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Student Version 17 for Windows software to test
the null hypothesis. The results showed no significant difference between the two groups
mean change scores (F(1, 28) =0.062, p >0.05). Therefore, the null hypothesis, which stated
that the HV training would not result in a greater improvement in sprint time when compared
to HR training for high school female students, could not be rejected.
Since an improvement was observed between the pre- and post-test time for both
groups, further analysis was needed to confirm whether the improvement was significant. A
repeated measures ANOVA was used to analyze pre- to post-test data for all individuals in
both training groups over the eight weeks of training. The within subjects results were
statistically significant (F(1, 28) =18.687, p <0.001) showing that the eight weeks of
28
training induced a significant improvement in the sprint time performance regardless of
protocol.
Summary
Based on the results, no significant difference was found between the two training
groups mean change scores. However, both protocols over the eight weeks of training
resulted in a significant improvement in the pre- to post-test times for 100 m.
29
CHAPTER V
Discussion
Introduction
The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of both high-velocity (HV) and
high-resistance (HR) training programs on overall sprint time performance in female high
school students. Participants for the study were 30 adolescent females (M =15.56 years, SD
=.65 years) who were participating in high school physical education classes at Roswell
High School and Valley Christian Academy. The participants had little knowledge and
experience with strength training and completed an 8-week training protocol consisting of
HV exercises or HR exercises. The data were analyzed to determine which training protocol
better improved sprint time performance in this population.
This chapter discusses the results of the study and includes the following sections
hypothesis findings, pre- and post-test comparisons, conclusions, and considerations for
future research.
Hypothesis Findings
It was hypothesized that HV training would result in a greater improvement in sprint
time compared to HR training for high school female students. Results showed that training
improved overall sprint time performance in the 100 m dash; however, no significant
difference between the mean change scores for the two training protocols (F(1, 28) =0.062, p
>0.05) was found.
According to current literature, a HV training program will improve sprint time
performance in the 40 m and increase height during a vertical jump test (Chelly et al., 2010;
Chimera, Swanik, Swanik, & Straub, 2004). Chelly et al. performed a series of exercises
including counter movement jumps and squat jumps to assess the leg power of male soccer
30
players. For eight weeks the researchers had the participants complete the training during
their regular season and found that plyometric training induced a significant increase in thigh
muscle volume, a significant increase in squat jump and counter movement jump heights,
and a significant increase in running velocities at 5 m and 40 m. Chimera et al. also evaluated
the effects of plyometric training on the performance of the lower extremities during jumping
exercises as well as the trainings influence on the stretch shortening cycle during running
performance. The stretch shortening cycle is the stretching of the muscles before the
contraction to produce a greater force during most jumping movements and is the basis for
plyometric exercises. The researchers had 20 collegiate female athletes perform plyometric
exercises twice a week for six weeks and found a significant increase in vertical jump height
along with an improved sprint time. In the current study jump height was not measured, but
the sprint time results are supported by the conclusions of Chelly et al. and Chimera et al.
that running velocities among the participants may improve with plyometric exercises.
Several earlier studies have also shown that a HV training program can improve
sprint time in a 100 m sprint or a 40 yard shuttle run when compared to, or in combination
with, a HR training program (Delecluse et al., 1995; Faigenbaum et al., 2007). Delecluse and
colleagues analyzed the effects of training on 100 m sprint performance among male physical
education volunteers between the ages of 18 and 22 years for nine weeks. The authors
concluded that the HV group was the only training group to significantly improve the overall
time in the 100 m sprint when compared to the other testing groups used in the study. Also,
Faigenbaum and colleagues (2007) compared the effects of a 6-week training period of
combined plyometric and resistance training and resistance training alone on fitness
performance in boys between the ages of 12 and 15 years. The study found that combined
31
plyometric and resistance training significantly improved the vertical jump, long jump, and
9.1 m shuttle run, whereas the resistance training only protocol did not show significant
differences in the performance areas that were tested. This suggests that a combination of the
two training programs will significantly improve sprint time performance. The previously
discussed studies support the finding of the current study that the participants sprint time
will be improved with plyometric training; however, the resistance training results seem
contradictory. The current study produced a significant improvement in sprint time among all
of the participants, possibly because the students were not very active before the study
leaving room for an increase in performance. However, on several occasions a few students
would not complete the required number of jumps. This may have affected the results among
the HV training group when compared to the HR group.
