1

2. CONTENTS
Cover Page
Presentation
Problem Statement
Transformation Object
Justification
Objectives
Professional Practices
Research Process
Theoretical References
Methodology
Accrediting Results
Evaluation uidelines
!ibliogra"hy
Matri# of the Module
2
3. PRESENTATION
The module $Organi%ation and Management of the Teaching& has as objective to guide to
the future "rofessionals of the teaching of the English 'anguage in the Educative
Management( giving core )no*ledge about the organi%ational structure of the educative
institutions and the management of the teaching to "romote the institutional develo"ment+
,n this module( the students *ill get basic )no*ledge of the organi%ational structure of the
educative institutions in its different as"ects such as- si%e( hierarchical and regulation(
determining the basic roles of the directives( teachers( headteachers( ins"ectors( just in case
that in their *or) have the necessity of develo"ing any of these roles+
The "resent module is formed by three moments in *hich *e articulate the research( the
theoretical e#"lanation and the formulation of "ro"osal alternatives to im"rove the .uality of
the organi%ational and *or)ing roles in the educative institutions+
First Moment+/ To characteri%e of the organi%ational reality of the educative institutions of
!asic and 0igh school Curriculum levels *hich *ill enable the students to diagnose the
organic and *or)ing conditions in *hich the education is involved+
Second Moment+ / ,nter"retation( analysis and theoretical contrasting of the collected
information about the organi%ational and management necessities *hich are "lanned in
every educative institution+
Third Moment+ / At this moment the students *ill design a creative *or) *hich must include
the best "ro"osal alternatives about the organi%ational and management of the teaching and
the efficient *or) of the teachers in the educational institutions+
4. PROBLEM STATEMENT
The organi%ational and Management of the teaching is a "roblem related to the structure of
the educative institutions and the efficiency in the daily accom"lishment of the roles of every
member of the educative institutions+

,n this as"ect there are some difficulties *hich are affecting the organi%ation and
management of the teaching( they are-
3
'ittle "artici"ation of the teachers of the English language
'ittle commitment *ith the "rofession( the institution and the community
'ittle )no*ledge of the organi%ational structure of the educative institutions
'imited )no*ledge of the la* and regulation that rule the *or)ing of the educative
institutions
Restricted )no*ledge of the role that the staff should accom"lish in the educative
institution that could be as teachers( headteachers( ins"ectors or "rinci"al+
The teaching is "erformed *ith an authoritarian leadershi"
These difficulties have many causes *hich are-
'ittle )no*ledge of the additional activities that teachers must "erform
'ittle information about the organi%ational structure of the educative institutions
'ittle teacher1s interest about the educative institutions regulation
Tiny "rofessional formation related to the organi%ation and management of the
teaching
As a conse.uence of these difficulties the teachers are not involved in the institutional
activities neither they "artici"ate *ith commitment in them+
To im"rove the teacher1s commitment in the institution( the "rofessional must get )no*ledge
and e#"eriences about the organi%ation and management of the educative institutions to be
involved in directive staff and also to *or) in different roles into the teaching+
5. TRANSFORMATION OBECT
The limited "rofessional formation of the English teachers in the field of organi%ation and
management of the teaching( the little interests and concern of them to )no* the la*s and
regulations of the educational institutions regard to their organi%ation and functionality and
the lac) of commitment of the teachers *ith their "rofession( the institution and the
community( have restricted the net*or) of the educative institutions *ith the community+
4
Conse.uently the teachers do not "artici"ate *ith a formal commitment( they have a slight
)no*ledge about la*s and regulations of educational institutions and most of them "erform
an authoritarian leadershi"+
,n order to( the undergraduates of the English 'anguage career "erform their "rofession *ith
commitment( efficiency and interests in the educational institutions is necessary that they
count *ith a good )no*ledge and e#"eriences about the organi%ation and management of
the teaching and be able to be "art of the directive staff and manage an educational
institution+
!. "STIFICATION
The module $Organi%ation and Management of the teaching& has the "ur"ose of enable the
future "rofessionals of the English language career to develo" )no*ledge( abilities and s)ills
in the organi%ation and management of the teaching in the educative institutions+
The theoretical references and "ractice about the educative management *ill let the
students- to evidence( analy%e critical and refle#ively the organi%ational and management
necessities of the educative institutions( to )no* the roles of the directive staff and state
"ro"osals to im"rove the organi%ation and management in the educational institutions and
the efficiently *or) as teachers+
2ith the )no*ledge of the English language and its scientific/technical a""lication ( the
future "rofessionals *ill also be able to "resent and e#"ose their research *or)s in English+
#. OBECTI$ES
To find out and analy%e the "roblematic of the organi%ational and management of the
educational institutions of the basic and Sigh school Curriculum levels+
To gather information about the best models of organi%ational and management of the
educational institutions+
To state "ro"osal alternatives of im"rovement to organi%e and manage educational
institutions efficiently+
5
%. PROFESSIONAL PRACTICES
They are "art of the management staff of the educational institutions( language institutes
and academies+
They "ro"ose *ith enough arguments changes in the organi%ational system of the
educational institutions+
They formulate "ro"osals about organi%ational and regulations to im"rove the
functionality of the educational institutions
They manage the English language in its four s)ills
They translate documents about organi%ational and management of the educational
institutions from S"anish into English and vice versa+
&. RESEARC' PROCESS.
