FLEXIBLE - PAVEMENT RESPONSE

How a pavement responds to applied stresses determines how it will behave structurally.
Stresses and the resultant pavement response are the combined result of loading, environment,
subgrade and pavement material characteristics. This section presents the typical stresses and
stress characteristics experienced by a flexible pavement structure under load.
There are a variety of ways to calculate or at least account for these stresses in design. The
empirical approach uses the AASHO Road Test results to correlate measurable parameters
such as subgrade resilient modulus! and derived indices such as the structural number and
pavement serviceability index! to pavement performance. The mechanistic"empirical approach
relates calculated pavement stresses to empirically derived failure conditions.

Stress
The stresses that occur in a flexible pavement under load are #uite complex. Although rigid
pavement stresses have been routinely calculated since the $%&'s, routine calculation of flexible
pavement stresses is a more recent development. (irst, two"dimensional layered elastic
programs offered des)top computers the ability to calculate these stresses. *ore recently, three"
dimensional finite element programs have allowed more exact and detailed calculations.
Two-Dimensional Layered Elasti Model
+sing a two"dimensional layered elastic model, the basic relationships between layer stiffness
and stress for a two"layer flexible pavement structure is shown in (igure ,.$. -n reality, stress
distributions are more complex, however the basic relationships hold true. This additional
complexity is further elaborated on in Section &.&.&, Three".imensional (inite /lements *odeling
below.
Fi!"re #$%& Ty'ial Two-Layer Fle(i)le Pa*ement Stresses as +al"lated )y a Two-
Dimensional Linear Elasti Model$ +li, t-e yellow )o(es to *iew di..erent stresses$ Note
t-at /E/ re.ers to a layer0s sti..ness$

Three-Dimensional Finite Elements Model
0ecause of the complex nature, a finite elements model is needed to get a good approximation of
how a flexible pavement responds to loading. The complex stress and strains for a two"layer
flexible pavement structure are shown graphically in (igure ,.& using a three"dimensional finite
elements model.
Fi!"re #$1& Ty'ial Two-Layer Fle(i)le Pa*ement Stresses as +al"lated )y E*erFle( 23"4
155%64 a T-ree-Dimensional Finite Elements Pro!ram$ +li, t-e yellow )o(es to *iew
di..erent stresses$ Note t-at /E/ re.ers to a layer0s sti..ness$

De.letion
H*A pavements are often described as 1flexible1 because they deflect under load. (igure ,.2
shows schematically how pavements deflect under load. (3.s can be used to accurately
determine deflection characteristics of in"service pavements.
Fi!"re #$7& S-emati S-owin! De.letions .or Di..erent Pa*ement T-i,nesses$ T-e same
8MA material -arateristis are ass"med .or ea- !ra'- - only t-e t-i,ness *aries$

FLEXIBLE - EMPIRI+AL MET8OD
An empirical approach is one which is based on the results of experiments or experience.
4enerally, it re#uires a number of observations to be made in order to ascertain the relationships
between input variables and outcomes. -t is not necessary to firmly establish the scientific basis
for the relationships between variables and outcomes as long as the limitations with such an
approach are recogni5ed. Specifically, it is not prudent to use empirically derived relationships to
describe phenomena that occur outside the range of the original data used to develop the
relationship. -n some cases, it is much more expedient to rely on experience than to #uantify the
exact cause and effect of certain phenomena.
*any pavement design procedures use an empirical approach. This means that the relationship
between design inputs e.g., loads, materials, layer configurations and environment! and
pavement failure were arrived at through experience, experimentation or a combination of both.
/mpirical design methods can range from extremely simple to #uite complex. The simplest
approaches specify pavement structural designs based on what has wor)ed in the past. (or
example, local governments often specify city streets to be designed using a given cross section
e.g., $'' mm 6 inches! of H*A over $7' mm , inches! of crushed stone! because they have
found that this cross section has produced ade#uate pavements in the past. *ore complex
approaches are usually based on empirical e#uations derived from experimentation. Some of
this experimentation can be #uite elaborate. (or example, the empirical e#uations used in the
$%%2 AASHTO Guide are largely a result of the original AASHO Road Test.
This section describes the basics behind empirical design to include8
9 The empirical e#uation : using the $%%2 AASHTO Guide flexible pavement e#uation
as an example
9 An empirical computer program " using the $%%2 AASHTO Guide e#uation for flexible
pavements

FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT BASI+S
(lexible pavements are so named because the total pavement structure deflects, or flexes, under
loading. A flexible pavement structure is typically composed of several layers of material. /ach
layer receives the loads from the above layer, spreads them out, then passes on these loads to
the next layer below. Thus, the further down in the pavement structure a particular layer is, the
less load in terms of force per area! it must carry see (igure &.&!.
Fi!"re 1$1& Fle(i)le Pa*ement Load Distri)"tion
-n order to ta)e maximum advantage of this property, material layers are usually arranged in
order of descending load bearing capacity with the highest load bearing capacity material and
most expensive! on the top and the lowest load bearing capacity material and least expensive!
on the bottom. This section describes the typical flexible pavement structure consisting of8
Surface course . This is the top layer and the layer that comes in contact with traffic.
-t may be composed of one or several different H*A sublayers.
Base course . This is the layer directly below the H*A layer and generally consists of
aggregate either stabili5ed or unstabili5ed!.
Subbase course . This is the layer or layers! under the base layer. A subbase is not
always needed.
After describing these basic elements, this section then discusses subsurface drainage and
perpetual pavements.

Basi Str"t"ral Elements
A typical flexible pavement structure see (igure &.2! consists of the surface course and the
underlying base and subbase courses. /ach of these layers contributes to structural support and
drainage. The surface course typically an H*A layer! is the stiffest as measured by resilient
modulus! and contributes the most to pavement strength. The underlying layers are less stiff but
are still important to pavement strength as well as drainage and frost protection. A typical
structural design results in a series of layers that gradually decrease in material #uality with
depth.
Fi!"re 1$7& Basi Fle(i)le Pa*ement Str"t"re
As seen in (igure &.6, a flexible pavement structure can vary greatly in thic)ness. The signs on
top of the pictured cores indicate the State Route SR! and the *ile ;ost *;! where the core
was ta)en. The scale at the right edge of the photo is in inches.
Fi!"re 1$9& Vario"s Fle(i)le Pa*ement +ores .rom 3as-in!ton State

2.1.1 Surface Course
The surface course is the layer in contact with traffic loads and normally contains the highest
#uality materials. -t provides characteristics such as friction, smoothness, noise control, rut and
shoving resistance and drainage. -n addition, it serves to prevent the entrance of excessive
#uantities of surface water into the underlying base, subbase and subgrade <A;A, &''$!. This
top structural layer of material is sometimes subdivided into two layers <A;A, &''$!8
$. Wearing Course. This is the layer in direct contact with traffic loads. -t is meant to
ta)e the brunt of traffic wear and can be removed and replaced as it becomes worn.
A properly designed and funded! preservation program should be able to identify
pavement surface distress while it is still confined to the wearing course. This way,
the wearing course can be rehabilitated before distress propagates into the
underlying intermediate=binder course.
&. Intermediate/Binder Course. This layer provides the bul) of the H*A structure. -t>s
chief purpose is to distribute load.

2.1.2 Base Course
The base course is immediately beneath the surface course. -t provides additional load
distribution and contributes to drainage and frost resistance. 0ase courses are usually
constructed out of8
$. Aggregate. 0ase courses are most typically constructed from durable aggregates
see (igure &.7! that will not be damaged by moisture or frost action. Aggregates can
be either stabili5ed or unstabili5ed.
&. HMA. -n certain situations where high base stiffness is desired, base courses can be
constructed using a variety of H*A mixes. -n relation to surface course H*A mixes,
base course mixes usually contain larger maximum aggregate si5es, are more open
graded and are sub?ect to more lenient specifications.
Fi!"re 1$:& Limero, Base +o"rse ;nder!oin! Final <radin!

