Failure analysis of RC shear walls with staggered openings

under seismic loads

Marius Mosoarca

Politehnica University Timisoara, 2A Traian Lalescu Street, Timisoara, Romania

a r t i c l e i n f o
Article history:
Available online 23 August 2013
Keywords:
Failure mechanism
Earthquakes
Shear walls
Staggered openings
Reinforcement
a b s t r a c t
Reinforced concrete shear walls are used to design buildings located in seismic areas,
because of their rigidity, bearing capacity and high ductility. Until now many theoretical
and experimental tests on shear walls with or without openings have been made, therefore
their failure modes have been analysed and are rather very well-known; the research
results being conrmed by real failure modes of RC walls after earthquakes.
Design codes and standards based on the knowledge of the failure modes of the rein-
forced concrete walls were developed in order to obtain the ductile failure mechanisms.
A special case is the failure mode of the reinforced concrete shear walls with vertical
staggered openings. If at coupled walls the elements must be designed so that the plastic
hinges appear at the ends of the coupled beams and then in the pier, this thing is more dif-
cult at shear walls with staggered openings.
Theoretical and experimental studies on structural walls with staggered openings, lamel-
lar walls and walls with bulbs at the end have been made recently. There have also been
studied the followings: the degradation of the stiffness, the ductility function to the inten-
sity of the seismic force, the presence of the vertical forces, the position and the size of the
openings and the reinforcing ways.
The article presents the results of the theoretical and experimental tests on failure modes
of three types of reinforced concrete shear walls with staggered openings which are com-
pared to those obtained from walls with vertical ordered openings as far as the seismic
response is concerned.
The failure modes of the structural walls under seismic stress have been identied using
calculus programs and cyclic alternated experimental tests.
The theoretical research on the failure modes was the basis for the elaboration of a sim-
plied methodology for the calculus of the maximum theoretical seismic force that pro-
duces the concrete crushing in the ultimate limit stage. The results theoretically
obtained with the help of the calculus programs have been conrmed experimentally.
The analysis of the failure modes, obtained with the computing methodology proposed,
contributed to the completion of the seismic design codes for shear walls with staggered
openings.
2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
After earthquakes, the structural elements of the buildings record damages and some of them even fail in various modes.
The reports based on the eld inspections and the eld recordings made present the causes and the failure modes of the
bearing elements of the buildings.
1350-6307/$ - see front matter 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.engfailanal.2013.07.037

Tel./fax: +40 256226277.

E-mail addresses: marius.mosoarca@arh.upt.ro, mmosoarca@yahoo.com
Engineering Failure Analysis 41 (2014) 4864
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It is extraordinary to nd out that in almost 60 years of research in the eld of failure modes of shear walls, there are still
types of walls which have not developed failure mechanisms, but only recorded some cracks in certain zones.
Therefore, we think that research has to be conducted on these kinds of structural walls that even after strong repeated
earthquakes have not collapsed, as it is important to predict their potential failure modes.
We think that the structural walls whose failure modes must be predicted by theoretical and experimental research are
the walls with staggered openings.
The reports made after the inspection of 13 buildings with reinforced concrete shear walls, after the earthquake from
Chile from 1985, showed that the walls with staggered openings did not collapse, but only recorded minor cracks [1]. While
the walls with staggered openings of the Torre del Amendral building from Valparaiso, built in 1972, recorded only minor
shear compression cracks, the walls with ordered openings of the Hanga-Roa building recorded brittle failures, but only at
the level of the coupling beams. In the zone with staggered openings only cracks were recorded in the wall.
We can conclude that these two failure modes indicate the bearing capacity and high rigidity given by the disposition of
the openings in the reinforced concrete shear walls.
Although these walls recorded minor damages after the earthquake in Chile in 1985, they did not collapse nor even after
the earthquake in Chile in February 2010 (with a magnitude of 8.8).
Therefore we think that it is necessary to develop design codes for these types of shear walls, which have a very good
seismic behaviour given by the staggered disposition of the openings. It is also important to research all the failure modes
which these walls can develop, function to various parameters, such as aspect ratio, disposition of the openings and
reinforcing.
2. Theoretical and experimental research conducted in the failure domain of the reinforced concrete shear walls with
staggered openings
2.1. Research made from 1985 until 1994 on the failure mode of the reinforced shear walls with staggered openings
The theoretical and experimental research made by Aejaz and Wight [2] on shear walls with reduced percentages of rein-
forcement, staggered openings and bulbs at the ends were made function to the values of the a angle. The a angle is dened
by the line which connects two consecutive vertical openings and a horizontal line, and has 3 values, i.e.: 32; 45 and 62.
