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WELDING OF STAINLESS STEEL

EXHAUST LINES

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RENAULT

This document is to be considered as a whole, the parts of which must not be separated
.
RENAULT 2001.
No duplication permitted without the consent of the issuing department.
No circulation permitted without the consent of RENAULT.

FIRST ISSUE
September 2001

---

This issue originates from draft NC 2001 0631 / - - -.

REVISION

REFERENCED DOCUMENT

RENAULT 2001

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RENAULT
CONTENTS

Page
1. GENERAL INFORMATION ON STAINLESS STEELS

1.1. NOTE ON BASIC CONCEPTS RELATIVE TO STAINLESS STEELS

1.1.1. Definitions

1.1.2. Classification

1.2. FERRITIC STAINLESS STEELS

1.2.1. Chemical composition, additions, mechanical characteristics

1.2.2. Diagrams: Roles of alloy elements (Extract from UGINE documentation)

1.3. AUSTENITIC STAINLESS STEELS

10

1.3.1. Chemical composition, additions, mechanical characteristics

10

1.3.2. Diagrams: Roles of alloy elements (Extract from UGINE documentation)

11

2. CHARACTERISTICS OF MATERIALS FOR EXHAUST LINES (BY DANIEL GOURDET - DEPT

64140 - DIMAT - ISSUE OF 08/2000)

12

2.1. INTRODUCTION

12

2.2. SYMBOLS AND UNITS OF CHARACTERISTICS INDICATED

13

2.3. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF GRADES (% IN WEIGHT)

14

2.4. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SHEETS AND TUBES (AVERAGE VALUES)

14

2.5. MECHANICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF PRODUCTS AT AMBIENT TEMPERATURE

15

2.6. STATIC MECHANICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF PRODUCTS WHEN HOT

15

2.6.1. Tensile test

15

2.6.2. Sag Test

18

2.7. ENDURANCE CHARACTERISTICS WHEN HOT

19

2.7.1. 4 point fatigue under alternating bending test (R = -1)

19

2.7.2. Torsion fatigue test on tubes when hot (As per ME-60152-A-009)

19

2.8. TUBE IMPLEMENTATION CHARACTERISTICS

20

2.9. RESISTANCE TO CORROSION

20

2.9.1. Aluminated mild sheets

20

2.9.2. Stainless steels

21

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RENAULT
CONTENTS (continued)
3. WELDING STAINLESS STEELS

23

3.1. REMINDER

23

3.1.1. Schaeffler diagram

23

3.2. WELDING OF FERRITIC STAINLESS STEELS

25

3.2.1. Metallurgical consequences of thermal welding cycles

25

3.2.2. Choice of welding conditions

25

3.3. WELDING AUSTENITIC STAINLESS STEELS

28

3.3.1. Metallurgical consequences of thermal welding cycles

28

3.3.2. Sigma phase

28

3.3.3. Choice of welding conditions

29

3.4. HETEROGENEOUS WELDING OF STAINLESS STEELS

30

3.4.1. General

30

3.4.2. Bystram diagrams

30

4. STAINLESS STEEL WELDING TECHNIQUES

33

4.1. MIG WELDING

33

4.1.1. Description of process

33

4.1.2. Metal transfer modes inj the arc. (Pulsed, Lincoln STT, axial spray)

34

4.1.3. Gases and gas mixtures

36

4.1.4. Solid and flux-cored electrode wire

38

4.2. TIG WELDING

41

4.2.1. Description of process

41

5. BIBLIOGRAPHY

RENAULT 2001

42

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RENAULT
1.

GENERAL INFORMATION ON STAINLESS STEELS

1.1.

NOTE ON BASIC CONCEPTS RELATIVE TO STAINLESS STEELS

1.1.1.

Definitions

Stainless steels are iron - chromium alloys with a minimum chromium content of 12 % and which may
contain:
-

additive elements necessary for their manufacture (Mn, Si),

impurities (S, P and in certain cases, C and N),

alloys such as Ni, Mo, Ti, Nb, Cu , W, Al and for certain Mn, Si, C and N. These alloy elements
are added in different quantities in order to modify and improve certain properties of the stainless
steels.

The most important elements are carbon and nickel which directly influence the micrographic
structure of the steel.
Carbon: It acts by its character - gene (austenitic) and by its competition with the chromium,
element - gene. The carbon, in the presence of a carburigen element such as chromium, may form
carbons and thereby promote intergranular corrosion.
Nickel: In low quantities, maximum 1 %, there is no incidence on the structure of the steels. Beyond 6
to 8 %, there is an effect - gene, which results in the stainless steels remaining austenitic at ambient
temperature T.
1.1.2.

Classification

Insofar as they are essentially iron-based alloys, stainless steels like other steels, are liable to display
different structural conditions: There are three main categories:
-

Martensitic stainless steels (magnetic)

Martensitic steels have higher Carbon contents and may also contain small quantities of alloy
elements (Ni, Cr, Mo). Their mechanical resistance may be considerably increased by heat
treatment.
They are represented by 23 % grades of chromium (example X20Cr13) with a sufficient carbon
content (> 0,08 %). These steels have a behaviour comparable to that of conventional heat
treated steels.
In general:
C > 0,08; 0,20 Si 0,35; Mn = 0,35; 12 Cr 14.

RENAULT 2001

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RENAULT
-

Ferritic stainless steels (magnetic)

Ferritic steels have low carbon contents and, as a result, do not undergo significant hardening
after heat treatment; cold work-hardening endows them only with a hardening level less than that
encountered on austenitic steels; they are mostly used in the annealed condition, a state when
their main characteristic, i.e. their resistance to corrosion, is most prominent. They are sensitive
to grain expansion by heating at high temperature and in general, are not very suitable for
welding; on the other hand, they are amenable to machining and are well suited to sheet-metal
work and stamping. In addition, their resistance to corrosion is greater than that of martensitic
steels.
Even if certain grades have a chromium content of up to 30 %, grade X6Cr17 (1,4016) and its
molybdenum variant X6Cr17-1 (1,4113) are representative of this class.
In general:
C 0,05; Si 0,5; Mn 0,5;12 Cr 20 and Ni 1.

Austenitic stainless steels (amagnetic)

Austenitic steels have greater mechanical strength and better resistance to corrosion than ferritic
and martensitic steels; furthermore, austenitic steels do not harden after heat treatment; on the
other hand, their resistance may be considerably improved by cold rolling or work hardening. In
the annealed condition, austenitic steels display ductility and tenacity properties making then
amenable to cold forming; they are very weldable.
Many basic grades have been modified into grades with less carbon or into stabilized grades
mainly in order to improve resistance to corrosion.
In general:
0,03 C 0,08; 0,5 Si 1; 1 Mn 2; Cr 16 and Ni 7.

1.2.

FERRITIC STAINLESS STEELS

1.2.1.

Chemical composition, additions, mechanical characteristics

The basic composition consists of carbon and chromium, a composition that has been balanced to
ensure that the steel is entirely ferritic at high temperature.
These types of steels do not have any transformation point and are practically ferritic at all
temperatures. It follows that they are very sensitive to grain expansion and are therefore brittle when
heated for the purposes of forming, welding and thermal treatment, such effects being cumulative.
In addition, they have the specific characteristic of containing very little austentite at high
temperature; this austentite will therefore be very rich in carbon; if cooling is very slow, it transforms
itself into ferrite; on the other hand, if it occurs too rapidly, it will transform into hard and fragile
martensite at the joints of the ferrite grains.
It is very important to take this characteristic into account when studying welding problems.
The most frequent addition is molybdenum (0,8 to 1,5 %) in order to improve resistance to corrosion;
sometimes, copper is associated with the molybdenum; however be careful, if the quantity of copper
exceeds 0,5 to 1 %, there is a risk of the steel becoming martensitic.

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RENAULT

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The other added elements encountered are:

-

Titanium, the role of which is to fix the carbon in order to prevent the austentite from being
overloaded in carbon and from transforming into martensite after the welding operation or to
prevent the carbon from combining with Cr, which would promote intergranular corrosion.
Titanium does not prevent grain expansion, however it should be added in a significant quantity.
Ti 10 at 12 *C for stabilization of C.
Ti 4,2 (C + 2N2) for resistance to corrosion without heat treatment after welding.

Niobium (Nb); the role of which is similar to titanium, however which should be added in a higher
quantity.
Impurity

Nitrogen (N2) remains present as an impurity, however if its quantity is too high, it causes fragility
after welding.
In general:
C + N2 0,04.

If this condition is effectively observed, the brittleness after welding is noticeably reduced; in addition,
an improvement in the intergranular corrosion after welding is observed.
The values of the mechanical characteristics are average:
Rm mini = 440 to 490 N/mm 2
R0,02 = 245 to 275 N/mm2.

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RENAULT
1.2.2.

