Explain working of 2 stroke petrol engine?

Two stroke and four stroke engines are different in the method of filling the cylinder with fresh charge and
also in the removal of burnt gases from the cylinder. In a four stroke engine these processes are performed
by the movement of piston during suction and exhaust stroke. In four stroke engines these are suction and
exhaust valves where as suction (inlet and exhaust (outlet ports are cut in the walls of cylinder.

!hole process of has been shown in "igure. The "igure shows a three channel system in which the fresh
charge is compressed in the crank case of the engine. This is also called crank are compression system.
"igure shows all working of two stroke petrol engine in three stages.
#$Exhaust and Transference%$#
"igure shows the exhaust and transfer process. !hen the piston moves from T&' to (&') i.e. downwards
after expansion of gases) the piston uncovers the exhaust port. The burnt gases start going out of the
cylinder. *imultaneously the slightly compressed charge in the crank case is forced into the cylinder
through transfer port. The deflector on the piston crown deflects this charge and the fresh charge moves in
the upward direction. This fresh charge pushes the burnt gases out of cylinder. &uring this process) some
fresh charge may also leave the cylinder through exhaust ort.+mechtech
#$'ompression$#
!hen the piston moves upwards from (&' to T&') transfer port and exhaust ports are closed.
'ompression of charge) present in the cylinder takes place. &uring this motion the inlet valve open and
fresh charge enters the crank case. !hen the piston reaches T&') compression process is completed.
#$Ignition and Expansion$#
,fter compression) spark plug generates spark and ignition of fuel takes place. -apid rise in pressure and
temperature takes place at constant volume. ,t this stage both transfer port and exhaust port are closed.
Expansion of burnt gases takes place at the piston moves downward from T&' to (&'. The gases push
the piston with great force and power is obtained during this process. *imultaneously) slight compression
of fresh charge) present in crank case takes place.
,fter this process i.e. exhaust and transfer of charge takes place and cycle is repeated again. Thus) the
cycle is completed in two strokes of piston and one revolution of crank shaft. In case of petrol engines)
fresh charge consists of air petrol mixture which comes from carburetor after mixing.
Explain working of two stroke diesel engine?
$!.-/I01 ." T!. *T-./E &IE*E2 E01I0E*%$
!orking of two stroke diesel engines is similar to that of petrol engines
except the following differences%
a "uel in3ector is provided in the cylinder head in place of spark plug.
b .nly air enters the crank case. ,fter slight compression) it is passed to cylinder and compressed in the
cylinder.
c ,t the end of compression strokes fuel in3ector in3ects diesel into compressed air. &ue to high
temperature of air) diesel starts burning.
!orking of "our stroke 4etrol Engine
I' Engines 5!orking of "our stroke 4etrol Engine6
!orking of "our stroke 4etrol Engine? *uction or Intake *troke) 'ompression *troke) !orking or
Expansion or 4ower *troke) Exhaust *troke ##
#7. # Explain working of + stroke petrol engine and diesel engine?
#,ns% #
!.-/I01 ." ".8- *T-./E 4ET-.2 E01I0E%
In four stroke engines) one cycle is completed with completion of four strokes. 9ain features of all the
strokes are discussed below and their sketch is given in "igure.

*uction or Intake *troke%
Initially the piston remains n top dead centre (T&' position) suctionvalve is
open and exhaust valve remains closed. The piston now moves downward
and the petrol and air mixture (charge enters into the cylinder. !hen piston
reaches bottom dead centre ((&'. The cylinderfills with the petrol air
mixture. ,t this moment) suction valve closes. This completes one stroke.
'rank turns by :;<o) i.e. it completes half revolution.
'ompression *troke
(oth the valves (suction and exhaust are closed. The piston moves
upwards from (&' to T&' position. The charge is compressed inside the
cylinder) i.e. its pressure increases and volume decreases. ,long with
pressure temperature also increases. The crank completes next half of
revolution.


!orking or Expansion or 4ower *troke%
!hen the piston reaches the T&' position spark plug generates spark and
the charge is ignited and combustion of mixture takes place. (ecause of
burning of fuel temperature and pressure of gases increases
tremendously.) both the valves remain closed. The gases expand in the
cylinder and push the piston downward and therefore) work is done by the gases on the piston. The crank
revolves and completes next half revolution. The reciprocating motion of the piston is converted into rotary
motion of crank=shaft by piston rod and crank. &uring expansion) volume of gases increases. ,ll the power
for running the engine is obtained during this stroke.

Exhaust *troke%
The suction valve remains closed but exhaust valve opens. The piston
moves from (&' to T&'. The burnt gases are pushed out of the cylinder
due to movement of piston. The cylinder pressure falls down to little above
atmospheric pressure. This completes the next half revolution of the crank.
(y this time) crank shaft completes two revolution and one engine cycle is
completed with the completion of four strokes. ,fter this the same process
is repeated again and again.
4etrol Engine
4etrol Engine #4oints %# 4etrol Engine) what is 4etrol Engine) &efinition of 4etrol Engine 4etrol Engine
provides power to propel the modem Indian vehicle is a petrol=burning) spark=ignition) fours stroke=cycle)
internal combustion engine.4etrol is a fluid fuel also is call through the name gasoline in ,merica. !ith the
purpose of is why the petrol engine is too recogni>ed as gasoline engines. 'apability of petrol to furnish
power rests on the two essential ideologies physics.
:. !hile a gas is fiery) it expands. (ut the volume remnants) the pressure increase according to 'harle?s
law.
2. "laming or ignition is always accompany by the creation of heat.
&iesel Engine
&iesel Engine #4oints %# &iesel Engine) what is &iesel Engine) &efinition of &iesel Engine &iesel Engines is
heavy automobile (similar to buses) trucks) stationary power plants) big industrial units) and ships generally
function on diesel cycle or stable pressure cycle. It is launch via &r. -udolph &iesel in :;@A. &iesel engines
generally use heavy lubricates. &iesel engine is the mainly ordinary. In diesel cycle engines simply air
compressed in the cylinder to a high pressure) temperature of this dense air become suitably high to ignite
fuel. &iesel is in3ect in cylinder on the end of compression stroke which itself ignites suitable to the
high temperature of the compressed air. It have no spark plug in &iesel engine.
/elebihan dan /ekurangan 9esin &iesel dibanding 9esin (ensin
Secara garis besar, jenis mesin pada kendaraan dibedakan menjadi dua yakni mesin diesel dan
mesin bensin. Meskipun pada dasarnya, baik mesin diesel maupun mesin bensin adalah sama
yakni sama-sama merupakan penggerak pada sebuah kendaraan, tapi tetap saja ada kelebihan
dan kekurangan dari masing-masing mesin kendaraan tersebut. Nah, Berikut ini adalah kelebihan
dan kekurangan mesin diesel bila dibanding mesin bensin:
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Kelebihan mesin diesel dibanding mesin bensin
1. Mesin diesel memiliki eisensi terhadap panas yang besar bila dibandingkan dengan mesin
bensin. !entunya "al tersebut dapat lebih menghemat penggunaan bahan bakar #solar$ daripada
bensin pada mesin bensin.
%. &mumnya, mesin diesel lebih tahan lama dan tidak membutuhkan electric igniter. "al ini
berarti bahwa kemungkinan terjadinya kesulitan tentu lebih kecil dari pada mesin bensin.
'. Momen pada mesin diesel tidak berubah pada jenjang tingkat kecepatan yang luas. (tu
artinya mesin diesel lebih leksibel dan lebih mudah dioperasikan bila dibandingkan dengan mesin
bensin dan karena hal inilah mesin diesel umum digunakan untuk kendaraan-kendaraan besar.
Adapun kelemahan mesin diesel dibanding mesin bensin adalah sebagai berikut :
1. Suara dan getaran pada mesin diesel jauh lebih besar dibanding suara dan getaran pada mesin
bensin. "al tersebut disebabkan oleh tekanan pembakaran maksimum pada mesin diesel hampir
dua kali lebih besar daripada mesin bensin.
%. )arena tekanan pembakarannya lebih besar dari pada mesin bensin, maka mesin diesel harus
dibuat dengan menggunakan jenis bahan yang tahan terhadap tekanan tinggi, selain itu, bahan
yang digunakan juga harus memiliki struktur yang kuat. "al ini berarti bahwa untuk daya kuda
yang sama, mesin diesel memiliki bobot yang jauh lebih berat dibanding bobot mesin bensin, dan
tentunya biaya pembuatannya pun juga pasti lebih mahal daripada biaya pembuatan mesin
bensin.
'. "arga mesin diesel lebih mahal dibanding harga mesin bensin, selain itu, mesin diesel juga
membutuhkan perawatan atau pemeliharaan yang lebih cermat daripada mesin bensin. *nda tahu
mengapa+ Sebab Mesin diesel membutuhkan sistem injeksi bahan bakar yang lebih presisi
dibanding sistem injeksi pada mesin bensin.
,. Mesin diesel memerlukan alat pemutar berupa motor starter dan baterai yang berkapasitas
lebih besar untuk memutarnya. "al tersebut disebabkan karena mesin diesel memiliki
perbandingan kompresi yang lebih tinggi dari pada mesin bensin.
,dvantages and &isadvantages compared 1asoline Engine &iesel Engine
(roadly speaking ) the type of engine in the vehicle can be divided into two namely diesel engines and
gasoline engines . ,lthough in essence ) both diesel and gasoline engine is the same that is as much a
driver of a vehicle ) but still there are advantages and disadvantages of each of the vehicleBs engine . !ell )
below are the advantages and disadvantages when compared to diesel engines gasoline engine %
,dvantages and &isadvantages compared 1asoline Engine &iesel Engine
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The advantages of diesel engines than gasoline engines
: . The efficiency of the diesel engine has great heat when compared to gasoline engines . It certainly can
be more efficient use of fuel ( diesel than gasoline on a gasoline engine .