3ist the students *ill analy%e the "roblematic about organi%ation and management of the
educational institutions of !asic and 0igh School Curriculum levels and this *ill let them to
diagnose the organic functional conditions of the educational institutions+
This research *ill be develo"ed in three moments-
Fist Moment+/ Problematic diagnose of the organi%ational and management of the
educational institutions of !asic and 0igh School Curriculum levels+
Second Moment+/ ,nter"retation( analysis and theoretical contrasting of the information
about the organi%ational and management of the educational institutions of the 'oja city+
Third Moment+/ 4etermination of the alternatives to build the "ro"osals of im"rovement of
the organi%ational and management of the educational institutions+
(). T'EORETICAL REFERENCES
FIRST MOMENT
5+ 0OR,6O7TA' A74 8ERT,CA' STR9CT9RES
:+ 3ROM ,74,8,49A' A74 PRORAMMAT,C ACT,O7 TO ORA7,6AT,O7A' REA',7ME7T
;+ OR,,7ATOR O3 T0E <<0OR,6O7TA' ORA7,6AT,O7==
>+ T0E 0OR,6O7TA' ORA7,6AT,O7 MA7A,7 A 0OR,6O7TA' RE8O'9T,O7
?+ E49CAT,8E ,7ST,T9T,O7S AS ORA7,6AT,O7S
6
?+5+ T0E STR9CT9RE O3 A7 E49CAT,8E CE7TER
?+:+ CO7CEPT O3 STR9CT9RE
?+;+ 4,ME7S,O7S O3 T0E STR9CT9RE
?+;+5+ S,6E
?+;+:+ COMP'E@,TA
?+;+;+ 3ORMA',6AT,O7
6.3.4. MEC0A7,SM O3 COOR4,7AT,ON
Educational 'a*
Entertainment
Challenges
SECON* MOMENT
B+ MA79A' O3 397CT,O7S
B+ 5+ MA79A' O3 397CT,O7S O3 T0E STRATE,C S9MM,T
B+:+ MA79A' O3 397CT,O7S O3 T0E M,44'E ',7E
B +;+ MAM9A' O3 397CT,O7S O3 T0E OPERAT,8E 79C'E9S
Education
Places
T'IR* MOMENT
C+ T0EOR,ES O3 E49CAT,O7A' MA7AEME7T
C+5+ 4,ST,79,S0,7 E49CAT,O7A' 'EA4ERS0,P A74 MA7AEME7T
C+:+ CO7CEPT9A',S,7 E49CAT,O7A' MA7AEME7T
C+;+ T0E RE'E8A7CE O3 T0EORA TO OO4 PRACT,CE
C+>+ 3ORMA' MO4E'S
C+D+ MA7AER,A' 'EA4ERS0,P
C+?+ CO''E,A' MO4E'S
C+B+ PO',T,CA' MO4E'S
C+C+ S9!JECT,8E MO4E'S
C+E+ AM!,9,TA MO4E'S
'ifestyles
3amily life
((. MET'O*OLO+,
7
To develo" the research *or) about organi%ation and management of the teaching *e *ill
do the follo*ing activities-
First Moment
To find out about the causes and factors that intervene in the organi%ation and management
of the teaching *e *ill do the follo*ing activities-
Chec)ing the basic bibliogra"hy about the theme
Elaboration of the instruments
rou" or "air *or) to develo" the "roblematic and the causes and factors that are
im"lied
,ndividual and grou"able "resentations
Presentation and e#"osition of the re"orts
4iscussions( role "lays( "anels and forums
Practices of the English language in a communicative conte#t
Second Moment
To develo" the systemati%ation of the information *e *ill do the follo*ing activities-
Analysis and inter"retation of the collected information
Contrasting of the found information *ith the theoretical references
Study and analysis of the theoretical references
A""licability of the theoretical references *ith the results
Presentation and e#"osition of the re"orts
Systemati%ation of the information
2riting re"orts
'aboratory "ractices to develo" the basic linguistic s)ills of the English 'anguage
Third Moment
To determine the alternatives of im"rovement about the organi%ation and management of
the teaching *e *ill do the follo*ing activities-
Systemati%ation and discussion of the information
,ndividual and grou" "resentations
Plenaries and "anels about the theme
8
Presentation and e#"osition of the final re"ort
Practice of the English language
9se of the technology
2riting essays in the English language
(2. S"PPORTIN+ -OR.S'OPS
Organi%ation and Management of the Teaching FDGG 0ours( ;5 Credits H
S"ea)ing 7ative 2or)sho" F DG hours( ; creditsH
4iscursive 'anguage Practice 2or)sho" F:D hours 5(D creditsH
(3. ACCRE*ITIN+ RES"LTS
Tas)s( lessons( home*or)( listening( s"ea)ing( reading and *riting activities(
"resentations( students1 attendance and others+
A re"ort about the "roblematic of the theme
A re"ort including the contrastation of the "roblematic *ith the theoretical references+
