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1. Our Sun is just one star in the galaxy and ours is just one galaxy in the Universe.
Outline the historical development of models of the Universe from the time of Aristotle to the
time of Newton.
NEED TO FOCUS ON ONE ASTRONOMER AND DESCRIBE HIS MODEL SPECIFICALLY
Aristotle: He believed that the Earth was at the centre of the universe and that the Sun,
the Moon and the visible planets, as well as a celestial sphere containing all the stars, revolved
around the Earth. However, he had no technology with which to examine the heavens, other
than his naked eye. This was known as the geocentric model.
Aristarchus: He disagreed with Aristotle and put forward an alternative view. He suggested
that the Sun is much bigger than the Earth which therefore positions it at the centre of the
universe in which the Earth orbits it. Also, he explained that Earth rotates on an axis once per
day, producing the apparent motion of the Sun and stars. This was known as the heliocentric
model. Nevertheless, people did not favour his idea over Aristotles model as his predictions were
not sufficiently detailed.
Ptolemy: He refined Aristotles geocentric model and was so elaborate that it successfully
convinced the Roman church to be considered the correct model of the universe. With the
support of the Roman church, this model predominated over all others for about 1400 years.
Copernicus: He proposed that the Sun was stationary at the centre of the universe and that
everything else revolved in circles about it. He discussed his theories away from the churchs
ears. Fortunately, before his death, Copernicus had already published ideas. Nevertheless, his
work was branded as heretical, a crime against the churchs teachings.
Tycho Brahe: He constructed his own astronomical instruments and studied the sky with great
accuracy and care. Brahe proposed his own model of the universe which consisted of a
combination of the geocentric and heliocentric models. His model had all of the planets,
except Earth, revolving around the Sun, while the Sun revolved around the stationary Earth. As
he observed no visible parallax shift of stars from the Earth through the Sun, he was convinced
the Earth did not move.
Kepler: He was an assistant to Tycho Brahe. When Brahe died, Kepler inherited all of his
work of meticulously gathered data. Being a highly skilled mathematician, Kepler only needed
the raw data, provided by Brahe, to find a mathematical basis for the motion of the planets. His
model proposed:
The Law of Ellipses: each planet moves in an ellipse orbit around the Sun at one
focus.
The Law of Areas: the speed of the planets along their elliptical orbits is such that
they sweep out equal areas in equal periods of time.
The Law of Periods: the period, T, of the orbit of a planet is related to the average
radius (with the Sun as the focus).
T where k = a constant.
R
= k
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Galilei: His crime was that he believed that the Earth moved around the Sun and that
there might be inhabited worlds in the universe other than our own. Galileo was the first to
construct a telescope that pointed at the night sky. He discovered the massive number of stars
that were visible through his telescope. In addition, he discovered that Jupiter had four
observable moons that orbited it. The significant point, however, was that the moons were
orbiting Jupiter, not the Earth. This was proof that Ptolemys complicated geocentric model was
incorrect.
But the works of both Kepler and Galileo had dealt to the Earth-centred model, and there was
no going back.
Newton: He analysed the force of gravity between two masses to provide a better
mathematical description of the workings of the heliocentric model of the universe.
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2. The first minutes of the Universe released energy which changed to matter, forming
stars and galaxies.
Outline the discovery of the expansion of the universe by Hubble, following its earlier prediction
by Friedmann.
Edwin Hubble had access to one of the most powerful telescopes during his time. In his study of
the newly discovered galaxies (discovery of Andromeda nebulae not in the Milky Way), he
measured the red shift of their light. Using a glass spectrum to spread the light out into a
spectrum, it becomes possible to identify particular lines (specific wavelengths) in the spectrum.
It was noticed that the lines were closer to the red end of the spectrum than expected hence
the term red-shifted. Hence, it was deduced that the galaxies were moving away from the
Earth; no matter what direction the telescope was pointed.