The experimental studies showed that these walls recorded a ductile failure by reaching the yielding limit in the vertical
reinforcement for a total drift of 0.75%, followed by the crushing of the concrete, at the base of the small pier, for values
of the total drift between 1.25% and 1.5%.
The research made by Yanez et al. [3], Yanez [4] were performed only on 3 shear walls with staggered openings subjected
just to horizontal forces. The differences consisted in the dimensions and the disposition of the openings. The experimental
modes recorded a ductile failure by reaching the yielding limit of the vertical reinforcement, followed by the crushing of the
concrete from the base of the small pier.
Thus, the walls with staggered openings develop a ductile failure by reaching the yielding limit of the vertical reinforce-
ment, followed by the crushing of the concrete in the small compressed pier. For all the studied walls, after the crushing of
the concrete at the base of the small pier, the vertical reinforcement buckled very fast.
2.2. Theoretical and experimental research made from 2003 until 2011 on the failure modes of the shear walls with staggered
openings subjected to seismic loads
Due to the development of a new design and new reinforcing ways for the reinforced concrete shear walls in seismic
zones, new failure modes have been recorded. Since 2003, at the Constructions Faculty of Timisoara, the Civil Engineering
Department, a new theoretical and experimental research program was started to study these new failure modes. The re-
search program was made on shear walls with staggered openings [5], precast [6,7] and composite walls [810]. Within
the program, the behaviour of these walls to seismic actions was studied, after the consolidation with FRP [11,12], until they
reached the failure stage. Since not even after the Chile earthquake of 2010 the walls with staggered openings did not fail, the
research was continued in order to simulate and study the seismic behaviour [13], the rigidity degradation [14] and also to
analyse the seismic energy dissipation [15]. The research on the failure modes of the buildings in seismic areas was made by
Gioncu and Mazzolani [16], Anastasiadis [17], and Mosoarca [18] and was supported by the Faculty of Architecture.
2.2.1. Description of the walls studied
The research was conducted on four types of shear walls with openings: three staggered shear walls: SW23, SW45, SW67,
SW8 (with vertically ordered openings) and one without openings SW1, [5] [18].
The walls with openings studied were differentiated by the values of the a angle, as it can be seen in Table 1 and Fig. 1a.
The wall dimensions used as models are shown in Table 2 and the physical and mechanical characteristics of the concrete
and of the reinforcements are shown in Table 3. In Fig. 1b, there are shown the percentages of the reinforcements of the wall
models. Due to the limitations of the test stand, the models were reduced to a 1:4 scale, and we studied the failure modes of
4 storey rectangular walls.
M. Mosoarca / Engineering Failure Analysis 41 (2014) 4864 49
On the wall a constant vertical force of 50 kN acted and produced a mean compressive stress of 0.5 N/mm
2
. A larger
vertical force was not used in order to avoid loss of stability and to avoid the modication of the failure mechanism.
(see Table 4)
The experimental program consists in studying the failure modes of 5 types of walls by a theoretical numerical pushover
analysis Fig. 2 shows the dimensions and the reinforcement layouts of the experimental models [1315] [18].
The experimental models were obtained by casting, in a steel formwork, the concrete in the walls and in the foundation,
in a horizontal position. After reaching the maximum compressive strength in the concrete, the walls were placed in a ver-
tical position on the test stand. The steel formwork was strong enough and hindered the models from cracking while being
placed on the test stand. It was studied the failure modes of the walls with the same amount of reinforcement, function to
the position of the openings. The experimental models were reinforced with steel wire mesh of 6 mm diameter, disposed on
Table 1
Notation of models.
Seismic load direction Shear walls with openings Shear wall without opening
a = 90 a = 45 a = 32 a = 18
Left seismic bad (WEST) SW8 SW2 SW4 SW6 SW1
Risht seismic load (EAST) SW8 SW3 SW5 SW7 SW1
Fig. 1. (a) Notations of dimensions; (b) zones with different vertical reinforcement percentage and (c) zones with different horizontal reinforcement
percentage.
Table 2
Dimensions of the structural wall and of the experimental model.
Dimension Notation Shear wall (mm) Experimental model (mm)
Wall height h
w
10,400 2600
Wall width l
w
5000 1250
Wall thickness b
w
250 80
Storey height h
s
2600 650
Doors height h
d
2000 500
Doors width I
d
1000 250
Table 3
Physicalmechanical characteristics of the r.c. structural shear walls.