A re"ort that systemati%es the "roblematic of the organi%ational and management of the
teaching in the educative institutions in !asic and 0igh School Curriculum levels+
(4. E$AL"ATION/ +RA*IN+ AN* ACCRE*ITIN+
The evaluation- ,t *ill be "ermanent( that is to say daily( systematic and "rocedural+ ,t *ill let
us to analy%e critical and creatively the develo"ment of the teaching/learning "rocess to
guide and im"rove the methodological( research activities and theory/conce"tual activities
*hich have been established in the module "lanning+
The grading and accrediting- 2e *ill ta)e into account all the "ro"osed activities for each
moment in relation to the before "arameters established-
2ritten tas)s ;GI ;
,ndividual and grou" "artici"ation :DI :+D
Jno*ledge and "erformance in "resentations :DI :+D
9
Attendance tas)s :GI :
Total 5GG I K
5G
10
(5. BIBLIO+RAP',
5+ !ARAM( Michael and 3'EM,7 Michael( 'anguage 'earning in ,ntercultural
Pers"ective+ Cambridge+ :GG>
:+ CARTER( Ronald and McCART0A+ Michael( E#"loring S"o)en English+ Cambridge+
:GG>
;+ CE'CE/M9RC,A( Marianne( and O'S0TA,7( Elite+ 4iscourse and conte#t in
'anguage teaching+ Cambridge :GG>
>+ 3ARRE'( Mar) *ith ROSS,( 3ranca and CER,A7,( Regina( The 2orld of English(
'ongman+ :GG>
D+ 0ATC0( Evelyn+ 4iscourse and 'anguage Education+ Cambridge :GG;
?+ 0,7JE'( Eli+ Culture in Second 'anguage Teaching and 'earning Cambridge :GG>
B+ O1 4E''( 3elicity( English PA7ORAMA :+ A course for advanced learners
Cambridge+
C+ R,C0AR4S( Jac) C+ and TARRE'' Thomas S+ C+ Professional 4evelo"ment for
'anguage Teachers Cambridge :GGD
E+ Organi%aciLn y estiLn de la 4ocencia( Com"ilaciLn de 4ra+ Teresa Arias( Mg+ Sc+
Rogelio Castillo y 4r+ Jorge Mogrovejo
5G+ Manual de funciones Administrativas( Autores- Mg Sc+ 0ugo Cueva( Mg+ Sc+ MiltLn
Mlvare%
55+ Estructura Organi%ativa del Colegio Militar $Tcrn+ 'auro uerrero& 4ra+ Marcia Criollo
5:+ 3ast Trac) to 3irst Certificate( Alan Stanton and Mary Ste"hens
5;+ 7e* educational 'a*( Ministerio de EducaciLn y Cultura+
11
MATRI0 OF T'E MO*"LE
IN$ESTI+ATI$E
PROCESS
T'EORETICAL REFERENCES ACA*EMIC AN* RESEARC'
STRATE+IES
PERIO*S
AN* *ATES
ACRE*ITIN+ RES"LTS
Fist Moment
To 4iagnose of the
organi%ational and
management of the
teaching in the
educational
institutions
5+ 0OR,6O7TA' A74 8ERT,CA'
STR9CT9RES
:+ 3ROM ,74,8,49A' A74
PRORAMMAT,C ACT,O7 TO
ORA7,6AT,O7A' REA',7ME7T
;+ OR,,7ATOR O3 T0E
<<0OR,6O7TA' ORA7,6AT,O7==
>+ T0E 0OR,6O7TA' ORA7,6AT,O7
MA7A,7 A 0OR,6O7TA'
RE8O'9T,O7
?+ E49CAT,8E ,7ST,T9T,O7S AS
ORA7,6AT,O7S
?+5+ T0E STR9CT9RE O3 A7
E49CAT,8E CE7TER
?+>+ CO7CEPT O3 STR9CT9RE
?+D+ 4,ME7S,O7S O3 T0E
STR9CT9RE
?+?+ S,6E
?+?+5+ COMP'E@,TA
?+?+:+ 3ORMA',6AT,O7
6.6.3. MEC0A7,SM O3
COOR4,7AT,ON
Entertainment
Challenges
Pedagogical Agreement
Reading and critical analysis of
theoretical references
rou" *or)
Pair *or)
Roles "lays
3ield research
Processing of the information
'istening( s"ea)ing( Reading(
*riting( grammar and
vocabulary strategies
'aboratory "ractice activities
3rom March
C
th
to A"ril
:;
rd

Tas)s
'essons
0ome*or)
'istening( s"ea)ing( reading
and *riting activities
Presentations
StudentsN Attendance
A re"ort for the 5st moment
Total hours of the first moment- 5>: 0 O E credits
IN$ESTI+ATI$E
PROCESS
T'EORETICAL REFERENCES ACA*EMIC AN* RESEARC'
STRATE+IES
PERIO*S
AN* *ATES
ACRE*ITIN+ RES"LTS
Second Moment
,nter"retation(
analysis and
contrastation of the
collected
information *ith the
theoretical
references about
the organi%ation
and management
of the teaching in
the educational
institutions of the
'oja city+
B+ MA79A' O3 397CT,O7S
B+ 5+ MA79A' O3 397CT,O7S O3 T0E
STRATE,C S9MM,T
B+:+ MA79A' O3 397CT,O7S O3
T0E M,44'E ',7E
B +;+ MAM9A' O3 397CT,O7S O3
T0E OPERAT,8E 79C'E9S
Education
Places
Reading and critical analysis of
theoretical references
rou" *or)
Pair *or)
Roles "lays
3ield research
Processing of the information
'istening( s"ea)ing( Reading(
*riting( grammar and
vocabulary strategies
'aboratory "ractice activities
3rom A"ril
:?