2.1.3 Subbase Course
The subbase course is between the base course and the subgrade. -t functions primarily as
structural support but it can also8
$. *inimi5e the intrusion of fines from the subgrade into the pavement structure.
&. -mprove drainage.
3. *inimi5e frost action damage.
6. ;rovide a wor)ing platform for construction.
The subbase generally consists of lower #uality materials than the base course but better than
the subgrade soils. A subbase course is not always needed or used. (or example, a pavement
constructed over a high #uality, stiff subgrade may not need the additional features offered by a
subbase course so it may be omitted from design. However, a pavement constructed over a low
#uality soil such as a swelling clay may re#uire the additional load distribution characteristic that a
subbase course can offer. -n this scenario the subbase course may consist of high #uality fill
used to replace poor #uality subgrade over excavation!.

Per'et"al Pa*ements
1;erpetual ;avement1 is a term used to describe a long"lasting structural design, construction and
maintenance concept. A perpetual pavement can last 7' years or more if properly maintained
and rehabilitated. As *ichael <unn pointed out in $%%@, flexible pavements over a minimum
strength are not li)ely to exhibit structural damage even when sub?ected to very high traffic flows
over long periods of time. He noted that existing pavements over about 2A' mm $6.7 inches!
should be able to withstand an almost infinite number of axle loads without structural deterioration
due to either fatigue crac)ing or rutting of the subgrade. .eterioration in these thic), strong
pavements was observed to initiate in the pavement surface as either top"down crac)ing or
rutting. (urther, +hlmeyer et al. &'''! found that most H*A pavements thic)er than about $,'
mm ,.2 inches! exhibit only surface"initiated top"down crac)ing. Therefore, if surface"initiated
crac)ing and rutting can be accounted for before they impact the structural integrity of the
pavement, the pavement life could be greatly increased.
Researchers have used this idea as well as pavement materials research to develop a basic
perpetual pavement structural concept. This concept uses a thic) asphalt over a strong
foundation design with three H*A layers, each one tailored to resist specific stresses TR0,
&''$!8
$. HMA base layer. This is the bottom layer designed specifically to resist fatigue
crac)ing. Two approaches can be used to resist fatigue crac)ing in the base layer.
(irst, the total pavement thic)ness can be made great enough such that the tensile
strain at the bottom of the base layer is insignificant. Alternatively, the H*A base
layer could be made using an extra"flexible H*A. This can be most easily
accomplished by increasing the asphalt content. Bombinations of the previous two
approaches also wor).
&. Intermediate layer. This is the middle layer designed specifically to carry most of the
traffic load. Therefore it must be stable able to resist rutting! as well as durable.
Stability can best be provided by using stone"on"stone contact in the coarse
aggregate and using a binder with the appropriate high"temperature grading.
2. Wearing surface. This is the top layer designed specifically to resist surface"initiated
distresses such as top"down crac)ing and rutting. Other specific distresses of
concern would depend upon local experience.
-n order to wor), the above pavement structure must be built on a solid foundation. <unn $%%@!
notes that rutting on roads built on subgrade with a B0R greater than 7 percent originates almost
solely in the H*A layers, which suggests that a subgrade with a B0R greater than 7 percent
resilient modulus greater than about A,''' psi 7' *;a!! should be considered ade#uate. As
always, proper construction techni#ues are essential to a perpetual pavement>s performance.
(igure &., shows an example cross"section of a perpetual pavement design to be used in
Balifornia on -"A$' the Cong 0each (reeway! in Cos Angeles Bounty.
Fi!"re 1$#& E(am'le I-=%5 Lon! Bea- Freeway Per'et"al Pa*ement Desi!n
2.rom Monismit- and Lon!4 %>>>6
(inally, the most important point in this brief perpetual pavement discussion is that it is possible to
design and build H*A pavements with extremely long design lives. -n fact, some H*A
pavements in service today are living examples of perpetual pavements. (or instance, two
sections of -nterstate 6' in downtown O)lahoma Bity are now more than 22 years old built in
$%,A! and are still in excellent condition. These sections, which support 2 to 2.7 million /SACs
per year, have been overlaid but the base and intermediate courses have lasted since
construction without any additional wor) A;A, no date given!.
Em'irial E?"ation
/mpirical e#uations are used to relate observed or measurable phenomena pavement
characteristics! with outcomes pavement performance!. There are many different types of
empirical e#uations available today but this section will present the $%%2 AASHTO Guide basic
design e#uation for flexible pavements as an example. This e#uation is widely used and has the
following form8
these variables will be further explained in Section 2.$.&, Inputs !
where8 3$@ D predicted number of @' )< $@,''' lb.! /SACs
ER D standard normal deviate
So D combined standard error of the traffic prediction and performance
prediction
S< D Structural <umber an index that is indicative of the total
pavement thic)ness re#uired!
a$.$ F a&.&m& F a2.2m2F...
D
ai D i
th
layer coefficient
.i D i
th
layer thic)ness inches!
mi D i
th
layer drainage coefficient
;S- D difference between the initial design serviceability index, po, and
the design terminal serviceability index, pt
*R D subgrade resilient modulus in psi!
This e#uation is not the only empirical e#uation available but it does give a good sense of what an
empirical e#uation loo)s li)e, what factors it considers and how empirical observations are
incorporated into an empirical e#uation. The rest of this section will discuss the specific
assumptions, inputs and outputs associated with the $%%2 AASHTO Guide flexible pavement
empirical design e#uation. The following subsections discuss8
Assumptions
-nputs
Outputs

3.1.1 Assumtions
(rom the AASHO Road Test, e#uations were developed which related loss in serviceability,
traffic, and pavement thic)ness. 0ecause they were developed for the specific conditions of the
AASHO Road Test, these e#uations have some significant limitations8
The e#uations were developed based on the specific pavement materials and
roadbed soil present at the AASHO Road Test.
The e#uations were developed based on the environment at the AASHO Road Test
only.
The e#uations are based on an accelerated two"year testing period rather than a
longer, more typical &'F year pavement life. Therefore, environmental factors were
difficult if not impossible to extrapolate out to a longer period.
The loads used to develop the e#uations were operating vehicles with identical axle
loads and configurations, as opposed to mixed traffic.
-n order to apply the e#uations developed as a result of the AASHO Road Test, some basic
assumptions are needed8
The characteri5ation of subgrade support may be extended to other subgrade soils
by an abstract soil support scale.
Coading can be applied to mixed traffic by use of /SACs.
*aterial characteri5ations may be applied to other surfaces, bases, and subbases by
assigning appropriate layer coefficients.
The accelerated testing done at the AASHO Road Test &"year period! can be
extended to a longer design period.
3hen using the $%%2 AASHTO Guide empirical e#uation or any other empirical e#uation, it is
extremely important to )now the e#uation>s limitations and basic assumptions. Otherwise, it is
#uite easy to use an e#uation with conditions and materials for which it was never intended. This
can lead to invalid results at the least and incorrect results at the worst.

