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=
For seals pressurized at the inside diameter:
ID OD
ID BD
Ratio Balance Seal
2 2
2 2
=
Where:
OD = Seal face outside diameter
ID = Seal face inside diameter
BD = Balance diameter of the seal
DO = Dynamic ORing
OUTER DIAMETER
PRESSURE
BD OD
ID
DO
INNER DIAMETER
PRESSURE
BD
OD
ID
DO
Figure 33. Balance Ratio Measurement Points
Balance diameter can vary with seal design. For spring pusher
seals that are under outer diameter pressure, the balance
diameter is the diameter of the sliding contact surface of the
inner diameter of the dynamic O-ring. For spring pusher seals
that are under inner diameter pressure, the balance diameter is
the diameter of the sliding contact surface of the dynamic O-ring
outer diameter.
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Flushing/Cooling Requirements - The dynamic operation of a
mechanical seal results in heat generation. The amount of heat
generated by a mechanical seal for a given application is critical
to the proper selection of the seal design, the materials, and the
auxiliary system. The wear of mechanical seal faces is a direct
function of the seal face temperature. The heat generated at the
seal face can also cause thermal distortion of the seal face
materials, which will result in seal leakage or failure. The
amount of heat generated by a mechanical seal has a direct
impact on the type of cooling system and seal face materials
selected for a mechanical seal application. API Standard 682,
Appendix H, provides guidance for calculating the heat
generated at the seal faces.
The following sequence of equations is used to determine the
heat generated by a seal:
1. The seal face area is determined as follows:
( )
ID OD
4
A
2 2
=
Where:
A = Seal face area
OD = Seal face outer diameter in inches
ID = Seal face inner diameter in inches
2. The seal balance ratio is determined as follows:
For seals pressurized at the outside diameter:
ID OD
BD OD
B
2 2
2 2
=
For seals pressurized at the inside diameter:
ID OD
ID BD
B
2 2
2 2
=
Where:
B = Seal balance ratio
OD = Seal face outside diameter
ID = Seal face inside diameter
BD = Balance diameter of the seal
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3. The seal spring force is determined as follows:
A
F
P
sp
sp
=
Where:
P
sp
= Seal spring pressure in pound per square
inch
F
sp
= Spring force at working length (for multiple
spring design, the value for one spring is
used)
A = Seal face area
4. The total face pressure in pounds per square inch is
determined as follows:
( )
P
K B
D P sp p tot
+ =
Where:
P
tot
= Total face pressure in psi
D
p
= Pressure across the seal face in psi
(differential fluid pressure from the seal
chamber to the opposite side of the mating
ring)
B = Seal balance ratio
K = Pressure drop coefficient, assumed to be
0.5
P
sp
= Spring pressure
5. The mean face diameter in inches is calculated as follows:
( )
2
ID OD
MD
+
=
Where:
MD = Mean face diameter in inches
OD = Seal face outer diameter in inches
ID = Seal face inner diameter in inches
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6. The seal running torque is calculated as follows:
2
MD
f A P RT
tot
=
Where:
RT = Seal running torque in inch-pounds
P
tot
= Total face pressure in psi
A = Face area in square inches
f = Coefficient of friction
MD = Mean face diameter in inches
The value of the coefficient of friction (f) for various seal face
materials is as follows:
Sliding Materials
Rotating Stationary
Coefficient of friction
(f)
Carbon-graphite (resin
filled)
Cast iron
Ceramic
Tungsten carbide
Silicon carbide
Silicon carbide converted carbon
0.07
0.07
0.07
0.02
0.015
Silicon carbide Tungsten carbide 0.02
Silicon carbide converted carbon 0.05
Silicon carbide 0.02
Tungsten carbide 0.08
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7. The seal power (hp) is calculated as follows:
( )
63,000
N RT
hp
=
Where:
hp = Seal power in horsepower
RT = Seal running torque in inch-pounds
N = Seal rotational speed in rpm
8. The heat generated by the seal is calculated as follows:
2545 hp
Q
heat
=
Where:
Q
heat
= Heat generated by the seal in BTUs per
hour
hp = Seal power in horsepower
The following example illustrates the seal heat calculations.
A pump is equipped with a single mechanical seal, which is
operating at 3550 rpm and pumping water at 400 psig. The seal
dimensions are as follows:
OD = 2.625 inches
ID = 2.125 inches
BD = 2.225 inches
F
sp
= 42 inch pounds
D
p
= 400 psi
N = 3550 rpm
f = 0.07
K = 0.5
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The seal is pressurized at the outer diameter
1. The seal face area is determined as follows::
( )
in
1.86
2.125 2.625
4
A
2
2 2
=
=
2. The seal balance ratio is determined as follows:
0.817
2.125 2.625
2.225 2.625
B
2 2
2 2
=
=
3. The seal spring force is determined as follows:
psi 22.6
1.86
42
Psp
= =
4. The total face pressure in pounds per square inch is
determined as follows:
( ) psi 149.4 22.6 0.5 0.817 400
Ptot
= + =
5. The mean face diameter in inches is calculated as follows:
( )
inches 2.375
2
2.125 2.625
MD =
+
=
6. The seal running torque is calculated as follows:
pounds - inch 23.089
2
2.375
0.07 1.86 149.4 RT = =
7. The seal power (hp) is calculated as follows:
( )
hp 1.30
63,000
3550 23.089
hp =
=
8. The heat generated by the seal is calculated as follows:
BTU/hr 3311 = 2545 1.30
Q
heat
=
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If the temperature from the heat generated at the seal faces is
high enough or if the liquid vapor pressure is high, the fluid film
between the seal faces can vaporize. If the fluid film vaporizes,
the seal faces will open and momentarily tilt as gas builds up
and then escapes. Cool fluid will enter the seal and allow the
faces to close once again. Frictional heat will cause local
temperatures to rise once again, and the cycle is repeated. The
cycle results in an unstable seal. The edges of the mating ring
face will chip, and, in extreme cases, the mating ring face will pit
and gross leakage will occur.
To prevent overheating the mechanical seal faces, a cooling
fluid is often supplied to the seal chamber area. Cooling fluid is
often called flush. Flush is a small amount of fluid that is
introduced into the seal chamber on the process fluid side of the
mechanical seal, in close proximity to the sealing faces. The
flush provides cooling and lubrication for the seal faces. Flush is
also used if the pumped fluid contains abrasives. Often, flush
fluid is taken from the process stream and supplied to the
mechanical seal after being cooled and cleaned (through the
use of a filter or cyclone separator). If the abrasive levels of the
process fluid are too high, or if the particulate in the process
fluid is difficult to remove because of size, an external flush
source can be used.
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The flow rate of flush fluid can be determined from calculations
shown in Appendix E.2 in API Standard 682. To determine the
flush system flow rate, the maximum allowable temperature rise
would be calculated by subtracting the maximum allowable
temperature in the seal chamber from the flush fluid injection
temperature. API Standard 682 recommends a maximum
temperature of 5F to 10F. The following equation can then be
used to determine the minimum flush fluid flow rate:
( )( )( ) C dT Max SG 500
Q
Q
heat
inj
=
Where:
Q
inj
= Flush fluid flow rate
Max dT = Maximum differential temperature in
degrees Fahrenheit
Q
heat
= Heat generation at the seal faces
SG = Specific gravity of the flush fluid
C = Specific heat of flush fluid at pump
temperature (BTU/lbs.F)
For this example, a maximum differential temperature rise of
10F, a flush fluid specific gravity of 0.90, and a specific heat of
0.62 BTU/lbs.F are assumed. Using the heat generated at the
seal faces in the previous example (3311 BTU/hr), the following
example illustrates the determination of the minimum flush flow
rate:
( )( )( )
gpm 1.187
0.62 10 0.90 500
3311
Q
inj
= =
The minimum flush flow rate would be 1.187 gpm. API
recommends a design factor of two, so the minimum flush flow
rate should be 2.374 gpm.
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In accordance with API Standard 682, only forced flush systems
can be used. A forced flush system uses pressure source to
circulate fluid through the seal chamber. A forced flush system
ensures that flush fluid is circulating through the seal chamber.
Thermosyphon (also called natural circulation or thermal head
circulation) systems are not acceptable because there is no
positive force to ensure that flush fluid is circulating through the
seal during pump operation. The pressure source for the flush
system can be the pump discharge pressure (orificed), an
externally mounted pump, or a device internal to the mechanical
seal, such as a pumping ring. In accordance with API Standard
682, if the mechanical seal is supplied with an internal pumping
ring, a thermosyphon system should also be used to maintain
flush fluid flow when the pump is idle.
Seal flush systems that are supplied from an external source
must be equipped with indicators for seal chamber pressure and
flush pressure. The pressure indicators provide a means of
verifying that the flush system is operating properly.
API Standard 682, Appendix C, provides standard flush system
configurations. Figure 34 shows examples of the flush system
installations using API 682 plans.