Unlike previous research, the results of the current study show an overall
improvement in the participants sprint performance for both training protocols. This
improvement may not have been significant between the two training groups but when
comparing the pre- to post-test times, the change was significantly greater.
Pre- and Post-test Comparisons
The length of a training program (i.e., number of weeks) may help reduce injuries if a
significant change could be shown in a shorter amount of time. Research indicates that a
minimum of eight weeks is needed to see training adaptations in performance; however, the
optimal amount of time required is likely to be greater than ten weeks (Kravitz, 1996;
Randell, Cronin, Keogh, Gill, & Pedersen, 2011). The present study was conducted over the
course of eight weeks so the pre-test trials could be performed during moderate temperatures
and post-test trials concluded before the end of the school year in mid-May. The results of
32
the present study suggest that a training period of less than ten weeks may induce a
significant change between the pre- and post-test sprint trials. The researcher acknowledges
that both training protocols produced a significant improvement from the pre- to post-test
trial sprint time, however, other outside factors may have influenced the outcome of the
trials. The change in sprint time performance between the pre- and post-test trials could be
due to a familiarity with the researcher and the participants being more comfortable with
performing the running trials and the training protocols. Also, the pre- and post-training
weight of the participants was not formally measured by the researcher, but fat loss could be
a reason for the improvement seen in sprint time. Also, in conversation with some of the
participants from the HR group indicated that muscle mass may have increased. This may
indicate that the participant put on muscle mass and this gain could also be a reason for a
significant improvement among the pre- to post-test times.
The sprint trials were conducted outside and with a tail wind, so the wind conditions
may have affected the pre- and post-test trial times due to the seasonal wind speeds. It should
be noted that sprint times considered to be wind-aided, for example greater that 8.95 mph
(NCAA, 2011), are not counted toward the qualifying marks to compete at Nationals.
Excessive wind speeds during the pre- and post-test trials were controlled for by the
researcher in not allowing the participants to complete their trials if the sustained wind
exceeded 15 mph. The pre-test sprint trials were conducted in sustained wind speeds of less
than 5 mph for all participants, but averaged 12 mph during the post-test. However, the
significant difference (p <.001) in sprint times between trials suggests that the improvement
is unlikely to be due solely to increased wind speeds.
33
Conclusions
The experimental hypothesis was not supported in this study because it did not meet
the set level of significance (p <0.05) as a predictor of training protocol influence on sprint
performance. Both training groups improved sprint time from the pre-test to the post-test
within the eight weeks of training. It could be suggested that both training protocols can help
students and athletes improve their sprint performance. Based on the information from this
study it may be important for people involved in sprinting, coaching, and other sports to
understand that a shorter amount of time for training, not only the training protocol, can
produce an improvement in sprint time. However, it is unrealistic for physical educators and
coaches to determine the effects of the training protocols on the sprint phases of their
students and athletes because they may not have access to the high speed video equipment
and force platforms used by previous researchers. A select untrained population was used for
this study; therefore, the results may not hold true for other populations such as children,
older adults, athletes, or the general population who regularly train and are interested in
overall wellness.
Considerations for Future Research
The findings from this study have generated new ideas that could be of interest to
individuals involved in athletics, training, physical education, and in sports which require
sprinting. This study could also provide information to coaches and athletes about training
programs that will improve performance in the 100 m sprint.
Since both training protocols produced an improvement in sprint time, it would be of
interest to compare a combination of both HR and HV protocols to determine the amount of
significant change that may occur compared to HV training alone. Faigenbaum and
34
colleagues (2007) conducted a study which compared the effects of a 6-week training period
of combined plyometric and resistance training and resistance training alone. The study
found that the combined group made considerable improvements in the shuttle run compared
to that of the resistance training group alone; therefore, combining the training protocols
might provide insight for professionals for improving the speed of their athletes and students.