Diagrams: Roles of alloy elements (Extract from UGINE documentation)

EUROPEAN DESIGNATION
As per NF EN 10088-2
(Nov. 95)

NAME

Previous
designation of
NF A 35573
(Cancellation
Nov. 95)
(Cancellation
Nov. 95)

ASTM

Annealed state for

reference
(Average values)

Chemical composition for reference

Variants

AISI

UNS

Si

Mn

Cr

410S

S41008

0,05

0,35

0,30

12,70

409

S40900

0,02

0,50

0,30

11,50

410S*

S41008

0,02

0,50

0,60

11,00

430

S43000

0,05

0,35

0,40

16,50

0,02

0,35

0,40

16,50

0,05

0,35

0,40

16,50

0,02

0,15

0,40

Mo

16,80

Ni

Other

Rm

Rp0,2

A%

480

330

26

410

250

32

1,4516

510

350

28

F 18 (Cr 17,5)

500

340

26

AISI 439 (Cr 17,5)

450

300

30

F 17 MS (Mo = 1,25)

540

370

27

700

360

20

Ti + Nb = 0,700

490

300

30

FERRITIC STAINLESS STEELS

X6Cr13

1,4000

Z8C12

X2CrTi12

1,4512

Z3CT12

Z2CrNi12

1,4003

X6Cr17

1,4016

Z8C17

X3CrTi17

1,4510

Z4CT17

X6CrMo17-1

1,4113

Z8CD17-01

X6CrNi17-1

1,4017

Z8CN17

X2CrTiNb18

1,4509

Z3CTNb18

441

S44100

0,02

0,50

0,50

17,80

X6CrMoNb17-1

1,4526

Z8CDNb17-01

436

S43600

0,04

0,40

0,50

17,50

1,25

Nb = 0,600

520

370

27

X2CrMoTi18-2

1,4521

Z3CDT18-02

S44400

0,02

0,40

0,40

17,70

2,00

Ti + Nb = 0,450

540

380

27

X2CrTi20

1,4604

Z3CT20

0,02

0,20

0,30

20,00

Ti = 0,500

480

320

28

RENAULT 2001

430 Ti**
434

S43400

Ti = 0,180
0,40

Ti = 0,400
1,00
1,40

Page 8/42

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RENAULT

FERRITIC STAINLESS STEELS

WITH 17 % CHROMIUM

+ Mo

Improved
resistance
to corrosion
with pitting

1.4113
Mo : 1,00
Mo : 1,25 Low C

Mo greater

+ Mo, stabilized Nb

Resistance to
corrosion improved

1.4016
17 Cr
C < = 0,10

Low C
Cold forming
Stabilized improved
Ti orNb weldability

Low C
Good resistance
Stabilized to oxidation
Zr or Ti
when hot
or Nb

1.4526
C < = 0,025
Mo : 1,00 + Nb

+ Cr + Al
stabilized Ti

1.4521
C < = 0,025
Mo : 2,00
Ti and Nb

Improved application
(formability,
weldability)
Localized pitting corrosion
, equivalent to316 L

1.4510
C < = 0,030
Ti or Nb

1.4509
Zr or Ti
or Nb

Low C
+ Mo, stabilized
Ti et Nb

Cr : 18
Al : 2,00

Improved
resistance
to corrosion

FERRITIC STAINILESS STEELS

WITH 12 % DE CHROME

Reduced C
content
+ Ni + Ti

12 Cr
C < = 0,15

1.4003
C : < = 0,03

Low C content

Improved
weldability

Low C content
Stabilized Ti

RENAULT 2001

Mechanical characteristics
and weldability improved
Mechanical strength
of welded joints (assembly).

1.4000
C < = 0,030

Improved resistance to oxidation

when hot
Weld ductility

1.4512
C : < = 0,03

Page 9/42

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RENAULT
1.3.

AUSTENITIC STAINLESS STEELS

1.3.1.

Chemical composition, additions, mechanical characteristics

The basic elements of the chemical composition are chromium and nickel:
-

chromium greater than 16 % to ensure oxydability,

nickel greater than 7 % to obtain an austenitic structure.

They all contain:

-

carbon, whose content may be classified into three categories:

C 0,030 - steels with low carbon content,
0,03 < C 0,08 - steels with average carbon content,
C > 0,08 - high carbon content steels,

manganese,

silicon,

sulphur and phosphorous as impurities.

They are characterized by:

-

a totally austenitic structure in the delivery state: hyper-quenched treated condition by

maintenance between 1 025 C and 1 150 C according to the composition, followed by rapid
cooling in air or water,

absence of transformation point: if follows that there can be no recrystallization (therefore

refinement of the grain) by thermal treatment unless there has been sufficient workhardening (at
least 20 to 25 %),

the possibility of the appearance of ferrite subsequent to thermal effects other than hyperquenching, e.g. the thermal effects due to hot processing and welding. It is important to be able
to determine, beforehand, the ferrite rate liable to occur during a welding operation. This
computation is possible using a Schaeffler diagram (see 3.),

good behaviour at low and high temperatures.

They may contain various additive elements intended:

1)

either stabilize the carbon content if such content is greater than 0,03, addition made in order to
protect the metal against the risk of intergranular corrosion:
.
.

2)

addition of titanium with a maximum of 0,6 %,

addition of niobium with a maximum of 1,1 %,

or improve the resistance to corrosion with respect to certain fluids:

.

addition of molybdenum in the presence of halogenous products and reducing acids,

addition of copper in the presence of sulphuric acid,

addition of silicon in the presence of nitric acid,

3)

or to improve the mechanical characteristics by addition of nitrogen

4)

or to improve the creep characteristics by addition of boron.

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RENAULT
The values of the mechanical characteristics are:
Rm min. = 500 N/mm 2,
R0,02 = 240 to 340 N/mm2.
1.3.2.

Diagrams: Roles of alloy elements (Extract from UGINE documentation)

EUROPEAN DESIGNATION
As per NF EN 10088-2
(Nov. 95)

NAME

Previous
designation of
NF A 35573
(Cancellation
Nov. 95)
(Cancellation
Nov. 95)

ASTM

Annealed state for

reference
(Average values)

Chemical composition for reference

Variants

AISI

UNS

Si

Mn

Cr

Mo

Ni

Other

Rm

Rp0,2

A%

7,40

800

300

48

6,80

740

320

50

780

360

48

AUSTENITIC STAINLESS STEELS

X10CrNi18-8

1,4310

Z11CN17-08

301

S30100

0,10

0,60

1,00

17,20

X10CrNi18-8

1,4310

Z11CN18-08

301

S30100

0,10

1,00

1,20

16,80

X2CrNiN18-7

1,4318

Z3CN18-07Az

0,025

0,50

1,50

17,50

6,80

X5CrNi18-10

1,4301

Z7CN18-9

304

S30400

0,05

0,50

1,10

18,20

8,30

670

320

50

X5CrNi18-10

1,4301

Z7CN18-9

304

S30400

0,04

0,50

1,50

18,20

8,70

630

300

52

X5CrNi18-10

1,4301

Z7CN18-9

304

S30400

0,04

0,50

1,50

18,00

9,20

610

270

55

X2CrNi18-9

1,4307

Z3CN18-10

304 L

S30403

0,025

0,50

1,50

18,20

9,20

620

310

50

X2CrNi19-11

1,4306

Z3CN18-10

304 L

S30403

<0,025

0,60

1,50

18,50

10,20

600

300

50

X6CrNiTi18-10

1,4541

Z6CNT18-10

321

S32100

0,03

0,50

1,30

17,50

9,20

610

280

48

X4CrNi18-12

1,4303

Z6CN18-12

305

S30500

0,04

0,60

0,90

18,30

12,20

580

250

52

RENAULT 2001

301 L

0,70

N = 0,15

Ti = 0,300

Ti > 5 (C + N)

Page 11/42

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RENAULT

AUSTENITIC STAINLESS STEELS

C < = 0,030
17 Cr 5 Ni
8 Mn
N = 0,20

Low C
Improved
weldability

Low C
Low Mn
Low Ni
Increased mechanical
characteristics,
improved weldability

Low C,
low Ni

1.4307
C < = 0,030

Low C
Intergranular
corrosion

1.4404
18-13 MS
C < = 0,03

Mechanical
characteristics
= workhardening

16 Cr 4 Ni
6 Mn
N = 0,15

17 Cr 7 Ni

18 Cr 9 Ni
C < = 0,08

+ Ni
1.4306

Low C
Improved resistance
to intergranular
corrosion

2.

1.4318
18 Cr 7 Ni
1,50 Mn
N = 0,15

Very low Ni Increased

Addition
mechanical
Mn and N
characteristics

+ Mo

Increased generalized
17 Cr 12 Ni
and localized
resistance to
2,00 Mo
corrosion

+ Ni
stabilized Ti
1.4541
or Nb
Intergranular 18 Cr 10 Ni Ti 18 Cr 10 Ni Nb
corrosion
mechanical
characteristics
+ Mo
stabilized Ti 17 Cr 11 Ni
Localized
2,00 Mo
and intergranular
Ti
resistance to
corrosion

CHARACTERISTICS OF MATERIALS FOR EXHAUST LINES (BY DANIEL GOURDET DEPT 64140 - DIMAT - ISSUE OF 08/2000)
2.1.

INTRODUCTION

The purpose of this document is to synthesise the main utilization and implementation characteristics
of metallic materials usually used on exhaust lines.
This information is intended for designers and developers of these types of parts.
The materials mentioned are classified into two families:
-

mild steels coated with aluminium-silicon alloy by immersion,

stainless steels.

The products concerned are sheets and tubes.

The values indicated in the tables have been given to us by our main suppliers of rolled products or
tubes (SOLLAC, UGINE, LA MEUSIENNE and VALLOUREC). Products of different origins shall be
validated by the corresponding supplier.

RENAULT 2001

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RENAULT
2.2.