th
to June
>
th


Tas)s
'essons
0ome*or)
'istening( s"ea)ing(
reading and *riting
activities
Presentations
StudentsN Attendance
A re"ort for the :nd
moment
Total hours of the second moment- 5>: O E credits
13
IN$ESTI+ATI$E
PROCESS
T'EORETICAL REFERENCES ACA*EMIC AN* RESEARC'
STRATE+IES
PERIO*S
AN*
*ATES
ACRE*ITIN+
RES"LTS
Third Moment
To Set u" "ro"osal
alternatives to
im"rove the
organi%ation and
management of
the teaching+
C+ T0EOR,ES O3 E49CAT,O7A'
MA7AEME7T
C+5+ 4,ST,79,S0,7 E49CAT,O7A'
'EA4ERS0,P A74 MA7AEME7T
C+:+ CO7CEPT9A',S,7 E49CAT,O7A'
MA7AEME7T
C+;+ T0E RE'E8A7CE O3 T0EORA TO
OO4 PRACT,CE
C+>+ 3ORMA' MO4E'S
C+D+ MA7AER,A' 'EA4ERS0,P
C+?+ CO''E,A' MO4E'S
C+B+ PO',T,CA' MO4E'S
C+C+ S9!JECT,8E MO4E'S
C+E+ AM!,9,TA MO4E'S
C+5G+ C9'T9RA' MO4E'S
'ifestyles
3amily
Reading and critical analysis
of theoretical references
rou" *or)
Pair *or)
Roles "lays
3ield research
Processing of the information
'istening( s"ea)ing( Reading(
*riting( grammar and
vocabulary strategies
'aboratory "ractice activities
3rom June
Bth to July
;G
th

Tas)s
'essons
0ome*or)
'istening( s"ea)ing(
reading and *riting
activities
Presentations
StudentsN
Attendance
A final re"ort that
includes the three
moments and the
"ro"osal
alternatives
Total hours of the third moment- 5>5 O E credits
4uration of the Module- >:D hours
14
DIAGNOSIS OF THE
ORGANIZATIONAL AND
MANAGEMENT OF THE TEACHING
IN THE EDUCATIONAL
(. 'ORI1ONTAL AN* $ERTICAL STR"CT"RES2 T'E *,NAMICS
OF OR+ANI1ATION IN 'I+'ER E*"CATION
The ORA7,6AT,O7 of institutions of higher education has been seen as o"erating *ith
ambiguous "ur"oses in vertically oriented structures that are only loosely connected+ The
rationale for this ambiguity is t*ofold- F5H to allo* for creative thin)ing( and F:H to res"ect
$and even encourage& the autonomy of different disci"lines+ !ut ambiguity of "ur"ose and
vertical organi%ation are at odds *ith thin)ing and e#"ectations in an era of accountability
and assessment( in *hich cross/institutional( or hori%ontal( re"orting and measurement of
institutional "erformance are highly regarded and increasingly demanded+ Student affairs
divisions are "articularly challenged( given their ambiguous "ur"ose Fto su""ort holistic
student learning and develo"mentHP the "erce"tion that they are su""ort services( rather
than core academic functionsP and their "rimarily historically and traditionally framed
organi%ational structures+ Student affairs divisions are a""ro"riately scrutini%ed to dis"lay
ho* their ambiguous "ur"ose is manifested in "ractice via organi%ational effectiveness and
res"onsiveness to institutional needs( and through documented contributions to the
develo"ment and achievement of desired student outcomes+ The ability of student affairs
functional areas to document and demonstrate value "rovides a "ertinent o""ortunity to
reconsider the organi%ational nature of student affairs "rograms( services( activities( and
systems of su""ort+
The fre.uent and increasingly "redictable accusation that institutions of higher education
o"erate in QsilosQ is based on the "rimarily vertical organi%ation of those institutionsP their
various schools( colleges( business o"erations( student su""ort services( real estate and
economic develo"ment arms( foundations( and athletic "rograms o"erate in "arallel *ith one
another( more focused on "romoting their o*n internal goals and objectives than on
adhering to( elucidating( or accom"lishing broader institutional "ur"oses+ ,t is a common
observation that "rofessors in any disci"line have a greater sense of community and
connection *ith "rofessors in that same disci"line in other institutions than *ith "rofessors in
other disci"lines in their o*n institution+ Similarly( student affairs "rofessionals *ho find
career contentment in residence life are more li)ely to collaborate locally( regionally( and
nationally *ith others *ho do the same *or) rather than to see) interdisci"linary
o""ortunities on their home cam"uses+
This vertical organi%ational structure is reinforced by centrifugal forces that create
decentrali%ation and locate governance( res"onsibility( and resources "eri"herally( rather
than centrallyP funding models in many institutions base the allocation of resources on credit
16
hours( *hich drives money into individual schools based on student enrollments in courses
FEhrenberg :GGGH+ Schools *ithin larger institutions com"ete *ith each other for scarce
resources and almost inevitably( and often by necessity( "romote their o*n interests rather
than those of the university at large+ Centrali%ed com"onents of the institution $such as most
student affairs offices( "rograms( and services& may struggle for resources in this conte#t+
,n these vertically organi%ed institutions( there are im"ortant Fand essentialH hori%ontal
forcesP similarly( given the centrifugal( decentrali%ed nature of decision making and resource
allocation( there are nonetheless certain centri"etal forces that "ull some decision ma)ing(
governance( and control to the center of the institution+ 7otable hori%ontal forces include( of
course( central administration( institutional accreditation( overall financial management( and
certain levels of "olicy+ !ut develo"ment( alumn relations( communications and mar)eting(
enrollment management( and other core institutional functions are often "erformed to a
greater or lesser e#tent by individual schools as *ell as by the institution as a *hole+
Similarly( central funding and "olicy develo"ment are centri"etal forces /but the strength of