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Figure 34. Flush Systems Using API 682 Plans
In accordance with 31-SAMSS-012, seal flush connections for
all seal types and porting arrangements must direct the flush
fluid at the seal faces, maximize the uniformity of cooling fluid
on the seal faces, and minimize flush fluid impingement on the
faces or metal parts. Impingement on the seal faces should be
minimized to prevent the velocity of the flush from eroding the
sealing faces. Impingement is also minimized to prevent
damage to metal components and seal faces from debris or
particulate that may enter the flush system. All radial flush
arrangements must be a multiport design to ensure adequate
distribution of the flush fluid in the seal chamber. Single port
flush connections must be tangential in the direction of shaft
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rotation and must allow for complete venting of the seal
chamber.
In addition to flush systems, mechanical seals can also be
equipped with a quench system, a buffer system, or a barrier
system. A quench system uses a neutral fluid directed at the
atmosphere side of the seal to prevent or limit the formation of
solids that may interfere with seal movement. Quenching is
commonly used on mechanical seals when the pumped fluid is
hydrocarbon and above 300 F or other fluids that will crystallize
when dried, such as caustic.
A buffer system uses fluid as a coolant and lubricant, or buffer,
between dual mechanical seals. Buffer fluid is almost always at
atmospheric pressure.
A barrier system uses fluid introduced between dual mechanical
seals to completely isolate the pump process fluid from the
environment. Barrier fluid pressure is always higher than the
process pressure.
Saudi Aramco Standard 31-SAMSS-012 places the
responsibility of selecting a compatible barrier or buffer fluid on
the pump and seal system manufacturers. Some common fluids
used as barrier or buffer fluids are low viscosity grade oil (such
as grade 32), automatic transmission fluid (ATF), ethylene
glycol (not automotive antifreeze), and water.
Seal Types - Regardless of the seal manufacturer, API 682
specifies three arrangements (arrangement 1, 2, and 3) of
mechanical seals with several mechanical seal types in the
arrangements. All mechanical seals designed to API Standard
682 are cartridge seals. A cartridge seal is a completely self-
contained unit that includes all seal parts and that is
preassembled and preset before installation. The arrangement 1
seal is a single, inside-mounted, balanced-type cartridge seal.
The standard arrangement 1 seal is a Type A pusher seal.
Other optional arrangement 1 seals are the Type B, which is a
single, low-temperature, nonpusher (rotating bellows) seal, and
Type C, which is a single, high-temperature, nonpusher
(stationary bellows) seal. Figure 35 shows vendor
representations of the variations of the arrangement 1 seals.
Data sheet selections show where the seals can be reversed
with respect to the flexible element being rotating or stationary.
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Figure 35. Vendor Representations of Arrangement 1 Mechanical Seals
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Arrangement 2 seals are dual, unpressurized, balanced,
cartridge mechanical seals. The seal type can be either Type A,
Type B, or Type C seals. Figure 36 shows a vendor
representation of a Type A, arrangement 2 seal.
Figure 36. Vendor Representation of a Type A, Arrangement 2 Mechanical Seal
The inner seal of arrangement 2 mechanical seals must be
designed with a positive means of retaining the sealing
components and sufficient closing force to prevent the faces
opening to a pressurization of the buffer fluid to 40 psig (2.75
bar). The outer seal must be designed to the same operating
pressure as the inner seal. Cooling for the inboard seal is
through the use of a flush system. The outer seal is cooled
through the use of the circulating buffer fluid.
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Arrangement 3 seals are dual-pressurized, inside, balanced,
cartridge mechanical seals. The inner seal is designed with an
internal (reverse) balance feature designed and constructed to
withstand reverse pressure differentials without opening: this
design feature is called reverse pressure capability. The
internal or reverse balance feature requires that the mating ring
and the secondary seal be designed to stay in place in the event
that barrier pressure is lost. The seal will stay closed with
internal pressure on the seal. If barrier pressure is lost, the
arrangement 3 seal will operate as an unpressurized
arrangement 2 seal. Barrier pressure should be maintained 20
psi to 60 psi (1.4 to 4.1 bar) over the pressure in the seal
chamber. If the barrier pressure is too low, the seal will operate
as an unpressurized arrangement 2 seal. If the barrier pressure
is too high, the seal will overheat and fail. The arrangement 3
seal can use either Type A, Type B, or Type C seals. Figure 37
shows a vendor representation of a Type A, arrangement 3
seal.
Figure 37. Vendor Representation of a Type A, Arrangement 3 Mechanical Seal
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Service Categories - API 682 defines three service categories
that relate to mechanical seal operating conditions: flashing
hydrocarbon service, nonflashing hydrocarbon service, and
nonhydrocarbon service. Hydrocarbon service is defined as
material that contains predominantly all hydrogen and carbon
atoms; however, nonhydrocarbon constituents may be entrained
in the process stream. Flashing hydrocarbon service is defined
as any hydrocarbon service that requires vapor suppression by
cooling or pressurizing to prevent flashing. Flashing
hydrocarbon service includes all hydrocarbon services in which
the fluid has a vapor pressure greater than 14.5 psia (1 bar) at
pumping temperatures. Nonflashing hydrocarbon service is
defined as all hydrocarbon services that will not require vapor
suppression to prevent transformation from a liquid phase to a
vapor phase. Nonflashing hydrocarbons, as defined by API 682,
have a vapor pressure less than 14.5 psia (1 bar) at pumping
temperature. Nonhydrocarbon service includes all services that
cannot be defined as containing all hydrogen and carbon atoms;
however, some hydrocarbons may be entrained in the process
stream. Nonhydrocarbon service includes boiler feedwater and
other water services, sour water, caustics, acids, amines, and
other chemicals commonly used in refinery service. Service
categories are used to identify the arrangement and type of seal
used for an application, as well as the specific materials of
construction for the parts of the mechanical seal. API Standard
682 provides seal selection and material guidance.
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Lift-Off Face Seals
An alternate type of mechanical seal is the lift-off seal, which is
also called a noncontact seal. The operation of the lift-off
mechanical seal is similar to the operation of a contact
mechanical seal, with the exception of the hydrodynamic forces
between the seal faces. During operation, a lift-off seal
generates a liquid or gas pressure between the seal faces,
separating the seal faces slightly. When the pump is idle, spring
pressure holds the seal faces together, forming a seal when the
pump is not operating. Lift-off seals can be used for sealing of
high vapor pressure (volatile) fluids in chemical and
petrochemical processes. Lift-off seals can be designed as
single or double seals. Figure 38 shows an example of a single,
dry-gas, lift-off seal.
Figure 38. Single, Dry-Gas, Lift-Off Seal
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Lift-off face seals are classified as pressurized, noncontact face
seals. Lift-off face seals can be a dry or wet type. The lift-off
seal has a rotating primary ring that is similar to the primary ring
of a contact mechanical seal. The major difference between
these two seal types is that the primary ring of the lift-off seal
has a broader face with grooves that are cut into one face of the
primary ring. The depth of the grooves is typically 0.0001 to
0.0002 inches. The groove design pattern varies with the seal
manufacturer. Common patterns include uni-directional V-
grooves cut in a spiral pattern, or bidirectional T-grooves.
The lift-off seal is supplied with a gas (vaporized process liquid,
nitrogen, air, or steam) or a liquid supply. In this case, a
geometry change is made to the seal face. Spiral grooves are
incorporated into one of the seal faces to generate
hydrodynamic lift to separate the seal faces. In the case of liquid
buffer lift-off seals, this concept is used to move a small quality
of buffer liquid from the low pressure to the high-pressure
process liquid side of the seal. During pump operation, the
groove patterns on the primary ring pumps gas or liquid
between the primary and mating ring. As shown in Figure 38,
pumping gas or liquid between the sliding faces raises the
pressure of the gas or liquid that is in the pressure field between
the faces, which forms a pressure dam that serves as a barrier
to pump fluid flow. The rise in the pressure also causes the
sliding faces to separate slightly, which prevents any form of
face contact. The face separation is typically .0001 to .0002
inches. Separation of the seal faces occurs at low rpm. Since
the primary to mating ring seal face gap is controlled to
extremely small values, seal leakage is maintained at a small
value, typically below 1 standard cubic foot per minute.
Depending on the seal manufacturer and design (liquid or gas),
some lift-off seals must be supplied with filtered gas or liquid
with the pressure regulated at 20 to 30 psig over the pumped
fluid pressure.
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The seal design that is shown in Figure 39 is considered uni-
directional because the function of the spiral seal face will only
work when rotated in one direction. If one-directional seals are
used on both ends of a horizontal pump, one seal is designed to
rotate in the opposite direction of the other seal. One-directional
gas seals may be damaged if the pump rotation is reversed by
process fluid backflow through the pump. Bidirectional seal
faces eliminate seal damage from pump rotation reversal and
minimize the amount of spare seal faces to be maintained.