SYMBOLS AND UNITS OF CHARACTERISTICS INDICATED

Symbol

Designation

Unit

density

kg/dm3

longitudinal elasticity
module

GPa

Remarks

E=

1
1

1 = main stress
1 = corresponding linear variation.

average linear
expansion coefficient

10-6/C

l = lo (l . T)

l = variation in length
lo = initial length
T = temperature variation.

mass thermal capacity

J/kg C

Quantity of heat (energy) to be applied to 1 kg of material

in order to raise its temperature to 1 C.

thermal conductivity

W/m C

Thermal flow transmitted by unit of time and unit of

surface as a function of a temperature gradient and
distance.

Rm

tensile resistance

MPa

Stress conducive to tensile rupture.

Rp0,2

conventional elasticity
limit at 0,2 % elongation

MPa

Stress corresponding to the elasticity limit of the material.

Beyond this stress, the material retains a permanent set.

elongation after rupture

Residual elongation measured after rupture of the tensile

specimen.

plastic strain ratio

sans

A high r indicates a strong resistance to thinning of the

sheet and corresponds to a good capacity to shrinkage
deformation before appearance of striction.

work-hardening
coefficient

sans

A high value n reflects a good tendency of the product to

distribute (uniformise) local deformations over a big
volume (large surface) of the material and therefore to
delay local thinning during expansion.

Sag-Test

mm

Sage sustained by a specimen resting on 2 supports

separated by a distance of 254 mm, under its own weight,
after 100 h at the same temperature.

Endurance
characteristic

MPa

Stress conducive to 50 % rupture of samples after N

cycles under a given force (type and ratio R).

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RENAULT
2.3.

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF GRADES (% IN WEIGHT)

Grade

Si

Mn

ES - AS 18/18

0,08

0,04

0,40

ES HT - AS 18/18

0,02

0,10

CS - AS 18/18

0,09
to 0,12

E THT - AS 18/18

Ni

Cr

Mo

Al

Other

0,025 0,025

0,015
0,050

Ti + Nb 0,15

0,40

0,025 0,025

0,015
0,050

Ti 9 x (C + N) - N 0,008

0,05

0,30

0,025 0,025

0,020
0,060

0,02

0,50

0,40

0,020 0,020

0,7

0,60
1,00

Ti 0,4 - Nb 0,3 - N 0,007

X 2 CrTi 12
(1.4512)

0,030

1,0

1,0

0,015 0,040

10,5
12,5

Ti = 6 x (C + N) to 0,65

X 6 Cr 17
(1.4016)

0,080

1,0

1,0

0,015 0,040

16,0
18,0

X 3 CrTi 17
(1.4510)

0,050

1,0

1,0

0,015 0,040

16,0
18,0

X 2 CrTiNb 18
(1.4509)

0,030

1,0

1,0

0,015 0,040

17,5
18,5

X 6 CrMo 17-1
(1.4113)

0,080

1,0

1,0

0,015 0,040

16,0
18,0

0,90
1,40

X 6 CrMoNb 17-1
(1.4526)

0,08

1,0

1,0

0,015 0,040

16,0
18,0

0,80
1,40

N 0,040
7(C + N) + 0,10 Nb 1,00

X 5 CrNi 18-10
(1.4301)

0,07

1,0

2,0

0,015 0,045

8,0
10,5

17,0
19,5

X 6 CrNiTi 18-10
(1.4541)

0,08

1,0

2,0

0,015 0,045

9,0
12,0

17,0
19,0

Ti = 5 x C to 0,70

4 x (C + N) + 0,15 Ti 0,80
Ti = 0,10 to 0,60
3 x C + 0,3 Nb 1,00

The chemical compositions of mild aluminated steels are in conformity with RENAULT Specification
RENAULT 11-04-809/--B.
The chemical compositions of the stainless steels are in conformity with European Standard 10088-1.
2.4.

Grade

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SHEETS AND TUBES (AVERAGE VALUES)

Density

Longitudinal elasticity
module
E
(GPa)

Mean expansion coefficientl

between 20 C and ....
(10-6/C)

Mass
thermal
capacity at
20 C
C

Thermal conductivity

(W/m.C)

(kg/dm3)

20 C

500 C

700 C

200 C

400 C

600 C

800 C

(J/kg C)

20 C

500 C

700 C
32

ES - AS 18/18

7,9

210

170

150

11,5

13,6

14,7

15,3

472

62

40

ES HT - AS 18/18

7,9

210

170

150

11,5

13,6

14,7

15,3

472

62

40

32

CS - AS 18/18

7,9

210

170

150

11,5

13,6

14,7

15,3

472

62

40

32

E THT - AS 18/18

7,9

215

175

155

11,5

12,8

13,7

14,2

472

62

40

32

X 2 CrTi 12
(1.4512)

7,72

215

170

130

11,0

11,5

12,1

12,8

460

26

31

32

X 6 Cr 17
(1.4016)

7,7

205

180

150

10,5

11,5

11,7

12,5

460

26

31

32

X 3 CrTi 17
(1.4510)

7,7

205

180

150

10,5

11,0

12,0

12,8

460

26

31

32

X 2 CrTiNb 18
(1.4509)

7,72

220

190

170

11,0

11,5

12,1

12,8

460

26

31

32

X 6 CrMo 17-1
(1.4113)

7,7

215

190

160

11,7

12,1

12,7

14,2

460

26

31

32

X 6 CrMoNb 17-1
(1.4526)

7,7

215

170

130

11,7

12,1

12,7

14,2

460

30

31

33

X 5 CrNi 18-10
(1.4301)

7,9

200

170

150

17,5

18

19

19,6

500

15

21,5

24

X 6 CrNiTi 18-10
(1.4541)

7,9

200

175

145

17

18

19

19,6

500

14

22,2

23

RENAULT 2001

Page 14/42

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RENAULT
2.5.

MECHANICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF PRODUCTS AT AMBIENT TEMPERATURE

Grade

Mechanical characteristics of tubes

(valid for 35 to 55 mm - th. 1,2 to 2 mm)4)

Mechanical characteristics of sheets

Rm
(MPa)

Rp 0,2
(MPa)

Rp / Rm
max.

A 1)
(%)

n 2)
(10% Ag)

r 3)
(Ag)

Rm
(MPa)

Rp 0,2
(MPa)

Rp / Rm
max.

A
(%)
44

ES - AS 18/18

280 / 350

160 / 200

0,66

37

0,16

1,4

300 / 370

250 / 310

0,85

ES HT - AS 18/18

300 / 370

180 / 210

0,68

31

0,15

1,3

330 / 380

290 / 340

0,85

42

CS - AS 18/18

380 / 470

270 / 360

0,80

24

400 / 460

300 / 410

0,90

36

E THT - AS 18/18

350 / 450

210 / 270

0,75

28

0,14

1,2

380 / 480

300 / 400

0,90

30

420 / 480

300

30

200

40

X 2 CrTi 12
(untreated) (1.4512)

This state does not exist for rolled products

X2CrTi 12
380 / 450
(annealed) (1.4512)

220 / 300

0,66

30

360 / 450

X 6 Cr 17
(1.4016)

450 / 550

280 / 390

0,70

24

this grade does not exist in the form of a tube

X 3 CrTi 17
(1.4510)

420 / 480

250 / 350

0,70

27

420 / 620

300

30

X 2 CrTiNb 18
(1.4509)

450 / 530

260 / 330

0,66

28

420 / 620

300

30

X 6 CrMo 17-1
(1.4113)

490 / 570

330 / 420

0,70

24

this grade does not exist in the form of a tube

X 6 CrMoNb 17-1
(1.4526)

490 / 560

330 / 400

0,70

27

450 / 580

350

30

600 / 800

500

45

X 5 CrNi 18-10
(1.4301) untreated
X 5 CrNi 18-10
(1.4301) hyperquenched
X 6 CrNiTi 18-10
(1.4541)

This state does not exist for rolled products

600 / 720

250 / 370

0,60

48

500 / 700

205

45

540 / 650

240 / 340

0,60

48

(600 / 800)

( 500)

( 45 )

1 ) specimen ISO 20 x 80 mm - Lo = 80 mm as per Standard EN 10002 - Sample in crosswise

direction.
2 ) n = work-hardening coefficient measured according to Standard ISO 10275 between 10 %
and Ag.
3 ) r = plastic strain ratio measured according to ISO standard ISO 10113 at Ag.
4 ) as per Product Specifications 11-05-217/C for aluminated mild steel tubes (AS 18/18) and
11-05-228/A for stainless steel tubes.
(-) = average values as per Supplier technical sheets (not validated for our applications).
2.6.

STATIC MECHANICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF PRODUCTS WHEN HOT

2.6.1.

Tensile test

2.6.1.1.

Aluminated mild steels

Tensile characteristics according to temperature T C
(average values for rolled products of 1,5 mm of thickness)

Grade
(limit T of utilization
recommendation)

Prop.

20

200

ES - AS 18/18

Rm

330

232

212

192

175

135

(95)

(63)

(650 C)

Rp0,2

185

141

135

118

112

103

(79)

(56)

ES HT - AS 18/18

Rm

335

269

236

219

209

150

88

68

(800 C)

Rp0,2

200

180

165

150

146

110

75

58

CS - AS 18/18

Rm

425

418

392

307

193

144

(86)

(650 C)

Rp0,2

315

235

199

159

119

(77)

E THT - AS 18/18

Rm

395

254
320

299

290

254

218

120

80

61

42

(900 C)

Rp0,2

245

236

228

220

181

163

107

71

57

35

RENAULT 2001

300

400

500

600

700

750

800

850

Page 15/42

90 - 00 - 151 / - - -

RENAULT
2.6.1.2.