2 . 1enerally ) diesel engines are more durable and do not reCuire electric Igniter . This means that the
likelihood of trouble is certainly smaller than the gasoline engine .
D . 9oment of the diesel engine does not turn on a broad level of rate of speed . That means the diesel
engine is more flexible and easier to operate when compared to gasoline engines and diesel engines
because it is commonly used for large vehicles .
The drawback of diesel engines than gasoline engines are as follows %
: . 0oise and vibration in diesel engines is much greater than the sound and vibration on the gasoline
engine . This is due to the maximum combustion pressure in diesel engines is almost two times larger than
gas engines .
2 . &ue to the combustion pressure is greater than the gasoline engine ) the diesel engine must be made
using the type of material that is resistant to high pressure ) in addition) the material used must also have a
strong structure . This means that for the same horsepower ) diesel engine weighs much heavier weights
than gasoline engines ) and of course the cost of manufacture was also certainly more expensive than the
cost of making gasoline engines .
D . 4rices of diesel engines are more expensive than the price of gasoline engines ) in addition) diesel
engines also reCuire more care or maintenance care than gasoline engines . Eou know why ? "or the
diesel engine fuel in3ection system reCuires more precision than the in3ection system in gasoline engines .
+ . &iesel engines reCuire a rotator starter motor and larger capacity battery to turn it around . This is
because diesel engines have a higher compression ratio than gasoline engines .
Diesel engine
"rom !ikipedia) the free encyclopedia
&iesel generator on an oil tanker
, &iesel engine built by 9,0 ,1 in :@<F
The diesel engine (also known as a compression-ignition engine) is an internal combustion engine that
uses the heat of compression to initiate ignition and burn the fuel that has been injected into the combustion
chamber. This contrasts with spark-ignition engines such as a petrol engine (gasoline engine) or gas engine
(using a gaseous fuel as opposed to gasoline), which use a spark plug to ignite an air-fuel mixture.
The diesel engine has the highest thermal efficiency of any standard internal or external combustion engine
due to its very high compression ratio. ow-speed diesel engines (as used in ships and other applications
where overall engine weight is relatively unimportant) can have a thermal efficiency that exceeds !"#.
$%&$'&
(iesel engines are manufactured in two-stroke and four-stroke versions. They were originally used as a
more efficient replacement for stationary steam engines. )ince the %*%"s they have been used in submarines
and ships. +se in locomotives, trucks, heavy e,uipment and electric generating plants followed later. -n the
%*."s, they slowly began to be used in a few automobiles. )ince the %*/"s, the use of diesel engines in
larger on-road and off-road vehicles in the +)0 increased. 0ccording to the 1ritish )ociety of 2otor
2anufacturing and Traders, the 3+ average for diesel cars account for !"# of the total sold, including /"#
in 4rance and .5# in the +6.
$.&
The world7s largest diesel engine is currently a 89rtsil9-)ul:er ;T0*<-= =ommon ;ail marine diesel of
about 5>,>'" k8 (%%.,'%" hp) ? %"' rpm
$>&
output.
$!&
History
, Gornsby=,kroyd oil engine working at the 1reat &orset *team "air.
-n %55!, the 3nglish inventor @erbert 0kroyd )tuart began investigating the possibility of using paraffin oil
(very similar to modern-day diesel) for an engine, which unlike petrol would be difficult to vaporise in a
carburettor as its volatility is not sufficient to allow this.
$<&$/&
@is engines, built from %5*% by ;ichard @ornsby and )ons, were the first internal combustion engine to use
a pressurised fuel injection system.
$5&
The @ornsby-0kroyd engine used a comparatively low compression
ratio, so that the temperature of the air compressed in the combustion chamber at the end of the compression
stroke was not high enough to initiate combustion. =ombustion instead took place in a separated combustion
chamber, the Avapori:erA (also called the Ahot bulbA) mounted on the cylinder head, into which fuel was
sprayed. )elf-ignition occurred from contact between the fuel-air mixture and the hot walls of the vapori:er.
$*&
0s the engine7s load increased, so did the temperature of the bulb, causing the ignition period to advanceB
to counteract pre-ignition, water was dripped into the air intake.
$%"&
The modern (iesel engine incorporates the features of direct (airless) injection and compression-ignition.
1oth ideas were patented by 0kroyd )tuart and =harles ;ichard 1inney in 2ay %5*".
$<&
0nother patent was
taken out on 5 Cctober %5*", detailing the working of a complete engine - essentially that of a diesel engine
- where air and fuel are introduced separately. The difference between the 0kroyd engine and the modern
(iesel engine was the re,uirement to supply extra heat to the cylinder to start the engine from cold. 1y
%5*', 0kroyd )tuart had produced an updated version of the engine that no longer re,uired the additional
heat source, a year before (iesel7s engine.
$%%&
&ieselBs original :;@A engine on display at the &eutsches 9useum in 9unich) 1ermany
-n %5*', 0kroyd )tuart patented a water-jacketed vaporiser to allow compression ratios to be increased. -n
the same year, Thomas @enry 1arton at @ornsbys built a working high-compression version for
experimental purposes, whereby the vaporiser was replaced with a cylinder head, therefore not relying on air
being preheated, but by combustion through higher compression ratios. -t ran for six hours - the first time
automatic ignition was produced by compression alone.
$citation needed&
This was five years before ;udolf (iesel
built his well-known high-compression prototype engine in %5*/.
$%'&
;udolf (iesel was, however, subse,uently credited with the innovation, and he was able to improve the
engine further, whereas 0kroyd )tuart stopped development on his engine in %5*..
-n %5*' (iesel received patents in Dermany, )wit:erland, the +nited 6ingdom and the +nited )tates for
A2ethod of and 0pparatus for =onverting @eat into 8orkA.
$%.&
-n %5*. he described a Aslow-combustion
engineA that first compressed air thereby raising its temperature above the igniting-point of the fuel, then
gradually introducing fuel while letting the mixture expand Aagainst resistance sufficiently to prevent an
essential increase of temperature and pressureA, then cutting off fuel and Aexpanding without transfer of
heatA.
$citation needed&
-n %5*> and %5*! he filed patents and addenda in various countries for his (iesel engineB
the first patents were issued in )pain (Eo. %<,<!>), 4rance (Eo. '>.,!.%) and 1elgium (Eo. %%.,%.*) in
(ecember %5*>, and in Dermany (Eo. 5<,<..) in %5*! and the +nited )tates (Eo. <"5,5>!) in %5*5.
$%>&
@e
operated his first successful engine in %5*/.
$%!&
0t 0ugsburg, on 0ugust %", %5*., ;udolf (iesel7s prime model, a single %"-foot (.." m) iron cylinder with
a flywheel at its base, ran on its own power for the first time. (iesel spent two more years making
improvements and in %5*< demonstrated another model with a theoretical efficiency of /!#, in contrast to
the %"# efficiency of the steam engine. 1y %5*5, (iesel had become a millionaire. @is engines were used to
power pipelines, electric and water plants, automobiles and trucks, and marine craft. They were soon to be
used in mines, oil fields, factories, and transoceanic shipping.
Operating principle
p=H &iagram for the Ideal &iesel cycle. The cycle follows the numbers :=+ in clockwise direction. In the
diesel cycle the combustion occurs at almost constant pressure and the exhaust occurs at constant
volume. .n this diagram the work that is generated for each cycle corresponds to the area within the loop.
&iesel engine model) left side
&iesel engine model) right side
The diesel internal combustion engine differs from the gasoline powered Ctto cycle by using highly
compressed hot air to ignite the fuel rather than using a spark plug (compression ignition rather than spark
ignition).
-n the true diesel engine, only air is initially introduced into the combustion chamber. The air is then
compressed with a compression ratio typically between %!F% and ''F% resulting in >"-bar (>." 2GaB !5" psi)
pressure compared to 5 to %> bars (".5" to %.>" 2GaB %'" to '"" psi) in the petrol engine. This high
compression heats the air to !!" H= (%,"'' H4). 0t about the top of the compression stroke, fuel is injected
directly into the compressed air in the combustion chamber. This may be into a (typically toroidal) void in
the top of the piston or a pre-chamber depending upon the design of the engine. The fuel injector ensures
that the fuel is broken down into small droplets, and that the fuel is distributed evenly. The heat of the
compressed air vapori:es fuel from the surface of the droplets. The vapour is then ignited by the heat from
the compressed air in the combustion chamber, the droplets continue to vaporise from their surfaces and
burn, getting smaller, until all the fuel in the droplets has been burnt. The start of vaporisation causes a delay
period during ignition and the characteristic diesel knocking sound as the vapour reaches ignition
temperature and causes an abrupt increase in pressure above the piston. The rapid expansion of combustion
gases then drives the piston downward, supplying power to the crankshaft.
$>%&
0s well as the high level of compression allowing combustion to take place without a separate ignition
system, a high compression ratio greatly increases the engine7s efficiency. -ncreasing the compression ratio
in a spark-ignition engine where fuel and air are mixed before entry to the cylinder is limited by the need to
prevent damaging pre-ignition. )ince only air is compressed in a diesel engine, and fuel is not introduced
into the cylinder until shortly before top dead centre (T(=), premature detonation is not an issue and
compression ratios are much higher.
Early fuel injection systems
(iesel7s original engine injected fuel with the assistance of compressed air, which atomi:ed the fuel and
forced it into the engine through a no::le (a similar principle to an aerosol spray). The no::le opening was
closed by a pin valve lifted by the camshaft to initiate the fuel injection before top dead centre (T(=). This
is called an air-blast injection. (riving the three stage compressor used some power but the efficiency and
net power output was more than any other combustion engine at that time.