3.1.2 !nuts
The $%%2 AASHTO Guide e#uation re#uires a number of inputs related to loads, pavement
structure and subgrade support. These inputs are8
9 The predicted loading. The predicted loading is simply the predicted number of @' )<
$@,''' lb.! /SACs that the pavement will experience over its design lifetime.
9 eliability. The reliability of the pavement design"performance process is the
probability that a pavement section designed using the process will perform satisfactorily
over the traffic and environmental conditions for the design period AASHTO, $%%2!. -n
other words, there must be some assurance that a pavement will perform as intended
given variability in such things as construction, environment and materials. The ER and
So variables account for reliability.
9 !a"ement structure. The pavement structure is characteri5ed by the Structural
<umber S<!. The Structural <umber is an abstract number expressing the structural
strength of a pavement re#uired for given combinations of soil support *R!, total traffic
expressed in /SACs, terminal serviceability and environment. The Structural <umber is
converted to actual layer thic)nesses e.g., $7' mm , inches! of H*A! using a layer
coefficient a! that represents the relative strength of the construction materials in that
layer. Additionally, all layers below the H*A layer are assigned a drainage coefficient
m! that represents the relative loss of strength in a layer due to its drainage
characteristics and the total time it is exposed to near"saturation moisture conditions.
4enerally, #uic)"draining layers that almost never become saturated can have
coefficients as high as $.6 while slow"draining layers that are often saturated can have
drainage coefficients as low as '.6'. Geep in mind that a drainage coefficient is basically
a way of ma)ing a specific layer thic)er. -f a fundamental drainage problem is suspected,
thic)er layers may only be of marginal benefit " a better solution is to address the actual
drainage problem by using very dense layers to minimi5e water infiltration! or designing
a drainage system. 0ecause of the peril associated with its use, often times the drainage
coefficient is neglected i.e., set as m D $.'!.
9 Ser"iceable life. The difference in present serviceability index ;S-! between
construction and end"of"life is the serviceability life. The e#uation compares this to
default values of 6.& for the immediately"after"construction value and $.7 for end"of"life
terminal serviceability!. Typical values used now are8
9 ;ost"construction8 6.' " 7.' depending upon construction #uality, smoothness,
etc.
9 /nd"of"life called 1terminal serviceability1!8 $.7 " 2.' depending upon road use
e.g., interstate highway, urban arterial, residential!
9 Subgrade support. Subgrade support is characteri5ed by the subgrade>s resilient
modulus *R!. -ntuitively, the amount of structural support offered by the subgrade
should be a large factor in determining the re#uired pavement structure.

3.1.3 "ututs
The $%%2 AASHTO Guide e#uation can be solved for any one of the variables as long as all the
others are supplied. Typically, the output is either total /SACs or the re#uired Structural <umber
or the associated pavement layer depths!. To be most accurate, the flexible pavement e#uation
described in this chapter should be solved simultaneously with the flexible pavement /SAC
e#uation. This solution method is an iterative process that solves for /SACs in both e#uations by
varying the Structural <umber. -t is iterative because the Structural <umber S<! has two )ey
influences8
$. The Structural <umber determines the total number of /SACs that a particular
pavement can support. This is evident in the flexible pavement design e#uation
presented in this section.
&. The Structural <umber also determines what the @' )< $@,''' lb.! /SAC is for a
given load.
Therefore, the Structural <umber is re#uired to determine the number of /SACs to design for
before the pavement is ever designed. The iterative design process usually proceeds as follows8
$. .etermine and gather flexible pavement design inputs ER, So, H;S- and *R!.
&. .etermine and gather flexible pavement /SAC e#uation inputs Cx, C&x, 4!.
2. Assume a Structural <umber S<!.
6. .etermine the e#uivalency factor for each load type by solving the /SAC e#uation
using the assumed S< for each load type.
7. /stimate the traffic count for each load type for the entire design life of the pavement
and multiply it by the calculated /SAC to obtain the total number of /SACs expected
over the design life of the pavement.
,. -nsert the assumed S< into the design e#uation and calculate the total number of
/SACs that the pavement will support over its design life.
A. Bompare the /SAC values in I7 and I,. -f they are reasonably close say within 7
percent! use the assumed S<. -f they are not reasonably close, assume a different
S<, go to step I6 and repeat the process.
-n practice, the flexible pavement design e#uation is usually solved independently of the /SAC
e#uation by using an /SAC value that is assumed independent of structural number. Although
this assumption is not true, pavement structure depths calculated using it are reasonably
accurate. This design process usually proceeds as follows8
$. Assume a structural number S<! for /SAC calculations. Although often not overtly
stated, a structural number must be assumed in order to calculate /SACs.
&. .etermine the load e#uivalency factor C/(! for each load type by solving the /SAC
e#uation using the assumed S< for each load type. Typically, a standard set of load
types is used e.g., single unit truc)s, tractor"trailer truc)s and buses!.
2. /stimate the traffic count for each load type for the entire design life of the pavement
and multiply it by the calculated C/( to obtain the total number of /SACs expected
over the design life of the pavement.
6. .etermine and gather flexible pavement design inputs ER, So, H;S- and *R!.
7. Solve the design e#uation for S<.
,. Bhec) to see that the computed S< value is reasonably close to that assumed for
/SAC calculations. This step of often neglected.

An Em'irial E?"ation Desi!n ;tility
This design utility solves the $%%2 AASHTO Guide basic design e#uation for flexible pavements.
-t also supplies some basic information on variable descriptions, typical values and e#uation
precautions.
Load t-e Fle(i)le Pa*ement Desi!n ;tility
FLEXIBLE - ME+8ANISTI+-EMPIRI+AL MET8OD
*echanics is the science of motion and the action of forces on bodies. Thus, a mechanistic
approach see)s to explain phenomena only by reference to physical causes. -n pavement
design, the phenomena are the stresses, strains and deflections within a pavement structure, and
the physical causes are the loads and material properties of the pavement structure. The
relationship between these phenomena and their physical causes is typically described using a
mathematical model. Jarious mathematical models can be and are! usedK the most common is
a layered elastic model.
Along with this mechanistic approach, empirical elements are used when defining what value of
the calculated stresses, strains and deflections result in pavement failure. The relationship
between physical phenomena and pavement failure is described by empirically derived e#uations
that compute the number of loading cycles to failure.
The basic advantages of a mechanistic"empirical pavement design method over a purely
empirical one are8
9 -t can be used for both existing pavement rehabilitation and new pavement
construction
9 -t accommodates changing load types
9 -t can better characteri5e materials allowing for8
9 0etter utili5ation of available materials
9 Accommodation of new materials
9 An improved definition of existing layer properties
9 -t uses material properties that relate better to actual pavement performance
9 -t provides more reliable performance predictions
9 -t better defines the role of construction
9 -t accommodates environmental and aging effects on materials
The benefit of a mechanistic"empirical approach is its ability to accurately characteri5e in situ
material including subgrade and existing pavement structures!. This is typically done by using a
portable device li)e a (3.! to ma)e actual field deflection measurements on a pavement
structure to be overlaid. These measurements can then be input into e#uations to determine
existing pavement structural support often called 1bac)calculation1! and the approximate
remaining pavement life. This allows for a more realistic design for the given conditions.
This section describes the basics behind flexible pavement mechanistic"empirical design to
include8
9 The mechanistic model. The layered elastic model and the finite element models are
used as examples.
9 #mpirical failure definitions and e$uations. /#uations from (inn et al. $%AA!, the
AASHO Road Test and the Roads and Transportation Association of Banada RTAB! are
used as wor)ing examples.
9 A mechanistic computer program. The /verseries programs from the 3ashington
State .OT are used as examples.

Me-anisti Model
*echanistic models are used to mathematically model pavement physics. There are a number of
different types of models available today e.g., dynamic, viscoelastic models! but this section will
present two, the layered elastic model and the finite elements model (/*!, as examples of the
types of models typically used. 0oth of these models can easily be run on personal computers
and only re#uire data that can be realistically obtained.

#.1.1 $a%ered Elastic Model
A layered elastic model can compute stresses, strains and deflections at any point in a pavement
structure resulting from the application of a surface load. Cayered elastic models assume that
each pavement structural layer is homogeneous, isotropic, and linearly elastic. -n other words, it
is the same everywhere and will rebound to its original form once the load is removed. The origin
of layered elastic theory is credited to J.L. 0oussines# who published his classic wor) in $@@7.
Today, 0oussines# influence charts are still widely used in soil mechanics and foundation
design. This section covers the basic assumptions, inputs and outputs from a typical layered
elastic model.