Stainless steels

Grade
(T operating limit)

Tensile characteristics as a function of TC

(mean values for rolled products of thickness 1,5 mm)
Prop.

20

Rm
413
Rp0,2 239
1.4512 (annealed) Ag
18,8
X 2 CrTi 12
A
36,3
(820 C)
Z
66
K
772
n
0,21
E
224
Rm
520
Rp0,2 363
1.4510
Ag
21
X 3 CrTi 17
A
25
(830 C)
Z
K
763
n
0,22
E
Rm
460
Rp0,2 260
1.4509
Ag
19,5
X 2 CrTiNb 18
A
33
(920 C)
Z
62
K
803
n
0,2
E
210
Rm
500
Rp0,2 354
1.4526
Ag
19,9
X 6 CrMoNb 17-1
A
30
(920 C) *
Z
63
K
848
n
0,22
E
210
Rm
610
Rp0,2 270
1.4301
Ag
56,9
X 5 CrNi 18-10
A
60
(830 C)
Z
75
K
1759
n
0,57
E
202
Rm
600
Rp0,2 290
1.4541
Ag
50
X 6 CrNiTi 18-10
A
53
(900 C)
Z
65
K
1379
n
0,44
E
202

200

300

400

450

500

550

600

650

700

750

800

850

380
219

348
192
12,9
19,8
68
617
0,21
219
366
225
17,8
28

315
170

290
186
10,9
18,8
73
464
0,16

254
143

218
113
11,8
23,4
71
327
0,13

175
109

92
75

290
186

254
165

210
113

160
116

53
47
3,1
53
87
63
0,04
106
43
41
2
113

39
30

323
198

131
103
5,8
26,4
75
169
0,07
143
105
89
8
68

27
18
3
66,4
93
33,5
0,06
80
22
21
1
149

412
254

622
0,20

422
228

436
262

480
200

480
290

405
208
18,1
25,6
65
695
0,21
181
417
244
14,4
21,3
48
731
0,22
181
450
178
31,4
37,4
49
999
0,40
168
448
287
23,1
30,8
54
884
0,31
168

70
67

139
0,08

383
189

360
172

660
0,22
168

392
232

360
218

659
0,20
168

430
163

410
152

438
272

425
258

867
0,31
162

342
161
13,4
20,5
54
623
0,23
147
330
203
11,8
18,1
47
550
0,18
147
390
149
28,7
38,6
48
853
0,39
153
417
251
21,9
28,3
64
842
0,31
153

322
150

300
182

345
140

400
244

288
132
8,3
16,1
50
612
0,27
134
241
155
9
15,4
54
392
0,17
134
285
132
22,7
44,3
56
526
0,25
147
345
234
16,4
36,1
58
595
0,21
147

31
30

47
0,02

222
122

162
122

240
124

295
220

121
99
3,6
27
83
229
0,21
108
101
92
3,3
61,5
85
120
0,04
108
186
108
17,2
59,3
78
302
0,18
138
239
207
7,7
53,9
73
321
0,09
138

900

950

35
29

26
23
2,8
131,4
94
28
0,03
78
20
19
1,8
105,4
91
31
0,11
78
65
56
16
110,7
69
98
0,14
98
88
88
0,5
52,1
85
104
0,03
98

25
0,01

75
65

70
60

140
95

200
180

43
36
3,5
60,2
94
54
0,07
93
41
39
1,8
88,5
91
47
0,03
93
111
82
10,1
65,2
81
162
0,13
113
159
153
1,8
44
73
184
0,03
113

31
29

88
69

123
120

In bold: test results submitted by UGINE "Exhaust database - Mechanical resistance when hot".

In italics: values obtained by interpolation on the basis of test temperatures.

* = utilisation temperatures not validated.

RENAULT 2001

Page 16/42

90 - 00 - 151 / - - -

RENAULT

Tensile test when hot

800

700

600

500
Rm (MPa)

1.4512
1.4510
1.4509

400

1.4526
1.4301
1.4541

300

200

100

0
0

100

200

300

400

500
600
Test temperature

700

800

900

1000

400

Re ( MPa)

300

1.4512
1.4510
1.4509

200

1.4526
1.4301
1.4541

100

0
0

100

RENAULT 2001

200

300

400

500
600
Test temperature

700

800

900

1000

Page 17/42

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RENAULT
2.6.2.

Sag Test

The Sage Test is an empirical and comparative test consisting in sagging a specimen under its own
weight (flat 25 x 205 mm specimen).
The sag is weighed after 100 h at the same temperature.
2.6.2.1.

Aluminated mild steels

Test results submitted by SOLLAC

Sag (mm) after 100 h at same temperature (C)

Grade
700

750

800

ES - AS 18/18

950

1 000

11

900

ES HT - AS 18/18

850

CS - AS 18/18
E THT - AS 18/18

2.6.2.2.

12

Stainless steels

Test results submitted by UGINE.

Sag (mm) after 100 h at same temperature(C)

Grade
700
X2CrTi 12
(1.4512)

750
0,7

800

850

900

950

3 to 6

X 3 CrTi 17
(1.4510)

15

X 2 CrTiNb 18
(1.4509)

0,2 to 1

X 6 CrMoNb 17-1
(1.4526)

2,1

X 5 CrNi 18-10
(1.4301) brut

1 to 3

10 to
15

X 5 CrNi 18-10
(1.4301) hypertr.

RENAULT 2001

1 000

0,6

2,7

4 to 10

Page 18/42

90 - 00 - 151 / - - -

RENAULT
2.7.

ENDURANCE CHARACTERISTICS WHEN HOT

2.7.1.

4 point fatigue under alternating bending test (R = -1)

Tubular specimen - longitudinal weld positioned at 45 with respect to neutral axis.

Stress (MPa) conducive to 50 % rupture of samples after N cycles.

Test temperature
Grades

Tube dimensions

Number of
cycles

D 45 x 1,5

2 . 10 6

D 45 x 1,5 (key 6)

2 . 10 5

D 45 x 1,5 (key 6)

2 . 10

D 45 x 1,5 (key 5)

2 . 10 6

D 48 x 1,5 (key 5)

450 C

550 C

650 C

750 C

115

850 C

950 C

60

ES - AS 18/18
ES HT - AS 18/18
CS - AS 18/18

E THT - AS 18/18

2 . 10

133
81
105

80
133

D 45 x 1,5

2 . 10 6

65

(40)

1.4509 (X 2 CrTiNb 18)

D 45 x 2

2 . 10 6

(170)

100

1.4526 (X 6 CrMoNb 17-1)

D 48 x 1,5

2 . 10 5

D 48 x 1,5

2 . 10

D 48 x 1,5

2 . 10 6

1.4512 (X 2 CrTi 12)

1.4510 (X 3 CrTi 17)

160
165

102

48

145

70

1.4301 (X 5 CrNi 18-10)

1.4541 (X 6 CrNiTi 18-10)

2.7.2.

Torsion fatigue test on tubes when hot (As per ME-60152-A-009)

Grades

Diam.
ES - AS 18/18

Test temperature

Dimensions
of tube
Thick.

45 mm

1,5 mm

45 mm

400 C
5

600 C
7

1,5 mm

10

72

10

67

10

62

gradient

10

10

10 7

gradient

44

- 14,41

- 30,28

ES HT - AS 18/18
CS - AS 18/18

62

52

E THT - AS 18/18
1.4512

45 mm

1,5 mm

115

106

97

- 25,9

77

68

59

- 18,2

X 2 CrTi 12

50 mm

1,5 mm

116

103

92

- 19,45

81

73

68

- 25,63

50 mm

0,7 mm

115

108

92

- 14,5

1.4510

50 mm

1,2 mm

128

110

95

- 15,54

122

100

82

- 11,76

X 3 CrTi 17

50 mm

1,5 mm

123

106

91

- 15,08

88

79

71

- 21,97

1.4509
X 2 CrTiNb 18

50 mm

1,2 mm

130

104

84

- 10,51

124

102

84

- 12,03

1.4526
X 6 CrMoNb 17-1

50 mm

1,2 mm

160

128

102

- 10,34

119

107

96

- 21,05

115

108

101

- 35,7

99

89

79

- 20,03

50 mm

0,7 mm

1.4301

50 mm

1,2 mm

X 5 CrNi 18-10

50 mm

1,5 mm

Original tube Tubificio di Terni

RENAULT 2001

Page 19/42

90 - 00 - 151 / - - -

RENAULT
2.8.