Type Rcbar diameter Yield strength Ultimate strength Modulus of elasticity
Rebars 6 mm fy = 0.386 kN/mm
2
fu = 0.551 kN/mm
2
Ea = 210 kN/mm
2
Average tensile strength fctm Average compressive strength fcm Compressive strain Modulus of elasticity
Concrete 0.003 kN/mm
2
0.005 kN/mm
2
3.5 Eb = 34 kN/mm
2
50 M. Mosoarca / Engineering Failure Analysis 41 (2014) 4864
both sides of the wall. The maximum distance between the vertical bars in the centre of the wall was of 140 mm and be-
tween the horizontal bars of 130 mm. The concrete cover layer had a thickness of 15 mm. Supplementary reinforcement
made of 4 bars of 6 mm diameter with closed 90 stirrups was provided at the wall extremities and near the openings.
Fig. 2 presents the reinforcement layout during the mounting of the reinforcement in laboratory. All vertical rebars start
from the foundation block which has the following dimensions: 350 mm 400 mm 175 mm. The foundation blocks were
reinforced with steel rebars and were provided with pipes through which anchor bolts connected the models to the test
stand. Steel proles were provided at the upper part of the models in order to avoid the local crushing of the concrete at
the application point of the horizontal and vertical loads.
2.2.2. Description of the seismic analysis methods
2.2.2.1. Theoretical methodology. The analysis of the behaviour of the reinforced concrete structural walls in the post-elastic
domain was made with the aid of BIOGRAF 02 software [19]. The software performs a 2D nonlinear analysis based on incre-
menting the loads introduced by the user. The surface elements used in the nonlinear analysis were of triangular type and
were loaded with forces in their plan. The nite elements were of anisotropic type in plane tension state. The analysis helped
us determine the stress and strain state of the concrete and the reinforcement, as well as the physical state of the concrete
(un-cracked, cracked, plasticized, crushed) for each loading step. The dimensions of the triangular nite elements were
established function to the position of the reinforcements in the concrete walls.
2.2.2.2. Testing methodology. To understand the failure mechanismof the walls subjected to seismic action all the 5 wall spec-
imens erected at scale 1:4 were subjected to quasi-static reversed cyclic horizontal loads. The horizontal forces acted at the
superior part of the wall specimens. The values of the horizontal displacements imposed on the upper part of all the exper-
Table 4
Reinforcement percentage of experimental walls.
Wall Vertical reinforcement Horizontal reinforcement
p
v1
p
v2
p
v3
p
o1
p
o2
p
o3
p
o4
(%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%)
SW1 0.85 1.01
SW2SW3 1.56 2.15 0.31 0.79 1.61 0.31 0.79
SW4SW5 1.57 1.57 0.31 0.79 1.61 0.31 0.79
SW6SW7 2.15 1.4 0.31 0.79 1.61 0.31 0.79
SW8 1.07 0.31 - 0.79 1.61
Fig. 2. Reinforcement arrangement of experimental models.
M. Mosoarca / Engineering Failure Analysis 41 (2014) 4864 51
Fig. 2 (continued)
52 M. Mosoarca / Engineering Failure Analysis 41 (2014) 4864
imental models led to different values of the horizontal forces applied. These displacements were imposed in an alternate
cycle, until the strength of the specimens decreased to 85% of the peak horizontal load [18]. The value of this horizontal force
is noted with P
85%
. The loading methodology was identical to the experimental research made by Aejaz and Wight [2]. The
seismic behaviour of each wall was studied for 7 values of the horizontal displacement, as it can be seen in Fig. 3. The test
stand is presented in Fig. 4.
The measurements were made for each value required by the horizontal displacement at the upper part of the wall given
by two EastWest cyclic loads [5]. At every loading cycle, there were recorded all the new cracks, the horizontal and the ver-
tical displacements in 10 points (Fig. 4) as well as the stress and the strain state in the concrete and in the reinforcement. The
behaviour of the experimental specimens was monitored by pressure transducers, displacement transducers, strain gauges
and by optical laser measurements. The position of the strain gauges on the concrete and in the reinforcement is presented in
Fig. 5. Each cycle was followed by a few minutes stop to record the crack development in the specimens [18].
2.2.3. Types of failure for the experimental models
Until the failure stage, all experimental models subjected to an alternating cycle load or the theoretical models subjected
to a pushover force, passed the following stages:
Fig. 3. Number of cycles and values of horizontal imposed displacements.
Fig. 4. The test stand.
M. Mosoarca / Engineering Failure Analysis 41 (2014) 4864 53
(a) Elastic behaviour stage This stage contains all the phases covered by the models from the moment of applying the
force until the development of the rst cracks.