Figure 39. Lift-Off Seal Rotating Face V-Groove
Lift-off seals provide the following advantages:
Minimal product leakage to the environment
Low power consumption
Low heat generation
Long operational life (low wear)
The disadvantages of lift-off seals include:
Require a clean (filtered) gas or liquid supply
Require a gas or liquid filter and regulating system
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Auxiliary Seals
An auxiliary seal is a mechanical seal, either contact or lift-off
face design, installed in tandem with a primary mechanical seal.
The purpose of an auxiliary seal is to control pump leakage in
the event that the primary seal fails. Auxiliary seals can be dry
running or wet running, and they can be either contact or lift-off
type. The auxiliary seal must be suitable for operation at full seal
chamber conditions, but it normally operates dry or wetted
below the seal leakage pressure switch setting. Figure 40 shows
the configuration of a wet running auxiliary seal.
Figure 40. Wet Running Auxiliary Seal
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Figure 41 shows the configuration of a dry running auxiliary
seal.
Figure 41. Dry Running Auxiliary Seal
In the event of primary seal failure, the auxiliary seal will
minimize the leakage until the pump can be isolated and shut
down. The primary seal operation is monitored by sensing the
pressure at the seal outlet for the barrier or buffer system. If the
primary seal fails, the increase in pressure from leakage past
the primary seal will activate an alarm. In high pressure
applications, such as large natural-gas liquids (NGL) injection
pumps, the high barrier or buffer system return pressure will
activate an emergency shutdown of the pump.
In accordance with 31-SAMSS-012, auxiliary dry-running seals
must be face-type seals, that are capable of 25,000 hours of
operation in a gas or liquid environment at a pressure up to the
setpoint of the seal leakage detection pressure switch and 1,000
hours of operation in a liquid environment up to the maximum
seal chamber conditions.
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PUMP BEARING ARRANGEMENTS AND LUBRICATION
REQUIREMENTS
The function of bearings in centrifugal pumps is to keep the
shaft or rotor in correct alignment with the stationary parts under
the action of radial and transverse loads. Bearings that maintain
radial shaft positioning are commonly referred to as line or
journal bearings. Bearings that maintain the axial shaft position
are called thrust bearings. The types of bearings used in
centrifugal pumps are described in MEX 211.01. This section of
the module describes the bearing arrangements commonly
used in centrifugal pumps with regard to bearing loads.
Bearing Loading
Bearing load is defined as the force in pounds or newtons that is
felt on the bearing during operation. Radial load is the force on a
bearing radially from the shaft. Axial load or thrust is the force
on a bearing axially along the shaft.
Radial Loads
Some single-volute pump casings are designed for uniform or
near uniform pressures (specific speed range between 500 and
3500 English units) around the volute casing at the BEP. The
uniform pressures act equally on all sides of the impeller when
the pump is operated at design capacity.
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Figure 42A illustrates the equal pressure that surrounds a pump
impeller during operation at design capacity. At capacities other
than design capacity, the pressures around the impeller are not
uniform and there is a resultant radial load (thrust). Figure 42B
illustrates the unequal pressure that surrounds the pump
impeller and the resultant force (F) when the pump is operating
at capacities other than the design capacity.
Figure 42. Radial Force
The magnitude of the resultant radial force on the impeller
during operation at capacities other than the design capacity
can be calculated through use of the following equation:
) )(b )(SG)(H)(D
K
k(
F
2 2 r r
=
Where:
F
r
= Radial force
k = 0.433 (9790 metric)
K
r
= Radial force factor coefficient
SG = The specific gravity of the fluid pumped
H = Pump head in feet or meters
D
2
= Outside diameter of the impeller
b
2
= Width of the impeller at the discharge,
including shrouds
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The radial force factor coefficient has been determined
experimentally as a function of specific speed and capacity.
Figure 43 shows a graph of specific speed (English units)
versus radial force coefficient. The three plots are for when the
pump is operating at or near the capacity at BEP, when the
capacity is one half the capacity at BEP, and when the pump is
operating at shutoff head.
Figure 43. Radial Force Factor Coefficient Plot
The following example illustrates the use of the resultant radial
load calculations to determine the magnitude of the resultant
radial force. A single-volute pump is operating with a specific
speed of 2000 while pumping cold water (SG = 1.0) at a shutoff
head of 252 feet. The pump impeller diameter is 15.125, and
the width of the impeller is 2.5. K
r
is determined from the graph
in Figure 43 for shutoff head with a value of approximately 0.31.
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The resultant radial thrust can be calculated through use of the
following equation:
) )(b )(SG)(H)(D
K
k(
F
2 2 r r
=
pounds 1279 = 2.5) )(15.125)( (1.00)(252 .433(0.31)
Fr
=
Radial load can be lowered throughout the entire capacity range
through the use of a double-volute or a diffuser-type casing. The
use of a double-volute or diffuser-type casing should be
considered when a pump is normally operated at variable
capacities, especially at shutoff head.
As described in the casing designs section in MEX 211.01,
radial load is minimized in multistage centrifugal pumps by
staggering the volutes and by canceling out opposing radial
thrusts.
Axial Loads
Axial load is the sum of the unbalanced forces that act on the
impeller in the axial direction (axial thrust) and, in the case of
vertical pumps, the force and the mass force of the pump rotor
assembly. Axial pump loads vary with the type of pump and
impeller. Figure 44 shows the resultant axial thrust for a
horizontal, single-stage, single-suction, closed-impeller pump.
Figure 44. Hydraulic Axial Thrust Produced by a Horizontal, Single-Stage, Single-
Suction, Closed-Impeller Pump
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For overhung, single-stage pumps, an additional axial force,
which results from the difference between atmospheric pressure
and suction pressure, is felt on the shaft area. Figure 45
illustrates this additional axial force. This force acts towards the
impeller when the suction pressure is less than atmospheric,
and it acts in the opposite direction when suction pressure is
higher than atmospheric.
Figure 45. Additional Axial Thrust on an Overhung Pump
When the single-suction closed impeller is used in multistage
pumps, the net hydraulic thrust is the sum of the axial thrust
produced by each impeller in the pump.
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The difference in pressure between the suction and the
discharge of the pump acting on the area of the pump impeller
suction provides an axial thrust on the impeller. Double-suction
pumps are often used to minimize the effect of axial thrust from
an impeller. Figure 46 shows the resultant hydraulic force for a
horizontal, single-stage, double suction, closed-impeller pump.
Figure 46. Hydraulic Axial Thrust Produced by a Horizontal, Single-Stage,
Double-Suction, Closed-Impeller Pump
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In practice, the hydraulic balance on a double-suction pump
may not be achieved for the following reasons:
The suction passages to the two suction eyes may not
provide equal or uniform flows to the two sides.
External piping conditions, such as an elbow located too
close to the pump suction nozzle, may cause unequal flow to
the two suction eyes. Proper piping arrangements to double
suction impellers are of utmost importance. As a rule, three
to five straight pipe diameters must be present downstream
of an elbow to ensure that equal flow enters each side of the
impeller, and the suction pipe should be perpendicular to the
pump axis.
The two sides of the discharge casing waterways may not be
symmetrical, or the impeller may be located off-center.
These conditions will alter the flow characteristics between
the impeller shrouds and the casing, and thereby cause
unequal pressures on the shrouds.
Unequal leaking through the wear rings on either side of the
impeller can result in differential pressure across the impeller
and upset the balance.
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Axial thrust in horizontal, single-suction, semi-open, radial flow
impellers is illustrated in Figure 47. The pressure on the open
side of the impeller varies from essentially the discharge
pressure at the periphery (diameter D
2
) to the suction pressure
at the impeller eye (diameter D
1
). The pressure distribution at
the back of the impeller shroud varies from discharge pressure
at the periphery to a slightly lower pressure at the impeller hub.
The unbalanced portion of the axial thrust on the impeller is
represented by the crosshatched area in Figure 47.
Figure 47. Axial Thrust in Horizontal, Single-Suction, Semi-Open,
Radial Flow Impellers
Axial loading for vertical pumps must take the weight of the rotor
assembly (shafting, couplings, and impellers) into consideration
when determining the axial load.
Thrust Direction
The sum of the axial loads in one direction is balanced against
the sum of the axial load in the opposite direction, and this
situation results in a net active thrust in one direction. Active
thrust is defined as the normal thrust direction when a pump is
operating. The axial direction opposite the direction of active
thrust is called the direction of inactive thrust. Depending on the
pump design, the direction of active thrust can change with
changes in pump capacity.