#.1.1.1 Assumtions
The layered elastic approach wor)s with relatively simple mathematical models and thus, re#uires
some basic assumptions. These assumptions are8
9 ;avement layers extend infinitely in the hori5ontal direction.
9 The bottom layer usually the subgrade! extends infinitely downward.
9 *aterials are not stressed beyond their elastic ranges.

#.1.1.2 !nuts
A layered elastic model re#uires a minimum number of inputs to ade#uately characteri5e a
pavement structure and its response to loading. These inputs are8
9 *aterial properties of each layer
9 *odulus of elasticity
9 ;oisson>s ratio
9 ;avement layer thic)nesses
9 Coading conditions
% Magnitude. The total force ;! applied to the pavement surface
% Geometry. +sually specified as being a circle of a given radius r or a!, or the
radius computed )nowing the contact pressure of the load p! and the magnitude
of the load ;!. Although most actual loads more closely represent an ellipse, the
effect of the differences in geometry become negligible at a very shallow depth in
the pavement.
% epetitions. *ultiple loads on a pavement surface can be accommodated by
summing the effects of individual loads. This can be done because we are
assuming that the materials are not being stressed beyond their elastic ranges.
(igure ,.6 shows how these inputs relate to a layered elastic model of a pavement system.
Fi!"re #$9& Layered Elasti In'"ts

#.1.1.3 "utut
The outputs of a layered elastic model are the stresses, strains, and deflections in the pavement8
% Stress. The intensity of internally distributed forces experienced within the pavement
structure at various points. Stress has units of force per unit area <=m
&
, ;a or psi!.
% Strain. The unit displacement due to stress, usually expressed as a ratio of the
change in dimension to the original dimension mm=mm or in=in!. Since the strains in
pavements are very small, they are normally expressed in terms of microstrain $'
",
!.
% &eflection. The linear change in a dimension. .eflection is expressed in units of
length mm or Mm or inches or mils!.
The use of a layered elastic analysis computer program will allow one to calculate the theoretical
stresses, strains, and deflections anywhere in a pavement structure. However, there are a few
critical locations that are often used in pavement analysis see Table ,.$ and (igure ,.7!.
Ta)le #$%& +ritial Analysis Loations in a Pa*ement Str"t"re
Loation Res'onse Reason .or ;se
;avement Surface .eflection
+sed in imposing load restrictions
during spring thaw and overlay design
for example!
0ottom of H*A layer Hori5ontal Tensile Strain
+sed to predict fatigue failure in the
H*A
Top of -ntermediate Cayer
0ase or Subbase!
Jertical Bompressive Strain
+sed to predict rutting failure in the
base or subbase
Top of Subgrade Jertical Bompressive Strain
+sed to predict rutting failure in the
subgrade
Fi!"re #$:& +ritial Analysis Loations in a Pa*ement Str"t"re

#.1.2 Finite Elements Model
The finite element method (/*! is a numerical analysis techni#ue for obtaining approximate
solutions to a wide variety of engineering problems. Although originally developed to study
stresses in complex airframe structures, it has since been extended and applied to the broad field
of continuum mechanics Huebner et al., &''$!. -n a continuum problem e.g., one that involves
a continuous surface or volume! the variables of interest generally possess infinitely many values
because they are functions of each generic point in the continuum. (or example, the stress in a
particular element of pavement cannot be solved with one simple e#uation because the functions
that describe its stresses are particular to its specific location. However, the finite element
method can be used to divide a continuum e.g., the pavement volume! into a number of small
discrete volumes in order to obtain an approximate numerical solution for each individual volume
rather than an exact closed"form solution for the whole pavement volume. (ifty years ago the
computations involved in doing this were incredibly tedious, but today computers can perform
them #uite readily.
-n the (/* analysis of a flexible pavement, the region of interest the pavement and subgrade! is
discreti5ed into a number of elements with the wheel loads are at the top of the region of interest
see (igure ,.,!. The finite elements extend hori5ontally and vertically from the wheel to include
all areas of interest within the influence of the wheel.
Fi!"re #$#& E*erFle( 7-D Drawin! 2Ada'ted .rom 3"4 155%6
The drawing shows the discrete elements, wheel loads tire patch loads!, a modeled crac) and a slip
interface where on layer can slip " move independently " from another!.

#.1.2.1 Assumtions
The (/* approach wor)s with a more complex mathematical model than the layered elastic
approach so it ma)es fewer assumptions. 4enerally, (/* must assume some constraining
values at the boundaries of the region of interest. (or instance, the computer program developed
by Hongyu 3u and 4eorge Tur)iyyah at the +niversity of 3ashington 3u, &''$!, called
/ver(lex, uses a ,"noded foundation element to model the 3in)ler (oundation. This program
also uses free boundaries on the four sides of the flexible pavement model. Additionally, the
choice of element geometry si5e and shape! as well as interpolation functions will influence
overall model performance.

#.1.2.2 !nuts
The typical finite elements method approach involves the following seven steps Huebner et al.,
&''$!8
$. &iscreti'e the Continuum. The region of interest is divided into small discrete
shapes.
&. Select Interpolation (unctions. <odes are assigned to each element and then a
function is chosen to interpolate the variation of the variable over the discrete
element.
2. (ind the #lement !roperties. +sing the established finite element model the
elements and their interpolation functions! to determine matrix e#uations that express
the properties of the individual elements.
6. Assemble the #lement !roperties to )btain the System #$uations. Bombine the
matrix e#uations expressing the behavior of the elements and form the matrix
e#uations expressing the behavior of the entire system.
7. Impose the Boundary Conditions. -mpose values for certain variables at )ey
boundary positions e.g., the bottom and sides of the chosen region of analysis!.
,. Sol"e the System #$uations. The above process results in a set of simultaneous
e#uations that can then be solved.
A. Ma*e Additional Computations If &esired. The un)nowns are displacement
components. (rom these displacements element strains and stresses can be
calculated.

#.1.2.3 "ututs
The outputs of a (/* analysis are the same as for a layered elastic model8
% Stress. The intensity of internally distributed forces experienced within the pavement
structure at various points. Stress has units of force per unit area <=m
&
, ;a or psi!.
% Strain. The unit displacement due to stress, usually expressed as a ratio of the
change in dimension to the original dimension mm=mm or in=in!. Since the strains in
pavements are very small, they are normally expressed in terms of microstrain $'
",
!.
% &eflection. The linear change in a dimension. .eflection is expressed in units of
length mm or Mm or inches or mils!.
-n addition, the finite elements method allows for extremely powerful graphical displays of these
values see (igures ,.A through ,.$'!.
Fi!"re #$=& 7-D Strain
Dia!ram
Fi!"re #$@& S"r.ae
Strain Dia!ram
Fi!"re #$>& Setion View
Strain Dia!ram
Fi!"re #$%5& Sam'le Load
Pro.iles

Sreen S-ot T-"m)nails .rom E*erFle( 23"4 155%6$
+li, on ea- t-"m)nail to see a lar!er *ersion o. t-e 'it"re$

Fail"re +riteria 2or Trans.er F"ntions6
The main empirical portions of the mechanistic"empirical design process are the e#uations used
to compute the number of loading cycles to failure. These e#uations are derived by observing the
performance of pavements and relating the type and extent of observed failure to an initial strain
under various loads. Burrently, two types of failure criteria are widely recogni5ed, one relating to
fatigue crac)ing and the other to rutting initiating in the subgrade. A third deflection"based
criterion may be of use in special applications. <ote that since these failure criteria are
empirically established, they must be calibrated to specific local conditions and are generally not
applicable on a national scale.