(iesel engines in service today raise the fuel to extreme pressures by mechanical pumps and deliver it to the
combustion chamber by pressure-activated injectors without compressed air. 8ith direct injected diesels,
injectors spray fuel through > to %' small orifices in its no::le. The early air injection diesels always had a
superior combustion without the sharp increase in pressure during combustion. ;esearch is now being
performed and patents are being taken out to again use some form of air injection to reduce the nitrogen
oxides and pollution, reverting to (iesel7s original implementation with its superior combustion and possibly
,uieter operation. -n all major aspects, the modern diesel engine holds true to ;udolf (iesel7s original
design, that of igniting fuel by compression at an extremely high pressure within the cylinder. 8ith much
higher pressures and high technology injectors, present-day diesel engines use the so-called solid injection
system applied by @erbert 0kroyd )tuart for his hot bulb engine. The indirect injection engine could be
considered the latest development of these low speed hot bulb ignition engines.
Fuel delivery
0 vital component of all diesel engines is a mechanical or electronic governor which regulates the idling
speed and maximum speed of the engine by controlling the rate of fuel delivery. +nlike Ctto-cycle engines,
incoming air is not throttled and a diesel engine without a governor cannot have a stable idling speed and
can easily overspeed, resulting in its destruction. 2echanically governed fuel injection systems are driven by
the engine7s gear train.
$>'&
These systems use a combination of springs and weights to control fuel delivery
relative to both load and speed.
$>'&
2odern electronically controlled diesel engines control fuel delivery by
use of an electronic control module (3=2) or electronic control unit (3=+). The 3=2I3=+ receives an
engine speed signal, as well as other operating parameters such as intake manifold pressure and fuel
temperature, from a sensor and controls the amount of fuel and start of injection timing through actuators to
maximise power and efficiency and minimise emissions. =ontrolling the timing of the start of injection of
fuel into the cylinder is a key to minimi:ing emissions, and maximi:ing fuel economy (efficiency), of the
engine. The timing is measured in degrees of crank angle of the piston before top dead centre. 4or example,
if the 3=2I3=+ initiates fuel injection when the piston is %"H before T(=, the start of injection, or timing,
is said to be %"H 1T(=. Cptimal timing will depend on the engine design as well as its speed and load.
0dvancing the start of injection (injecting before the piston reaches to its )C--T(=) results in higher in-
cylinder pressure and temperature, and higher efficiency, but also results in increased engine noise due to
faster cylinder pressure rise and increased oxides of nitrogen (EC
x
) formation due to higher combustion
temperatures. (elaying start of injection causes incomplete combustion, reduced fuel efficiency and an
increase in exhaust smoke, containing a considerable amount of particulate matter and unburned
hydrocarbons.
Major advantages
(iesel engines have several advantages over other internal combustion enginesF
They burn less fuel than a petrol engine performing the same work) due to the engineBs higher
temperature of combustion and greater expansion ratio.
5:6
1asoline engines are typically D<I
efficient while diesel engines can convert over +JI of the fuel energy into mechanical energy
5+D6

(see 'arnot cycle for further explanation.
They have no high voltage electrical ignition system) resulting in high reliability and easy adaptation
to damp environments. The absence of coils) spark plug wires) etc.) also eliminates a source of
radio freCuency emissions which can interfere with navigation and communication eCuipment) which
is especially important in marine and aircraft applications.
The longevity of a diesel engine is generally about twice that of a petrol engine
5++65better source needed6
due
to the increased strength of parts used. &iesel fuel has better lubrication properties than petrol as
well.
(us powered by biodiesel
&iesel fuel is distilled directly from petroleum. &istillation yields some gasoline) but the yield would
be inadeCuate without catalytic reforming) which is a more costly process.
&iesel fuel is considered safer than petrol in many applications. ,lthough diesel fuel will burn in
open air using a wick) it will not explode and does not release a large amount of flammable vapor.
The low vapor pressure of diesel is especially advantageous in marine applications) where the
accumulation of explosive fuel=air mixtures is a particular ha>ard. "or the same reason) diesel
engines are immune to vapor lock.
"or any given partial load the fuel efficiency (mass burned per energy produced of a diesel engine
remains nearly constant) as opposed to petrol and turbine engines which use proportionally more
fuel with partial power outputs.
5+J65+F65+A65+;6
They generate less waste heat in cooling and exhaust.
5:6
&iesel engines can accept super= or turbo=charging pressure without any natural limit) constrained
only by the strength of engine components. This is unlike petrol engines) which inevitably suffer
detonation at higher pressure.
The carbon monoxide content of the exhaust is minimal) therefore diesel engines are used in
underground mines.
5+@6
(iodiesel is an easily synthesi>ed) non=petroleum=based fuel (through transesterification which can
run directly in many diesel engines) while gasoline engines either need adaptation to run synthetic
fuels or else use them as an additive to gasoline (e.g.) ethanol added to gasohol.
Mechanical and electronic injection
2any configurations of fuel injection have been used over the course of the '"th century.
2ost present-day diesel engines use a mechanical single plunger high-pressure fuel pump driven by the
engine crankshaft. 4or each engine cylinder, the corresponding plunger in the fuel pump measures out the
correct amount of fuel and determines the timing of each injection. These engines use injectors that are very
precise spring-loaded valves that open and close at a specific fuel pressure. )eparate high-pressure fuel lines
connect the fuel pump with each cylinder. 4uel volume for each single combustion is controlled by a slanted
groove in the plunger which rotates only a few degrees releasing the pressure and is controlled by a
mechanical governor, consisting of weights rotating at engine speed constrained by springs and a lever. The
injectors are held open by the fuel pressure. Cn high-speed engines the plunger pumps are together in one
unit.
$!"&
The length of fuel lines from the pump to each injector is normally the same for each cylinder in
order to obtain the same pressure delay.
0 cheaper configuration on high-speed engines with fewer than six cylinders is to use an axial-piston
distributor pump, consisting of one rotating pump plunger delivering fuel to a valve and line for each
cylinder (functionally analogous to points and distributor cap on an Ctto engine).
$>'&
2any modern systems have a single fuel pump which supplies fuel constantly at high pressure with a
common rail (single fuel line common) to each injector. 3ach injector has a solenoid operated by an
electronic control unit, resulting in more accurate control of injector opening times that depend on other
control conditions, such as engine speed and loading, and providing better engine performance and fuel
economy.
$citation needed&
1oth mechanical and electronic injection systems can be used in either direct or indirect injection
configurations.
$citation needed&
Two-stroke diesel engines with mechanical injection pumps can be inadvertently run in reverse, albeit in a
very inefficient manner, possibly damaging the engine.
$citation needed&
arge ship two-stroke diesels are designed
to run in either direction, obviating the need for a gearbox.
$citation needed&
Indirect injection
,rrow indicates opening from pre=chamber
9ain article% Indirect in3ection
0n indirect injection diesel engine delivers fuel into a chamber off the combustion chamber, called a pre-
chamber or ante-chamber, where combustion begins and then spreads into the main combustion chamber,
assisted by turbulence created in the chamber. This system allows for a smoother, ,uieter running engine,
and because combustion is assisted by turbulence, injector pressures can be lower, about %"" bar (%" 2GaB
%,!"" psi), using a single orifice tapered jet injector. 2echanical injection systems allowed high-speed
running suitable for road vehicles (typically up to speeds of around >,""" rpm. The pre-chamber had the
disadvantage of increasing heat loss to the engine7s cooling system, and restricting the combustion burn,
which reduced the efficiency by !J%"#.
$!%&
-ndirect injection engines are cheaper to build and it is easier to
produce smooth, ,uiet-running vehicles with a simple mechanical system. -n road-going vehicles most
prefer the greater efficiency and better controlled emission levels of direct injection. -ndirect injection
diesels can still be found in the many 0TK diesel applications.
$citation needed&
Direct injection
(irect injection diesel engines have injectors mounted at the top of the combustion chamber. The injectors
are activated using one of two methods - hydraulic pressure from the fuel pump, or an electronic signal from
an engine controller.
@ydraulic pressure activated injectors can produce harsh engine noise. 4uel consumption is about %!J'"#
lower than indirect injection diesels. The extra noise is generally not a problem for industrial uses of the
engine, but for automotive usage, buyers have to decide whether or not the increased fuel efficiency would
compensate for the extra noise.
3lectronic control of the fuel injection transformed the direct injection engine by allowing much greater
control over the combustion.
$!'&
Unit direct injection
9ain article% 8nit In3ector
+nit direct injection also injects fuel directly into the cylinder of the engine. -n this system the injector and
the pump are combined into one unit positioned over each cylinder controlled by the camshaft. 3ach
cylinder has its own unit eliminating the high-pressure fuel lines, achieving a more consistent injection. This
type of injection system, also developed by 1osch, is used by Kolkswagen 0D in cars (where it is called a
Pumpe-Dse-SystemLliterally pump-nozzle system) and by 2ercedes-1en: (AG(A) and most major diesel
engine manufacturers in large commercial engines (=0T, =ummins, (etroit (iesel, 3lectro-2otive (iesel,
Kolvo). 8ith recent advancements, the pump pressure has been raised to ',>"" bars ('>" 2GaB .!,""" psi),
$!.&
allowing injection parameters similar to common rail systems.
$!>&
Common rail direct injection
9ain article% 'ommon rail
-n common rail systems, the separate pulsing high-pressure fuel line to each cylinder7s injector is also
eliminated. -nstead, a high-pressure pump pressuri:es fuel at up to ',!"" bar ('!" 2GaB .<,""" psi),
$!!&
in a
Acommon railA. The common rail is a tube that supplies each computer-controlled injector containing a
precision-machined no::le and a plunger driven by a solenoid or pie:oelectric actuator.
Cold weather
tarting
-n cold weather, high speed diesel engines can be difficult to start because the mass of the cylinder block and
cylinder head absorb the heat of compression, preventing ignition due to the higher surface-to-volume ratio.
Gre-chambered engines make use of small electric heaters inside the pre-chambers called glowplugs, while
the direct-injected engines have these glowplugs in the combustion chamber.