What Hubble had discovered is that the universe is expanding, just as Friedmann had predicted
five years earlier. Moreover, Hubbles expansion was very much like an exploding bomb, with
the parts furthest out travelling the fastest. This implied at some stage in the past all of the matter
in our expanding universe, like an exploding bomb, was concentrated at a single place, called
a singularity. From this singularity our universe exploded, an event that has become known as
the big bang.
Describe the transformation of radiation into matter which followed the Big Bang.
The moment of the big bang marked the beginning of space and time. All that was present was
energy; the universe was smaller than the size of a proton. Initially, the energy was transformed
into fundamental particles called leptons and quarks. Quarks are the building blocks of protons
and neutrons, and leptons the building blocks of electrons. Quarks combined to form protons
and neutrons.
After approximately 300 000 years, known as the time of recombination, the universe cooled
sufficiently (to a few thousand Kelvin) for the electron to combine with protons and neutrons to
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form atoms. The atoms found in the young universe were mainly hydrogen, helium and traces of
lithium. At this time, a large amount of radiation is released and dispersed throughout the
universe. As the universe expanded and cooled, the radiation filling the universe also cooled
down and still exists today (also known as cosmic background radiation).
Identify that Einstein described the equivalence of energy and mass.
Albert Einstein proposed the Special theory of relativity in which he said that the speed of light is
the absolute constant in the universe. From this theory, it was shown that mass and energy are
interchangeable. This suggests that tiny amounts of mass could be converted into huge
amounts of energy and presaged the development of nuclear power.
E = mc E=energy, m=mass, c=speed of light (3 x 10^8 m/s)
Outline how the accretion of galaxies and stars occurred through:
Expansion and cooling of the universe
Subsequent loss of particle kinetic energy
Gravitational attraction between particles
Lumpiness of the gas cloud that then allows gravitational collapse
As the radiation from the Big Bang expanded to make our universe, some of it was
transformed into matter. The universe had to cool down as no matter can be formed at such
a high temperature. Fundamental particles (leptons and quarks) electrons and neutrinos
all essential matter particles forms plasma helium and some lithium gravity pulls the
gases together to form nebulae as the radiation pressures gradually reduces, the particles
get more strongly attracted together the core forms first as gravity is extremely strong
there the whole star is formed.
MAIN PROCESSES: SINGULARITY ENERGY DOMINANT RECOMBINATION ACCRETION
3. Stars have a limited life span and may explode to form supernovas
Define the relationship between the temperature of a body and the dominant wavelength of
the radiation emitted from that body.
A black body is one that absorbs all radiation falling upon it. When it becomes hotter than its
surroundings it begins to radiate electromagnetic energy of its own. This is known as black-body
radiation. The temperature of a black body goes hand in hand with the dominant wavelength
emitted from it.
Identify that the surface temperature of a star is related to its colour.
A cooler star, with a surface temperature of about 3000K or 4000K, produces longer wavelengths
which makes it appear red. As the temperature increases, the wavelength shortens and
appears to be yellow. A hotter star, with a surface temperature of about 8000K or more,
produces short wavelengths which makes it appear blue.

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Describe a Hertzsprung-Russell diagram as the graph of a stars luminosity against its colour or
surface temperature.
This is a useful analytical tool. It allows us to depict whole groups of stars, so that we can study
the relationship between them. The stars luminosity is plotted vertically (equal units indicate
increase by a factor of 10). The stars temperature/colour is plotted horizontally.
Identify energy sources characteristic of each star group, including Main Sequence, red giants,
and white dwarfs.
Main sequence: Most stars line up along the slightly curved diagonal band from the upper left
corner to the lower right corner. Upper end stars are hot, luminous and massive. Lower end
stars are cool and have little lminosity and mass.
Red giants: These stars are situated in the upper right hand corner of the H-R diagram. They are
both cool and luminous. Why? The high luminosity of these stars can only be due to their
extraordinary size; that is, they are giant stars. Since they have a large surface, the energy from
the core must spread out evenly and thus creating a low surface temperature.