those forces varies by institutional ty"e( history( culture( and "erce"tions of the need for
"ublic accountability+
The inherent and necessary tensions bet*een these hori%ontal and vertical elements
generate and sustain com"le#ity in institutions of higher education+ !ecause each institution
is of a "articular ty"e and e#ists in its o*n conte#t Fi+e+( "ublic( "rivate( rural( urban( etc+H( the
vertical and hori%ontal structures vary in number and dimensions from institution to
institutionP but because they are fundamental "arts of "ostsecondary infrastructure( they
each e#ist in some form at every institution
Student affairs "rograms have a strong centri"etal "ull and are( of necessity( hori%ontalP
since they Ftheoretically( at leastH address the needs of all students in all schools( o"timally
they *or) across $and have an integrative role in relation to& the vertical structures( or silos+
The hori%ontal nature of student services is easy to see- student health and counseling
"rograms( recreation centers( student health insurance "lans( unions and student centers(
and dining services are good e#am"lesP any *ould be difficult Fand inefficient and
du"licativeH to im"lement se"arately in individual schools+ Similarly( student "olicy
Fes"ecially( academic and non/academic conductH must be hori%ontal+ 3irst/year e#"erience
and transition "rograms( general education courses( student government( and lo*er division
academic advising are other hori%ontal "rograms and servicesP "roviding them often re.uires
collaboration bet*een academic and student affairs+
17
The identification of desired student learning outcomes creates a ne* hori%ontal force//
accountability for "roducing a grou" of outcomes for all students( regardless of their major(
year in school( division( or school of enrollment *ithin the institution+ This hori%ontal force(
finding its roots in accountability( challenges student affairs leadershi" to ado"t a curricular
a""roach to the assessment( conce"tuali%ation( "lanning( im"lementation( and evaluation of
"rogrammatic and student learning outcomes+
2. FROM IN*I$I*"AL AN* PRO+RAMMATIC ACTION TO
OR+ANI1ATIONAL REALI+NMENT
Student affairs efforts to function hori%ontally have been highlighted in actions to develo"
learning communities( "romote "ositive and develo"mentally sound transitions into and out
of the institution( foster academic "artnershi"s( and res"ond to calls for movement a*ay
from vertical FsiloH functioning+ An e#amination of these efforts reveals strong individual
commitments to hori%ontal functioning in s"ite of organi%ational constraints+ ,ndividual efforts
and resource/intensive "rograms illustrate the o""ortunities of im"lementing hori%ontally
oriented functions and develo"ing a more hori%ontal institutional orientation( but do not
normally instigate or sustain organic organi%ational change that s"urs the systematic
brea)ing or *ea)ening of vertical barriers and forces+ Organi%ationally s"ea)ing( efforts to
su""ort greater hori%ontal functioning are often based u"on the e#ercise of astute "olitical
savvy by ins"ired leaders and )ey influencers of o"inion and through the force of strong
human relations( rather than through "olicy/driven( mission/centered( or other*ise e#"licit
e#"ectations for transdivisional collaboration or systematic change in the structure( beliefs(
or culture of the organi%ation FSchroeder 5EEEH+ 2hile student affairs alone cannot
reasonably be e#"ected to alter the vertical and disci"linary structure of the academy Fand
cannot im"ose such a restructuring on academic or other divisionsH( much can be done
through engagement in the organic and systematic realignment of "rograms and services
that su""ort student learning and success( including( but not limited to( traditional student
affairs "rograms and services+ Such organi%ational realignment can be fostered by a
curricular a""roach to su""orting the student e#"erience through "rograms( services( and
"olicy+
A curricular a""roach to su""orting the student e#"erience hel"s to generate a sco"e and
se.uence of "rogrammatic activities centered u"on desired student learning outcomes+ 3or
e#am"le( student affairs officers can determine the desired learning of students at different
develo"mental levels and connect those desired learning goals to "rogrammatic and
organi%ational elements+ The aim *ould be to have a vertical force for organi%ational
18
functioning that guides the e#tent to *hich each "rogram should contribute to the ac.uisition
of learning objectives( and a hori%ontal force that "ushes "rograms to best meet the evolving
develo"mental and learning needs of students as they "rogress through the institution+
A curricular a""roach to su""orting the student e#"erience *ithin student affairs allo*s for
a""ro"riate vertical activity *hile insisting on balanced hori%ontal functioning+ The former
occurs *hen each de"artment *ithin the division is held to its res"ective disci"line/s"ecific
standards+ The latter( ho*ever( gains durability through im"osing a common set of
e#"ectations across de"artments and then( through assessment of learning outcomes(
accruing a body of evidence to gauge accountability+ The centrifugal forces of traditional
de"artmental functioning( such as budgeting and tradition( are balanced by the centri"etal
force of common learning objectives o*ned collectively by student affairs//*hich( in turn( is
embedded *ithin overall institutional accountability for desired student outcomes+ A similar
analysis $and a""roach& *ould( of course( a""ly more generally to the institution=s overall