$citation needed&
2any engines use resistive heaters in the intake manifold to warm the inlet air for starting, or until the
engine reaches operating temperature. 3ngine block heaters (electric resistive heaters in the engine block)
connected to the utility grid are used in cold climates when an engine is turned off for extended periods
(more than an hour), to reduce startup time and engine wear. 1lock heaters are also used for emergency
power standby (iesel-powered generators which must rapidly pick up load on a power failure. -n the past, a
wider variety of cold-start methods were used. )ome engines, such as (etroit (iesel
$!<&
engines used
$when?&
a
system to introduce small amounts of ether into the inlet manifold to start combustion. Cthers used a mixed
system, with a resistive heater burning methanol. 0n impromptu method, particularly on out-of-tune
engines, is to manually spray an aerosol can of ether-based engine starter fluid into the intake air stream
(usually through the intake air filter assembly).
!elling
(iesel fuel is also prone to waxing or gelling in cold weatherB both are terms for the solidification of diesel
oil into a partially crystalline state. The crystals build up in the fuel line (especially in fuel filters), eventually
starving the engine of fuel and causing it to stop running. ow-output electric heaters in fuel tanks and
around fuel lines are used to solve this problem. 0lso, most engines have a spill return system, by which any
excess fuel from the injector pump and injectors is returned to the fuel tank. Cnce the engine has warmed,
returning warm fuel prevents waxing in the tank.
(ue to improvements in fuel technology with additives, waxing rarely occurs in all but the coldest weather
when a mix of diesel and kerosene may be used to run a vehicle. Das stations in regions with a cold climate
are re,uired to offer winteri:ed diesel in the cold seasons that allow operation below a specific =old 4ilter
Glugging Goint. -n 3urope these diesel characteristics are described in the 3E !*" standard.
upercharging and turbocharging
2ost diesels are now turbocharged and some are both turbo charged and supercharged. 1ecause diesels do
not have fuel in the cylinder before combustion is initiated, more than one bar (%"" kGa) of air can be loaded
in the cylinder without preignition. 0 turbocharged engine can produce significantly more power than a
naturally aspirated engine of the same configuration, as having more air in the cylinders allows more fuel to
be burned and thus more power to be produced. 0 supercharger is powered mechanically by the engine7s
crankshaft, while a turbocharger is powered by the engine exhaust, not re,uiring any mechanical power.
Turbocharging can improve the fuel economy
$!/&
of diesel engines by recovering waste heat from the
exhaust, increasing the excess air factor, and increasing the ratio of engine output to friction losses.
0 two-stroke engine does not have a discrete exhaust and intake stroke and thus is incapable of self-
aspiration. Therefore all two-stroke engines must be fitted with a blower to charge the cylinders with air and
assist in dispersing exhaust gases, a process referred to as scavenging. -n some cases, the engine may also be
fitted with a turbocharger, whose output is directed into the blower inlet. 0 few designs employ a hybrid
turbocharger for scavenging and charging the cylinders, which device is mechanically driven at cranking
and low speeds to act as a blower.
0s turbocharged or supercharged engines produce more power for a given engine si:e as compared to
naturally aspirated engines, attention must be paid to the mechanical design of components, lubrication, and
cooling to handle the power. Gistons are usually cooled with lubrication oil sprayed on the bottom of the
piston. arge engines may use water, sea water, or oil supplied through telescoping pipes attached to the
crosshead.
$!5&
Types
i"e groups
Two 'ycle &iesel engine with -oots blower) typical of &etroit &iesel and some Electro=9otive &iesel
Engines
There are three si:e groups of (iesel engines
$!*&
*mall = 8nder :;; k! (2J2 hp output
9edium
2arge
#asic types
There are two basic types of (iesel 3ngines
$!*&
"our stroke cycle
Two stroke cycle
Early engines
;udolf (iesel based his engine on the design of the Das engine created by Eikolaus Ctto in %5/< with the
goal of improving its efficiency. @e patented his (iesel engine concepts in patents that were set forth in
%5*' and %5*..
$<"&
0s such, diesel engines in the late %*th and early '"th centuries used the same basic
layout and form as industrial steam engines, with long-bore cylinders, external valve gear, cross-head
bearings and an open crankshaft connected to a large flywheel.
$dubious discuss&
)maller engines would be built
with vertical cylinders, while most medium- and large-si:ed industrial engines were built with hori:ontal
cylinders, just as steam engines had been. 3ngines could be built with more than one cylinder in both cases.
The largest early diesels resembled the triple-expansion steam reciprocating engine, being tens of feet high
with vertical cylinders arranged in-line. These early engines ran at very slow speedsLpartly due to the
limitations of their air-blast injector e,uipment and partly so they would be compatible with the majority of
industrial e,uipment designed for steam enginesB maximum speeds of %""J."" rpm were common. 3ngines
were usually started by allowing compressed air into the cylinders to turn the engine, although smaller
engines could be started by hand.
$<%&
-n %5*/, when the first (iesel engine was completed 0dolphus 1usch traveled to =ologne and negotiated
exclusive right to produce the (iesel engine in the +)0 and =anada. -n his examination of the engine, it was
noted that the (iesel at that time operated at thermodynamic efficiencies of .'J.!#, while a typical triple
expansion steam engine would operate at about %5#.
$%<&
-n the early decades of the '"th century, when large diesel engines were first being used, the engines took a
form similar to the compound steam engines common at the time, with the piston being connected to the
connecting rod by a crosshead bearing. 4ollowing steam engine practice some manufacturers made double-
acting two-stroke and four-stroke diesel engines to increase power output, with combustion taking place on
both sides of the piston, with two sets of valve gear and fuel injection. 8hile it produced large amounts of
power and was very efficient, the double-acting diesel engine7s main problem was producing a good seal
where the piston rod passed through the bottom of the lower combustion chamber to the crosshead bearing,
and no more were built. 1y the %*."s turbochargers were fitted to some engines. =rosshead bearings are still
used to reduce the wear on the cylinders in large long-stroke main marine engines.
Modern high and medium-speed engines
, Eanmar 2192< marine diesel engine) installed in a sailboat
0s with petrol engines, there are two classes of diesel engines in current useF two-stroke and four-stroke.
The four-stroke type is the AclassicA version, tracing its lineage back to ;udolf (iesel7s prototype. -t is also
the most commonly used form, being the preferred power source for many motor vehicles, especially buses
and trucks. 2uch larger engines, such as used for railroad locomotion and marine propulsion, are often two-
stroke units, offering a more favourable power-to-weight ratio, as well as better fuel economy. The most
powerful engines in the world are two-stroke diesels of mammoth dimensions.
$<'&
Two-stroke diesel engine operation is similar to that of petrol counterparts, except that fuel is not mixed with
air before induction, and the crankcase does not take an active role in the cycle. The traditional two-stroke
design relies upon a mechanically driven positive displacement blower to charge the cylinders with air
before compression and ignition. The charging process also assists in expelling (scavenging) combustion
gases remaining from the previous power stroke.
The archetype of the modern form of the two-stroke diesel is the (high-speed) (etroit (iesel )eries /%
engine, designed by =harles 4. A1ossA 6ettering and his colleagues at Deneral 2otors =orporation in %*.5,
in which the blower pressuri:es a chamber in the engine block that is often referred to as the Aair boxA. The
(very much larger medium-speed) 3lectro-2otive (iesel engine
$<.&
is used as the prime mover in 32(
diesel-electric locomotive, marine and stationary applications, and was designed by the same team, and is
built to the same principle. @owever, a significant improvement built into most later 32( engines is the
mechanically-assisted turbo-compressor, which provides charge air using mechanical assistance during
starting (thereby obviating the necessity for ;oots-blown scavenging), and provides charge air using an
exhaust gas-driven turbine during normal operationsLthereby providing true turbocharging and additionally
increasing the engine7s power output by at least fifty percent.
$a&
Three English Electric
A*-2 &iesel alternator sets being installed
the *aateni 4ower *tation) Kan>ibar :@JJ
-n a two-stroke diesel engine, as the cylinder7s piston approaches the bottom dead centre exhaust ports or
valves are opened relieving most of the excess pressure after which a passage between the air box and the
cylinder is opened, permitting air flow into the cylinder.
$<>&$<!&
The air flow blows the remaining combustion
gases from the cylinderLthis is the scavenging process. 0s the piston passes through bottom centre and
starts upward, the passage is closed and compression commences,
$<<&
culminating in fuel injection and
ignition.
$</&
;efer to two-stroke diesel engines for more detailed coverage of aspiration types and
supercharging of two-stroke diesel engines.
Eormally, the number of cylinders are used in multiples of two, although any number of cylinders can be
used as long as the load on the crankshaft is counterbalanced to prevent excessive vibration. The inline-six-
cylinder design is the most prolific in light- to medium-duty engines, though small K5 and larger inline-four
displacement engines are also common. )mall-capacity engines (generally considered to be those below five
litres in capacity) are generally four- or six-cylinder types, with the four-cylinder being the most common
type found in automotive uses. 4ive-cylinder diesel engines have also been produced, being a compromise
between the smooth running of the six-cylinder and the space-efficient dimensions of the four-cylinder.
(iesel engines for smaller plant machinery, boats, tractors, generators and pumps may be four, three or two-
cylinder types, with the single-cylinder diesel engine remaining for light stationary work. (irect reversible
two-stroke marine diesels need at least three cylinders for reliable restarting forwards and reverse, while
four-stroke diesels need at least six cylinders.
The desire to improve the diesel engine7s power-to-weight ratio produced several novel cylinder
arrangements to extract more power from a given capacity. The uniflow opposed-piston engine uses two
pistons in one cylinder with the combustion cavity in the middle and gas in- and outlets at the ends. This
makes a comparatively light, powerful, swiftly running and economic engine suitable for use in aviation. 0n
example is the Munkers Mumo '">I'"!. The Eapier (eltic engine, with three cylinders arranged in a
triangular formation, each containing two opposed pistons, the whole engine having three crankshafts, is one
of the better known.