#.2.1 Fati&ue Failure Criterion
*any e#uations have been developed to estimate the number of repetitions to failure in the
fatigue mode for asphalt concrete. *ost of these rely on the hori5ontal tensile strain at the
bottom of the H*A layer t! and the elastic modulus of the H*A. One commonly accepted
criterion developed by (inn et al. $%AA! is8

=
3 6
10
log 854 . 0
10
log 291 . 3 947 . 15 log
AC t
f
E
N

where8 <f D number of cycles to failure
t D hori5ontal tensile strain at the bottom of the H*A layer
/AB D elastic modulus of the H*A

The above e#uation defines failure as fatigue crac)ing over $' percent of the wheelpath area.
(igure ,.$$ shows the relationship between tensile strain in the asphalt concrete and the number
of cycles to failure for two levels of asphalt concrete elastic modulus. This relationship assumes
bottom"up crac)ing rather than top"down crac)ing.
Fi!"re #$%%& Limitin! 8oriAontal Strain +riterion .or As'-alt +onrete Fati!"e +ra,in!

#.2.2 'uttin& Failure Criterion
Rutting can initiate in any layer of the structure, ma)ing it more difficult to predict than fatigue
crac)ing. Burrent failure criteria are intended for rutting that can be attributed mostly to a wea)
pavement structure. This is typically expressed in terms of the vertical compressive strain v! at
the top of the subgrade layer8
4843 . 4
6
18
10
10 077 . 1

v
f
N

where8 <f D number of cycles to failure

v D vertical compressive strain at the top of the subgrade layer
The above e#uation defines failure as $&.7 mm '.7"inch! depressions in the wheelpaths of the
pavement. (igure ,.$& illustrates how the vertical compressive strain relates to the number of
cycles to failure.
Fi!"re #$%1& Limitin! S")!rade Strain +riterion .or R"ttin!


#.2.3 Deflection Failure Criterion
A number of deflection based criteria have been developed by various agencies over the last 6'
years or so. The AASHO Road Test and Roads and Transportation Association of Banada
RTAB! criteria are shown here. 0oth these criteria were developed based on spring seasonal
deflections.

#.2.3.1 AAS(" 'oad Test Criterion
The AASHO Road Test results were used to develop the following relations Highway Research
0oard, $%,&b!8
sn
d L W log 25 . 3 log 32 . 1 40 . 9 log
1 5 . 2
+ =
where8 3&.7 D number of applications of axle load C$ sustained by the pavement to a terminal
serviceability index of &.7
C$ D single axle load )ips!
dsn D 0en)elman 0eam springtime measured pavement surface deflection '.''$
in.! measured at the AASHO Road Test Spring $%7%! after 1disappearance of
frost.1

This criterion was based on data from Coops & through , and single axle loads of ,, $&, $@, &&.6,
and 2' )ips $ )ip D $,''' lbs.!. The following e#uation is obtained if C$ D $@,''' lbs. a standard
/SAC!8
sn
d W log 25 . 3 06 . 11 log
5 . 2
=

#.2.3.2 'oads and Transortation Association of Canada )'TAC* Criterion
The RTAB criterion can be calculated as follows after RTAB $%AA! and Haas et al. $%%6!!8
[ ] ) (log 30103 . 0 40824 . 0
10
ESAL
BB

=
where8 00 D maximum rebound deflection in.! defined as the mean rebound deflection plus
two standard deviations! at a standard temperature of &$NB A'N(!
D '.$'' inches for /SAC O 6A,,7$
D '.'& inches for /SAC P $',''','''
/SAC D @' )< $@''' lb.! single axle loads

Table ,.& shows the limiting deflections for both criteria8
Ta)le #$1& Limitin! De.letions
Loads to Fail"re
Limitin! /S'rin!/ De.letion 2in$6
AAS8O Road Test RTA+
$',''' '.$6@ '.$''
$'',''' '.'A& '.'@'
$,''',''' '.'2, '.'6'
$',''',''' '.'$@ '.'&'

A Me-anisti +om'"ter Pro!ram
The 3ashington State .OT has developed a layered elastic"based software pac)age called the
#"erseries !a"ement Analysis !rograms Sivaneswaran, ;ierce and *ahoney, &''$!.
/verseries for short! contains three independent programs8
$. Cayered elastic analysis /verstress!
2. (3. pavement modulus bac)calculation /vercalc!
2. (lexible pavement overlay design /verpave!
To install the /verseries programs on your computer, clic) the install icon below8
<OT/S8
These programs must be installed on to your computer before you can use them. .uring the installation
you will be prompted to specify a location to which they can be installed. Once installed, the programs
and their supporting files ta)e about 2.26 *0 of dis) space.
The programs are designed for 3indows operating systems.
The /verseries ;avement Analysis ;rograms can also be downloaded from the 3ashington
State .OT *aterials Cab at8 http8==www.wsdot.wa.gov=bi5=mats. Jolume 2 of the WS&)T
!a"ement Guide 3S.OT, $%%@! is available at the same site for download and contains detailed
instructions on how to run the /verseries programs.
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT TBPES
There are many different types of flexible pavements. This section covers three of the more
common types of H*A mix types used in the +.S. Other flexible pavements such as bituminous
surface treatments 0STs! are considered by most agencies to be a form of maintenance and are
thus covered under *odule $', Maintenance + ehabilitation . H*A mix types differ from each
other mainly in maximum aggregate si5e, aggregate gradation and asphalt binder content=type.
This Guide focuses on dense"graded H*A in most flexible pavement sections because it is the
most common H*A pavement material in the +.S. This section provides a brief exposure to8
&ense,graded HMA . (lexible pavement information in this Guide is
generally concerned with dense"graded H*A. .ense"graded H*A
is a versatile, all"around mix ma)ing it the most common and well"
understood mix type in the +.S.
Stone matri- asphalt .SMA/ . S*A, although relatively new in the
+.S., has been used in /urope as a surface course for years to
support heavy traffic loads and resist studded tire wear.
)pen,graded HMA . This includes both open"graded friction course
O4(B! and asphalt treated permeable materials AT;*!. Open"
graded mixes are typically used as wearing courses O4(B! or
underlying drainage layers AT;*! because of the special
advantages offered by their porosity.
This section is ta)en largely from the <A;A>s HMA !a"ement Mi- Type Selection Guide &''$!.
-n addition to the general information presented here, the HMA !a"ement Mi- Type Selection
Guide provides specific information on minimum lift thic)nesses, mix selection criteria, mix
materials as well as several informative examples.

Dense-<raded Mi(es
A dense"graded mix is a well"graded H*A mixture intended for general use. 3hen properly
designed and constructed, a dense"graded mix is relatively impermeable. .ense"graded mixes
are generally referred to by their nominal maximum aggregate si5e. They can further be
classified as either fine"graded or coarse"graded. (ine"graded mixes have more fine and sand
si5ed particles than coarse"graded mixes see Table &.$ for definitions of fine" and coarse"graded
mixes!.
P"r'ose& .ense"graded mixes are suitable for all pavement layers and for all traffic
conditions. They wor) well for structural, friction, leveling and patching needs.
Materials& 3ell"graded aggregate, asphalt binder with or without modifiers!, RA;

Mi(
Desi!n&
Superpave, *arshall or Hveem procedures.