The theoretical and experimental analysis indicates that cracks appear in all the walls at similar values for the total drift
and for the horizontal forces. In the theoretical analysis, as it can be seen in Table 5, the walls with staggered openings de-
velop cracks for a total drift of 0.02%, while the experimental models crack at a value of the total drift of 0.05%. The difference
is given by the type of the loading of the experimental models. The exact data was provided by the software BIOGRAF. The
comparative values, at which the rst cracks appear, are presented in Table 5. The models record the rst cracks in three
different ways:
(i) Model SW8 records cracks from bending in the coupling beams from the rst and second storey.
(ii) Models SW23 and SW45 record from bending the rst cracks at the base.
(iii) Model SW67 develops the rst cracks from bending on the full height of the small pier from the ground and rst oor.
For a total drift of 0.150.25% the bending cracks appear in model SW8 at the base of the piers, and inclined shear cracks
appear between the openings, in the walls with staggered openings. Inclined shear cracks are also recorded at the base and in
the piers of the SW8 model for a drift between 0.25% and 0.35%. In the walls with staggered openings, in the failure stage,
horizontal cracks from tension and vertical cracks from compression appear at the base of the small pier for a drift between
0.75% and 1%. In SW8 model, after a total drift of 0.350.5% no further cracks develop, but the concrete from the coupling
beams is crushed in the direction of the inclined cracks. Subsequently, vertical compression cracks appear at the base of
the pier [18].
(a) Nonlinear behaviour stage This stage contains all the phases since the cracking of the concrete until the occurrence of
the rst plastic hinge in the models.
(i) Nonlinear behaviour of the reinforcement
As far as the order of the yielding of the reinforcement is concerned, it was observed that in walls with staggered open-
ings, the rst rebars to reach yielding were the vertical ones in point 1, followed by the horizontal ones, as shown in Fig. 6.
This order was not respected by the coupled wall SW8, where the order of the yielding of the reinforcement was reversed
and the wall experienced a brittle mode of failure, due to the shear forces which could have not been overtaken by the rein-
forcement in the coupling beams [18]. The values of the horizontal displacements and of the seismic forces at which the rein-
forcement of the structural walls yields are presented in Table 6.
Fig. 5. Positioning of the strain gauges on the concrete and in the reinforcements (a) staggered openings specimen and (b) regular openings specimen SW8.
Table 5
Values of the horizontal forces and of top horizontal displacement at which concrete cracks in the models.
Model Experimental analysis Theoretical analysis
P Total drift P Dx Total drift
(kN) (%) (kN) (mm) (%)
SW23 40 0.05 25.12 0.40 0.17
SW45 36 0.05 25.13 0.40 0.17
SW67 27 0.05 25.15 0.50 0.21
SW8 22 0.05 17.70 0.40 0.17
54 M. Mosoarca / Engineering Failure Analysis 41 (2014) 4864
As it can be observed in Table 6, in specimen SW8, the rst reinforcements to yield were the horizontal ones, at the
extremities of the coupling beam, for a total drift of 0.070.08% and were followed by the vertical reinforcement, at the base
of the piers, for a total drift between 0.15% and 0.25%. In the walls with staggered openings, the rst yielding was reached by
Fig. 6. (a and b) Theoretical and experimental failure modes of shear walls SW2-3 and SW4-5 (c and d) Theoretical and experimental failure modes of shear
walls SW6-7 and SW8.
M. Mosoarca / Engineering Failure Analysis 41 (2014) 4864 55
the vertical reinforcement, at the base of the small piers, for a total drift between 0.10% and 0.23%, followed by the horizontal
reinforcement, at the rst level, for a total drift between 0.17% and 0.30%. The horizontal reinforcement did not reach yield-
ing in walls SW4 and SW5, but the vertical reinforcement of these walls yielded at a very small value of the horizontal force.
Fig. 6 (continued)
56 M. Mosoarca / Engineering Failure Analysis 41 (2014) 4864
(ii) Occurrence of plastic hinges.
The experimental models with staggered openings developed plastic hinges in a different way than model SW8. The walls
with staggered openings formed plastic hinges at the base of the small pier, while the model SW8 formed plastic hinges in
the coupling beams and then at the base of the piers. The values of the horizontal displacements and the total drift at which
plastic hinges formed in the concrete section, for constant values of the horizontal forces, are presented in Table 7.
