by a small speaker resting in the
middle of the ear canal space. Traditionally, these
hearing aids have a small plastic case behind the
ear and a small clear tube running into the ear
canal. lnside the ear canal, a small soft silicone
dome or a molded, highly vented acrylic tip holds
the tube in place. This design is intended to reduce
the occlusion effect.
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2.2.1.2 3isposa,le "earing aids
Disposable hearing aids are hearing aids that have a non-replaceable battery. These
aids are designed to use power sparingly, so that the battery lasts longer than
batteries used in traditional hearing aids. Disposable hearing aids are meant to
remove the task of battery replacement and other maintenance chores (adjustment
or cleanings).
2.3 Headphones (Earphones)
Headphones are a pair of small loudspeakers that are
designed to be held in place close to a user's ears.
Headphones either have wires for connection to a
signal source such as an audio amplifier, radio, CD
player, portable media player or mobile phone, or
have a wireless receiver, which is used to pick up
signal without using a cable. They are sometimes known as earspeakers or,
colloquially, cans. The in-ear versions are also known as earphones or earbuds. ln
the context of
telecommunication, a
headset is a combination of
headphone and microphone.
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2.3.1 History
Headphones originated from the earpiece, and were
the only way to listen to electrical audio signals before
amplifiers were developed. The first truly successful
set was developed by Nathaniel Baldwin, who made
them by hand in his kitchen and sold them to the
United States Navy.
ln early powered radios, the headphone was part of the vacuum tube's plate circuit
and had dangerous voltages on it. lt was normally connected directly to the positive
high voltage battery terminal, and the other battery terminal was securely grounded.
The use of bare electrical connections meant that users could be shocked if they
touched the bare headphone connections while adjusting an uncomfortable headset.
2.3.2 Applications
Headphones may be used both with fixed equipment such as CD or DVD players,
home theater, personal computers and with portable devices (e.g. digital audio
player/mp3 player, mobile phone, etc.).
ln the professional audio sector headphones are used in live situations by disc
jockeys with a DJ mixer and sound engineers for monitoring signal sources. ln radio
studios, DJs use a pair of headphones when talking to the microphone while the
speakers are turned off, to eliminate acoustic feedback and monitor their own voice.
ln studio recordings, musicians and singers use headphones to play along to a
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backing track. ln the military, audio signals of many varieties are monitored using
headphones.
2.3.3 Ear1fitting "eadp"ones
2.3.3.l Earbuds
Earbuds and earphones refer to very small headphones that
are fitted directly in the outer ear, facing but not inserted in the
ear canal; they have no band or other arrangement to fit over
the head. (However, many consumer-quality in-ear-canal systems are also called
earbuds by their manufacturers) The outer-ear earphones are portable and
convenient, but many people consider them to be uncomfortable and prone to falling
out. Various models are available, starting at very low prices. They provide hardly
any acoustic isolation and leave room for ambient noise to seep in; users may turn
up the volume dangerously high to compensate, at the risk of causing hearing loss.
On the other hand, they let the user be better aware of their surroundings. Since the
early days of the transistor radio, earbuds have commonly been bundled with
personal music devices. They are sold at times with foam pads for comfort.
2.3.3.2 ln-ear headphones
ln-ear headphones, like earbuds, are small and without headband, but are inserted
in the ear canal itself. They are sometimes known as
canalphones. Price and quality range from relatively
inexpensive to very high; the better ones are called in-ear
monitors (lEMs) and are used by audio engineers and
musicians as well as audiophiles.
2.4 Loudspeaker
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A loudspeaker (or "speaker") is an electro-acoustic transducer that produces sound
in response to an electrical audio signal input. Non-electrical loudspeakers were
developed as accessories to telephone systems, but electronic amplification by
vacuum tube made loudspeakers more generally useful. The most common form of
loudspeaker uses a paper cone supporting a voice coil electromagnet acting on a
permanent magnet, but many other types exist.
Where high fidelity reproduction of sound is
required, multiple loudspeakers may be used, each
reproducing a part of the audible frequency range.
Miniature loudspeakers are found in devices such
as radio and TV receivers, and many forms of music
players. Larger loudspeaker systems are used for
music, sound reinforcement in theatres and concerts, and in public address systems.
2.4.1 Terminology
The term "loudspeaker" may refer to individual
transducers (known as "drivers") or to complete
speaker systems consisting of an enclosure
including one or more drivers. To adequately
reproduce a wide range of frequencies, most
loudspeaker systems employ more than one driver,
particularly for higher sound pressure level or maximum accuracy. lndividual drivers
are used to reproduce different frequency ranges. The drivers are named
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subwoofers (for very low frequencies); woofers (low frequencies); mid-range
speakers (middle frequencies); tweeters (high frequencies); and sometimes
supertweeters, optimized for the highest audible frequencies. The terms for different
speaker drivers differ, depending on the application. ln two-way systems there is no
mid-range driver, so the task of reproducing the mid-range sounds falls upon the
woofer and tweeter. Home stereos use the designation "tweeter" for the high
frequency driver, while professional concert
systems may designate them as "HF" or "highs".