Ot-er In.o& ;articulars about dense"graded H*A are covered by flexible pavement sections
in the rest of this Guide.
Ta)le 1$%& Fine- and +o"rse-<raded De.initions .or Dense-<raded 8MA 2.rom NAPA4 155%6
Mi(t"re Nominal Ma(im"m
A!!re!ate SiAe
+oarse-<raded Mi( Fine-<raded Mi(
2A.7 mm $.7 inches! Q 27 R passing the 6.A7 mm <o. 6 Sieve! P 27 R passing the 6.A7 mm <o. 6 Sieve!
&7.' mm $.' inch! Q 6' R passing the 6.A7 mm <o. 6 Sieve! P 6' R passing the 6.A7 mm <o. 6 Sieve!
$%.' mm '.A7 inches! Q 27 R passing the &.2, mm <o. @ Sieve! P 27 R passing the &.2, mm <o. @ Sieve!
$&.7 mm '.7 inches! Q 6' R passing the &.2, mm <o. @ Sieve! P 6' R passing the &.2, mm <o. @ Sieve!
%.7 mm '.2A7 inches! Q 67 R passing the &.2, mm <o. @ Sieve! P 67 R passing the &.2, mm <o. @ Sieve!

Stone Matri( As'-alt 2SMA6 Mi(es
Stone matrix asphalt S*A! is a gap"graded H*A see (igure &.A! that is designed to maximi5e
deformation rutting! resistance and durability by using a structural basis of stone"on"stone
contact see (igures &.@, through &.$&!. 0ecause the aggregates are all in contact, rut resistance
relies on aggregate properties rather than asphalt binder properties. Since aggregates do not
deform as much as asphalt binder under load, this stone"on"stone contact greatly reduces
rutting. S*A is generally more expensive than a typical dense"graded H*A about &' " &7
percent! because it re#uires more durable aggregates, higher asphalt content and, typically, a
modified asphalt binder and fibers. -n the right situations it should be cost"effective because of its
increased rut resistance and improved durability. S*A, originally developed in /urope to resist
rutting and studded tire wear, has been used in the +.S. since about $%%' <A;A, $%%%!.

P"r'ose& -mproved rut resistance and durability. Therefore, S*A is almost exclusively
used for surface courses on high volume interstates and +.S. roads.
Materials& 4ap"graded aggregate usually from coarse aggregate, manufactured sands
and mineral filler all combined into a final gradation!, asphalt binder typically
with a modifier!

Mi(
Desi!n&
Superpave or *arshall procedures with modifications. Refer to <A;A>s
&esigning and Constructing SMA Mi-tures0 State,of,the,!ractice, S-; $&&
$%%%! publication or <BHR; Report 6&78 &esigning Stone Matri- Asphalt
Mi-tures for ut,esistant !a"ements.

Ot-er In.o& 0ecause S*A mixes have a high asphalt binder content on the order of ,
percent!, as the mix sits in the H*A storage silos, transport truc)s, and after it is
placed, the asphalt binder has a tendency to drain off the aggregate and down
to the bottom " a phenomenon )nown as 1mix draindown1. *ix draindown is
usually combated by adding cellulose or mineral fibers to )eep the asphalt
binder in place. Bellulose fibers are typically shredded newspapers and
maga5ines, while mineral fibers are spun from molten roc). A laboratory test is
run during mix design to ensure the mix is not sub?ect to excessive draindown.
-n mix design a test for voids in the coarse aggregate AASHTO T $%! is used to
ensure there is stone"on"stone contact.
Other reported S*A benefits include wet weather friction due to a coarser
surface texture!, lower tire noise due to a coarser surface texture! and less
severe reflective crac)ing. *ineral fillers and additives are usually added to
minimi5e asphalt binder drain"down during construction, increase the amount of
asphalt binder used in the mix and to improve mix durability.
Fi!"re 1$=& Ty'ial SMA and Dense-<raded 8MA A!!re!ate <radations


Fi!"re 1$@& SMA Str"t"re
Fi!"re 1$>& SMA A!!re!ate Str"t"re$
Notie t-e stone-on-stone ontat o. t-e
lar!er a!!re!ate 'artiles$
Fi!"re 1$%5& Dense-<raded 8MA 2le.t6 *s$
SMA 2ri!-t6$ 2it is a )it more s-iny .rom t-e
e(tra as'-alt )inder6

Fi!"re 1$%%& Dense-<raded 8MA 2le.t6 *s$
SMA 2ri!-t6$ Notie t-e SMA -as a )etter-
de.ined lar!e a!!re!ate s,eleton 2.rom
NAPA4 155%6
Fi!"re 1$%1& SMA Pa*ement S"r.ae

O'en-<raded Mi(es
An open"graded H*A mixture is designed to be water permeable dense"graded and S*A mixes
usually are not permeable!. Open"graded mixes use only crushed stone or gravel! and a small
percentage of manufactured sands. There are three types of open"graded mixes typically used in
the +.S.8
$. )pen,graded friction course .)G(C/. Typically $7 percent air voids, no minimum air
voids specified, lower aggregate standards than ;/*.
&. !orous #uropean mi-es .!#M/. Typically $@ " && percent air voids, specified
minimum air voids, higher aggregate standards than O4(B and re#uires the use of
asphalt binder modifiers. See (igure &.$2.
2. Asphalt treated permeable bases .AT!B/ . Cess stringent specifications than O4(B
or ;/* since it is used only under dense"graded H*A, S*A or ;BB for drainage.
See (igure &.$6.

P"r'ose&
)G(C and !#M " +sed as for surface courses only. They reduce tire
splash=spray in wet weather and typically result in smoother surfaces than
dense"graded H*A. Their high air voids trap road noise and thus reduce tire"
road noise by up to 7'"percent $' d0A! <A;A, $%%7!.
AT!B " +sed as a drainage layer below dense"graded H*A, S*A or ;BB.
Materials& Aggregate crushed stone or gravel and manufactured sands!, asphalt binder
with modifiers!

Mi(
Desi!n&
Cess structured than for dense"graded or S*A mixes. Open"graded mix design
generally consists of $! material selection, &! gradation, 2! compaction and void
determination and 6! asphalt binder drain"down evaluation. <BAT Report %%"28
&esign of 1e2,Generation )pen Graded (riction Courses provides a
recommended mix design procedure for O4(Bs.

Ot-er In.o& 0oth O4(B and ;/* are more expensive per ton than dense"graded H*A, but
the unit weight of the mix when in"place is lower, which partially offsets the
higher per"ton cost. The open gradation creates pores in the mix, which are
essential to the mix>s proper function. Therefore anything that tends to clog
these pores, such as low"speed traffic, excessive dirt on the roadway or deicing
sand, should be avoided.

Fi!"re 1$%7& +ore .rom a Pa*ement ;sin!
PEM as t-e 3earin! +o"rse 2.rom NAPA4
155%6
Fi!"re 1$%9& As'-alt Treated Permea)le Base

Mi( Seletion <"idane
0ased on the previous information, there are some general rules for H*A mix type use, which are
summari5ed in Table &.&. <otice that, as discussed, dense"graded H*A is generally appropriate
for all uses, S*A and O4(B and ;/*! are typically used as surface courses on high volume
roads and AT;0 is usually used for base courses on high volume roads. Geep in mind that Table
&.& is ?ust a summary of general guidance and that there are, as always, case specific exceptions.
Ta)le 1$1& <eneral A''ro'riateness o. Mi( Ty'es For Ea- 8MA Layer 2NAPA4 155%6
+o"rse
Low Tra..i Medi"m Tra..i 8i!- Tra..i
2C 7554555 ESALs6
27554555 - %5 million
ESALs6
2D %5 million ESALs6
Dense SMA O<F+ ATPB Dense SMA O<F+ ATPB Dense SMA O<F+ ATPB
Surface
-ntermediate
0ase
D Appropriate
<ote8 0efore deciding to use AT;0, the
;avement Research Benter>s research results
should be carefully considered.
D *oderately
Appropriate