Modern low-speed engines
ow-speed diesel engines (as used in ships and other applications where overall engine weight is relatively
unimportant) often have a thermal efficiency which exceeds !"#.
$%&$'&
!as generator
1efore %*!", )ul:er started experimenting with two-stroke engines with boost pressures as high as <
atmospheres, in which all the output power was taken from an exhaust gas turbine. The two-stroke pistons
directly drove air compressor pistons to make a positive displacement gas generator. Cpposed pistons were
connected by linkages instead of crankshafts. )everal of these units could be connected to provide power gas
to one large output turbine. The overall thermal efficiency was roughly twice that of a simple gas turbine.
$<5&

This system was derived from ;aNl Gateras Gescara7s work on free-piston engines in the %*."s.
Advantages and disadvantages versus spark-ignition engines
Fuel economy
The 20E )5"23-=/ low speed diesel engines use %!! grams (!.! o:) of fuel per k8h for an overall
energy conversion efficiency of !>.>#, which is the highest conversion of fuel into power by any single-
cycle internal or external combustion engine
$%&
(The efficiency of a combined cycle gas turbine system can
exceed <"#.
$<*&
) (iesel engines are more efficient than gasoline (petrol) engines of the same power rating,
resulting in lower fuel consumption. 0 common margin is >"# more miles per gallon for an efficient
turbodiesel (or '"# more miles per kilogram). 4or example, the current model Okoda Cctavia, using
Kolkswagen Droup engines, has a combined 3uro rating of <.' I%"" km (>< mpg-impB .5 mpg-+)) for the
%"' bhp (/< k8) petrol engine and >.> I%"" km (<> mpg-impB !. mpg-+)) for the %"! bhp (/5 k8) diesel
engine.
@owever, such a comparison does not take into account that diesel fuel is denser and contains about %!#
more energy by volume. 0lthough the calorific value of the fuel is slightly lower at >!.. 2MIkg (megajoules
per kilogram) than petrol at >!.5 2MIkg, li,uid diesel fuel is significantly denser than li,uid petrol. This is
significant because volume of fuel, in addition to mass, is an important consideration in mobile applications.
0djusting the numbers to account for the energy density of diesel fuel, the overall energy efficiency is still
about '"# greater for the diesel version.
8hile a higher compression ratio is helpful in raising efficiency, diesel engines are much more efficient than
gasoline (petrol) engines when at low power and at engine idle. +nlike the petrol engine, diesels lack a
butterfly valve (throttle) in the inlet system, which closes at idle. This creates parasitic loss and destruction
of availability of the incoming air, reducing the efficiency of petrol engines at idle. -n many applications,
such as marine, agriculture, and railways, diesels are left idling and unattended for many hours, sometimes
even days. These advantages are especially attractive in locomotives (see dieselisation).
3ven though diesel engines have a theoretical fuel efficiency of /!#,
$citation needed&
in practice it is lower.
3ngines in large diesel trucks, buses, and newer diesel cars can achieve peak efficiencies around >!#,
$/"&
and
could reach !!# efficiency in the near future.
$/%&
@owever, average efficiency over a driving cycle is lower
than peak efficiency. 4or example, it might be ./# for an engine with a peak efficiency of >>#.
$/'&
$or%ue
4or commercial uses re,uiring towing, load carrying and other tractive tasks, diesel engines tend to have
better tor,ue characteristics than petrol engines. (iesel engines tend to have their tor,ue peak ,uite low in
their speed range (usually between %<"" and '""" rpm for a small-capacity unit, lower for a larger engine
used in a truck). This provides smoother control over heavy loads when starting from rest, and, crucially,
allows the diesel engine to be given higher loads at lower speeds than a petrol engine, making them much
more economical for these applications. This characteristic is not so desirable in private cars, so most
modern diesels used in such vehicles use electronic control, variable geometry turbochargers and shorter
piston strokes to achieve a wider spread of tor,ue over the engine7s speed range, typically peaking at around
'!""J.""" rpm.
8hile diesel engines tend to have more tor,ue at lower engine speeds than petrol engines, diesel engines
tend to have a narrower power band than petrol engines. Eaturally aspirated diesels tend to lack power and
tor,ue at the top of their speed range. This narrow band is a reason why a vehicle such as a truck may have a
gearbox with as many as %5 or more gears, to allow the engine7s power to be used effectively at all speeds.
Turbochargers tend to improve power and tor,ue at high engine speedsB superchargers improve power at
lower speedsB and variable geometry turbochargers improve the engine7s performance e,ually by flattening
the tor,ue curve. The Gaxman @i-(yne engine was a %*!"s attempt to widen the power band of a diesel
engine.
&ower
-n diesel engines, conditions in the engine differ from the spark-ignition engine, since power is directly
controlled by the fuel supply, rather than by controlling the air supply.
The average diesel engine has a poorer power-to-weight ratio than the petrol engine. This is because the
diesel must operate at lower engine speeds
$/.&
and because it needs heavier, stronger parts to resist the
operating pressure caused by the high compression ratio of the engine and the large amounts of tor,ue
generated to the crankshaft. -n addition, diesels are often built with stronger parts to give them longer lives
and better reliability, important considerations in industrial applications.
(iesel engines usually have longer stroke lengths chiefly to facilitate achieving the necessary compression
ratios, but also to reduce the optimal operating speed (rpm). 0s a result piston and connecting rods are
heavier and more force must be transmitted through the connecting rods and crankshaft to change the
momentum of the piston. This is another reason that a diesel engine must be stronger for the same power
output as a petrol engine.
Pet it is this characteristic that has allowed some enthusiasts to ac,uire significant power increases with
turbocharged engines by making fairly simple and inexpensive modifications. 0 petrol engine of similar si:e
cannot put out a comparable power increase without extensive alterations because the stock components
cannot withstand the higher stresses placed upon them. )ince a diesel engine is already built to withstand
higher levels of stress, it makes an ideal candidate for performance tuning at little expense. @owever, it
should be said that any modification that raises the amount of fuel and air put through a diesel engine will
increase its operating temperature, which will reduce its life and increase service re,uirements. These are
issues with newer, lighter, high-performance diesel engines which are not AoverbuiltA to the degree of older
engines and they are being pushed to provide greater power in smaller engines.
$citation needed&
Forced induction
The addition of a turbocharger or supercharger to the engine greatly assists in increasing fuel economy and
power output, mitigating the fuel-air intake speed limit mentioned above for a given engine displacement.
1oost pressures can be higher on diesels than on petrol engines, due to the latter7s susceptibility to knock,
and the higher compression ratio allows a diesel engine to be more efficient than a comparable spark
ignition engine. 1ecause the burned gases are expanded further in a diesel engine cylinder, the exhaust gas is
cooler,
$citation needed&
meaning turbochargers re,uire less cooling, and can be more reliable, than with spark-
ignition engines.
8ithout the risk of knocking, boost pressure in a diesel engine can be much higherB it is possible to run as
much boost as the engine will physically stand before breaking apart.
0 combination of improved mechanical technology (such as multi-stage injectors which fire a short Apilot
chargeA of fuel into the cylinder to warm the combustion chamber before delivering the main fuel charge),
higher injection pressures that have improved the atomisation of fuel into smaller droplets, and electronic
control (which can adjust the timing and length of the injection process to optimise it for all speeds and
temperatures) have mitigated most of these problems in the latest generation of common-rail designs, while
greatly improving engine efficiency. Goor power and narrow tor,ue bands have been addressed by
superchargers, turbochargers, (especially variable geometry turbochargers), intercoolers, and a large
efficiency increase from about .!# for -(- to >!# for the latest engines in the last %! years.
$citation needed&
Emissions
9ain article% &iesel exhaust
)ince the diesel engine uses less fuel than the petrol engine per unit distance, the diesel produces less carbon
dioxide (=C
'
) per unit distance. ;ecent advances in production and changes in the political climate have
increased the availability and awareness of biodiesel, an alternative to petroleum-derived diesel fuel with a
much lower net-sum emission of =C
'
, due to the absorption of =C
'
by plants used to produce the fuel.
0lthough concerns are now being raised as to the negative effect this is having on the world food supply, as
the growing of crops specifically for biofuels takes up land that could be used for food crops and uses water
that could be used by both humans and animals. @owever, the use of waste vegetable oil, sawmill waste
from managed forests in 4inland, and advances in the production of vegetable oil from algae demonstrate
great promise in providing feed stocks for sustainable biodiesel that are not in competition with food
production.
8hen a diesel engine runs at low power, there is enough oxygen present to burn the fuel- diesel engines only
make significant amounts of carbon monoxide when running under a load.
(iesel fuel is injected just before the power stroke. 0s a result, the fuel cannot burn completely unless it has
a sufficient amount of oxygen. This can result in incomplete combustion and black smoke in the exhaust if
more fuel is injected than there is air available for the combustion process. 2odern engines with electronic
fuel delivery can adjust the timing and amount of fuel delivery (by changing the duration of the injection
pulse), and so operate with less waste of fuel. -n a mechanical system, the injection timing and duration must
be set to be efficient at the anticipated operating rpm and load, and so the settings are less than ideal when
the engine is running at any other ;G2 than what it is timed for. The electronic injection can AsenseA engine
revs, load, even boost and temperature, and continuously alter the timing to match the given situation. -n the
petrol engine, air and fuel are mixed for the entire compression stroke, ensuring complete mixing even at
higher engine speeds.
(iesel exhaust is well known for its characteristic smellB but this smell in recent years has become much less
because the sulfur is now removed from the fuel in the oil refinery.
(iesel exhaust has been found to contain a long list of toxic air contaminants. 0mong these pollutants, fine
particle pollution is perhaps the most important as a cause of diesel7s harmful health effects.