Also, this study only looked at females between the ages of 14 years and 18 years of
age. It could also be of interest to examine other age groups within a different regional
setting to determine if the training protocols will produce a significant change in sprint time.
Many studies have been conducted on male participants who were soccer and elite sprinters,
therefore, another consideration could be to look at female athletes as well. This study
provides information not only about females, but also about regular physical education
students for whom little research is available.
This study used specific training exercises to see if any change in sprint time would
occur. A consideration would be to change up the sets, repetitions, and exercises used in the
protocols to see which combination of exercise induces a greater change in the sprint time
performance. For example, the students could perform more or fewer repetitions of the
exercises, or add different plyometric jumping exercises (i.e., plyometric boxes, jump squats,
and other bounding exercises).
Lastly, the length of the current study was only eight weeks of training. It would be of
interest to see the minimum number of weeks that would induce a significant change in the
sprint time performance based on the training program of the participants. This information
might help professionals reduce injury among the population they are working with by
35
shortening the training time along with helping physical educators improve their students
performance in class.
36
References
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Baker, D., & Nance, S. (1999). The relation between running speed and measures of strength
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Blazevich, A. J ., & J enkins, D. G. (2002). Effect of the movement speed of resistance
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Blount, J ., Hoskinsson, J ., & Korchemny, R. (1991). Summary of results from TAC junior
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Cronin, J ., & Hansen, K. (2005). Strength and power predictors of sports speed. Journal of
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Cronin, J ., Hansen, K., Kawamori, N., & McNair, P. (2008). Effects of weighted vests and
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Cronin, J . B., Ogden, T., Lawton, T., & Brughelli, M. (2007). Does increasing maximal
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39
APPENDIX A: Informed Consent Forms
40
INFORMED CONSENT FORM
Comparison of Strength Training Methods on Sprint Time Performance
Your daughter is invited to participate in a research study to be conducted by Tracie L. Edwards.
Your teenager is currently enrolled in the Roswell ISD physical education classes, and this new study will
be conducted within this program. The purpose of the study is to examine the effect of two different
strength training programs on 100 m sprint time performance among high school female physical
education students. Your daughter was selected as a possible participant because she is in the age group
of interest. The researcher will ask the volunteers about their current knowledge and experience with
strength training programs. Data will be analyzed from volunteers who have no prior experience with
strength training programs; however, if the volunteer has current knowledge of strength training programs
they will be allowed to participate in the program but their data will not be used for analysis.
Specifically, I am asking for parent approval along with student approval to participate in the
collection of 100 m sprint time data from your daughter and have her participate in one of two different
strength training programs for 8 weeks. I will visit the school to ensure the students complete the training
exercises for that particular day. An explanation of the procedure follows:
The procedure begins with student participating in an explanation of the timing equipment being used
then various warm up (stretching) exercises. The students will then complete two trials of a 100 m sprint
for their best time. During the timed trials each student will individually perform the 100 m while the rest
of the participants while watching from the starting line. The students time will be kept confidential from
everyone but the researcher and their identity will be coded. At the end of the timed trials all of the
students will be randomly placed into two training groups to begin their strength training programs. The
high-resistance training program includes exercises such as leg press, leg extension, hip extension, hip
flexion, hamstring curl, calf raise, bench press, seated rows, and arm curls and the high-velocity training
program includes standing broad jumps, vertical jumps, hurdle jumps, skipping, bounding, and hopping.
For the next 2 weeks the students will participate twice a week in their assigned training program. At the
end of the first two weeks the students will increase their training to three days a week. At no time will
students be left unattended while the participating in the timed trials or during their training program. At
the end of the 8
th
week of training the students will complete two time trials in the 100 m sprint to
determine if their times have changed.
In addition, your daughter will need to wear the appropriate clothing and footwear to participate in
this study and the proper exercise equipment will be used at all times.