su""ort for student success( *hich de"ends u"on the integration of learning e#"eriences as
much as de"th of learning in a disci"line or major+
Student affairs organi%ational realignment( then( is based u"on the centri"etal force of
common learning outcome objectives+ As an e#am"le( rather than the develo"mental
com"etency of ability to manage conflict being the "rimary res"onsibility of those s"ecially
trained in conflict management( outcomes associated *ith conflict management are shared
across a system hori%ontally+ Staff members o*n collectively the outcome of assisting
students *ith managing conflict+ The vertically organi%ed units that direct service delivery
must realign themselves to *or) together to meet the student learning outcome of conflict
management s)ills+ ,n curricular thin)ing( the modules( or service delivery units( must both
share a common outcome and array their curriculum to be a""ro"riately develo"mental and
se.uential+ This is not the same thing as saying that every conflict resolution effort must be
the sameP instead( it says that conflict resolution "rograms and activities must be conscious
of one another=s e#istence( coordinated in a sound *ay that demonstrates integrity of
"ur"ose( and designed( delivered( and assessed collaboratively+
These "rinci"les suggest the need for a level of organi%ation and hori%ontal integration of
services that far e#ceeds traditional Qcoo"erationQ or QcollaborationQ *ithin divisions of
student affairs//and for similar integration among activities that su""ort learning "rovided
throughout the institution FJuh 5EE?H+ Achieving such hori%ontal integration is the "rimary
functional characteristic of an institution for *hich the entire cam"us has become a learning
community FJeeling :GG>HP it is that integration that "ermits learning to occur( as 2hitt
19
F5EEEH has said( in Qevery noo) and crannyQ of the institution+ 0ori%ontal integration su""orts
the cou"ling of "rograms( services( and activities in time( s"ace( and geogra"hy+
0ori%ontal "rogrammatic and curricular organi%ation is e#"ressed in a myriad of tangible
*ays+ The change from focus on *or)force develo"ment to lifelong career s)ills in
community colleges over the "ast thirty years offers many e#am"les of ho* hori%ontal
lin)ages enhance higher education "ractice+
,n order for universities to create a com"rehensive culture of evidence that actively su""orts
outcome/oriented learning by the *hole student( "rograms and systems of su""ort must be
develo"ed across disci"lines F!ra#ton :GG?H+ That "ractice must include and integrate
services and learning o""ortunities traditionally located in divisions of student affairs *ith
courses of study traditionally in academic affairs+ 7o longer can Qfull learningQ be offered only
to those students *ho re.uest it or have the instincts to search it out+ ,f institutions of higher
education are to create and "rovide to the "ublic a body of evidence that documents student
learning and develo"ment across the academy( then they must intentionally develo" and
im"lement com"rehensive learning o""ortunities that lin) faculty to staff and courses to out/
of/classroom learning activities+ 4evelo"ing these lin)ages is an interde"endent( energy/
re.uiring "rocess that results in tighter cou"lingP once tighter cou"ling is achieved( additional
energy Fmonitoring( assessment( leadershi"H is necessary to maintain and strengthen it+
That is( institutions illustrate strategies for su""orting not only student engagement *ith
content( but also the more com"rehensive effort to create a "ur"oseful learning environment
$a to"ogra"hy of learning& that e#"ects learning to ha""en every*here and all the time+ That
sort of learning results in learners *ho )no* more than Q*hatPQ they )no* Q*hy( *hen( and
under *hat circumstancesQP they are intellectually curious and are more li)ely to transfer that
set of com"etencies across their life s"ans+
,t is in res"ect to "olicy and culture that colleges and universities do or do not embrace the
o""ortunity that assessment "rovides to lin) high standards *ith daily "ractice and student
outcomes+ Assessment( as a strong hori%ontal force and tool( both reflects and demands
closer cou"ling in the interest of "roducing and documenting desired student outcomes+
Achieving such cou"ling re.uires the e#ercise of significant institutional *ill( *hich in itself is
a combined force of variable ca"acity( *ill( and strength//*hat may be considered
institutional "ur"ose+ ,nstitutional "ur"ose is generated and sustained in direct "ro"ortion to
elements of institutional culture and "olicy+ ,f there is focused and "o*erful institutional
"ur"ose( assessment can become a strong force to bring dis"arate elements of the cam"us
together in the interest of common goalsP absent such strong "ur"ose( though( assessment
20
can seem incidental( sus"icious( and annoying+ 2ithout the continuous a""lication of energy
and institutional *ill( cou"ling *ea)ens( lin)ages dissolve( and( through a )ind of
organi%ational entro"y( the centrifugal overcomes *hat is centri"etal and vertical structures
dominate hori%ontal ones+
Ensuring transformative institutional environments *here learning ha""ens every*here and
all the time( then( re.uires intentionality+ ,ntentionality can be articulated through a "rocess
of organi%ational reinvigoration and strategic realignment+ Organic transformation often
begins *ith institutional self/assessment( a "rocess that engages "ractitioners= critical self/