TUBE IMPLEMENTATION CHARACTERISTICS

Deformation mode
Grade

Bending R / D maxi.
(angle = 90)

1)

Tube
Tube
40 x 1,5 55 x 1,5

Weldability / filler metal

Price

(1 to 5)

index

Flanged
cone 60
%

ES

ESHT

CS

E THT 1.4512 1.4509 1.4526 1.4301 1.4541

ES - AS 18/18

1,2

1,2

50

ES HT - AS 18/18

1,2

1,2

50

CS - AS 18/18

1,3

1,3

45

E THT - AS 18/18

1,5

1,5

45

X 2 CrTi 12 (brut)
(1.4512)

1,4

1,4

45

4 to 5 4 to 5

1,3

1,3

45

4 to 5 4 to 5

2)
(au
19/5/98

X 2 CrTi 12
(annealed)
(1.4512)
X 6 Cr 17
(1.4016)

61
3

X 3 CrTi 17
(1.4510)

4
1,3

X 6 CrMo 17-1
(1.4113)

64

87
100

45
-

4 to 5 4 to 5 4 to 5 4 to 5

116

4 to 5 4 to 5 4 to 5 4 to 5

does not exist in form of tube

1,3

60

does not exist in form of tube

X 2 CrTiNb 18
(1.4509)

119

X 6 CrMoNb 17-1
(1.4526)

1,3

1,3

45

X 5 CrNi 18-10
(1.4301)

1,1

1,1

50

151

X 6 CrNiTi 18-10
(1.4541)

1,1

1,1

50

157

4 to 5 4 to 5 4 to 5 4 to 5

144

1)

Bending on mandrel, with lubrication, without thrust.

2)

Price index indicated on base 100 for tube TSR X2 CrTi 12 (1.4512) 50 x 1,5 mm, length1 500
mm (extra-alloys included).

2.9.

RESISTANCE TO CORROSION

2.9.1.

Aluminated mild sheets

Appearance as per T C
(B.E target service life)
Grade
Brilliant

Oxidation or
alliation with
grey
appearance

Corrosion
when cold

Corrosion when hot

Red rust

< 1 % of red
rust

ES - AS 18/18

< 450 C

450 C

ES HT - AS 18/18

< 450 C

800 C

6 years
without R.R.

on specimen
surface

CS - AS 18/18

< 450 C

450 C

(of 30 Lardy
cycles)

after 9 cycles
of test

E THT - AS 18/18

< 450 C

900 C

RENAULT 2001

To be indicated by SOLLAC

of corrosion
3C 1)

Page 20/42

90 - 00 - 151 / - - -

RENAULT
2.9.2.

Stainless steels

Corrosion when hot

Grade

Appearance as per T C
(B.E target service life)

Brilliant

Oxidation or
alliation with
grey
appearance

Corrosion
when cold

Red rust

Isothermal oxidation
2)

Cyclic oxidation at
950 C
3)

800 C

850 C

900 C

100 h

400 h

X 2 CrTi 12 (brut)
(1.4512)

Delivered mat

20

200

outside
range

outside
range

X 2 CrTi 12
(annealed)
(1.4512)

Delivered mat

20

200

outside
range

outside
range

5,5

15

32

2,5

3,25

15

X 6 Cr 17
(1.4016)

Colouring

X 3 CrTi 17
(1.4510)

as

6 years
without R.R.

Delivered mat

of

(or 30 Lardy
cycles)

X 6 CrMoNb 17-1
(1.4526)

Annealed
brilliant

200 C

X 5 CrNi 18-10
(1.4301)

j 200 C

underway

> 200

outside
range

X 6 CrNiTi 18-10
(1.4541)

j 200 C

underway

180

>> 350

X 2 CrTiNb 18
(1.4509)

none

X 6 CrMo 17-1
(1.4113)

1)

On flat specimen having being subjected to an equi-biaxial deformation of 20 % (as per 3.1.6.
of Product Specifications 11-04-809).

2)

Weight gain (g/m 2) after 50 h of hold.

3)

Weight gain (g/m 2).

RENAULT 2001

Page 21/42

90 - 00 - 151 / - - -

RENAULT
Annex A
Correlation between mild steel grades

RENAULT
designation
of grade

RENAULT
specifications
(P) = Rolled products
(T) = Tubes

Approximate
correspondence
as per European Standard
EN 10154

SOLLAC

GALVALANGE

E.C.I.A

ES - AS 18/18

11 - 04 - 809 (P)
11 - 05 - 217 (T)

DX53D + AS 120

Alusi BSR

AL5

AS 120-05

ES HT - AS 18/18

11 - 04 - 809 (P)
11 - 05 - 217 (T)

DX55D + AS 120

Alusi BHT

ALT

AS 120-06

CS - AS 18/18

11 - 04 - 809 (P)
11 - 05 - 217 (T)

none

Alusi BV

AS 120-07

E THT - AS 18/18

11 - 04 - 809 (P)
11 - 05 - 217 (T)

none

EXTRATHERM A

AS 120-11

Commercial names

Annex B
Correlation between stainless steel grades

Designation of grade
As per EN 10088-1

RENAULT

as per previous
AFNOR

Type
A.I.S.I

Commercial names

specification
UGINE

A.S.T.

THYSSEN

* (P)
11 - 05 - 228 (T)

F 12 T

409

4512

430

none (*)

F 17

Z 4 CT 17

430 TI
or 439

* (P)
11 - 05 - 228 (T)

F 17 T

439M

1.4509

Z 3 CTNb 18

441

* (P)
11 - 05 - 228 (T)

F 17 TNb

441

X 6 CrMo 17-1

1.4113

Z 8 CD 17-01

434

none(*)

F 17 M

X 6 CrMoNb 17-1

1.4526

Z 8 CDNb 17-01

436

* (P)
11 - 05 - 228 (T)

F 17 MNb

436

4526

X 5 CrNi 18-10

1.4301

Z 6 CN 18-09

304

* (P)
11 - 05 - 228 (T)

18 - 9 E

304

4301

X 6 CrNiTi 18-10

1.4541

Z 6 CNT 18-10

321

none(*)

18-10 T

321

4541

Name

X 2 CrTi 12

1.4512

Z 3 CT 12

409

X 6 Cr 17

1.4016

Z 8 C 17

X 3 CrTi 17

1.4510

X 2 CrTiNb 18

(P) = Rolled products

(T) = Tubes

(*) References based on European Standards EN 10088-1 and 2.

RENAULT 2001

Page 22/42

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RENAULT
3.

WELDING STAINLESS STEELS

3.1.

REMINDER

Various methods are proposed to evaluate the structure of the molten metal after return to ambient
temperature according to its chemical composition:
3.1.1.

Schaeffler diagram

This diagram, by means of a chromium equivalent (alphagene) and a nickel equivalent

(gammagene), is used to describe the structure of the molten metal after complete cooling. In
addition, it facilitates handling the heterogeneous welding problem by indicating conditions that
enable:
-

the formation of martensite to be avoided,

to keep the ferritic tendency to an appropriate level.

Schaeffler diagram

0%

Ni Equivalent

30
28
26
24
22

10 %

Zone A :
Austenite

20 %

20

Zones B and C : A + F 40 %

Zone D :
A+M

18
16
14
12
10
8
6

80 %

100 %
Zone E : Martensite

4
2
0

5%

Zone G : Ferrite

Zone F : M + F
M+F

12

16
20
24
Cr Equivalent

28

32

36

40

For this diagram:

Crq= % Cr + % Mo + 1,5 * % Si,
Niq= % Ni + 30 * % ( C + N ) + 0,5 * % Mn.

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Calculating the dilution rate
Lug
s1

Tube

Dilution % =

s2
s1 + s2
x 100
S

The method of utilization of this diagram may be illustrated using the following examples:
-

welding of two parts made from same steel without filler product: the figurative point of the
joint shall be that determined on the basis of the basic metal composition,

welding of two parts made from different steels without filler product: the figurative point of
the joint shall be located on the right hand segment defined by the two points determined on the
basis of the compositions of the base metals, the composition of the point will depend on the
relative contribution of each metal to the composition of the molten metal,

welding of two parts made from the same steel with a filler product: the figurative point of
the joint will shall be located on the right hand segment defined by two points determined on the
basis of the base metal composition and filler metal composition; the position of the point will
depend on the dilution,

welding by one operation on two different steel parts with a filler product: the figurative
point is determined in two stages:
1.

determine relative mean point relative to base metals (by applying the procedure described
for welding various steels without filler metal),

2.

determine figurative point of molten metal (by applying the procedure described for welding
two identical steels with filler metal on the basis of the mean point of base metals and the
relative point of filler metal by incorporating dilution).

All these points fall within the various zones of the diagram, which provides a view of the joint of base
metal and of the risks associated with welding.
-

Zone A ( austenite):sensitivity to cracking when hot, good resistance to corrosion and heat.

Zone B (austenite up to 5 % of ferrite): good resistance to corrosion and no sensitivity to

cracking when hot.

Zone C (austenite from 5 to 100 of ferrite): no sensitivity to cracking, mean resistance to

corrosion, structure sensitive to sigma phase formation (brittle phase in all temperature ranges.
The time necessary for this phase to elapse is very long (several hundred hours); it may
therefore not come about during hot work operations, but only when steels are used between 650
and 930 C).

Zone D (austenite + martensite): brittleness under cooling - quench cracking - imperative

preheating with slow cooling - heat treatment necessary after welding.

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-

Zone E ( martensite ) : cracking at temperature < 400 C imperative preheating before welding.

Zone G (ferrite): no sensitivity to quenching - grain expansion beyond 950 C, regeneration

impossible by heat treatment.

3.2.

WELDING OF FERRITIC STAINLESS STEELS

3.2.1.