There are no foreseeable risks or discomforts, above those that might be expected during physical
activity (fatigue or soreness), associated with collection of this data. Please note, any student who
expresses a desire to not participate in training on any occasion will be allowed to stop immediately and if
the participant wishes to withdraw from the study at any time they will be allowed without any
repercussions. I plan to use information obtained from the sprint times in any way thought best for
education and publication. I will present the results of this study to my committee and dean at the end of
the semester. All data will be collected and stored in a confidential way (code lists will be kept in a locked
cabinet), and the students results will be reported anonymously at all times.
By signing this form, you are agreeing to the participation of your teenager in these strength training
programs. Your daughters participation or refusal to participate in the data collection will in no way
affect her standing in school nor positively or negatively impact her grade in the physical education class.
At the conclusion of the study, a summary of results will be made available to interested parents/guardians
and educators. Should you have any questions or desire further information, please call Dr. Sarah Wall at
(575) 562-2915 [Sarah.Wall@enmu.edu]. For more information regarding your rights as a subject you
may contact the Dr. Darren Pollock, Chair of the Human Subjects Committee (575) 562-2862
[Darren.Pollock@enmu.edu].You will be provided of a copy of this form to keep.
41
HAVING READ THE INFORMATION PROVIDED YOU MUST DECIDE WHETHER
OR NOT TO ALLOW YOUR DAUGHTER TO PARTICIPATE. YOUR SIGNATURE
INDICATES YOUR WILLINGNESS TO ALLOW HER PARTICIPATION IN THE STUDY.
Student Name (Print)_______________________________ Date________________
Parent/Guardian Signature___________________________ Date________________
Investigator Signature______________________________ Date________________
42
INFORMED CONSENT FORM
Comparison of Strength Training Methods on Sprint Time Performance
You are invited to participate in a research study to be conducted by Tracie L. Edwards. You are
currently enrolled in the Roswell ISD physical education classes, and this new study will be conducted
within this class. The purpose of the study is to examine the effect of two different strength training
programs on 100 m sprint time performance among high school female physical education students. You
were selected as a possible participant because you are in the age group of interest. It is necessary for you
to have no previous experience with strength training programs to participate in the data collection. We
feel this previous experience may change the outcome of the study due to the familiarity with the
equipment that will be used. However, if you have participated in strength training programs you still will
be allowed to participate alongside your peers but your data will not be used for the study.
Specifically, I am asking for your (student) approval to participate in the collection of 100 m sprint
time data and your participation in one of two different strength training programs for 8 weeks. I will visit
the school to ensure you complete the training exercises for that particular day. An explanation of the
procedure follows:
The procedure begins with you (student) participating in an explanation of the timing equipment
being used then warm up (stretching) exercises. Next, you will run two 100 m sprints for your best time.
During the timed trials you will individually perform the 100 m while the rest of the participants
encourage and cheer you on to perform your best while watching from the starting line. No one will know
your time and your identity will be coded. At the end of the timed trials all of you will be placed into one
of two training groups, high-resistance or high-velocity. The high-resistance training program includes
exercises such as leg press, leg extension, hip extension, hip flexion, hamstring curl, calf raise, bench
press, seated rows, and arm curls. The high-velocity training program includes standing broad jumps,
vertical jumps, hurdle jumps, skipping, bounding, and hopping. For the next 2 weeks you will participate
twice a week in your assigned training program. At the end of the first two weeks you will train three days
a week. At no time will you be left alone while participating in the timed trials or during your training
program. At the end of the 8
th
week of training you will again complete the 100 m sprint trials to
determine if your times have changed.
In addition, you will need to wear the proper clothing such as shorts, wind pants, and t-shirt, and
correct running style shoes to participate in this study and the proper exercise equipment will be used at
all times.
There are no foreseeable risks or discomforts, above those that might be expected during physical
activity (i.e. soreness or fatigue), associated with collection of this data. Please note, if you expresses a
desire to not participate in training on any occasion you will be allowed to stop immediately and if you
wish to withdraw from the study at any time you will be allowed without any consequences. I plan to use
information obtained from the sprint times in any way best for education and publication. I will present
the results of this study to my committee and dean at the end of the semester. All data will be collected
and stored in a confidential way (code lists will be kept in a locked cabinet), and the students results will
be reported anonymously at all times.