reflection as to current "ractices( cultural e#"ectations( and e#isting communication and
collaborative "ath*ays+ ,dentification of current "ractices is a "recursor to the develo"ment(
or affirmation( of commonly held desired student learning outcomes and "rograms
associated *ith those outcomes+ Overall student learning outcomes derive from the
institution=s mission( vision( and values//and from its commitments to students//not from a
restatement of e#isting "rogramsP that is( desired outcomes re"resent *hat should be( not
necessarily *hat has been or *hat is+ ,t focuses on the *ay that the institution=s *or) is( or is
not( aligned *ith its visionP that e#amination leads inevitably to .uestions of structure and
organi%ation+
The ability to do good *or) *ithin one=s disci"line or "rogram area must include both
com"etence in a s"ecific area of )no*ledge or function and commitment to hori%ontally
defined and broadly held student outcomes+ Just as a career counselor cannot focus
e#clusively on career content and counseling( but must also address the develo"ment of
cognitive com"le#ity and citi%enshi" s)ills( so a "hysicist must devote some of her attention
to su""orting student engagement( understanding and addressing student learning( and
assessing the contributions of her courses to critical thin)ing and "roblem/solving ca"acities+
!oth because of greater internal and e#ternal scrutiny and in su""ort of the desire of ethical
"rofessionals to do their best *or)( the articulation of desired learning outcomes and the
creation of a strong rationale for ho* "rograms and services address those outcomes are
essential to telling a convincing "erformance story+ The "rocess of develo"ing commonly
held student learning outcomes re.uires a strong centri"etal force along hori%ontal lines+
Common "lanning time( dialogue on beliefs( res"ect for disci"linary and other differences(
and a commitment to follo* through a "rocess to identify learning outcomes are necessary
com"onents of this "rocess+ Collaboration and common "ur"ose are further challenged( but
ultimately strengthened( *hen "rograms( services( and indeed all vertically organi%ed units
are then as)ed to define ho* their "rograms s"ecifically address the identified learning
21
outcomes+ The "rocess of creating common outcomes and then connecting "rograms(
services( and units *ill li)ely identify areas of strong cou"ling bet*een current activities and
desired learning( along *ith areas of *ea) cou"ling+ Of course not all "rograms( services( or
units *ill address each outcome in the same *ays or *ith the same em"hasis( but the
collective im"act of the *or) in all "rograms( services( and units should be aimed at
su""orting and advancing every desired outcome+
3. ORI+INATOR OF T'E 3'ORI1ONTAL OR+ANI1ATION4 OINS
*ELOITTE 5 TO"C'E
Ostroff is credited *ith originating the conce"t of Qthe hori%ontal organi%ation(Q *hich is
arguably the first actionable alternative to the functional vertical hierarchy that has
dominated since the industrial revolution+
A hori%ontal organi%ation is based on structuring organi%ations around the cross/functional
"rocesses that deliver value to the customer+ The conce"t has "roven to dramatically
im"rove "erformance along the dimensions of s"eed( customer satisfactionOres"onsiveness(
and efficiency and is no* being a""lied by hundreds of leading com"anies *orld*ide+
QOur clients are actively see)ing *ays to ma)e their organi%ations more com"etitive through
e/business( CRM( and ERP initiatives( yet they have not aligned their organi%ations to
function in these ne* environments $a hori%ontal organi%ation in many instances is the
ans*er+Q
0ori%ontal organi%ation has consistently been revealed as one of the most critical issues
according to numerous surveys+ Com"anies such as 3ord Motor Com"any( @ero#( !arclay=s
!an)( and American E#"ress have all transformed all or "ortions of their organi%ations along
*ith hundreds of other leading com"anies *orld*ide+
QThe entire organi%ation does not have to be designed hori%ontally(Q commented Ostroff(
Qbut sim"ly those areas *here this ma)es strategic sense( *here it=s com"etitively
advantageous to im"rove cross/functional "erformance $for e#am"le( *hen it=s im"ortant to
be .uic)er and more agile( to be more customer focused or to deliver integrated solutions+Q
22
4. T'E 'ORI1ONTAL OR+ANI1ATION2 -'AT T'E OR+ANI1ATION
OF T'E F"T"RE ACT"ALL, LOO.S LI.E AN* 'O- IT *ELI$ERS
$AL"E TO C"STOMERS
4.(. Cre6tin7 the 'ori8ont69 Or76ni86tion o: the F;t;re
The 0ori%ontal Organi%ation by 3ran) Ostroff discusses ho* effective organi%ations *ill be
organi%ed and managed in the future+ The traditional vertically controlled com"any is
outdated and cannot survive in today=s com"etitive global economy+ Ruality is the )ey
com"onent for success+ Customers *on=t "urchase "roducts or services that do not meet
their standards of high .uality+ 3uture organi%ations *ill focus on .uality( s"eed( customer
services and integrated solutions to "roblems+
At first glance( it=s easy to say this is nothing ne*+ There is general agreement that vertical
structures are too rigid and slo*+ An e#cessive level of authority reduces communication and
coordination of activities+
Ostroff recogni%es there is no one structure for each organi%ation+ Each organi%ation has to
evaluate its o*n environment and develo" an a""roach that fits its situation+ Most
organi%ations *ill have both hori%ontal and vertical divisions in their organi%ational structure+
This is *here the information "rovided in the boo) got my attention+