Metallurgical consequences of thermal welding cycles

During thermal welding cycles, these steels do not sustain any structural transformation and
accordingly the main result of the heating of the metal to a high temperature will be a significant grain
expansion.
It is important to note that the brittleness after welding of the steels that do not contain a stabilizing
additive element (Ti or Nb) is more a result of the presence of martensite at the joints that of grain
expansion; unless such grains have reached significant dimensions, e.g. 3 mm. Steels containing an
addition of Ti or Nb, owing to the presence of TI or Nb precipitates, are slightly less sensitive to this
condition. This also applies to steels with a very low content of carbon and nitrogen.
In short, the sensitivity of these steels to the thermal effects of hot working and welding may have
four origins:
-

expansion of grains that cannot be refined except by significant work hardening when cold
followed by heat treatment, which would prompt recrystallization,

precipitation, during rapid cooling, of a martensitic phase consisting of a surface film on the grain
joints,

precipitation prompting structural hardening and affecting all chromium steels containing more
than 13 to 14 % of chromium. The temperature hold time necessary to conduct precipitation is
shorter as the chromium content increases. The temperature zone liable to cause precipitation is
between 350 and 550 C. It should be noted that this phenomenon is reversible and it is
possible to recover these precipitations, and thereby eliminate this brittleness, by heat treatment
at 800 C,

formation of the sigma phase (see 3.3.2.).

In addition, heating of the metal in the ZAT above 950 C, causes the chromium carbides to dissolve.
These will reprecipitate during cooling. Such intergranular precipitation of the chromium carbides
causes intergranular sensitivity to corrosion unless the carbon content of the steel is very low or if the
steel contains a sufficient quantity of Ti or Nb.
3.2.2.
3.2.2.1.

Choice of welding conditions

General

Because of grain expansion and the presence of martensite, resilience at ambient temperature is
generally low. The assembly becomes sensitive to brittle rupture, however for this to occur, the metal
will have to be subjected to tri-axial stress (which excludes constructions made from thin products
from this risk) and to rather brutal loading conditions. Accordingly, we are only interested here in the
welding of products that do not exceed 6 mm.
Furthermore, and more for other stainless steels, welding procedures by fusion that may be employed
when processing ferritic stainless steels shall ensure perfect protection against molten metal. This
requirement significantly reduces the possibilities of welding with a coated electrode, which does not
ensure perfectly satisfactory protection.

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Accordingly, procedures used for welding ferritic stainless steels will preferably be those using
protective gas flow, i.e. TIG, MIG and plasma welding.
For these procedures, the following requirements shall be ensured:
-

good continuity without any surface defects that may constitute incipient corrosion,

a good conservation of resistance to corrosion of the assembly. This result will be obtained if the
procedure prevents the departure of useful alloy elements (in particular, chromium) and the
addition of any noxious element such as carbon (which would create the risk of porosity
formation),

good mechanical strength which is usually achieved if the geometry of the assembly and the
molten metal are satisfactory, in particular with respect to the latter, if the problems caused the
presence, if any, of martensite and intergranular chromium carbides have been resolved.

To do so, the following measures will be taken:

-

limit the quantity of energy applied (< 7 KJ/cm) during welding in order to reduce, insofar as
possible, grain expansion,

use steels containing titanium or niobium to avoid intergranular precipitations of chromium

carbide which will reduce the resistance to corrosion,

during welding of totally ferritic steels, avoid any addition of carbon and nitrogen liable to cause
the formation of martensite and thereby reduce the ductility of the molten metal,

in all cases, avoid adding hydrogen and to do so:

.

choose welding products that do not add hydrogen (pure argon, if necessary basic
electrodes appropriately cured),

carefully prepare the parts to be assembled (elimination of lubricant traces, rust, humidity,
dirt),

weld in the absence of excessive humidity.

For molten metal, high ductility may confer it with an austeno-ferritic structure by using an austenitic
filler metal. It should be noted however that this procedure does not resolve the metallurgical
problems caused by the zone affected by the heat and that furthermore no post-welding treatment
should be performed as there is a risk of thermal treatment on the austenitic steel.
3.2.2.2.

TIG welding

In this procedure, the protection of the molten metal and of the hot metal is ensured by neutral gas.
It may consist of:
-

pure argon,

pure helium or helium mixed with argon,

pure argon mixed with hydrogen.

These gases shall be perfectly exempt of humidity.

Once the thickness exceeds 2 to 3 mm, it is necessary to add a filler metal in the form of strips or
wires.

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The filler metals used for welding the ferritic stainless steels are not defined in a specific standard.
In general, a filler metal with a similar composition (use of Schaeffler diagram) as that of the base
metal is chosen. For the welding of totally ferritic steels, the filler metals containing titanium or
niobium, have a higher chromium content and a lower carbon content in order to avert the risk of
martensite appearing in the molten metal.
3.2.2.3.

MIG welding

This procedure uses a fusible electrode in the form of a renewable wire, the protection of the molten
metal and of the hot metal being ensured by a current of inert gas.
The filler wire contains the filler elements necessary to form the molten metal.
The protection gas may consist of:
-

pure argon or argon to which small quantities of other gases (CO2 or O2) have been added. The
addition of the gas increases the stability of the arc, improves wetting of the base metal and
increases penetration; however, it creates a risk of metal impoverishment in terms of oxidable
alloy elements (Cr and Ti),

argon or helium mixed with argon.

The useable filler metals for MIG welding may be of the same type as those employed during TIG
welding however their content in silicon shall be slightly higher (up to 1,1 %) in order to improve the
deoxidation of the of the bath and wetting of the base metal; however, more generally, they are made
from austenitic steel.
3.2.2.4.

Shielded metal arc welding

This procedure uses electrodes whose metallic core has a chemical composition which generally
corresponds to that of the metal to be welded.
The function of the coating is to ensure the protection of the molten metal by the diffusion of carbonic
gas (due to the dissociation of carbonates incorporated in the coating) and the formation of a
protective slag. In certain cases, the necessary alloy elements may be added by this coating in rather
large proportions.
In general, it is considered that with the shielded metal arc welding of ferritic stainless steels, the
protection obtained is not totally satisfactory and there is a tendency not to recommend this process.

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3.3.

WELDING AUSTENITIC STAINLESS STEELS

3.3.1.

Metallurgical consequences of thermal welding cycles

In general, the chemical composition of these steels is established such that, upon equilibrium, their
structure is austenitic at all temperatures of less than 1 100 C approx. At higher temperatures, the
structure may be either mixed austeno-ferritic, or even totally ferritic.
It should be noted here that the presence of carbon in austenitic stainless steels may be responsible
for the deterioration in their resistance to corrosion when such steels are subjected to a long duration
at temperatures of between 500 and 850 C. In effect, if the conditions permit (slow cooling, hold at
appropriate temperature), the carbon will precipitate in the form of carbides, generally chromium
carbides; this precipitation, which occurs primarily in the grain joints and elsewhere in the grains
themselves, impoverishes the chromium content of the neighbouring austentite, thereby rendering it
sensitive to corrosion in an intergranular fashion.
However, as already seen, there are two types of procedures to reduce or eliminate the risk of
precipitation:
-

reduce the carbon content,

add titanium and niobium elements.

An austenitic steel weld may sustain cracking at high temperature (hot cracking) caused by shrinkage
that develops in the interdendritic spaces of the molten metal. The presence of certain elements
facilitates such cracking: sulphur, silicon, niobium, phosphorous, boron. The most efficient remedy,
apart from adding manganese, consists in ensuring that the metal contains a certain proportion of
ferrite (from 1 to 5 %). It is also recommended to weld while limiting the energy intake and check that
between the passes, the temperature of the joint drops sufficiently (< 100 C).
Furthermore, there is a risk of a sigma phase occurring in austenitic steels (see 3.3.2.).
3.3.2.

Sigma phase

Intermetallic compounds may be formed at high temperature in stainless steels, beyond a chromium
level of 18 to 20 %, and in the welds. These compounds may enclose notable quantities of other
elements than iron and chromium. Their occurrence in a large quantity has the effect of reducing the
ductility of the alloy, a very significant reduction in elongation, a reduction the resilience of the steel,
with an increase in hardness and sensitivity to incision. In addition, under certain conditions, the
resistance to corrosion of the steel is greatly affected by the sigma phase.
Conditions of formation:
-

Temperatures: Hold the alloy between 550 and 900 C; beyond 900 C, stability limit and
possibility of return to solution.
Extremely low formation between 550 and 600 C
Very rapid formation in the region of 800 - 850 C.

Chemical compositions: The increase in the chromium content of alphagenic elements is

conducive to the appearance of the sigma phase. Case of molybdenum, titanium, niobium,
silicon. Molybdenum and silicon expand upwards in the temperature range in which the sigma
phase appears.

Nickel and carbon reduce the tendency of steels to form the sigma phase.

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3.3.3.
3.3.3.1.

Choice of welding conditions

General

A number of fusion welding processes may be used in order to attach stainless steels. In this paper,
we focus on the most commonly used.
For these processes, ensure:
-

good geometrical surface continuity without any defects that may constitute incipient corrosion,

satisfactory preservation of resistance to corrosion of the assembly. This result will be obtained if
it prevents the separation of useful alloy elements (in particular, chromium) and the addition of
noxious elements such as carbon,

good mechanical strength, which will generally be achieved if the geometry of the assembly and
the chemical composition of the molten metal are satisfactory, especially if the conditions
necessary to prevent cracking under heat are satisfied.

3.3.3.2.

Shielded metal arc welding

(See note 3.2.2.4.).

A number of shielded electrodes are proposed for the manual arc welding of austenitic stainless
steels. Upon examination of their chemical compositions, the main grades of austenitic stainless
steels are found with the following specific features:
-

the carbon limit contents are often lower,

the manganese limit contents are higher,

the chromium contents are higher.