The walls with staggered openings developed plastic hinges at horizontal forces larger than those of the model SW8. In
Table 7, it can be observed that the walls with staggered openings develop plastic hinges for a total drift of 0.38% (SW6) to
0.57% (SW3), i.e.: for a close disposition of the openings. The reinforcing requirements are not so special in comparison with
the disposition of the openings closer to the edge, as in the case of wall SW6. At the model with ordered openings, SW8, the
experimental tests recorded plastic hinges and the local crushing of the concrete at the ends of the coupling beams for a total
drift of 0.35% and further development of plastic hinges, at the base of the small pier, for a drift of 0.64%.
(c) Failure stage This stage corresponds to the crushing of the concrete in the zones with maximum compression and
enhanced development of the deformations under constant horizontal loads. For a better understanding of the failure modes
developed by these analysed experimental models, there were dened two limit stages [18]:
(i) Limit stage corresponding to the maximum horizontal force at which it is produced the crushing of the concrete by
shear in the coupling beams (SW8) and the crushing of the concrete at the base of the small pier in the models with
staggered openings;
(ii) Failure stage corresponding to 85% of the maximum horizontal force noted with P
85%
. At this maximum seismic value
the concrete is crushed in point 1 and vertical reinforcement buckles in models with staggered openings. Model SW8
records concrete crushing in points 1 and 2.
The values of the forces and displacements at which the crushing of the concrete occurs, obtained by theoretical and
experimental analysis, are presented in Table 8.
The experimental results were conrmed by the theoretical research. As it can be seen in Table 8 and Fig. 6, there were
not recorded large differences between the results. The research indicated different failure modes, although the models were
analysed for the same concrete class and the same amount of reinforcement. Thus, in the limit stage, model SW8 with or-
dered openings recorded a brittle failure, by the crushing of the concrete from the coupling beams, before the yielding of the
Table 6
Values of the horizontal forces and of the displacements for which the reinforcement reaches the yielding limit.
Model Theoretical results Experimental results
P Dx Total drift P Dx Total drift
(kN) (mm) (%) (kN) (mm) (%)
Vertical rebars yielding
SW23 701.2 5.60 2.33 500 2.40 1.00
SW45 661.5 2.30 0.96 410 3.00 1.25
SW67 766.5 2.50 1.04 3800 3.00 1.25
SW8 572.0 3.70 1.54 600 6.00 2.50
Horizontal rebars yielding
SW23 726.2 6.00 2.50 600 5.00 2.08
SW45 0.0 0.00 0.00 700 6.00 2.50
SW67 781.5 6.30 2.63 710 7.00 2.92
SW8 377.0 1.60 0.67 400 2.00 0.83
Table 7
Values of the horizontal forces and of the top horizontal displacements for which the concrete reached
plasticisation.
Model Plasticized concrete
P Dx Total drift
(kN) (mm) (%)
SW1 113.63 14.00 5.83
SW2 95.62 10.00 4.17
SW3 100.12 13.70 5.71
SW4 88.13 10.90 4.54
SW5 88.63 13.00 5.42
SW6 88.40 9.00 3.75
SW7 94.45 118.80 49.50
SW8 69.70 15.30 6.38
M. Mosoarca / Engineering Failure Analysis 41 (2014) 4864 57
horizontal rebars fromthese beams. The models with staggered openings failed by the crushing of the concrete, at the base of
the small pier, by shear-compression (SW23, SW45), and by tensioncompression (SW67). The theoretical research indicated
that the concrete at the base of the small pier at models with staggered openings is crushed for values of the total drift of
0.701.05%, while the experimental tests proved a total drift of 0.951.05% and the crushing of the concrete is produced for
smaller values of the total drift, of 0.60.85%. After the concrete from the models with staggered openings is crushed at the
base in the failure stage, the vertical reinforcements buckled. The crushing of the concrete in the coupling beams is reached
at a value of the total drift of 0.250.30%.
The maximum seismic force which produced the crushing of the concrete had similar values for both the experimental
and the theoretical models. The concrete in the models with staggered openings crushed at larger values of the seismic loads
than the concrete of the walls with ordered openings (SW8). Out of all the models with staggered openings, SW6 records the
crushing of the concrete at the smallest value of the seismic force.
Table 8
Values of the horizontal forces and of the top horizontal displacements for which the concrete crushes.
Model Theoretical analysis Experimental analysis
Limit stage Failure stage
P Dx Total drift P Dx Total drift P85% Dx Total dnft
(kN) (mm) (%) (kN) (mm) (%) (kN) (mm) (%)
SW1 114.43 27.80 11.58 115.00 19.50 8.13 95.00 27.8 11.58
SW23 102.62 25.00 10.42 97.50 19.70 8.21 82.00 25.00 10.42
SW45 92.03 23.20 9.67 87.50 13.00 5.42 78.00 24.00 10.00
SW67 95.60 17.10 7.13 84.00 11.00 4.58 70.00 23.00 9.58
SW8 73.80 20.40 8.50 42.50 15.00 6.25 71.00 7.00 2.92
Fig. 7. Stressstrain diagram for concrete in point number 1 from Fig. 4 (a) SW23, (b) SW45 (c) SW67 (d) SW8.