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The direction of active thrust can cause tension or compression
in the shaft. Shaft tensile stresses can occur when the direction
of active thrust is away from the thrust bearing. Compressive
stresses can occur when the direction of active thrust is towards
the thrust bearing. The direction of axial thrust varies with flow
rate, which results in a compressive or tensile stress on the
pump shaft. The magnitude of thrust varies with the pump
design. Figure 48 shows examples of compressive and tensile
stresses on pump shafts for horizontal and vertical pumps. If a
pump is operated in the discharge recirculation zone, the
stresses on the pump shaft can cycle between compressive and
tensile. Repeated cycling between compressive and tensile
stresses can cause pump thrust bearing damage and shaft
damage from high axial loads and from fatigue cracking
corrosion.
Figure 48. Examples of Directions of Axial Thrust
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Thrust Balancing
Designs
The amount of active axial thrust in single-stage and multiple-
stage pumps can be minimized through the use of the following
different methods:
Back and front wear rings with impeller balance holes
Pumpout vanes
Double suction impellers
Stacked impeller design
Opposed impeller design
Balance drum
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Back and Front Wear Rings with Balance Holes - The ordinary,
single-suction, closed, radial impeller with the shaft passing
through the impeller eye is subject to axial thrust because a
portion of the front impeller wall is exposed to the suction
pressure while the area in back of the impeller wall is exposed
to the discharge pressure. If the discharge chamber pressure
was uniform over the entire impeller surface, the axial force
acting toward the suction would be equal to the product of the
net pressure generated by the impeller and the unbalanced
annular area. In actual use, the pressure on the two single-
suction closed impeller walls is not uniform. The liquid trapped
between the impeller shrouds and the casing walls is in rotation,
and the pressure at the impeller periphery is higher than at the
impeller hub. Figure 49 illustrates the actual pressure
distribution across an impeller.
Figure 49. Actual Pressure Distribution across an Impeller
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To minimize the axial thrust of a single-suction impeller, the
pump impeller can be equipped with both front and back wear
rings. The front and back wear rings effectively isolate the high
pressure and low pressure areas of the impeller. The thrust
areas are equalized through the use of the same inner diameter
of both the front and back wear rings. Pressure that is
approximately equal to the suction pressure is maintained in a
chamber located on the impeller side of the back wear ring by
the drilling of balance holes through the impeller. Figure 50
shows an example of a single-suction impeller equipped with
front and back wear rings and balance holes.
Figure 50. Front and Back Wear Rings and Balance Holes
Leakage past the back wear ring is recirculated back to the
pump suction through the balance holes. Large (greater than
10 suction), single-stage, single-suction pumps do not
commonly use balance holes because the leakage from the
back wear rings through the balance holes opposes fluid flow
through the suction of the impeller and creates disturbances that
can affect the pump capacity. Large, single-stage, single-suction
pumps commonly use a piped connection from the area behind
the impeller to the pump suction piping.
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Pump-Out Vanes - The primary function of pump-out vanes is to
minimize packing or seal leakage by reducing the fluid pressure
on the seal chamber. Pump-out vanes also prevent foreign
material that can be suspended in the pumped fluid from lodging
in the clearance space between the shroud and the adjacent
wall of the casing. Reducing pressure behind the impeller
shroud with pump-out will also reduce axial thrust. Figure 51
illustrates the effect of pump-out vanes on the pressure
differential across an impeller.
Figure 51. Pressure Differential across an Impeller with Pump-Out Vanes
Double Suction Impellers - As mentioned previously, double-
suction impellers can be used to minimize the axial load from
hydraulic thrust.
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Stacked Impeller Design - The stacked impeller design is used
on multi-stage pumps. The stacked design consists of several
single-suction impellers mounted on one shaft, each having its
suction inlet facing in the same direction and its stages following
one another in ascending order of pressure. Thrust increases
with the increasing number of impellers in the stacked impeller;
however, the stacked impeller design axial thrust is balanced by
a single hydraulic balancing device (a balance drum, which is
discussed later in this section). Figure 52 shows an example of
a multi-stage pump using the stacked impeller design and a
hydraulic balancing device.
Figure 52. Stacked Impeller Design with Hydraulic Balancing Device
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Opposed Impeller Design - The opposed impeller design is used
on multi-stage pumps. The opposed impeller design consists of
single-suction impellers mounted on a single shaft, with a
portion of the impellers facing one direction and the other
impellers facing the opposite direction. With this arrangement,
axial hydraulic thrust is minimized by balancing the thrust of one
group of impellers against the opposite group of impellers.
When an even number of impellers is used, typically one-half of
the impellers face one direction, and the other half of the
impellers face the opposite direction. When an odd number of
impellers is used, the pump shaft diameter and the interstage
bushing diameters are varied to provide the effect of a hydraulic
balancing device that will compensate for the hydraulic thrust on
one of the stages. Figure 53 shows an example of a multistage
pump that uses the opposed impeller design.
Figure 53. Opposed Impeller Design
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Balance Drum - A balance drum, which is also known as a
balance piston, is a hydraulic thrust-balancing device used to
reduce the axial thrust in a pump. There are two types of
devices that are commonly used to balance axial thrust in
centrifugal pumps: a balance drum and a balance disk.
A balance drum is shown in Figure 54. The balancing drum is
either keyed or screwed to the pump shaft and separates the
balancing chamber at the back of the impeller (or if multi-staged,
an end-stage impeller) and the interior of the pump. A balancing
drumhead is fixed to the pump casing, and it allows for a small
radial clearance that separates the drum and the stationary
portion of the balancing device.
Figure 54. Balancing Drum
The area on the seal chamber side of the balance drum is
subjected to the pump suction pressure. The area on the
impeller side of the balance drum is exposed to the high-
pressure fluid in the pump. The difference in fluid pressure
across the balance drum provides a force on the balance drum
that is opposite to the direction of axial hydraulic thrust from the
impellers. The typical balance design is 90 to 95 percent of total
axial impeller thrust. Any residual thrust that is not balanced by
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the balance drum is absorbed by the thrust bearing on the end
of the shaft. The amount of residual thrust that must absorbed
by the thrust bearing changes as a function of the differential
pressure from the suction pressure and the internal pump
pressure. The use of a balance drum enables the selection of a
smaller thrust bearing, which results in lower horsepower
losses.
Another form of balancing device is called a balancing disk.
Similar to the balancing drum, the balancing disk also uses a
balancing chamber. The balancing disk is secured to the shaft,
and the balancing disk head is fixed to the casing, as shown in
Figure 55. The leakage to the balancing chamber flows through
a small axial clearance between the balancing disk and the
balancing disk head. The liquid, depending on system design,
would then flow to either the pump suction or back to a tank. A
restricting orifice is typically placed in the leakage return line.
The orifice provides backpressure in the balance chamber by
restricting fluid flow out of the balance chamber. The balance
chamber backpressure is required for the proper operation of
the balancing disk.
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Figure 55. Balancing Disk
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The balance disk automatically compensates for changes in
axial impeller thrust by varying the amount of axial clearance
between the balancing disk and the balancing disk head. For
example, if the impeller thrust increases, the disk moves
towards the disk head and reduces the clearance between the
disk and the disk head. The reduction in clearance reduces the
amount of leakage from the impeller side of the disk to the
balance chamber. The reduction of leakage to the balance
chamber reduces the backpressure in the balancing chamber.
This drop in pressure provides a higher differential pressure,
from the discharge pressure side to the balance chamber,
across the balance disk. The higher pressure on the discharge
pressure side of the balance disk provides the force to oppose
the axial hydraulic thrust from the impeller(s), and it allows the
disk to move away from the disk head until a balanced axial
thrust equilibrium is achieved.
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Bearing Types
The functions of bearings in a pump are to support the rotor, to
minimize friction losses, and to position the rotor with respect to
the stationary pump components. Because of the close
clearances between the pump impeller and the casing, the
position of the rotor is extremely important in pump operation.
Two types of bearings are used on pumps: antifriction bearings
and hydrodynamic bearings. This section briefly discusses the
common types of antifriction and hydrodynamic bearings that
are used on pumps in Saudi Aramco applications.
Centrifugal pumps are fitted with bearings that are appropriate
for the application and pump design. Figure 56 lists the types of
bearings that are commonly used for the different pump
applications.
Figure 56. Typical Pump Bearing Applications
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Antifriction
Antifriction bearings, which are so called because they are
designed to overcome friction, are of two types: ball bearings
and roller bearings. In a hydrodynamic bearing, the frictional
resistance to sliding motion is overcome by separating the
surfaces with a fluid film. The antifriction bearing substitutes
rolling motion for sliding motion through the use of rolling
elements between the rotating and stationary surfaces, and this
rolling motion reduces friction to a fraction of the friction that
exists where hydrodynamic bearings are used.