The purpose of these modifications are to counteract any metal deficiency in Cr and Mn and any
enrichment in C so as to contribute to the attainment of good corrosion resistance. Furthermore, such
differences enable the acquisition of the quantity of ferrite necessary to eliminate the risk of cracking
when hot.
It should be noted that amongst the chemical compositions of the deposited metals, there is no
titanium metal; this condition is due to the fact that titanium oxidizes and its transfer is not optimum in
the electrical arc. For welding titanium steels, it is therefore necessary to use electrodes depositing a
metal containing niobium.
3.3.3.3.

TIG welding

(See note 3.2.2.2. and 3.3.3.2. for the filler metal).

3.3.3.4.

MIG welding

(See note 3.2.2.3.).

The filler metals used for MIG welding of austenitic stainless steels are the same type as those used
for shielded metal arc welding, however, their silicon content is slightly higher in order to improve
deoxidation of the liquid metal and wetting of the base metal.

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3.4.

HETEROGENEOUS WELDING OF STAINLESS STEELS

3.4.1.

General

This type of assembly remains a special case that can only be processed by a specialist after
examining all the specific aspects. In this document, therefore, we will only devote a brief overview to
this procedure.
When a non alloyed carbon steel or a ferritic steel is assembled with an austenitic steel, the filler
metal is chosen according to the Schaeffler diagram (see 3.1.1.). The objective is to obtain a
molten area with a austeno-ferritic two-phase structure. In effect, a content greater than 2 % of ferrite
is desirable in order to avoid the hot cracking phenomenon.
To ensure weldability in the molten zone, it is essential to avoid the "high risk" structures:
-

risk of cracking when cold if the structure is martensitic,

risk of cracking when hot if the structure is austenitic,

risk of brittleness by expansion of the grains if the structure is ferritic,

risk of brittleness during sigma phase if the chromium equivalent placed on the Schaeffler
diagram is very high.

In practice, the structure without any metallurgical problem is situated around an eqCr = 20 and an
eqNi = 11 in the Schaeffler diagram. This is confirmed on the various Bystram diagrams, which
identify the various high risk zones and the optimum weldability zone on the Schaeffler diagram.
3.4.2.
3.4.2.1.

Bystram diagrams
Cold cracking area
0%

30

5%
10%

28
26

Austenite

24
20%

22
20

Niq

A+F

18

40%

A+M

16
80%

14
12
10

100%

8
Martensite

6
4
2

Ferrite

M+F
M+F

0
0

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12

16

20
Crq

24

28

32

36

40

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3.4.2.2.

Hot cracking area

0%

30

5%
10%

28
26

Austenite

24
20%

22
20

A+F

18

40%

A+M

16

Niq

80%

14
12
10

100%

8
Martensite

6
4

Ferrite

M+F

2
M+F

0
0

3.4.2.3.

12

16

20
Crq
Grain expansion brittleness area

24

28

32

36

0%

30

40

5%
10%

28
26

Austenite

24
20%

22
20

A+F

18

40%

A+M

16
80%

14
12
10

100%

8
Martensite

6
4

Ferrite

M+F

2
M+F

0
0

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12

16

20

24

28

32

36

40

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3.4.2.4.

Sigma phase brittleness area

0%

30

5%
10%

28
26

Austenite

24
20%

22
20

A+F

18

40%

A+M

16

Niq

80%

14
12
10

100%

8
Martensite

6
4

Ferrite

M+F

2
M+F

0
0

3.4.2.5.

12

16

20
Crq

24

28

32

36

40

Optimum weldability area

0%

30

5%
10%

28
26

Austenite

24
20%

22
20

A+F

18

40%

A+M

16

Niq

80%

14
12
10

100%

8
Martensite

6
4

Ferrite

M+F

2
M+F

0
0

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12

16

20
Crq

24

28

32

36

40

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4.

STAINLESS STEEL WELDING TECHNIQUES

4.1.

MIG WELDING

4.1.1.

Description of process

Definition: The MIG/MAG welding process applies an arc under gas protection. The electrode is
fusible and serves as a filler metal. The electrode, the metal transferred in the arc and the liquid weld
metal are protected from ambient air by a gas flux, which is inert in the case of MIG welding and
active in the case of MAG welding.
Hence the terms MIG Metal Inert Gas and MAG Metal Active Gas. During Manuel welding, these
processes are also called "semi-automatic" because the wire is unrolled automatically as soon as
arcing commences. The MAG process, in an active atmosphere, is reserved for steels with a low or
without any alloy content. The MIG process, in an inert atmosphere, is used for light alloys and
cupreous alloys. In the case of stainless steels, when the atmosphere is slightly active, the term MIG
is usually used to differentiate from the case of carbon steels.
Gun
Fusible
electrode
wire
Mtal
transfr

Gas shield
Deposited metal

Base metal

Electrical supply: The MIG/MAG welding arc is supplied with a direct current in reverse polarity with
the fusible electrode at the positive pole. The wire is then subjected to an electron flux, which
facilitates its fusion. Reverse polarity ensures better arc stability.
Direct polarity is not suitable because it causes less heating of the wire, the metal drops are bigger,
fewer in number and they do not detach in a very clear manner. The seam obtained is dome shaped.
In exceptional cases, e.g. on sheathed wires, this polarity is not employed.

_
e
+

+
e
_

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Field of application: Productivity is the main advantage of the MIG and MAG welding processes.
Because the volume of metal deposited is very large, these processes are suitable for big thicknesses
and for filling the chamfer by multiple runs. Easily implemented, the MIG and MAG welding processes
can be applied manually, automatically or robotically. They enable welding in all positions.
4.1.2.

Metal transfer modes inj the arc. (Pulsed, Lincoln STT, axial spray)

The fusion of the wire and the transfer of metal in the arc may be conducted in many ways depending
on the type of protective gas, voltage and current of the arc.
4.1.2.1.

Basic transfer modes

Transfer by short circuit:

This setting is obtained for low arc energies (50 to 200 A - 15 to 20 V). A drop forms at the end of the
wire and expands until it comes into contact with the liquid weld metal. The current then increases
rapidly causing a pinch to occur, which facilitates detachment of the drop, and the arc is formed
again. This phenomenon is repeated at frequencies of 50 to 200 Hz. In a so-called cold setting, with a
short arc, the transfer by short circuit is used to weld small thicknesses and to control the liquid weld
metal during an in-position weld.
V
25

Time
A
150
100
50
Arc time

Short-circuit
time

Axial spray transfer:

At high energies and beyond a certain current density (greater than 250 A/mm2 according to the type
of wire and protective gas), the tip of the wire is in the form of an elongated cone. Transfer takes
place in the form of very fine droplets, the diameter of which is less than that of the wire and which
are sprayed at a very high speed. The arc is 4 to 6 mm long. This metal transfer forms a stable arc
with little splashing. It allows for significant penetrations and high metal deposits. It is used for
thicknesses greater than 5 mm. The volume and fluidity of the liquid metal makes it ideally suitable
for flat welding, except for aluminium and its allows, which may be welded in all positions.

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Globular transfer:

At welding energies between those providing short-circuit transfer and axial spray transfer, the drops
build up slowly. The current amperage is not high enough to create a pinching effect inducing
separation and the drop gets bigger exceeding the size of the wire diameter. Transfer occurs by shortcircuit when the drop touches the liquid metal, or by separation of the drop under the effect of gravity.
The drop then follows a random path, which is not always aligned with the axis of the arc. This is an
unstable transfer mode inducing weak penetrations and numerous splashes. If possible, it should be
avoided.

4.1.2.2.

Derivative transfer modes

Pulsed setting:
Current peaks are superimposed onto a basic current which maintains the established arc. When the
pulse is applied, the high current density causes a fine droplet to be transferred. This transfer is
comparable to axial spray (stability, absence of splash) however the average current is lower. If the
thickness or the welding metallurgy requires an energy corresponding to a conventional globular
transfer, the use of a pulsed current eliminates the problems associated with globular transfer.

Current
Peak current
Average current
Basic current
Time

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Controlled short-circuit transfer (Lincoln STT).

This process has been designed to avail of the advantages of the short circuit transfer process while
avoiding the disadvantages (bonding, splash reduction, arc instability, etc.). To do so, the current is
reduced by about 10 A when the wire comes into contact with the part in order to avoid splashing.
After this period, a higher current is applied in order to accelerate the pinching effect and thereby
reduce the cold period causing arc instability. The current level is then reduced a few millionths of a
second before separation of the drop to a value sufficiently low to ensure there are little or no
splashes. A very high current is then applied (in the order of 300 to 450 A) after the drop has
separated in order to avoid any risk of bonding.

4.1.3.

Gases and gas mixtures

Gas protects the liquid weld metal and the metal transferred in the arc from the ambient air. The gas
should also facilitate the formation and stability of the arc.
Inert gas:
Argon, owing to its characteristics, is the basic gas used for MIG welding. Helium can also be added.
The greater the arc voltage, the hotter and more diffuse the arc, a condition that increases the
penetration or welding speed, improves wetting and makes for a flatter seam. Argon and mixtures of
argon and helium are used for aluminium and copper alloys.
Carbon dioxide:
MAG welding of steels is different from MIG welding in that it is conducted in an oxidizing
atmosphere. Originally, the gas used was carbon dioxide. The dissociation of CO2 in the arc leads to
the formation of oxygen, which causes localized oxidation. Such oxides are emitted, the arc remains
attached and stable. However the CO2 atmosphere causes significant oxidation of the metal and the
loss of alloy elements (except carbon). The type of wire used is therefore very important in order to
limit this phenomenon.