58 M. Mosoarca / Engineering Failure Analysis 41 (2014) 4864
2.2.4. Comparative studies
The failure modes of the shear walls subjected to seismic action were explained based on the recordings made with strain
gauges xed on the concrete and in the reinforcement. The strains obtained by testing were compared with theoretical ones
obtained by the pushover analysis (Figs. 7 and 8). Although the seismic loading was different, there are no great differences
of the values in the failure stage [1315,18].
2.2.4.1. Strain analysis.
(a) Concrete strain
Special care was given to the study of the concrete strains at the bottom of the experimental modes in points 1 and 2. It
can be seen that by reducing the value of the angle a, the compressive strains decrease in point 2, but the values for the ten-
sile strains increase, whereas in point 1 (Fig. 4) an inverse phenomena occurs. This strain state for the concrete in point 2 is
conrmed by the cracks recorded in the failure stage. Models SW23 and SW45 along with the vertical compression cracks
develop inclined shear cracks and horizontal cracks in the failure stage, while model SW67 develops only vertical compres-
sion cracks and horizontal cracks. This type of cracks and strains show the necessity to impose higher percentages for the
vertical and horizontal conning rebars for the model SW67 than for the models SW23 and SW45, on the full height of
the small pier from the base of the walls. By decreasing the value of the angle a, the values of the horizontal forces which
produce the crushing of the concrete also decrease in point 2, but in point 1 they do not vary that much. The strain gauges
xed at the ends of the coupling beams for the model SW8, recorded the crushing of the concrete from shear forces, at smal-
ler values of the forces and of the horizontal displacements than those which produced the crushing of the concrete at the
base of the piers, in points 1 and 2, at all the other models. In Fig. 7 there is presented in comparison the stressstrain dia-
gram for concrete in point number 1.
(a) Strain of the steel rebars
The strains recorded for the vertical rebars in points 1 and 2, shown in Fig. 4 conrm the strain state recorded by the
strain gauges xed on the concrete. Thus, in point 2 at the greatest value of the seismic force, by decreasing the value of
Fig. 8. Stressstrain diagram for steel vertical rebars in point 1 in Fig. 4 (a) SW23, (b) SW45, (c) SW67, and (d) SW8.
M. Mosoarca / Engineering Failure Analysis 41 (2014) 4864 59
the angle a, the tensile strains increase, recording the following values: e
steel max
= 2 in SW23, e
steel max
= 3 in SW45,
e
steel max
= 4in SW67. In points 1 and 2 of the model SW8, the tensile strain reaches its maximum value e
steel max
= 2after
reaching the yielding limit of the horizontal rebars in the coupling beams. These experimentally recorded values are pre-
sented in Fig. 8.
The maximum strains on the horizontal rebars, at the level of the rst oor, recorded experimentally, were conrmed by
the theoretical studies. Research shows the fact that by decreasing the value of angle a, the values of the tensile strains of the
horizontal rebars decreases, recording the following values: e
steel max
= 3in SW23, e
steel max
= 2in SW45, e
steel max
= 1in
Fig. 9. Shear force vs. displacement PD comparative curves from theoretical analysis and experimental results (a) SW1, (b) SW23, (c) SW45, (d) SW67 and
(e) SW8.
60 M. Mosoarca / Engineering Failure Analysis 41 (2014) 4864
SW67. These values of the strains show a higher requirement for horizontal rebars in these zones for 45 > a > 32 and less
requirement for 32 > a > 18. At all the models, the greatest value of the tensile strain was recorded in the horizontal rebars
from the coupling beams of model SW8, e
steel max
> 4. These strains from the coupling beams were recorded for a smaller
value of the seismic load than those recorded in the models with staggered openings. This conrms the theoretical results of
Fig. 6, the occurrence of the plastic hinges at the ends of the coupling beams, developed in the experimental models, and
explains their brittle failure in this zone.