empty D <ot Appropriate

3.#.1 Determinin& Aroriate Mi+ T%es
*ost of this process is ta)en directly from the <A;A HMA !a"ement Mi- Type Selection Guide
&''$!.
1. .etermine the total thic)ness of H*A re#uired. This is accomplished using an
appropriate structural design procedure.
&. .etermine the types of mixtures appropriate for the surface course based on traffic
and cost.
o (rom Table &.&, identify the general traffic category for the pavement in
#uestion then select those mix types that are appropriate for the surface
course.
o .etermine what aggregate si5e to use for a mix. -n general, the higher
the traffic loads, the higher the nominal maximum aggregate si5e should
be.
o Bonsider appearance. *ixes with larger aggregates often have a
coarser surface texture and may be more susceptible to segregation
during placement. Therefore, for a city street where appearance is an
issue, a finer mix such as a %.7 or $&.7"mm '.2A7 or '.7"inch! dense"
graded mix may be appropriate. Bonversely, for a heavy industrial area
where load resistance is much more important that aesthetic
appearance, a $%.'"mm '.A7"inch! mix may be more appropriate.
However, ne*er sari.ie 'er.ormane .or a''earane.
o Bonsider traffic flow. *aximum aggregate si5e can also affect traffic flow
during rehabilitation of existing roadways. -n many urban areas off"pea)
construction is used to minimi5e traffic impacts. However, for a road to
be released to traffic during pea) hours, either the lane drop"off
elevation difference between ad?acent lanes! must be )ept below a
specified minimum value typically less than 2A.7 mm $.7 inches! with
proper signage! or all lanes must be brought to the same elevation.
0ringing all lanes to the same elevation at the end of each paving day
may re#uire changing traffic control and moving paving e#uipment, which
can increase construction costs and decrease safety. Therefore it is
often better to satisfy the lane drop"off re#uirement. However, with larger
aggregate mixes the minimum lift thic)ness may exceed the maximum
lane drop"off allowed. As a result, using a finer gradation may allow
paving one lane, then releasing the road to traffic, then paving the other
lane. Again, do not sari.ie 'er.ormane.
2. Subtract the surface course thic)ness from the total thic)ness and determine what
mix or mixes are appropriate for the intermediate and=or base courses using Table
&.&.
6. Bontinue to subtract intermediate=base course thic)nesses from the total thic)ness
until mixes and layer thic)nesses have been selected for the re#uired pavement
section.
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT RE+B+LIN<
H*A is one of the most recycled products in the +.S. -t is estimated that as much as %$ million
tonnes $'' million tons! of H*A are milled off roads during resurfacing and widening pro?ects
each year A;A, &''$a!. Of this amount, A2 million tonnes @' million tons! are recycled as

MaEor To'is on t-is
Pa!e
6.$ Hot Recycling
6.& Bold Recycling
1reclaimed asphalt pavement1 RA; " see (igure &.$7! A;A, &''$a!. RA; is typically generated
by rehabilitation or reconstruction pro?ects and can be used in a variety of ways such as8
As an addition to regular H*A.
As an aggregate in cold"mix asphalt.
As a granular base course when pulveri5ed.
As a fill or emban)ment material.
H*A recycling can be divided into two basic categories based on the recycling methods used8 hot
recycling and cold recycling. This section presents the basic recycling process as well as typical
uses and considerations for each of these recycling methods.

9$% 8ot Reylin!
Hot recycling is so named because RA; is used as an aggregate in H*A hot mix asphalt!. -n
hot recycling, old H*A pavement is removed, bro)en down into aggregate"si5ed chun)s see
(igure &.$,! and then incorporated into new H*A as an aggregate. There are two basic methods
for accomplishing this8 conventional recycled hot mix RH*! and hot in"place recycling.

#.1.1 'ec%cled (ot Mi+ )'(M*
Recycled hot mix RH*! is the most common way of using RA;. 0asically, new H*A is
produced at a batch or drum plant to which a predetermined percentage of RA; is added. RA;
addition is typically $' to 2' percent by weight although additions as high as @' percent by weight
have been done and additions as high as %' to $'' percent by weight are feasible (H3A,
&''$c!. There is ample evidence that H*A which incorporates RA; performs as well as H*A
without RA;. (igure &.$A shows two dense"graded H*A cores, one with RA; and one without.
P"r'ose& Anything for which a typical dense"graded H*A may be used
Materials& H*A and RA;

Mi( Desi!n& Superpave, *arshall or Hveem procedures. 0lending charts are
typically needed when using high percentages of RA;.

Ot-er In.o& 3hen heated, RA; may give off gaseous hydrocarbons. To minimi5e
these emissions, H*A plants generally heat RA; indirectly usually it
is added after the aggregate is heated and thus heats up through
contact with the already"hot aggregate!.
RA; addition may re#uire longer H*A plant heating times. This can
sometimes reduce plant output by as much as half.

Figure 2.15: RAP Pile in Eastern Washington State
RA; generally contains between 2 and A percent asphalt by weight or
about $' to &' percent asphalt by volume (H3A, &''$c!. -n general,
RA; will be more viscous than new H*A because of asphalt binder
aging. Therefore, if enough RA; is added, a softer asphalt binder
should be used. Table &.2 shows the AASHTO *; & Superpave
asphalt binder selection guidelines for RA; mixtures.
-n general, state .OTs allow more RA; in base and binder H*A
courses than they do in surface courses.

After milling or crushing, RA; gradation is generally finer than pure
virgin aggregate because of the degradation that occurs during
removal and processing.
Ta)le 1$7& S"'er'a*e As'-alt Binder Seletion <"idelines .or RAP Mi(t"res 2.rom
AAS8TO4 155%6
RAP Perenta!e Reommended Vir!in As'-alt Binder <rade
Q $7 <o change from basic Superpave ;4 binder re#uirements.
$7 " &7
Select virgin binder one grade softer than normal
e.g., select at ;4 7@"&& if a ;4 ,6"&& would normally be used!.
P &7 (ollow recommendations from blending charts.

Fi!"re 1$%=& 8MA +ores .rom a RAP Mi( and a non-RAP Mi(

#.1.2 (ot !n-,lace 'ec%clin& )(!,'*
Hot in"place recycling H-;R! is a less common form of hot asphalt recycling. There are three
basic H-;R construction processes in use, all of which involve a speciali5ed plant in a continuous
train operation (H3A, &''$c!8
Heater scarification .(igure 3456/. This method uses a plant that heats the
pavement surface typically using propane radiant heaters!, scarifies the pavement
surface using a ban) of nonrotating teeth, adds a re?uvenating agent to improve the
recycled asphalt binder viscosity, then mixes and levels the recycled mix using a
standard auger system. The recycled asphalt pavement is then compacted using
conventional compaction e#uipment. Heater scarification is limited in its ability to
repair severely rutted pavements, which are more easily rehabilitated with a
conventional H*A overlay.
Fi!"re 1$%@& 8eater Sari.iation Train S-owin! 1 Pre-eaters4 t-e 8eaterFSari.ier4 t-e
Pa*er and Rollers$
epa"ing. This method removes by heating and scarification and=or grinding! the
top &7 to 7' mm $ to & inches! of the existing H*A pavement, adds a re?uvenating
agent to improve the recycled asphalt binder viscosity, places the recycled material
as a leveling course using a primary screed, and simultaneously places a thin
usually less than &7 mm $ inch!! H*A overlay. Bonventional e#uipment and
procedures are used immediately behind the train to compact both layers of material
Rathburn, $%%' as cited in (H3A, &''$c!.
emi-ing. This method is used when additional aggregate is re#uired to improve the
strength or stability. Remixing is similar to repaving but adds new virgin aggregate or
new H*A to the recycled material before it is leveled.
P"r'ose& Borrect shallow"depth H*A surface distress
Materials& Asphalt binder re?uvenating agent and possibly new aggregate and
H*A.

Mi( Desi!n& <ot well"defined, but as a minimum cores are usually ta)en from the
existing pavement to determine the proper amount of re?uvenating
agent to add.