Basically, all antifriction bearings consist of two hardened rings
that are called the inner and the outer rings or races, the
hardened rolling elements that may be either balls or rollers,
and a separator or cage. Bearing size is usually given in terms
of boundary dimensions. Boundary dimensions are the outside
diameter, the bore, and the width. The inner and outer rings
provide continuous tracks or races in which the rollers or balls
roll. The separator or retainer properly spaces the rolling
elements around the track and guides the rolling elements
through the load zone. Other words and terms that are used in
describing antifriction ball bearings are the face, the shoulders,
or the corners. The terms that are used to describe taper-roller
bearings are a little different in that the outer ring is called the
cup, and the inner ring is called the cone. The word cage,
rather than separator or retainer, is standard for taper-roller
bearings.
Classified by function, ball bearings used in pumps may be
divided into two groups: radial and thrust bearings (angular-
contact bearings). Angular-contact bearings can support
combined radial and thrust loads.
Radial - Radial bearings are designed primarily to carry a load in
a direction that is perpendicular to the axis of rotation. There are
several different types of radial antifriction bearings, including
single-row ball bearings and double-row ball bearings.
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Single-row ball bearings are the most widely used of all ball
bearings and probably of all antifriction bearings. Single-row ball
bearings can sustain combined radial and thrust loads, or thrust
loads alone if they are angular-contact type bearings, in either
direction, even at extremely high speeds. In accordance with
API Standard 610, all ball bearings must be Conrad-type
bearings. Conrad-type bearings are named after Robert Conrad,
who invented the Conrad bearing assembly method. The
Conrad bearing assembly method does not use ball filling
notches or slots.
A cross-section of the single-row ball bearing is illustrated in
Figure 57. The ball element is positioned between an inner race
and an outer race. Single-row, angular-contact ball bearings can
have equal load-carrying capabilities in either direction or one
direction only, depending on design. Such ball bearings are
recommended for moderate to heavy radial loads, for thrust
loads in either direction, or for combination loads.
Figure 57. Single-Row Ball Bearing
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Another type of ball bearing that is used for high radial load is
the double-row, angular-contact ball bearing shown in Figure 58.
The double-row ball bearing uses the same principle of design
as the single-row bearing. However, the grooves for the two
rows of balls are positioned so the load through the balls tends
to push outward on the outer ring races. The use of two rows of
balls increases the radial load capacity of the bearing and
provides an increase in the amount of thrust capacity.
Figure 58. Double-Row, Angular-Contact Ball Bearing
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Thrust - Angular-contact bearings, as shown in Figure 59, can
support radial loads when combined with thrust loads in one
direction. The inner and outer races are made with an extra high
shoulder on the thrust side. Angular contact bearings are
designed for combination loads in which the thrust component is
greater than the capacity of single-row ball bearings.
Figure 59. Angular-Contact Bearing
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The double row spherical roller bearing, which is shown in
Figure 60, is a self-aligning bearing that utilizes rolling elements
that are shaped like barrels. The outer race has a single
spherical raceway. The inner race has two spherical raceways
that are separated by a center flange. The double row spherical
roller bearing will support a heavy radial load and a heavy thrust
load in both directions. Double row spherical roller bearings are
inherently self-aligning because the assembly of the inner race,
the center flange, and the rollers is free to swivel within the
outer race.
Figure 60. Spherical Barrel-Shaped Roller Bearing
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Hydrodynamic
Some centrifugal pumps are equipped with hydrodynamic
bearings. Hydrodynamic bearings (also known as self-acting
bearings) depend on the relative motion of the journal (the
portion of the shaft that is supported by the bearing) to produce
a fluid film pressure for load support. The term hydrodynamic
refers to the relative motion of the journal in relation to the
bearing that produces the fluid film pressure. A hydrodynamic
bearing is different from a hydrostatic bearing. Hydrostatic
bearings (also known as externally pressurized bearings)
achieve load support by the supply of fluid from an external
high-pressure source and require no relative motion of the
journal.
Hydrodynamic bearings are generally very simple in
construction and operation. These bearings are efficient, and
they can support extremely heavy rotating loads. The ability to
carry the heavy loads is due to an oil wedge that is developed
between the journal and the bearing surface. The surface of the
shaft journal slides over the surface of the bearing. A
converging wedge fluid film is automatically generated in a
lubricated journal bearing by the running clearance between the
journal and the bearing bore, combined with the effect of load
and rotation, which produces a displaced, eccentric disposition
of the journal. The clearance is generally 0.0015 per inch of
shaft diameter; however, the appropriate bearing instruction
book must be consulted for actual bearing clearances. The
thickness of the oil wedge at the maximum load point is usually
15 to 25 microns. Figure 61 shows the formation of the oil
wedge during shaft rotation. When the shaft rotates, the fluid
tangential force and the fluid radial force act against the bearing
load to lift the journal up and push the journal to the side.
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Hydrodynamic bearings offer great rigidity and stability under
extreme load conditions. Journal bearings are much less
sensitive than roller bearings to vibration, poor fits, corrosion,
and contaminants. The fluid film within a hydrodynamic radial
bearing absorbs (viscous dampening) much of the force exerted
by radial vibration of the journal within the clearance between
the shaft and the bearings Babbitt lining (discussed below).
Figure 61. Shaft/Bearing Dynamics
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Hydrodynamic flow is controlled by the bearing dimensions, the
geometry, the clearance, the journal's eccentricity, and the shaft
running speed. The heat generation or power consumption in a
bearing film is produced by the work that is done in shearing the
film. The bearing material must be of adequate hardness and
strength to support the load. Conversely the material must soft
enough to embed particulate debris to prevent damage to the
pump shaft. Good contact compatibility is important. If
lubrication becomes marginal, the material must be able to
withstand momentary contact with the shaft. Corrosion
resistance is necessary to prevent the acidic products of
oxidation in the lubricating oil from corroding the bearing
surfaces. The bearing material must satisfy all of these
requirements.
In general, the softer bearing materials (e.g., the whitemetals or
babbitt) are best for high-speed lightly loaded pump
applications, and they will withstand occasional contact without
serious damage. Babbitt or whitemetal thicknesses vary from
0.20 to as little as 0.050 based on bearing application. For
highly loaded applications, a thin coating of a heat-conductive
material (copper or bronze) is placed between the whitemetal
and steel layers. These bearings are typically called tri-metal
bearings.
When classified by function, hydrodynamic bearings may be
divided into two main groups: radial and thrust.
Radial - A typical plain journal bearing is shown in Figure 62.
The bearing is made in two halves that are split at the horizontal
centerline. The bearing is commonly called a split sleeve
bearing, which is made in two halves that are split at the
horizontal centerline. The split halves are bolted and doweled
together to ensure proper alignment and support for both
halves. Other types of sleeve bearings may be constructed from
a solid piece. The bearing liner has a Babbitt bore that acts as
the bearing surface. Babbitt is a tin-lead material that serves as
a soft sacrificial lining and that has a melting temperature of
approximately 300F. The outer diameter of the bearing liner is
either a flat or spherical shape (self-aligning) that mates with a
similar shape in the supporting pedestal. The spherical shape
assists to lock the bearing liner in place and accommodates
minor internal misalignment between a set of radial bearings. Oil
passages are drilled through the pedestal and bearing liner to
provide an oil inlet to the oil grooves of the bearing.
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An oil film separates the shaft journal from the bearing babbitt
surface. Oil films may vary from .0006 to about .001 inch (15 to
25 microns) in thickness at the point of minimum thickness. The
oil film thickness generally depends upon the load, the viscosity
of the oil, the shaft speed and, to some extent, the bearing
clearance.
Figure 62. Typical Journal Bearing
Another type of journal bearing that is used in pumps is the
multi-lobe journal bearing, which is shown in Figure 63. The
multi-lobe bearing has a series of slight depressions that run the
length of the bearing parallel to the axis of the shaft. The
depressions provide the bearing with the appearance of a series
of lobes. The number of lobes varies from two to four over the
circumference of the bearing.
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The multi-lobe bearing that is shown in Figure 63 has equal
spacing between the depressions. The spacing is off centered
from the bottom of the bearing to prevent the journal from
resting in a depression. The equal spacing produces an equal
lobe pattern around the bearing that breaks up the hydraulic film
and produces better stability during operation. At shaft speeds
above approximately 6,000 rpm, failure to break up the
hydraulic film will cause the fluid to develop a circumferential
velocity. The force associated with this velocity will cause the
journal to vibrate in a circular or elliptical orbit and at a
frequency that is 47 to 53 percent (.47 to .53) shaft rotative
speed. Referred to as oil whirl, this pattern of vibration can
cause damage to the bearing. An aggravation of oil whirl is
referred to as oil whip. Oil whip occurs when the vibration
frequency induced by oil whirl is the same as the natural
vibration frequency of the rotor system; therefore, the vibration
is resonant. The vibration is frequency and the consequently
high displacement amplitude continue regardless of changes in
the rotative speed. Turbine failure will occur within minutes or
hours of inception of oil whip.