Under the current range conventionally used, the CO2 does not enable transfer by axial spraying.
The pinching effect is minimal, the significant viscosity of the molten wire causes bit drops which are
transferred in an explosive manner inducing instabilities and splashes. Pure CO2 is therefore limited
to short circuit and big drop transfers, whereby the viscous liquid enables work in all positions. The
disadvantages of CO2 are eliminated by argon-CO2 mixtures, which enable transfer by axial spraying.
Standard mixtures have a CO2 content of between 2 and 25 %. Small additions are used for stainless
steels, the bigger contents for carbon steels. In the case of stainless steels, an excessive percentage
of CO 2 may cause carburation liable to undermine the corrosion resistance.

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In the case of carbon steels, mixtures with a CO2 content less than 10 % improve surface appearance
and limit the formation of silicates. The amount of splash and fume emissions are also reduced. A
gas limiting the amount of splash can be used to considerably reduce the soiling of the welding gun.
Oxygen:
Oxygen may be used instead of CO2 in order to stabilize the arc. By reducing the surface tension of
the liquid metal, oxygen facilitates the formation of drops and improves wetting of the bath. By
making a more rigid and hotter arc than the one formed with CO2 , the addition of oxygen facilitates
the transfer by axial spraying and subsequently induces more effective penetration than with argon
-CO2 mixtures. Oxygen argon mixtures contain between 1 to 8 % of oxygen, smaller contents are
used for stainless steels. Ternary mixtures may be used (Ar - CO2 - O2).
Hydrogen:
When welding stainless steels, low hydrogen contents (< 3 %) may be added. Like helium, hydrogen
increases the energy of the arc by applying a higher voltage level. Because of its reducing power, the
hydrogen provides a very clean seam appearance. Hydrogen may be the cause of cold cracking of
quenched materials. Mixtures containing hydrogen are therefore mainly used for austenitic steels.
Hydrogen may cause porosities in the weld seams. Mixtures containing hydrogen shall be mainly
used for one-run welding.

GAS

Advantages

Disadvantages

Ar

Inert

Basic gas for Arc processes

He

Inert

"Hot" gas
increased V welding

Limited to 20 %
vertical and ceiling

CO2

Oxidizing
(< O2)

Softer MIG transfer

No splashes
Limited oxidizing power
"Blank" seam

Limited to 20 %
practical < 5 %
Prohibited for TIG

O2

Oxidizing

Regularizes MIG transfer

(if < 5 %)
Conventional gas 1 to 3 %

Highly oxidizing
oxidized seams
Prohibited for TIG

H2

Reducing

"Hot" gas
increased V welding
Reducing
Blank seam

Not advisable for stainless steels

Martensitic, Ferritic and Duplex

N2

Neutral

Nitrogen grades (> 0,1 %)

Compensates for losses
Stabilizes austentite

Not advisable for stainless steels

Ferritic

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4.1.4.

Solid and flux-cored electrode wire

Electrodes used for manual electrical arc welding with a fusible electrode wire in the form of a
continuous thread reaching the arc at which point it melts. The wires used are solid bare wires, or
bare flux-cored wires. The first make the use of a protective gas mandatory, the second may be used
with or without a protective gas, in which case the liquid metal is shielded either by the action of the
core flux (formation of a slag and a gas) or by the combination of the action of the flux and that of the
protective gas.
Composition:
By its very composition, the wire incorporates the elements liable to modify the characteristics of the
weld. The alloy elements shall be adjusted in order to obtain a weld, the properties of which are equal
to or better than those of the base metal (mechanical properties, corrosion...).

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SCHAEFFLER DIAGRAM

24

20

16

9
0

%
5

Austnite

e
rit
er
F
%
10

8
%
20

3
2

12

%
40

A+F

%
80

1
8

100 %

A+M+F

4
M+F
0

Ferrite

F+ M
0

12

16

20

24

28

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CHROMIUM EQUIVALENT = % Cr + % Mo + 1,5 % Si + 0,5 % Nb

32

36

40

90 - 00 - 151 / - - -

Position of various compositions on Schaeffler diagram:

Example of filler metals

19-10 (308L)
19-12-3 (316L)
ou 19-12-3 Nb
24-12 (309L)
ou 22-15-3 (309MoL)
20-10-3
22-8-3
29-10 (312)
18-8 Mn (307)
19-12-3 (316LN)
25-20 (310)

NICKEL EQUIVALENT = % Ni + 30 x % C + 0,5 x % Mn

28

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However, low additions of certain elements may have consequences on:
-

the stabilization of the arc and on the transfer of the metal due to active components,

the reduction of splashes and fumes (elements such as titanium, silicon, manganese facilitate
such a reduction),

the reduction of oxygen in the welded metal: the use of oxidizing gases is compensated by the
addition of deoxidizing elements in the wire such as manganese and silicon. The silicates thus
formed are deposited on the upper part of the weld.

Bare solid wires:

These are cold-drawn wires with an appropriate chemical composition for welding, often covered with
a film of copper used as a cold drawing lubricant. This layer of copper shall be regular and very fine in
order to avoid too great an addition of copper in the metal forming the joint.
Flux-cored wires:
A flux-cored wire consists of a sheath of steel filled with a powder core. The sheath consists either of
a soldered tube or is made from a folded strip. The principle of arc welding with a flux cored wire is
the same as that for MIG and MAG welding. The arc is established between the electrode wire and
the parts to be welded. The electrical supply is always a direct current, the polarity depends on the
wire and is indicated by the supplier for each item.

The elements contained in the core may be either metallic or non-metallic, the functions of these
elements are:
-

to stabilize the arc,

act as a deoxidant,

emit gases, in certain cases,

add alloy elements.

There are two main families of flux-cored wires: those used without protective gas and those used
with protective gas.
During welding with a flux-cored wire without gas protection, the core protects the molten metal by
diffusing gases into the arc and by producing a slag that covers the molten metal. The use of such
wires is advantageous on a job or at any location where it is difficult to bring in gas. However, they
are difficult to use meaning that the welders require good training.

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More commonplace, the flux-cored wires with gas may be divided into two families:
-

1 - Rutile flux-cored wires (transfer in fine droplets and average level of hydrogen, welding in all
positions),
2 - Basic flux-cored wires (globular type transfer and very low level of hydrogen,
position work),

delicate

slagless flux-cored wires ( metallic core),

the components of the core are mainly metallic: iron, iron-silicon, iron-manganese. A small
addition of non-metallic elements may be added in order to stabilize the arc. These wires make
for a high rate of deposit due to the abundance of metallic elements in the core. Position
welding is possible with a small diameter wire. Because the metallic powders are not
hydroscopic, only a small amount of hydrogen can be diffused into the weld. These wires are
being used more and more.

4.2.

TIG WELDING

4.2.1.

Description of process

Definition: TIG welding, inert gas welding with non fusible electrode, is a procedure in which the
energy necessary for the fusion of the parts to be assembled is provided by an electric arc
established between a refractory tungsten electrode and the joint to be welded. The electrode and the
liquid metal are protected from ambient air, i.e. from nitrogen and oxygen by an inert gas flux. Hence
the term Tungsten Inert Gas.
Depending on the job at hand, the thickness, geometry of the joint, type of materials to be assembled,
a filler metal in the form of a strip may be used. This wire is melted in the arc and protected by the
inert atmosphere of the welding gas.

Gun

Filler
metal

Inert
gas

Refractory
tungsten
electrode

Arc

Base metal

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Liquid
weld metal

Molten
area

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Electrical supply: The type of current depends on the material to be welded and on the assembly to
be formed:
-

Direct current: Direct polarity (negative pole on electrode) for welding of all metals.

Pulsed current: This technique, consisting in successively developing periods of high an low
current amperage, is used to reduce the volume of the molten metal. This facilitates the position
work, the welding of thin assemblies and ensures optimum regularity of the penetration.

Alternating current: Mainly used for the welding of aluminium alloys. Upon alternation to the
reverse polarity, the gush of electrons from the sheet towards the electrode cracks the
refractory alumina layer. At the subsequent alternation, the direct polarity ensures penetration.

Field of application: TIG welding is characterized by the high quality of welding achieved. The liquid
metal is calm, there are no splashes and only a small amount of fumes. To benefit from such ha level
of quality, it is necessary to work with special care ( Clean and stripped sheets, separated straight
edges, constant arc length, regular welding advance ).
TIG welding is used to weld most metals and alloys, whether on the flat or in position. It is conducted
manually, automatically or robotically.
The weldable edge-to-edge thicknesses for a single-pass weld with argon, are between 0,5 mm and
3 mm for most materials. It is also possible to weld thicknesses greater than 3 mm, by preparing the
edges to be assembled (chamfer) and by multiple-pass welding. However, because the welding speed
and the volume of metal deposited are low, TIG welding is preferably used to ensure a regular
penetration and satisfactory quality at the first pass.
5.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Soudage a larc Tome 3 by Bertrand le Bourgeois, Publication de la soudure Autogne.
Les aciers inoxydables , Mise en uvre et soudage by J. Varriot.
Prcis de mtallurgie by J. Barralis and Grard Maeder.

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