White dwarfs: This group lies below the main sequence, close to the lower left corner of the H-R
diagram. These stars are white-hot yet have verry low luminosities. Why? The stars unusualy small
size results in its low luminosity. Subsequently, as the surface of the white dwarf is so close to the
core, the energy radiated is very high, thus creating a high surface temperature.
4. The Sun is a typical star, emitting electromagnetic radiation and particles that
influence the Earth.
Identify that energy may be released from the nuclei of atoms.
Radioactive elements produce radiation. Nuclear fusion is the process by which multiple like-
charged atomic nuclei join together to form a heavier nucleus. It is accompanied by the release
or absorption of energy, which allows matter to enter a plasma state. Nuclear fission is a nuclear
reaction in which the nucleus of an atom splits into smaller parts, often producing free neutrons
and lighter nuclei, which may eventually produce photons (in the form of gamma rays).
Describe the nature of emissions from the nuclei of atoms as radiation of alpha and beta
particles and gamma rays in terms of: ionising and penetrating power, and the effect of
magnetic and electric fields.
Alpha Beta Gamma
Nature of emission He (a helium nucleus) e (an electron) Very high frequency
electromagnetic
radiation.
Charge +2 -1 Zero
Penetrating ability Low several cm of
air stopped by a
sheet of paper.
Medium one metre
of air.
High several cm of
lead.
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Ionising ability High Medium Low

Identify the nature of emissions reaching the Earth from the Sun.
Describe the particulate nature of the solar wind.
Electromagnetic radiation: the Sun produces a range of electromagnetic wavelengths, from the
short gamma rays to the long radio waves.however, the visible spectrum is the most intense
wavelength produced. The light emitted from the second-generation star takes 8 minutes to
reach Earth.
Solar winds and interplanetary magnetic field: the difference in pressure between the corona
and interplanetary space causes an outflow of material from the corona. The low-density, hot
plasma of the corona streams almost directly outward from the Sun, eventually reaching each
of the planets. Solar winds are particulate in nature and contain Helium and other ions. The wind
takes 3-4 days to reach Earth. Because the solar wind carries moving charges, it is able to
generate a magnetic field. The magnetic field lines of the solar winds interact with the Suns
magnetic field. The result is that the Suns magnetic field becomes frozen in the plasma of the
solar wind. This means that the solar wind effectively carries the magnetic field of the Sun with it,
as it travels. This forms the interplanteary field. Although the magnetic field lines remain
anchored in the Sun, it nevertheless forms a kind of spiral as the Sun rotates. At Earth, the field
lines are around 45 degress to the direction of the Sun.
Outline the cyclic nature of sunspot activity and its impact on Earth through solar winds.
The number of sunspots varies with a period of 11 years. When the sunspot cycle is at its peak,
about 100 sunspots are visible, and when the cycle is at its minimum, only about a few sunspots
are visible at any time.
It was found that when the sunspots were at its peak, solar flares are produced. A solar flare is an
explosion of hot material that bursts thousands of kilometres upwards from the surface of the
Sun. Solar forces can emit huge amounts of X-rays, UV and visible radiation (Aurora Borealis) as
well as bursts of high speed protons and electrons. The high speed charged particles reach the
Earth as powerful blasts of solar winds known as a magnetic storm. Such blasts can damage
satellites and its communication. The blasts also affect the Earths magnetic field; causing
compasses to malfunction and producing large induced current which can disrupt the power
grids on Earth.
Describe sunspots as representing regions of strong magnetic activity and lower temperature.
Sunspots are dark, cool areeas on the Suns surface with a very powerful magnetic field. It is
thought that sunspots are locations of disturbances in the magnetic field lines within the surface
of the Sun, where they have become sufficiently buckled to loop out and then back into the
surface. The intense field activity within a sunspot prevents the convection of heat to the
surface, thereby reducing its temperature.