Figure 63. Multi-Lobe Journal Bearing
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A third type of radial journal bearing that is used on pumps is
called the pressure dam bearing or pressure bearing. Its
construction is essentially the same as the split sleeve radial
journal bearing with the exception that a shrouded step or dam
is cut into the upper half of the bearing. The viscous and inertia
effects combine to build up pressure over the top half of the
bearing that, in effect, places an artificial load on the lower half
of the bearing. The artificial load results in an increase in the
eccentricity ratio, which increases the bearings stability and the
bearing anti-whirl properties. It is important to note that the
pressure dam must be in the upper half of the bearing.
Installation of the pressure dam in the lower half of the bearing
will cause bearing instability. Most pressure dam bearings are
indexed to prevent improper assembly; however, older pressure
dam bearing designs may not be indexed.
A common type of radial hydrodynamic bearing that is used in
higher speed (greater than 4000 rpm) pumps is called the tilting-
pad bearing, which is shown in Figure 64. The tilting-pad
bearing is more stable than the standard journal bearing.
Because of their excellent stability, tilting-pad bearings are
usually used where shaft stability is a problem. The increased
stability helps to provide a greater degree of damping of the
turbine rotor, which avoids erratic vibration patterns. Tilting-pad
bearings are used to prevent oil whirl.
The tilting-pad bearing is made up of a series of identical
babbitted pads or shoes. The shaft journal rides on an oil film
(0.0006 to 0.001) and is supported by the pads. The number of
pads that are used in a tilting-pad bearing can vary. The more
common designs use four, five, or six pads. The bearing pads
are made from a high-grade steel forging that is lined with a
high-quality, tin-base Babbitt.
The pads usually have projections that fit under protection lips
that are machined in the bearing casing to prevent radial
movement of the pads. Circumferential movement is prevented
by pins that pass through the bearing housing into holes in the
pads.
To allow the pads to tilt freely without seizing or binding, the
holes in the pads into which the pins fit are larger than the
diameter of the pins. The tilting action of each pad takes place
because the back half of the pad is machined to a radius that is
less than the radius of the housing.
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Oil enters the housing through oil inlets that are located
between the pad segments. The oil discharges through drain
orifices that are provided in the housing. The tilting-pad helps to
form the oil wedge between the bearing surfaces and the shaft
journal. Despite the relatively short span of the pads, the load
capacity of tilting-pad bearings is similar to the load capacity of
conventional bearings.
Figure 64. Typical Tilting-Pad Bearing
Thrust - Thrust bearings prevent axial (back and forth)
movement of a pump rotor, which can cause the pump impeller
to make contact with the pump casing. Such contact can cause
extensive damage or stop (seize) the pump. Several types of
hydrodynamic thrust bearings are used in pump applications,
such as plain thrust bearings, tapered land thrust bearings, and
tilt-pad thrust bearings. The load capacity of a plain thrust
bearing is relatively low. Radial grooves are cut into the thrust
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face as a passage for oil to cool and to lubricate the bearing
surface. Tapered land thrust bearings resemble plain thrust
bearings. Figure 65 shows a tapered land thrust bearing. The
surface of the tapered land thrust bearing is divided into a
number of pads. Each pad is separated by an oil feed groove.
Each pad is tapered in a circumferential direction and radial
direction. The taper allows the rotary motion to wipe oil into the
contacting, wedge-shaped area, which builds up a load-carrying
oil wedge. The exact form of the pad surface profile is not
especially important. However, a flat land at the end of the
tapered section is necessary to avoid excessive local contact
stress under start-up conditions. The land should extend across
the entire radial width of the pad, and it should occupy about 20
percent of the pad circumferential length.
Figure 65. Tapered Land Thrust Bearing
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The tilting-pad thrust bearing, as shown in Figure 66, is the most
satisfactory thrust bearing for heavy axial thrust, regardless of
whether the shaft speed is high or low, or whether the shaft is
horizontally mounted or vertically mounted. Because the pads
are pivotally supported and are able to assume a small angle
relative to the moving collar surface, the tilting-pad bearing is
able to accommodate a large range of speed, load, and
viscosity conditions. The pivotal movement and the small angle
enable a full hydrodynamic fluid film to be maintained between
the surfaces of the pad and the collar. The tilting-pad thrust
bearing has the inherent advantage of being able to absorb
significant amounts of thrust without excessive horsepower
losses.
Figure 66. Tilting-Pad Thrust Bearing
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The self-equalizing thrust bearing shown in Figure 67 is an
alternative design of the tilting-pad thrust bearing. The self-
equalizing thrust bearing is one of the most common types of
tilting-pad thrust bearings that are used on rotating machinery.
The self-equalizing thrust bearing consists of a thrust collar,
stationary shoes, leveling plates, and a base ring. The thrust
collar can be either a separate component that is mounted on
the turbine shaft, or it can be machined as an integral part of the
turbine shaft. When the shaft is stationary, the stationary shoes
lie with their surfaces parallel to the thrust collar. As the thrust
collar starts to rotate, an oil film is created between the
stationary shoes and the thrust collar. As the oil film builds up,
each stationary shoe tilts to an angle that generates the proper
distribution of the oil film pressure. The tilt of each shoes
creates an oil wedge under each shoe. The oil wedge film can
carry a heavier load than the flat film of oil for any given size.
Any axial movement that is generated by the pump shaft is
transmitted through the stationary shoes to the leveling plates.
The leveling plates uniformly distribute the thrust load around
the bearing to equalize the axial thrust that is generated by the
shaft. A misaligned load will force the leveling plates at the
heaviest load point to tilt, which pushes the remaining stationary
pads outward to equalize the load over all of the stationary
pads. The leveling plates transmit the axial thrust to the base
ring.
Similar to the load bearing section of a radial hydrodynamic
bearing, thrust bearing shoe surfaces may use the tri-metal
design for high load applications.
Self-equalizing thrust bearings are used as both double acting
thrust bearings and single acting thrust bearings. Double-acting
thrust bearings have stationary shoes and leveling plates on
both sides of the thrust collar. Double-acting thrust bearings are
used in applications in which axial thrust can be exerted in both
directions. Single-acting thrust bearings have stationary shoes
and leveling plates only on one side. Single-acting thrust
bearings are used in applications in which axial thrust can be
exerted in only one direction.
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Figure 67. Self-Equalizing Thrust Bearing
Pump Industry
Standard Bearing
Applications
Understanding centrifugal pump dynamics and operating
characteristics is an important part of extending pump life.
During operation, hydraulic conditions in centrifugal pumps
generate major axial thrust loads. The type and size of a pumps
impeller determine the loads magnitude and duration. Steady
radial loads are imposed by the weight of parts and
components. Fluctuating radial loads result from hydraulic and
unbalanced conditions of the rotor assembly.
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Most centrifugal pumps are designed to either API Standard 610
or ANSI Standard B73.1. Heavy-duty process pumps are
typically designed to API standards, while light-and medium-
duty pumps are typically designed to ANSI standards.
The bearing arrangements for API and ANSI configurations vary
slightly. In API designs, there are bearings at two positions: a
single-row deep-groove ball bearing near the impeller, and an
angular contact ball bearing set in the thrust position at the
coupling end. Figure 68 shows a typical API bearing
configuration.
Figure 68. Typical API Bearing Configuration
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The bearing accommodates radial loads and floats in the
housing. The bearing arrangement allows for thermal expansion
of the shaft. The angular contact set is fixed in the housing. The
angular contact set secures the impeller in the proper axial
position, which handles the thrust load and a portion of the
radial load.
ANSI pumps are very similar in bearing configuration to the API
pumps with one notable exception. Instead of an angular
contact bearing set, ANSI pumps use a single or double row
deep-groove ball bearing.
Both API and ANSI pumps use the same bearing configurations
in vertical pumps as horizontal pumps.
In both API and ANSI bearing configurations, the bearings in the
thrust position must handle a complex, dynamic combination of
thrust and radial loads, and the bearings must hold the entire
pump rotor assembly in place under varying conditions. Several
bearing types have been used as thrust bearings. The duplex
angular contact ball bearing design used in API pumps consists
of two bearings mounted back-to-back. Typically, each bearing
uses a 40 contact angle, which means that the balls in each
bearing roll on an axis that forms a 40 angle with the
perpendicular radial position. Bearings with high contact angles,
such as the 40 angles used in the API configuration, are
designed to carry axial loads; they are axially rigid and radially
soft. Bearings with low contact angles are designed for radial
loads; they are axially soft and radially rigid.
Some problems can occur with high contact angle bearings,
such as ball skidding. During operation, thrust loads apply
pressure against one bearing and cause the one bearing to
deflect and the other bearing to unload. Centrifugal forces that
act on the unloaded bearing may cause its balls to run on a
skewed axis and begin to skid. Ball skidding produces a
microscopic wear or lapping process that damages the bearing
raceway. The friction from ball skidding generates heat that
reduces the bearing lubricants operating viscosity.