Ot-er In.o& H-;R is only applicable to specific situations. (irst, air void content of
the existing asphalt binder must be high enough to accept the
necessary amount of asphalt binder re?uvenator. Second, H-;R can
only ade#uately address shallow surface distress problems less than
7' mm & inches!!. Third, pavements with delaminations subse#uent
layers not binding together! in the top 7' mm & inches! should not be
considered for H-;R pro?ects. (inally, pavements that have been
rutted, heavily patched, or chip"sealed are not good candidates for
H-;R pro?ects (H3A, &''$c!.

9$1 +old Reylin!
Bold recycling is so named because RA; is used as an aggregate in cold mix asphalt. -n cold
recycling, old H*A pavement is removed, bro)en down into aggregate"si5ed chun)s and then
combined with an emulsified or foamed asphalt. This mix is then typically used as a stabili5ed
base course for reconstructed pavements. There are two basic cold recycling methods8 cold
plant mix recycling and cold in"place recycling B-R!.

#.2.1 Cold ,lant Mi+ 'ec%clin&
Bold plant mix recycling, the less common of the two cold recycling methods, involves mixing
RA; with an asphalt emulsion or foamed asphalt at a central or mobile plant facility. A
re?uvenating agent can be added to improve the recycled asphalt binder viscosity and new
aggregate can also be added to improve overall performance. The resulting cold mix is then
typically used as a stabili5ed base course.
P"r'ose& Stabili5ed base course.
Materials& RA;, asphalt emulsion or foamed asphalt, asphalt re?uvenating agent
and possibly virgin aggregate.

Mi( Desi!n& <o generally accepted mix design method, but the Asphalt -nstitute
recommends and most agencies use a variation of the *arshall mix
design method (H3A, &''$b!.

Ot-er In.o& Since cold in"place recycling has become more commonplace, cold
plant mixing has become less popular.

#.2.2 Cold !n-,lace 'ec%clin& )C!'*
Bold in"place recycling B-R! is the processing and treatment with bituminous and=or chemical
additives of existing H*A pavements without heating to produce a restored pavement layer
AASHTO, $%%@!. -t involves the same process of cold plant mix recycling except that it is done
in"place by a train of e#uipment. The typical B-R process involves seven basic steps AASHTO,
$%%@!8
$. Milling. A milling machine pulveri5es a thin surface layer of pavement, usually from
7' to $'' mm & to 6 inches! deep.
&. Gradation control. The pulveri5ed material is further crushed and graded to produce
the desired gradation and maximum particle si5e. On some ?obs this step is omitted,
however on others a trailer mounted screening and crushing plant is used to further
crush and grade the pulveri5ed pavement. -f needed, virgin aggregate can be added
to the recycled material.
2. Additi"e incorporation. The graded pulveri5ed material is mixed with a binding
additive usually emulsified asphalt, lime, portland cement or fly ash!. On some ?obs,
this is done by the milling machine, however on others a trailer mounted pugmill
mixer is used.
6. Mi-ture placement. The pulveri5ed, graded pavement and additive combination is
placed bac) over the previously milled pavement and graded to the final elevation.
*ixture placement is most often done with a traditional asphalt paver either through
windrow pic)up or by depositing the mixture directly into the paver hopper!, however
on some very low traffic applications the mixture can be placed by a motor grader.
0ecause of the larger maximum aggregate si5es of the graded mixture, the minimum
lift thic)ness for placement is usually around 7' mm & inches!.
7. Compaction. The placed mixture is compacted to the desired density. Typical
compaction efforts involve a large pneumatic tire roller and a large vibratory steel
wheel roller. -f an emulsion additive is used rolling is typically delayed until the
emulsion begins to brea). -f a portland cement or fly ash additive is used, rolling
should begin immediately after placement.
,. (og seal . -f the newly placed material is to operate as a high #uality gravel road then
a fog seal is usually applied over the top to delay surface raveling of the cold recycled
mix. A fog seal is necessary over B-R using a portland cement or fly ash additive not
only to delay surface raveling but also to provide a curing membrane for the additive
to properly set.
A. Surface course construction. On higher volume roads, the cold recycled mix is
overlaid with either a 0ST or a thin H*A overlay. -n either case, a tac) coat should
be used to provide a good bond between the cold recycled mix and the surface
course.
P"r'ose& Stabili5ed base course or a low volume road granular surface course.
Materials& Recycled material and a binding additive usually asphalt emulsion,
lime, portland cement or fly ash!.

Mi( Desi!n& <o generally accepted mix design method, but most methods are
based on the *arshall or Hveem methods and e#uipment AASHTO,
$%%,!.

Ot-er In.o& B-R is best suited for crac)ed pavements with structurally sound, well
drained bases and subgrades. B-R is generally not appropriate for
repairing pavement failures caused by8
Rutting from excessive asphalt content or mix instability
3et, unstable base, subbase or subgrade materials
(rost action
Stripping
B-R is generally suitable for lower volume roads that may only re#uire
a simple surface treatment over the resulting stabili5ed base course,
or at most a thin H*A wearing course 0etter Roads, &''$!.
(or pro?ects using an asphalt emulsion additive, typical specified
minimum atmospheric temperatures range from $' to $,NB 7' to
,'N(!. (or pro?ects using portland cement or fly ash as the additive,
the minimum re#uired temperature is 6NB 2%N(! with no free5ing
temperatures expected in the next &6 hours AASHTO, $%%@!.
B-R re#uires sunny, dry conditions in order for the additive to properly
set.
-f an asphalt emulsion additive is used, it is usually added at a rate of
between '.7 to & percent by weight of RA;.


#.2.3 Full-Deth 'eclamation )FD'*
Although referred to as 1full"depth reclamation1, this process is ?ust an extension of the basic B-R
principles to the entire H*A pavement depth plus a predetermined depth of the base material.
(.R can be used to depths of 2'' mm $& inches! or more but the most typical applications
involve depths of between $7' and &&7 mm , and % inches! 0etter Roads, &''$!. The (.R
process usually consists of eight steps 0etter Roads, &''$!8
$. !ul"eri'ation. A road reclaimer pulveri5es existing pavement to a predetermined
depth. Road reclaimers are usually e#uipped to add materials such as stabili5ing
agents to the newly pulveri5ed RA;.
&. Moisture conditioning. The road reclaimer or a separate truc) adds water to the
newly pulveri5ed RA; to assist in achieving re#uired density.
2. Brea*do2n roller. A sheepsfoot or pneumatic tire roller is typically used to compact
the recently pulveri5ed RA; to a consistent density.
6. Shaping. A grader is typically used to ma)e grade and cross"slope ad?ustments.
7. Intermediate roller. A pneumatic tire roller or a steel wheel vibratory roller is used to
)nead and seat any loose aggregates left from the shaping process.
,. (inish roller. A $& to $6"ton static steel wheel roller is used to seat any remaining
loose aggregates and create a smooth surface.
A. Sealant. A fog seal is typically applied to protect the finished reclaimed layer. After
the fog seal sets the reclaimed layer can generally withstand interim traffic loading.
Therefore, at this point the road is often opened to traffic until the contractor is ready
to apply the surface treatment or H*A surface course.
@. Surface treatment or surface course. (inally, a more durable surface treatment or
surface course is applied over the new stabili5ed base course.
P"r'ose& Stabili5ed base course.
Materials& Recycled material, asphalt emulsion or foamed asphalt, asphalt
re?uvenating agent and possibly virgin aggregate.

Mi( Desi!n& <o generally accepted mix design method, but the Asphalt -nstitute
recommends and most agencies use a variation of the *arshall mix
design method (H3A, &''$b!.

Ot-er In.o& (.R is generally suitable for lower volume roads that may only
re#uire a simple surface treatment over the resulting stabili5ed base
course, or at most a thin H*A wearing course. However, (.R has
been used on ma?or highways including interstates 0etter Roads,
&''$!.