2.2.4.2. Forcedisplacement analysis. The seismic response of the models was studied by marking the PD diagrams for each
direction of seismic action [5,1315,18]. In Fig. 9 it can be observed that although the theoretical curves were plotted for a
pushover analysis, and the experimental curves were plotted based on the cyclic alternating loads, there are no major dif-
ferences between the recorded values. The numerous cracks developed by the experimental models, have severely reduced
the rigidity of the walls and have reached the failure stage at smaller values of the forces and of the displacements than the
ones resulted from theoretical analysis. This difference can be observed in the failure stage only for models SW3, SW5 and
SW7 when only compressive stresses are recorded at the base of the large pier, in point 1. Similar values of the seismic loads
and displacements in the failure stage were also recorded for models SW2, SW4 and SW6, but only when the compressive
stresses were recorded in point 2.
From all the experimental models, the largest degradation of the rigidity in the failure stage was recorded by the model
with ordered vertical openings SW8, due to the crushing of the concrete in the coupling beams and due to severe cracking of
the beams and piers. Lacking special reinforcing provisions for the extremities of the coupling beams for overtaking the shear
forces, in the failure stage the walls record a horizontal displacement which slightly decreases in time, while the seismic load
corresponding to this displacement decreases a lot from one cycle to another. Models with staggered openings did not record
sudden rigidity degradations in the failure stage, due to the horizontal rebars from the levels of the oors and due to the
sufcient connement of the compressed concrete section at the bottom of the small pier, in point 2. The best compliance
between the experimental and theoretical results was recorded by the solid model SW1, without any openings; fact which
conrms the credibility of the results obtained by both methods.
3. Simplied computational method to determine the maximumseismic load which produces the crushing of concrete
The computation method determines the maximum top horizontal force P
u
that produces the crushing of the extreme
compressed bre at the base of the small pier (point 2) for the much reduced unconned concrete sections. The results were
compared with the values of the ultimate horizontal force resulting from a nonlinear static analysis of biographical type, per-
formed with the BIOGRAF software and the results obtained by experimental models [5,13].
Simplied computational hypotheses:
i. Seismic horizontal force is applied at the top of the wall and the resultant gravitational force was applied at the sym-
metry axis of the upper wall (Fig. 10).
ii. Computational method disregards the effects of shear forces in the piers.
iii. The bending moment at the base of the small pier is very small and is disregarded in computation due to its low
stiffness.
Fig. 10. Scheme for computing the ultimate strength Pu.
M. Mosoarca / Engineering Failure Analysis 41 (2014) 4864 61
iv. The entire section of the concrete is cracked at the base piers on the entire height even since the rst steps of the appli-
cation of seismic forces. It was considered that the entire section is subject to eccentric tension with lower eccentricity
and the sectional strength is provided entirely by the vertical reinforcement.
v. The contribution of the compressed concrete at the bottom of the small pier is neglected because of its small section.
vi. The concrete section at the bottom does not require supplementary connement of the concrete zone.
vii. The tensile strength of the concrete was neglected at computations.
viii. The simplied method introduced the contribution of the vertical reinforcing bars to the tension efforts in these areas
to determine the ultimate strength.
The computations were based on the calculus recommendations and on the formulas contained in the design code of rein-
forced concrete Romanian STAS 10107/0-90 [20].
Calculation steps:
Step 1: Calculation of the axial force of rst piers with the next formula:
N
1

X
n
i1
A
ai
R
ai
1
From the equation of the vertical projection of forces:
#
X
F
v
0 : V N
1
N
2
0 2
Step 2: Calculation of the axial force N
2
:
N
2
V N
1
3
Step 3: Determination of M
cap1
corresponding to N
1
with the following formula:
M
cap1

X
n
i1
A
i
R
i
h
0i
N
1
h
1
2
a
0

4
where h
i
distance from the resultant tensile force support on the concrete section to extreme bre of concrete section
(Fig. 10); h
0i
the distance from the edge of the support until the axis of each bar, see Fig. 10; P
u
maximum value of
the top horizontal force.
Step 4: calculating formula for the bending moment capacity in the symmetry axis of the wall:
M
cap1
P
u
H N
1
a
1
N
2
a
2
5
Step 5: Determination of P
u
.
P
u

1
H
M
cap1
N
1
a
1
N
2
a
2
6
where a
1,2
= distances from the symmetry axis of the wall to the point of the application of the base piers sectional
efforts. Example:
Model SW6 : a 18

M
2
0
N
1
26 28:274 mm
2
0:386
kN
mm
2
28:37 kN 7
N
2
50 kN 283:75 kN 333:75 kN 8
X
n
i1
A
i
R
i
h
0i
2 28:274 mm
2
0:386
kN
mm
2
54750 mm 9
X
n
i1
A
i
R
i
h
0i
119; 506 kN mm 10
N
1
h
1
2
a
0

283:75 kN425 mm18 mm 115; 486 kN mm 11
M
cap1
4019 kN mm 12
62 M. Mosoarca / Engineering Failure Analysis 41 (2014) 4864
P
u simplified method

1
2600 mm
4019:5 kN mm283:75 kN200 mm333:75 kN550 mm 94 kN 13
P
upushover:analysis
95:9 kN 14
P
u eperimental test
84 kN 15
It can be observed, that between the value of horizontal ultimate force P
u,
determined with the proposed simplied com-
putational method, and the force resulting from the nonlinear biographical analyses and the experimental test, there is a
very small difference [13].