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One method used to minimize the effect of ball skidding in API
bearing configuration is to use a set of preloaded, 40 angle,
angular contact bearings. When the active bearing in the set is
under load, the residual preload in the other bearing will prevent
unloading. The amount of preload for the bearing set can be
difficult to determine because the temperature differential
between the inner and outer bearings and the impeller thrust
load cannot be determined with any degree of certainty.
Improper preload on a bearing can cause the bearing to run hot
and shorten bearing life.
An alternate method of reducing the ball skidding problem is to
use a matched pair of angular contact bearings that have
different contact angles. A common method uses a 40 angle
and a 15 angle angular contact bearing set. The 40 bearing
handles the axial thrust, while the 15 bearing handles any
reversing thrust during startup (mainly from caused by the
driver) and handles radial load during normal operation.
ANSI pumps are also susceptible to the same problem of ball
skidding; however, double row deep groove ball bearings are
not presently manufactured with different contact angles.
API Standard 610 provides guidance on bearing selection.
Antifriction bearings should have a L-10 rating life of at least
25,000 hours with continuous operation at rated conditions, and
at least 16,000 hours at maximum radial and axial loads and
rated speed. The L-10 rating for antifriction bearings is defined
as the number of hours at rated bearing load that 90% of a
group of identical bearings will complete (25,000 hours of
continuous operation) or exceed before evidence of failure.
Failure evidence is generally defined as a 100% increase in
measured vibration.
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L-10 life for all friction bearings can be calculated through the
use of the following equation:
P
10
F
C
N
16700
L
=
Where:
L
10
= L-10 rating in hours
N = Pump speed
C = The total force required to fail the bearing
after 1,000,000 revolutions
F = The total of all actual forces acting on the
bearing
P = 3 for ball bearings and 10/3 for roller
bearings
Small changes in force (F) acting on an antifriction bearing can
significantly reduce the L-10 life of a bearing.
API Standard 610 also provides a limit on antifriction dN number
(also called the d
m
N or Nd
m
number). The dN number is a
measure of the amount of frictional heat generated by a bearing.
The dN number is calculated by using the following equation:
(rpm) speed bearing ) millmeters (in bore Bearing dN =
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API Standard 610 limits the dN rating to less than 500,000. The
bearing dN number can also be used to determine the type of
bearing used and the type of lubrication required for the bearing.
Table 1 shows a table that lists bearing dN number ranges,
bearing types, and lubrication types.
dN Range Bearing Type Lubrication Type
Below 100,000 Antifriction Grease, sealed
100,000 to 300,000 Antifriction Regreasable
Below 300,000 Antifriction Oil lubricated, nonpressurized
Above 300,000 Sleeve, multi-lobe, or tilt pad Oil lubricated, pressurized
Table 1. dN Rating/Bearing Type/Lubrication Type Table
API Standard 610 requires the use of hydrodynamic radial and
thrust bearings when the product of pump rated power, kW (hp)
and rated speed, (rpm), is 4.0 million (5.4 million) or greater.
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Lubrication Requirements
Bearing lubrication requirements vary with the types of bearings
used and the type of pump. There are two methods of bearing
lubrication for centrifugal pumps: grease lubrication and oil
lubrication. API Standard 610 specifies that all bearings and
bearing housings be arranged for hydrocarbon oil lubrication.
Saudi Aramco Standard 31-SAMSS-004 requires that single
casing volute lineshaft and volute cantilever pump thrust
bearings must be designed for grease lubrication.
Grease Lubricated
Bearings can be lubricated with grease by a variety of methods.
Most greased bearings used on pumps are packed with grease
prior to assembly. Some bearing housings are equipped with a
grease fitting that will allow periodic application of grease to the
bearing to make up for grease that has leaked out of the
housing. Bearing housings should never be packed more than
half-full because too much grease can cause bearing
overheating and can produce pressure that will cause leakage
and damage to the grease seals.
Other forms of grease lubrication methods include grease cups.
Grease cups can be manual or automatic. A grease cup can be
threaded to the bearing housing, or it can be centrally located
with lines running to various lubrication points. The grease cup
contains a small quantity of grease. On a manual grease cup, a
handle is periodically turned to admit a small amount of grease
to the bearing. Automatic grease cups typically use a spring cap
that maintains a slight positive pressure on the grease. For
hard-to-reach lubrication points, some spring-loaded grease
cups have lines leading from the cup to the point of application.
A shortcoming of this method is the tendency of the grease to
separate into oil and solid phases as a result of the constant
pressure exerted by the spring on the small volume of grease in
the system.
If several pumps require grease lubrication in close proximity, a
centralized grease lubrication system can be used. A
centralized lubrication system uses a single reservoir, a pump,
lines to the lubrication points, and metering devices to meter
grease to each bearing.
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Oil Lubricated
The majority of the pumps used in Saudi Aramco installations
use oil lubrication. Pumps use a variety of different methods for
oil lubrication of bearings. The most common method uses an
unpressurized oil system with a constant-level oiler. A constant-
level oiler operates on the basis of a quantity of reserve oil
stored in a bottle above the operating level of the oil in the
bearing housing. The oil in the bottle is prevented from coming
out since the opening of the bottle is below the operating oil
level, and as long as air cannot get into the bottle, oil cannot
come out. However, when the operating level drops, the
opening to the bottle is uncovered, and air is allowed into the
bottle. Reserve oil is thereby released until the operating level
rises to cover the opening again, maintaining a constant oil level
in the bearing housing. Figure 69 shows a constant-level oiler.
Figure 69. Constant-Level Oiler
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Oil slingers or rings are commonly used to splash or drip oil to
the bearings. The oil level in an unpressurized bearing housing
should be maintained at the center of the lowermost ball of a
stationary bearing. Overfilling the bearing housing with oil will
result in oil leakage through the bearing seals and possible
bearing overheating.
Pressurized lubrication systems are also used on pumps. Figure
70 shows a typical forced feed lubrication system used for Saudi
Aramco applications. Saudi Aramco Standard
31-SAMSS-004 requires that for between bearings pumps in
critical, unspared service, an external pressure lubrication
systems must be in accordance with 32-SAMSS-013 and
Standard Drawing AB-036858 (shown in Figure 70). For pumps
that are spared, pressurized lubrication systems must be in
accordance with API 610 with the following exceptions:
The main pump must be electric motor driven.
A separate shell and tube heat exchanger must be provided.
The reservoir must be austenitic stainless steel.
The bearing lubrication system shown in Figure 70 consists of
two lube oil pumps, a primary pump and a standby pump, that
take suction from the reservoir through a strainer. Lube oil is
supplied to the system through a temperature control valve
(TCV). The temperature control valve maintains lube oil
temperature by changing lube oil flow to the oil cooler (throttles
bypass flow). The oil cooler can be either water-or air-cooled.
The lube oil then passes through a duplex filter unit. If the oil
cooler is water cooled, a pressure regulating valve maintains
lube oil supply pressure higher than the water pressure to
prevent water from leaking into the oil system from the cooler. A
second pressure control valve maintains lube oil pressure to the
bearings. When necessary, an overhead tank may be installed
in the system to temporarily supply lube oil to the pump
bearings in the event of system pressure loss until the pump
coasts to a stop.
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Figure 70. Typical Forced Feed Lubrication System
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PUMP COUPLINGS
A coupling is used whenever there is a need to connect the
shafts of a prime mover to a piece of driven machinery. The
function of a coupling is to axially transmit shaft-to-shaft power
from one component of a machinery train to another component
of the machinery train. Depending on the coupling design, a
coupling may also accommodate misalignment between shafts
and transmit axial thrust loads from one machine to another.
In accordance with 31-SAMSS-004, lubricated couplings are not
acceptable. Lubricated couplings, such as the gear or spring
grid coupling, require periodic lubrication to prevent wear of
coupling parts. Nonlubricated couplings do not require grease
or oil lubricant.
Flexible couplings must be capable of accepting parallel
misalignment of not less than 50 mils (1270 micrometers)
between shaft ends, and they must be capable of absorbing
twice the maximum axial growth plus twice the axial magnetic
centering force of the electric motor.
Rigid Adjustable Spacer Type
In accordance with 31-SAMSS-004, rigid adjustable-type
couplings are required for vertical lineshaft pumps not equipped
with thrust bearings. Spacer type couplings must be furnished
for all horizontal, flexibly coupled, vertical in-line and vertical
suspended pumps. Couplings for high-speed integral gear
pumps may be of the nonspacer type. Figure 71 shows an
example of a rigid adjustable-type coupling.
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Figure 71. Rigid Adjustable Coupling
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Flexible Disk Pack
The flexible metal disc coupling, which is shown in Figure 72,
uses two hubs that are keyed to the shafts with a series of thin
steel discs that are connected between the hubs. The hubs may
be keyed to the shafts or hydraulically pressed onto the shafts.