'oise
The distinctive noise of a diesel engine is variably called diesel clatter, diesel nailing, or diesel knock.
$/>&

(iesel clatter is caused largely by the diesel combustion processB the sudden ignition of the diesel fuel when
injected into the combustion chamber causes a pressure wave. 3ngine designers can reduce diesel clatter
throughF indirect injectionB pilot or pre-injectionB injection timingB injection rateB compression ratioB turbo
boostB and exhaust gas recirculation (3D;).
$/!&
=ommon rail diesel injection systems permit multiple
injection events as an aid to noise reduction. (iesel fuels with a higher cetane rating modify the combustion
process and reduce diesel clatter.
$/>&
=E (=etane number) can be raised by distilling higher ,uality crude oil,
by cataly:ing a higher ,uality product or by using a cetane improving additive.
$citation needed&
0 combination of improved mechanical technology such as multi-stage injectors which fire a short Apilot
chargeA of fuel into the cylinder to initiate combustion before delivering the main fuel charge, higher
injection pressures that have improved the atomisation of fuel into smaller droplets, and electronic control
(which can adjust the timing and length of the injection process to optimise it for all speeds and
temperatures), have partially mitigated these problems in the latest generation of common-rail designs, while
improving engine efficiency.
$citation needed&
(eliability
4or most industrial or nautical applications, reliability is considered more important than light weight and
high power.
The lack of an electrical ignition system greatly improves the reliability. The high durability of a diesel
engine is also due to its overbuilt nature (see above), a benefit that is magnified by the lower rotating speeds
in diesels. (iesel fuel is a better lubricant than petrol and thus, it is less harmful to the oil film on piston
rings and cylinder boresB it is routine for diesel engines to cover >"",""" km ('!",""" mi) or more without a
rebuild.
(ue to the greater compression ratio and the increased weight of the stronger components, starting a diesel
engine is harder than starting a gasoline engine of similar design and displacement. 2ore tor,ue
$clarification needed&
is re,uired to push the engine through compression.
$citation needed&
3ither an electrical starter or an air-start system is used to start the engine turning. Cn large engines, pre-
lubrication and slow turning of an engine, as well as heating, are re,uired to minimise the amount of engine
damage during initial start-up and running. )ome smaller military diesels can be started with an explosive
cartridge, called a =offman starter, which provides the extra power re,uired to get the machine turning. -n
the past, =aterpillar and Mohn (eere used a small petrol pony engine in their tractors to start the primary
diesel engine. The pony engine heated the diesel to aid in ignition and used a small clutch and transmission
to spin up the diesel engine. 3ven more unusual was an -nternational @arvester design in which the diesel
engine had its own carburetor and ignition system, and started on petrol. Cnce warmed up, the operator
moved two levers to switch the engine to diesel operation, and work could begin. These engines had very
complex cylinder heads, with their own petrol combustion chambers, and were vulnerable to expensive
damage if special care was not taken (especially in letting the engine cool before turning it off).
$citation needed&
)uality and variety of fuels
GetrolIgasoline engines are limited in the variety and ,uality of the fuels they can burn. Clder petrol engines
fitted with a carburetor re,uired a volatile fuel that would vaporise easily to create the necessary air-fuel
ratio for combustion. 1ecause both air and fuel are admitted to the cylinder, if the compression ratio of the
engine is too high or the fuel too volatile (with too low an octane rating), the fuel will ignite under
compression, as in a diesel engine, before the piston reaches the top of its stroke. This pre-ignition causes a
power loss and over time major damage to the piston and cylinder. The need for a fuel that is volatile
enough to vaporise but not too volatile (to avoid pre-ignition) means that petrol engines will only run on a
narrow range of fuels. There has been some success at dual-fuel engines that use petrol and ethanol, petrol
and propane, and petrol and methane.
-n diesel engines, a mechanical injector system vapori:es the fuel directly into the combustion chamber or a
pre-combustion chamber (as opposed to a Kenturi jet in a carburetor, or a fuel injector in a fuel injection
system vaporising fuel into the intake manifold or intake runners as in a petrol engine). This forced
aporisation means that less-volatile fuels can be used. 2ore crucially, because only air is inducted into the
cylinder in a diesel engine, the compression ratio can be much higher as there is no risk of pre-ignition
provided the injection process is accurately timed. This means that cylinder temperatures are much higher in
a diesel engine than a petrol engine, allowing less volatile fuels to be used.
(iesel fuel is a form of light fuel oil, very similar to kerosene (paraffin), but diesel engines, especially older
or simple designs that lack precision electronic injection systems, can run on a wide variety of other fuels.
)ome of the most common alternatives are Met 0-% type jet fuel or vegetable oil from a very wide variety of
plants. )ome engines can be run on vegetable oil without modification, and most others re,uire fairly basic
alterations. 1iodiesel is a pure diesel-like fuel refined from vegetable oil and can be used in nearly all diesel
engines. ;e,uirements for fuels to be used in diesel engines are the ability of the fuel to flow along the fuel
lines, the ability of the fuel to lubricate the injector pump and injectors ade,uately, and its ignition ,ualities
(ignition delay, cetane number). -nline mechanical injector pumps generally tolerate poor-,uality or bio-
fuels better than distributor-type pumps. 0lso, indirect injection engines generally run more satisfactorily on
bio-fuels than direct injection engines. This is partly because an indirect injection engine has a much greater
7swirl7 effect, improving vaporisation and combustion of fuel, and because (in the case of vegetable oil-type
fuels) lipid depositions can condense on the cylinder walls of a direct-injection engine if combustion
temperatures are too low (such as starting the engine from cold).
-t is often reported that (iesel designed his engine to run on peanut oil, but this is false. Gatent number
<"55>! describes his engine as being designed to run on pulverulent solid fuel (coal dust). (iesel stated in
his published papers, Aat the Garis 3xhibition in %*"" (!xposition "nierselle) there was shown by the Ctto
=ompany a small diesel engine, which, at the re,uest of the 4rench Dovernment ran on 0rachide (earth-nut
or peanut) oil (see biodiesel), and worked so smoothly that only a few people were aware of it. The engine
was constructed for using mineral oil, and was then worked on vegetable oil without any alterations being
made. The 4rench Dovernment at the time thought of testing the applicability to power production of the
0rachide, or earth-nut, which grows in considerable ,uantities in their 0frican colonies, and can easily be
cultivated there.A (iesel himself later conducted related tests and appeared supportive of the idea.
$/<&
2ost large marine diesels run on heavy fuel oil (sometimes called Abunker oilA), which is a thick, viscous
and almost flameproof fuel which is very safe to store and cheap to buy in bulk as it is a waste product from
the petroleum refining industry. The fuel must be heated to thin it out (often by the exhaust header) and is
often passed through multiple injection stages to vaporise it.
$citation needed&
Fuel and fluid characteristics
9ain article% &iesel fuel
(iesel engines can operate on a variety of different fuels, depending on configuration, though the
eponymous diesel fuel derived from crude oil is most common. The engines can work with the full spectrum
of crude oil distillates, from natural gas, alcohols, petrol, wood gas to the fuel oils from diesel oil to residual
fuels. 2any automotive diesel engines would run on %""# biodiesel without any modifications. This would
be such a potential advantage since biodiesel can be made so much more cheaply than it takes to have
traditional diesel fuel from your fuel station7s pump.
$//&
The type of fuel used is selected to meet a combination of service re,uirements, and fuel costs. Dood-,uality
diesel fuel can be synthesised from vegetable oil and alcohol. (iesel fuel can be made from coal or other
carbon base using the 4ischer-Tropsch process. 1iodiesel is growing in popularity since it can fre,uently be
used in unmodified engines, though production remains limited. ;ecently, biodiesel from coconut, which
can produce a very promising coco methyl ester (=23), has characteristics which enhance lubricity and
combustion giving a regular diesel engine without any modification more power, less particulate matter or
black smoke, and smoother engine performance. The Ghilippines pioneers in the research on =oconut based
=23 with the help of Derman and 0merican scientists. Getroleum-derived diesel is often called petrodiesel
if there is need to distinguish the source of the fuel.
Gure plant oils are increasingly being used as a fuel for cars, trucks and remote combined heat and power
generation especially in Dermany where hundreds of decentralised small- and medium-si:ed oil presses cold
press oilseed, mainly rapeseed, for fuel. There is a (eutsches -nstitut fQr Eormung fuel standard for
rapeseed oil fuel.
#esidual fuels are the AdregsA of the distillation process and are a thicker, heavier oil, or oil with higher
viscosity, which are so thick that they are not readily pumpable unless heated. ;esidual fuel oils are cheaper
than clean, refined diesel oil, although they are dirtier. Their main considerations are for use in ships and
very large generation sets, due to the cost of the large volume of fuel consumed, fre,uently amounting to
many tonnes per hour. The poorly refined biofuels straight vegetable oil ()KC) and waste vegetable oil
(8KC) can fall into this category, but can be viable fuels on non-common rail or T(- G( diesels with the
simple conversion of fuel heating to 5" to %"" degrees =elsius to reduce viscosity, and ade,uate filtration to
C32 standards. 3ngines using these heavy oils have to start and shut down on standard diesel fuel, as these
fuels will not flow through fuel lines at low temperatures. 2oving beyond that, use of low-grade fuels can
lead to serious maintenance problems because of their high sulphur and lower lubrication properties. 2ost
diesel engines that power ships like supertankers are built so that the engine can safely use low-grade fuels
due to their separate cylinder and crankcase lubrication.
Eormal diesel fuel is more difficult to ignite and slower in developing fire than petrol because of its higher
flash point, but once burning, a diesel fire can be fierce.
4uel contaminants such as dirt and water are often more problematic in diesel engines than in petrol engines.