By signing this form, you are agreeing to your participation in these strength training programs. Your
participation or refusal to participate in the data collection will in no way affect your standing in school
nor positively or negatively hurt you grade in the physical education class. At the conclusion of the study,
a summary of results will be made available to interested parents/guardians and educators. Should you
have any questions or desire further information, please call Dr. Sarah Wall at (575) 562-2915
[Sarah.Wall@enmu.edu]. For more information regarding your rights as a subject you may contact the Dr.
Darren Pollock, Chair of the Human Subjects Committee (575) 562-2862
[Darren.Pollock@enmu.edu].You will be provided of a copy of this form to keep.
43
HAVING READ THE INFORMATION PROVIDED YOU MUST DECIDE WHETHER
OR NOT YOU ARE ALLOWING YOURSELF TO PARTICIPATE. YOUR SIGNATURE
INDICATES YOUR WILLINGNESS TO ALLOW YOUR PARTICIPATION IN THE STUDY.
Student Name (Print)______________________________ Date________________
Student Signature_________________________________ Date________________
Investigator Signature______________________________ Date________________
44
APPENDIX B: High Resistance Training Workout
45
High-Resistance Training Workout
Sets X Repetitions
Week 1-2 Week 3-4 Week 5-6 Week 7-8
Leg Extension 3 X 8 RM 3 X 8 RM 3 X 8 RM 3 X 8 RM
Hamstring Curl 3 X 8 RM 3 X 8 RM 3 X 8 RM 3 X 8 RM
Hip Extension 3 X 8 RM 3 X 8 RM 3 X 8 RM 3 X 8 RM
Hip Flexion 3 X 8 RM 3 X 8 RM 3 X 8 RM 3 X 8 RM
Squat 3 X 8 RM 3 X 8 RM 3 X 8 RM 3 X 8 RM
Leg Press 3 X 8 RM 3 X 8 RM 3 X 8 RM 3 X 8 RM
Calf Raise 3 X 8 RM 3 X 8 RM 3 X 8 RM 3 X 8 RM
*The weight will be progressively increased to maintain 8 RM.
46
APPENDIX C: High Velocity Training Workout
47
High-Velocity Training Workout
Instructions
Exercises Reps Series Evaluation
Standing Broad J umps 5 3 Distance
Vertical J umps 5 3 Height
Cone J umps 5 3 Height
Skipping 20 1 Time
Leg Frequency/Ladder 20 1 Time
Bounding 5 4 Distance
Hopping 5 4 Distance
48
APPENDIX D: Pre- and Post-Test Times and Change Scores
49
Pre- and Post-Test Times and Scores
Participant
Number
Pre Post
Change
Score
Group Pre Post
Change
Score
1 16.16 16.05 -0.11
HV
20.57 19.72 -0.85
2 20.63 18.91 -1.72
HR
20.04 19.18 -0.86
3 23.62 21.55 -2.07
4 18.36 17.55 -0.81
5 22.90 21.59 -1.32
6 20.21 18.56 -1.65
7 18.50 19.44 0.93
8 20.38 20.99 0.61
9 18.75 17.85 -0.90
10 22.27 20.58 -1.69
11 16.11 16.51 0.40
12 19.83 18.94 -0.89
14 21.03 20.34 -0.69
15 23.77 21.97 -1.80
16 19.99 17.44 -2.55
17 17.84 18.37 0.54
18 19.69 18.29 -1.40
19 20.75 20.37 -0.38
20 20.21 19.61 -0.59
21 23.13 23.99 0.85
23 20.11 19.36 -0.75
25 21.79 22.02 0.23
27 18.70 17.67 -1.03
28 18.68 17.91 -0.76
29 22.41 22.40 -0.01
30 20.18 17.12 -3.06
31 20.19 20.16 -0.03
32 20.18 19.96 -0.23
33 20.35 20.38 0.03
34 22.96 20.08 -2.88