When multiple drivers are used in a system, a "filter
network", called a crossover, separates the
incoming signal into different frequency ranges and
routes them to the appropriate driver. A
loudspeaker system with n separate frequency
bands is described as "n-way speakers": a two-way
system will have a woofer and a tweeter; a three-
way system employs a woofer, a mid-range, and a
tweeter. Loudspeakers were described as
"dynamic" to distinguish them from the earlier moving iron speaker, or speakers
using piezoelectric or electrostatic systems as opposed to a voice coil that moves
through a steady magnetic field.
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2.4.2 History
Johann Philipp Reis installed an electric loudspeaker in his telephone in l86l; it was
capable of reproducing clear tones, but also could reproduce muffled speech after a
few revisions. Alexander Graham Bell patented his first electric loudspeaker (capable
of reproducing intelligible speech) as part of his telephone in l876, which was
followed in l877 by an improved version
from Ernst Siemens. Nikola Tesla
reportedly made a similar device in l88l,
but he was not issued a patent. During
this time, Thomas Edison was issued a
British patent for a system using
compressed air as an amplifying
mechanism for his early cylinder
phonographs, but he ultimately settled for the familiar metal horn driven by a
membrane attached to the stylus. ln l898, Horace Short patented a design for a
loudspeaker driven by compressed air; he then sold the rights to Charles Parsons,
who was issued several additional British patents before l9l0. A few companies,
including the Victor Talking Machine Company and Path, produced record players
using compressed-air loudspeakers. However, these designs were significantly
limited by their poor sound quality and their inability to reproduce sound at low
volume. Variants of the system were used for public address applications, and more
recently, other variations have been used to test space-equipment resistance to the
very loud sound and vibration levels that the launching of rockets produces.
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2.4.3 &4,(oofer
A subwoofer is a woofer driver used only for
the lowest part of the audio spectrum: typically
below 200 Hz for consumer systems, below
l00 Hz for professional live sound, and below
80 Hz in THX-approved systems. Because the
intended range of frequencies is limited,
subwoofer system design is usually simpler in many respects than for conventional
loudspeakers, often consisting of a single driver enclosed in a suitable box or
enclosure.
2.4.4 5oofer
A woofer is a driver that reproduces low frequencies. The driver combines with the
enclosure design to produce suitable low frequencies. Some loudspeaker systems
use a woofer for the lowest frequencies, sometimes well enough that a subwoofer is
not needed. Additionally, some loudspeakers use the woofer to handle middle
frequencies, eliminating the mid-range driver. This can be accomplished with the
selection of a tweeter that can work low enough that, combined with a woofer that
responds high enough, the two drivers add coherently in the middle frequencies.
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3,0 CONCLUSION
Technology has helped us in many ways. One of it being to overcome the limitations
of our sensory organs; namely our eyes and ears. Without technology, we wouldn't
have been able to discover the stars, the moons, the suns, the planets, and
practically the whole solar system. With technology, we enjoy the luxury of able to
view things right in front of our eyes which we could not have seen with our naked
eyes. They help to magnify objects at microscopic level and has helped so much in
the medical field to a point where it is a very important device to have in any medical
institute. Devices such as microscope and ultrasounds assist doctors and nurses to
diagnose illnesses and health issues for the society and the people as a whole. ln
short, these amazing devices have saved lives, time and energy.
On the other side of the coin, hearing aids such as headphones have increased the
quality of life for our present society thanks to its entertainment value and usefulness
to so many industries. DJs, newscasters, sports pundits and the average teenager
use headphones in their daily lives. Though not many people realize the technology
behind it, nor the history and the people that helps to create it in the beginning, the
device itself has undergo countless changes and upgrades to include better
functions and better quality for the present users.
ln conclusion, the present society has always been using these devices to aid in
hearing and their vision since the early years. We still are using them now and will be
using them in the future for years to come. Perhaps the changes may be trivial or
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even revolutionary, but let's not forget what started it all, because without the
beginning there could be no ending.
REFERENCES
l. en.wikipedia.org
2. www.hearingaids.com.my
3. www.widex.com.my
4. www.visionaid.co.uk
5. www.eschenbach.com
6. Science Form 2 Volume l (Textbook)
7. Advanced English Oxford Dictionary
8. Thesaurus.com
9. Exploring Science Form 2 by Oxford Fajar (reference book)
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APPENDICES
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