8ater can cause serious damage, due to corrosion, to the injection pump and injectorsB and dirt, even very
fine particulate matter, can damage the injection pumps due to the close tolerances that the pumps are
machined to. 0ll diesel engines will have a fuel filter (usually much finer than a filter on a petrol engine),
and a water trap. The water trap (which is sometimes part of the fuel filter) often has a float connected to a
warning light, which warns when there is too much water in the trap, and must be drained before damage to
the engine can result. The fuel filter must be replaced much more often on a diesel engine than on a petrol
engine, changing the fuel filter every '-> oil changes is not uncommon for some vehicles.
Safety
Fuel flammability
(iesel fuel has low flammability, leading to a low risk of fire caused by fuel in a vehicle e,uipped with a
diesel engine.
-n yachts, diesel engines are often used because the petrol (gasoline) that fuels spark-ignition engines
releases combustible vapors which can lead to an explosion if it accumulates in a confined space such as the
bottom of a vessel. Kentilation systems are mandatory on petrol-powered vessels.
$/5&
The +nited )tates 0rmy and E0TC use only diesel engines and turbines because of fire ha:ard. 0lthough
neither gasoline nor diesel is explosive in li,uid form, both can create an explosive airIvapor mix under the
right conditions. @owever, diesel fuel is less prone due to its lower vapor pressure, which is an indication of
evaporation rate. The 2aterial )afety (ata )heet
$/*&
for ultra-low sulfur diesel fuel indicates a vapor
explosion ha:ard for diesel indoors, outdoors, or in sewers.
+) 0rmy gasoline-engined tanks during 8orld 8ar -- were nicknamed ;onsons, because of their greater
likelihood of catching fire when damaged by enemy fire. (0lthough tank fires were usually caused by
detonation of the ammunition rather than fuel).
Maintenance ha"ards
4uel injection introduces potential ha:ards in engine maintenance due to the high fuel pressures used.
;esidual pressure can remain in the fuel lines long after an injection-e,uipped engine has been shut down.
This residual pressure must be relieved, and if it is done so by external bleed-off, the fuel must be safely
contained. -f a high-pressure diesel fuel injector is removed from its seat and operated in open air, there is a
risk to the operator of injury by hypodermic jet-injection, even with only %"" pounds per s,uare inch
(<*" kGa) pressure.
$5"&
The first known such injury occurred in %*./ during a diesel engine maintenance
operation.
$5%&
Cancer
(iesel exhaust has been classified as an -0;= Droup % carcinogen. -t is a cause of lung cancer and is
associated with an increased risk for bladder cancer.
$5'&
Applications
The characteristics of diesel have different advantages for different applications.
&assenger cars
(iesel engines have long been popular in bigger cars and have been used in smaller cars such as superminis
like the Geugeot '"!, in 3urope since the %*5"s. (iesel engines tend to be more economical at regular
driving speeds and are much better at city speeds. Their reliability and life-span tend to be better (as
detailed). )ome >"# or more of all cars sold in 3urope are diesel-powered where they are considered a low
=C
'
option. 2ercedes-1en: in conjunction with ;obert 1osch Dmb@ produced diesel-powered passenger
cars starting in %*.< and very large numbers are used all over the world (often as ADrande TaxisA in the
Third 8orld).
(ailroad rolling stoc*
(iesel engines have eclipsed steam engines as the prime mover on all non-electrified railroads in the
industriali:ed world. The first diesel locomotives appeared in the early '"th century, and diesel multiple
units soon after.
8hile electric locomotives have now replaced the diesel locomotive almost completely on passenger traffic
in 3urope and 0sia, diesel is still today very popular for cargo-hauling freight trains and on tracks where
electrification is not feasible.
2ost modern diesel locomotives are actually diesel-electric locomotivesF the diesel engine is used to power
an electric generator that in turn powers electric traction motors with no mechanical connection between
diesel engine and traction.
0fter '""", environmental re,uirements has caused higher development cost for engines, and it has become
common for passenger multiple units to use engines and automatic mechanical gearboxes made for trucks.
+p to four such combinations might be used to get enough power in a train.
+ther transport uses
arger transport applications (trucks, buses, etc.) also benefit from the (iesel7s reliability and high tor,ue
output. (iesel displaced paraffin (or tractor vaporising oil, TKC) in most parts of the world by the end of the
%*!"s with the +.). following some '" years later.
,ircraft
9arine
9otorcycles
-n merchant ships and boats, the same advantages apply with the relative safety of (iesel fuel an additional
benefit. The Derman pocket battleships were the largest (iesel warships, but the Derman torpedo-boats
known as 3-boats (Schnellboot) of the )econd 8orld 8ar were also (iesel craft. =onventional submarines
have used them since before 8orld 8ar -, relying on the almost total absence of carbon monoxide in the
exhaust. 0merican 8orld 8ar -- (iesel-electric submarines operated on two-stroke cycle, as opposed to the
four-stroke cycle that other navies used.
'on-road diesel engines
Eon-road diesel engines include mobile e,uipment and vehicles that are not used on the public roadways
such as construction e,uipment and agricultural tractors.
Military fuel standardisation
E0TC has a single vehicle fuel policy and has selected diesel for this purpose. The use of a single fuel
simplifies wartime logistics. E0TC and the +nited )tates 2arine =orps have even been developing a diesel
military motorcycle based on a 6awasaki off road motorcycle, with a purpose designed naturally aspirated
direct injection diesel at =ranfield +niversity in 3ngland, to be produced in the +)0, because motorcycles
were the last remaining gasoline-powered vehicle in their inventory. 1efore this, a few civilian motorcycles
had been built using adapted stationary diesel engines, but the weight and cost disadvantages generally
outweighed the efficiency gains.
'on-transport uses
, :@++ H:2 2)D<< k! power plant undergoing testing L restoration
(iesel engines are also used to power permanent, portable, and backup generators, irrigation pumps,
$5.&
corn
grinders,
$5>&
and coffee de-pulpers.
$5!&
Engine speeds
8ithin the diesel engine industry, engines are often categori:ed by their rotational speeds into three
unofficial groupsF
Gigh=speed engines (M :)<<< rpm)
medium=speed engines (D<< = :)<<< rpm) and
slow=speed engines (N D<< rpm.
@igh- and medium-speed engines are predominantly four-stroke enginesB except for the (etroit (iesel two-
stroke range. 2edium-speed engines are physically larger than high-speed engines and can burn lower-grade
(slower-burning) fuel than high-speed engines. )low-speed engines are predominantly large two-stroke
crosshead engines, hence very different from high- and medium-speed engines. (ue to the lower rotational
speed of slow- and medium-speed engines, there is more time for combustion during the power stroke of the
cycle, allowing the use of slower-burning fuels than high-speed engines.
,igh-speed engines
@igh-speed (approximately %,""" rpm and greater) engines are used to power trucks (lorries), buses,
tractors, cars, yachts, compressors, pumps and small electrical generators. 0s of '""5, most high-speed
engines have direct injection. 2any modern engines, particularly in on-highway applications, have common
rail direct injection, which is cleaner burning.
Medium-speed engines
2edium-speed engines are used in large electrical generators, ship propulsion and mechanical drive
applications such as large compressors or pumps. 2edium speed diesel engines operate on either diesel fuel
or heavy fuel oil by direct injection in the same manner as low-speed engines.
3ngines used in electrical generators run at approximately ."" to %""" rpm and are optimi:ed to run at a set
synchronous speed depending on the generation fre,uency (!" or <" hert:) and provide a rapid response to
load changes. Typical synchronous speeds for modern medium-speed engines are !""I!%> rpm (!"I<" @:),
<"" rpm (both !" and <" @:), /'"I/!" rpm, and *""I%""" rpm.
0s of '""*, the largest medium-speed engines in current production have outputs up to approximately
'" 28 ('/,""" hp). and are supplied by companies like 20E 1R8, 89rtsil9,
$5<&
and ;olls-;oyce (who
ac,uired +lstein 1ergen (iesel in %***). 2ost medium-speed engines produced are four-stroke machines,
however there are some two-stroke medium-speed engines such as by 32( (3lectro-2otive (iesel), and
the 4airbanks 2orse CG (Cpposed-piston engine) type.
Typical cylinder bore si:e for medium-speed engines ranges from '" cm to !" cm, and engine
configurations typically are offered ranging from in-line >-cylinder units to K-configuration '"-cylinder
units. 2ost larger medium-speed engines are started with compressed air direct on pistons, using an air
distributor, as opposed to a pneumatic starting motor acting on the flywheel, which tends to be used for
smaller engines. There is no definitive engine si:e cut-off point for this.
-t should also be noted that most major manufacturers of medium-speed engines make natural gas-fueled
versions of their diesel engines, which in fact operate on the Ctto cycle, and re,uire spark ignition, typically
provided with a spark plug.
$//&
There are also dual (dieselInatural gasIcoal gas) fuel versions of medium and
low speed diesel engines using a lean fuel air mixture and a small injection of diesel fuel (so-called Apilot
fuelA) for ignition. -n case of a gas supply failure or maximum power demand these engines will instantly
switch back to full diesel fuel operation.
$//&$5/&$55&
-ow-speed engines
The 9,0 (L! J*J<9' J=cylinder) 2=stroke) low=speed marine diesel engine. This particular engine is
found aboard a 2@)<<< tonne chemical carrier.
0lso known as slow-speed, or traditionally oil engines, the largest diesel engines are primarily used to power
ships, although there are a few land-based power generation units as well. These extremely large two-stroke
engines have power outputs up to approximately 5! 28 (%%>,""" hp), operate in the range from
approximately <" to '"" rpm and are up to %! m (!" ft) tall, and can weigh over ',""" short tons (%,5"" t).