The flexing element is the series of thin steel discs. The series
of thin steel discs is called a disc-pack. Disc-pack couplings can
be configured as either single or double disc pack. A double
disc-pack coupling uses two packs of thin steel discs that are
attached to the hubs through a center connector ring. Each disc-
pack is alternately bolted to a coupling hub and the center
connector ring. High strength connecting bolts are inserted
through specially designed spacer inserts that are securely held
in place with lock nuts. Removal or installation of the disc-packs
can be performed without removing the coupling hubs or
disturbing the machinery. Disc-pack couplings do not require
lubrication.
If the initial alignment of the shafts is not accurate, the assembly
of the disc-packs to the coupling hubs is difficult because the
closely fitted boltholes offer little clearance for bolt placement.
Excessive flexing that is caused by misalignment will eventually
cause the metal discs to fatigue and break.
Disc-pack couplings have the following characteristics:
They provide high torsional rigidity.
They can accommodate some axial shaft movement (end
float).
They can accommodate minor shaft misalignment.
They can transmit power without any backlash or
mechanical looseness between the coupling halves.
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Figure 72. Double Disc-Pack Coupling
Diaphragm
In accordance with 31-SAMSS-004, flexible disc-pack or
diaphragm-type couplings must be supplied for all horizontal
pumps and flexibly coupled vertical in-line pumps except those
driven by reciprocating engines or synchronous electric motors,
and vertical suspended pumps having thrust bearings.
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The diaphragm-type coupling, which is shown in Figure 73,
consists of two assemblies that are bolted together with a
spacer. Each assembly consists of a rigid hub, a diaphragm
pack, and a splined adapter. The rigid hubs are either keyed,
tapered, or splined to the shafts. The outside diameter (OD) of
the diaphragm pack is bolted between the hub and a diaphragm
pack guard. The inside diameter (ID) of the diaphragm pack is
splined to accept the splines of the splined adapter. The spline
transmits the torque from the driving unit through the coupling to
the driven unit. The splined adapter is held in place with a clamp
ring. The clamp ring is bolted to the splined adapter with bolts
that pass through the diaphragm pack. Both of the splined
adapters are bolted to a spacer to complete the coupling
assembly.
The flexing element is the diaphragm pack. The diaphragm pack
consists of several thin convoluted diaphragms. The convolution
and its unrolling action result in the diaphragm's large axial
capacity with low stresses. Disc and contour diaphragms
accommodate for axial motion by pure deformation of material.
Removal or installation of the adapter and diaphragm packs can
be performed without removing the coupling hubs or disturbing
the machinery.
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The diaphragm pack coupling compensates for misalignment.
The diaphragm pack makes the coupling axially soft so that the
coupling does not impose excessive axial loads on the bearings
or the shafts of the connected equipment. The diaphragm
coupling is maintenance free and it requires no lubrication.
Shims may be used between the diaphragm pack and the rigid
hub to adjust the effective coupling length.
Diaphragm couplings have the following characteristics:
High and low ambient temperature capability.
High-speed capability.
High-torque capability.
High-misalignment capability.
Corrosion-resistant flex elements.
Figure 73. Diaphragm Coupling
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Elastomeric
In accordance with 31-SAMSS-004, elastomeric couplings or
couplings that have a comparable torsional stiffness are
required for pumps driven by reciprocating engines and may be
considered for pumps driven by synchronous electric motors.
Elastomeric couplings consist of two hubs and a flexible
elastomeric element. The hubs are fitted onto the shaft, and the
elastomeric element is attached to the hubs. Figure 74 shows
two of the many different styles of elastomeric couplings that are
available: a splined rubber-type coupling, which is shown in
Figure 74(A), and a rubber tire-type coupling, which is shown in
Figure 74(B). Each style uses a different method for the
attachment of the element to the hubs.
The metal hubs of the splined rubber-type coupling are either
cast or are machined with a cavity that contains internal and
external splines. The rubber insert also has internal and external
splines. These splines engage with the hub splines. The rubber
insert is a one-piece construction on small diameter couplings.
On larger coupling sizes, the insert is a two-piece construction
with the insert split horizontally. A steel lock ring fits into a
groove, which is located on the outside diameter of the insert, to
hold the insert halves together.
The rubber tire-type coupling uses two metal hubs that have
grooves machined into the hubs. A flexible rubber tire element
fits into the grooves and is held in place with threaded fasteners
and flanges. Some rubber tire elements are molded directly to
the flanges. The flanges are threaded to receive bolts. The
flexible rubber element is molded into one piece, and it is then
split at one point to facilitate installation.
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The rubber tire coupling can be assembled and disassembled
without the removal of the hubs from the equipment. The side
flange bolts are removed to allow the rubber tire element to be
pulled out of the flange and to allow a new rubber element to be
installed.
The elastomeric couplings have the following characteristics:
They provide high torsional flexibility.
They can tolerate shock loads and reversing situations.
They act as a vibration dampener.
They can accommodate axial shaft movements (end float).
They can accommodate angular shaft misalignment.
They offer excellent resistance to electrical conductivity.
They can be used in corrosive atmospheres (provided that
there is careful material selection).
Elastomeric couplings are temperature-limited, they generally
have a high overhung weight, and they are difficult to balance.
As the elastomers age, the assumed stiffness and damping
values of the elastomer can change and reduce the flexibility of
the coupling. Such reduction in the flexibility of the coupling will
allow the train components to become overstressed.
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Figure 74. Elastomeric Couplings
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GLOSSARY
balanced seal A mechanical seal arrangement in which the effect of
the hydraulic pressure in the seal chamber, on the seal
face closing forces, has been modified through seal
design to have a seal balance ration of less than 1.
barrier fluid A fluid that is introduced between dual mechanical
seals to completely isolate the pump process liquid
from the environment. Pressure of the barrier fluid is
always higher than the process pressure being sealed.
bellows seal A type of mechanical seal that uses a flexible bellows to
allow a static secondary seal and to provide spring-type
loading on the primary ring.
buffer fluid A fluid used as a lubricant or buffer between dual
mechanical seals. The fluid is always at a pressure
lower than the pump process pressure.
cartridge seal A completely self-contained mechanical seal unit that
contains the seal, gland, sleeve, and mating ring. A
cartridge seal is pre-assembled and preset before
installation.
dual mechanical seal A seal arrangement that uses more than one seal in the
same seal chamber in any orientation which can utilize
either a pressurized barrier fluid or nonpressurized
buffer fluid.
flashing hydrocarbon
service
Any service that requires vapor suppression by cooling
or pressurization to prevent flashing. This category
includes all hydrocarbon services where the fluid has a
vapor pressure greater than 14.5 psia (1 bar) at
pumping temperature.
flexible coupling A coupling that permits minor amounts of flexibility by
allowing the coupling components to slide or move
relative to each other.
flush A small amount of fluid that is introduced into the seal
chamber on the process fluid side in close proximity to
the sealing faces and usually used for cooling and
lubricating the seal faces.
internal circulating device A device located in the seal chamber to circulate seal
chamber fluid through a cooler or barrier/buffer fluid
reservoir. Also referred to as a pumping ring.
mating ring A disk- or ring-shaped member that is mounted either
on a shaft sleeve or in a housing and that provides the
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primary seal when in proximity to the face of an axially
adjustable face seal assembly.
neutral fluid A fluid that does not react with the process fluid. Water
and steam are typically used as neutral fluids.
nonflashing hydrocarbon
service
A category that includes all hydrocarbon services that
are predominately all hydrogen and carbon atoms;
however, other non-hydrocarbon constituents may be
entrained in the stream. A product in this category does
not require vapor suppression to prevent transformation
from a liquid phase to a vapor phase. The vapor
pressure for non-flashing hydrocarbon service is less
than 14.5 psia (1 bar).
nonhydrocarbon service A category that includes all services that cannot be
defined as containing all hydrogen and carbon
molecules; however, some hydrocarbons may be
entrained in the fluids.
non-pusher type seal A mechanical seal in which the secondary static seal is
fixed to the shaft.
packing A seal that prevents leakage around the plunger or rod
of a reciprocating pump.
pusher-type seal A mechanical seal in which the secondary seal is
mechanically pushed along the shaft or sleeve
(dynamic secondary seal) to compensate for face wear.
quench A neutral fluid (usually water or steam) that is
introduced on the atmospheric side of a mechanical
seal to retard the formation of solids that may interfere
with seal movement.
rigid coupling A coupling that is designed to draw the two shafts
together tightly so that no relative motion can occur
between the shafts.
seal balance ratio Sometimes expressed as a percentage, the ratio of
seal face area that is exposed to closing force by
hydraulic pressure in the seal chamber, to the total
sealing face area.
seal chamber A component that is either integral with or separate
from the pump case (housing) and that forms, between
the shaft and casing, the region into which the shaft
seal or packing is installed.
specific gravity The density of a liquid divided by the density of water at
60F.