4. Conclusions
This article presents a comparison between the failure mode of a wall with regular vertical openings, three walls with
staggered openings and a solid wall, all subjected to seismic loads. Their behaviour is presented in the elastic and post-elastic
stage until they reach the failure stage. All these walls have been reinforced with the same amount of rebars, having the same
dimensions and the same concrete class. The failure modes determined theoretically by a biographic pushover analysis, were
compared to the experimental failure modes laboratory obtained. The strain gauges provided information about the failure
mode of the concrete and of the rebars, and indicated the zones in which the failure occurred.
By comparing the results obtained theoretically and experimentally, the following conclusions about the failure modes
can be drawn:
1. The walls with staggered openings are more rigid and have a higher bearing capacity in comparison with the walls with
ordered openings, with the same amount of reinforcement.
2. The sequence of the occurrence and the distribution of the cracks until the failure stage are different. The rst bending
cracks were recorded at the base of the walls, while the walls with regular openings developed cracks at the ends of
the coupling beams and at the base of the wall. In the failure stage, there are recorded vertical compression cracks
and inclined shear cracks at the base of the small pier. Function to the distance between the openings, the small pier
at the base of the wall fails by shear compression at a > 18 and at a < 18 by tension compression. Despite the lack
of some special reinforcing provisions of the coupling beams, for the ultimate limit state, shear cracks appear in the
beams and cracks from compression and bending at the base of the piers.
3. The walls with staggered openings fail in a different way than those with ordered openings. The walls with regular open-
ings had a brittle failure by crushing the concrete in the coupling beams due to shear force, followed by yielding of the
horizontal reinforcement in these beams. The walls with staggered openings had a ductile failure by the yielding of the
vertical reinforcement at the base of the piers followed by the crushing of the concrete in that zone. In the failure stage,
after the crushing of the concrete at the base of the small pier, the vertical compressed rebars buckled right away.
4. Two behaviour modes are observed for the walls with staggered openings. For a ductile failure at high seismic forces, it is
recommended that a should vary between 32 and 45; in this case, the wall behaves similarly to a truss. For a between
18 and 32, the central pier becomes very rigid and acts like a cantilever. The marginal piers are subjected to tension or to
compression only.
5. By displacing the openings towards the extremities of the walls, the tensile strains in the horizontal rebars decrease, at
the level of the oors, but the tensile strains increase in the vertical rebars and also the compression strains of the con-
crete near the edges of the walls increase at the level of the built-in support. We recommend values for angle a of >32
and a denser reinforcing with horizontal and inclined bars in the zones between two consecutive openings. For values of
the angle a < 32, it is required a strong reinforcing with vertical rebars in order to: increase the bearing capacity of the
concrete sections subjected to bending, to decrease the distance between the stirrups, to avoid the buckling of the vertical
rebars in order to enhance the compressive capacity by connement.
6. The walls with staggered openings fail at levels of seismic forces and at horizontal displacements higher than the forces
and the horizontal displacements recorded in the failure mode of the walls with regular openings.
7. The proposed computational model is important as the engineers will be able to establish very fast, together with the
architects, the most advantageous location of staggered openings even in the preliminary design stage. The proposed sim-
plied computational model simulates with accuracy the seismic behaviour of the staggered openings shear walls and is
able to identify easily the maximum seismic force which produces the crushing of concrete at the bottom of the wall, in
the small piers.
The results of the theoretical analysis described in this article were conrmed by the test results. The failure mode of the
walls with staggered openings from Chile is not well known, that is why we think that further research must be made in
order to create proper design codes for these structural walls.
M. Mosoarca / Engineering Failure Analysis 41 (2014) 4864 63
Acknowledgements
The author would like to thank Prof. Valeriu Stoian, PhD, for his expertise, recommendations, and permanent assistance
provided during this research. The author would also want to thank Prof. Victor Gioncu, PhD, for the guidance towards the
correct understanding of the failure modes of the buildings. For the nancial support and help in writing the article, the
author thanks H.I. STRUCT and MAISON STYLE design ofce.
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