They typically use direct injection running on cheap low-grade heavy fuel, also known as bunker = fuel,
which re,uires heating in the ship for tanking and before injection due to the fuel7s high viscosity. Cften, the
waste heat recovery steam boilers attached to the engine exhaust ducting generate the heat re,uired for fuel
heating. Grovided the heavy fuel system is kept warm and circulating, engines can be started and stopped on
heavy fuel.
arge and medium marine engines are started with compressed air directly applied to the pistons. 0ir is
applied to cylinders to start the engine forwards or backwards because they are normally directly connected
to the propeller without clutch or gearbox, and to provide reverse propulsion either the engine must be run
backwards or the ship will use an adjustable propeller. 0t least three cylinders are re,uired with two-stroke
engines and at least six cylinders with four-stroke engines to provide tor,ue every %'" degrees.
=ompanies such as 20E 1R8 (iesel, (formerly 1urmeister R 8ain) and 89rtsil9 (which ac,uired )ul:er
(iesel) design such large low-speed engines. They are unusually narrow and tall due to the addition of a
crosshead bearing. 0s of '""/, the %>-cylinder 89rtsil9-)ul:er %>;T43S*<-= turbocharged two-stroke
diesel engine built by 89rtsil9 licensee (oosan in 6orea is the most powerful diesel engine put into service,
with a cylinder bore of *<" mm (./.5 in) delivering %%>,5"" hp (5!.< 28). -t was put into service in
)eptember '""<, aboard the world7s largest container ship !mma $aersk which belongs to the 0.G. 2oller-
2aersk Droup. Typical bore si:e for low-speed engines ranges from approximately .! to *5 cm (%> to
.* in). 0s of '""5, all produced low-speed engines with crosshead bearings are in-line configurationsB no
Kee versions have been produced.
Current and future developments
*ee also% &iesel car history
0s of '""5, many common rail and unit injection systems already employ new injectors using stacked
pie:oelectric wafers in lieu of a solenoid, giving finer control of the injection event.
$5*&
Kariable geometry turbochargers have flexible vanes, which move and let more air into the engine
depending on load. This technology increases both performance and fuel economy. 1oost lag is reduced as
turbo impeller inertia is compensated for.
$*"&
0ccelerometer pilot control (0G=) uses an accelerometer to provide feedback on the engine7s level of noise
and vibration and thus instruct the 3=+ to inject the minimum amount of fuel that will produce ,uiet
combustion and still provide the re,uired power (especially while idling).
$*%&
The next generation of common rail diesels is expected to use variable injection geometry, which allows the
amount of fuel injected to be varied over a wider range, and variable valve timing (see 2itsubishi7s >E%.
diesel engine) similar to that of petrol engines. Garticularly in the +nited )tates, coming tougher emissions
regulations present a considerable challenge to diesel engine manufacturers. 4ord7s @yTrans Groject has
developed a system which starts the ignition in >"" ms, saving a significant amount of fuel on city routes,
and there are other methods to achieve even more efficient combustion, such as homogeneous charge
compression ignition, being studied.
$*'&$*.&
Mapanese and )wedish vehicle manufacturers are also developing diesel engines that run on dimethyl ether
((23).
$*>&

$*!&
)ome recent diesel engine models utili:e a copper alloy heat exchanger technology (=upro1ra:e) to take
advantage of benefits in terms of thermal performance, heat transfer efficiency, strengthIdurability,
corrosion resistance, and reduced emissions from higher operating temperatures.
-ow heat rejection engines
0 special class of experimental prototype internal combustion piston engines have been developed over
several decades with the goal of improving efficiency by reducing heat loss.
$*<&
These engines are variously
called adiabatic engines, due to better approximation of adiabatic expansion, low heat rejection engines, or
high temperature engines.
$*/&
They are generally piston engines with combustion chamber parts lined with
ceramic thermal barrier coatings.
$*5&
)ome make used of titanium pistons and other titanium parts due to its
low thermal conductivity
$**&
and mass. )ome designs are able to eliminate the use of a cooling system and
associated parasitic losses altogether.
$%""&
(eveloping lubricants able to withstand the higher temperatures
involved has been a major barrier to commerciali:ation.
$%"%&
)ince diesel engines are largely immune to
premature ignition they are generally better suited than Ctto engines.
&etrol engine
!:F petrol engine of the (ugatti Heyron
0 petrol engine (known as a gasoline engine in Eorth 0merica) is an internal combustion engine with
spark-ignition, designed to run on petrol (gasoline) and similar volatile fuels. -t was invented in %5/< in
Dermany by Derman inventor Eicolaus 0ugust Ctto. -n most petrol engines, the fuel and air are usually pre-
mixed before compression (although some modern petrol engines now use cylinder-direct petrol injection).
The pre-mixing was formerly done in a carburetor, but now it is done by electronically controlled fuel
injection, except in small engines where the costIcomplication of electronics does not justify the added
engine efficiency. The process differs from a diesel engine in the method of mixing the fuel and air, and in
using spark plugs to initiate the combustion process. -n a diesel engine, only air is compressed (and therefore
heated), and the fuel is injected into very hot air at the end of the compression stroke, and self-ignites.
Compression ratio
9ain article% 'ompression ratio
8ith both air and fuel in a closed cylinder, compressing the mixture too much poses the danger of auto-
ignition L or behaving like a diesel engine. 1ecause of the difference in burn rates between the two
different fuels, petrol engines are mechanically designed with different timing than diesels, so to auto-ignite
a petrol engine causes the expansion of gas inside the cylinder to reach its greatest point before the cylinder
has reached the Atop dead centerA (T(=) position. )park plugs are typically set statically or at idle at a
minimum of %" degrees or so of crankshaft rotation before the piston reaches T(=, but at much higher
values at higher engine speeds to allow time for the fuel-air charge to substantially complete combustion
before too much expansion has occurred - gas expansion occurring with the piston moving down in the
power stroke. @igher octane petrol burns slower, therefore it has a lower propensity to auto-ignite and its
rate of expansion is lower. Thus, engines designed to run high-octane fuel exclusively can achieve higher
compression ratios.
Speed and efficiency
Getrol engines run at higher speeds than diesels, partially due to their lighter pistons, connecting rods and
crankshaft (a design efficiency made possible by lower compression ratios) and due to petrol burning faster
than diesel. They also tend to have a much shorter stroke and therefore a petrol engines pistons can move up
R down much ,uicker than a diesel engine. @owever the lower compression ratios of a petrol engine give a
lower efficiency than a diesel engine. To give an example, a petrol engine is like operating a bicycle in its
lowest gear where each push from your feet adds little energy to the system, but you still expend energy to
move your legs back to the T(= position.
Applications
Current
Getrol engines have many applications, includingF
9otor cars
9otorcycles
,ircraft
9otorboats
*mall engines ) such as lawn mowers) chainsaws and portable engine=generators
,istorical
1efore the use of diesel engines became widespread, petrol engines were used in buses, lorries (trucks) and a
few railway locomotives. 3xamplesF
(edford .( bus
(edford 9 series lorry
1E JA=ton gas=electric boxcab locomotive
Design
.or*ing cycles
+=*troke 4etrol engine
Getrol engines may run on the four-stroke cycle or the two-stroke cycle. 4or details of working cycles seeF
"our=stroke cycle
Two=stroke cycle
!ankel engine
Cylinder arrangement
=ommon cylinder arrangements are from % to < cylinders in-line or from ' to %< cylinders in K-formation.
4lat engines J like a K design flattened out J are common in small airplanes and motorcycles and were a
hallmark of Kolkswagen automobiles into the %**"s. 4lat <s are still used in many modern Gorsches, as well
as )ubarus. 2any flat engines are air-cooled. ess common, but notable in vehicles designed for high speeds
is the 8 formation, similar to having ' K engines side by side. 0lternatives include rotary and radial engines
the latter typically have / or * cylinders in a single ring, or %" or %> cylinders in two rings.
Cooling
Getrol engines may be air-cooled, with fins (to increase the surface area on the cylinders and cylinder head)B
or li,uid-cooled, by a water jacket and radiator. The coolant was formerly water, but is now usually a
mixture of water and either ethylene glycol or propylene glycol. These mixtures have lower free:ing points
and higher boiling points than pure water and also prevent corrosion, with modern antifree:es also
containing lubricants and other additives to protect water pump seals and bearings. The cooling system is
usually slightly pressuri:ed to further raise the boiling point of the coolant.
Ignition
9ain article% Ignition system
Getrol engines use spark ignition and high voltage current for the spark may be provided by a magneto or an
ignition coil. -n modern car engines the ignition timing is managed by an electronic 3ngine =ontrol +nit.
&ower measurement
The most common way of engine rating is what is known as the brake power, measured at the flywheel, and
given in kilowatts (metric) or horsepower (+)0). This is the actual mechanical power output of the engine
in a usable and complete form. The term AbrakeA comes from the use of a brake in a dynamometer test to
load the engine. 4or accuracy, it is important to understand what is meant by usable and complete. 4or
example, for a car engine, apart from friction and thermodynamic losses inside to the engine, power is
absorbed by the water pump, alternator, and radiator fan, thus reducing the power available at the flywheel
to move the car along. Gower is also absorbed by the power steering pump and air conditioner (if fitted), but
these are not installed for a power output test or calculation. Gower output varies slightly according to the
energy value of the fuel, the ambient air temperature and humidity, and the altitude. Therefore, there are
agreed standards in the +)0 and 3urope on the fuel to use when testing, and engines are rated at '! =
(3urope), and <> 4 (+)0)
$citation needed&
at sea level, !"# humidity. 2arine engines, as supplied, usually have
no radiator fan, and often no alternator. -n such cases the ,uoted power rating does not allow for losses in
the radiator fan and alternator. The )03 in +)0, and the -)C in 3urope publish standards on exact
procedures, and how to apply corrections for deviating conditions like high altitude.
=ar testers are most familiar with the chassis dynamometer or Arolling roadA installed in many workshops.
This measures drive wheel brake horsepower, which is generally %!-'"# less than the brake horsepower
measured at the crankshaft or flywheel on an engine dynamometer. Poutube video showing workshop
measurement of a car7s power. The measured power curve in k8 is shown at .F.*.