The transformation from a vertical organi%ation to a hori%ontal one is not an overnight eventP
it ta)es time+ Obtaining the "ro"er mi# of vertical and hori%ontal structure *ithin one
com"any is no easy tas)+ 0o*ever( case studies are used to illustrate com"anies that have
made the transition+ Although the hori%ontal organi%ation=s culture em"hasi%es training(
team*or)( em"loyee em"o*erment( loyalty and economic incentives based u"on
"erformance( the focus of the boo) is the role of management+
Processes and activities that directly affect "roducts or services are the main candidate for
hori%ontal structures+ !y identifying these core "rocesses( the focus for structure becomes
the entire "rocess not individual jobs+ ,n the ty"ical vertical organi%ation( these core
"rocesses *ill be organi%ed through the structure+ The hori%ontal organi%ation attem"ts to
bring them all together+ ,n other *ords( individual jobs and tas)s are organi%ed together as
teams and made res"onsible for the o"eration of that core "rocess+
23
Ostroff identifies 5: "rinci"les to follo* for the develo"ment and o"eration of hori%ontal
organi%ations+ Among the "rinci"les that are of "articular interest to human resource
managers are as follo*s-
Ma)e teams( not individuals( the cornerstone of organi%ational design and
"erformanceP
4ecrease hierarchy by eliminating non/value/added *or) and by giving team
members the authority to ma)e decisions directly related to their activities *ithin the
"rocess flo*P
Em"hasi%e multi"le com"etencies and train "eo"le to handle issues and *or) in
cross/functional areasP
Measure for end/of/"rocess "erformance objectives( as *ell as customer
satisfaction( em"loyee satisfaction and financial contributionP
!uild a cor"orate culture of o"enness( coo"eration and collaboration( a culture that
focuses on continuous "erformance im"rovement and values em"loyee
em"o*erment( res"onsibility and *ell/being+
5. MANA+IN+ A 'ORI1ONTAL RE$OL"TION
2hen a com"any moves from a traditionally vertical organi%ation to a more hori%ontal(
QflattenedQ entity( human resources= role is to refocus the troo"s / no* called teams or *or)
grou"s+
Q2ithin this revolution( "eo"le across the organi%ation are called on to assume more
accountability and e#ercise decision/ma)ing authority and to be trained in the a""lication of
self/managing "rinci"les+++Q *rites Ste"hen Covey in the introduction of The 0ori%ontal
Revolution- Reengineering Aour Organi%ation Through Teams( by Morris A+ raham and
Melvin J+ 'e!aron+
!ut *hat does that meanS 3or starters( it does not mean em"loyees *ho are blindly
follo*ing their leader( nor does it mean renegade entre"reneurs setting out on their o*n+
,n the best of *orlds( Covey *rites( cor"orate revolutions *ill yield invigorated em"loyees
*ho can *or) Qinterde"endently in cross/functional teamsQ and *ho are Qable to generate
creativity( "erformance and innovation beyond the total of their individual ca"acities+Q ,n the
24
*orst of *orlds( traditional *or)"laces turned inside/out can foster mistrust( "lummeting
morale( and general *or)force malaise+
5.(. -h6t<s in it :or me=
Role ambiguity is a fre.uently cited source of frustration+ An em"loyee *ho once could say(
Q, am a divisional vice "resident(Q and receive nods of a""arent understanding( no*
*onders( Q2ho am ,S 2hat does being a team member meanS 2hat does it re.uire of meS
0o* am , attached to the com"any and those around meSQ
etting em"loyees to buy/in to the notion of a reorgani%ed *or)"lace and to understand and
value their recast roles and marching orders is difficult( says 6andy 'eibo*it%( a "artner *ith
Conce"tual Systems ,nc+( a consulting firm in Silver S"ring( Md+ She=s seen many
com"anies *here Qit=s not al*ays clearQ *hat em"loyees are getting out of reorgani%ation+
QThe old em"loyment contract said that if you did a good job( you=d have a job for life+ The
ne* deal is that *or)ers get to e#"erience continuous learning and develo"ment(Q she
continues+ Along the *ay they also may im"rove their "ortfolios and their mar)etability in the
outside *orld+ !ut in the midst of a major transition( 'eibo*it% says( em"loyees= reactions to
those benefits may be QSo *hatSQ
The harsh reality is that em"loyees may not have a choice in *hether or not they *ill acce"t
the ne* deal+ ,ndeed( the first .uestion all em"loyees should as) is *hether they still belong
in the changing organi%ation+ QThey have a choice of becoming cynical and leaving the
com"any( or ta)ing advantage of the offer that they are given(Q 'eibo*it% notes+
5.2. -h6t>s missin7 in the ?;est :or s;ccess:;9 ch6n7e=
Authors raham and 'e!aron believe that the greatest challenge in moving to a hori%ontal
structure is ma)ing successful role transitions from Q"atriarchal careta)ing to shared
governance and "artnershi"s+Q
Organi%ations( they say( need to ensure that their managers and em"loyees have-
A clear "icture of the com"any=s future and the overall hori%ontal "ur"ose+
Clear e#"ectations about their ne* roles as individuals and as team members+
An understanding of ne* "rocesses and standards+
25
Training to carry out ne* res"onsibilities+
A )no*ledge of and res"ect for others= roles and res"onsibilities+
A common notion of ho* things are su""osed to *or)+
S)ills to reduce "otential conflict among team members+
The reali%ation that substantive change occurs slo*ly+
,n addition( management must be "re"ared / and trained / to model the ty"e of behavior that
*ill nurture social change in the organi%ational structure+ Paying mere li" service to the
Qreat Team SchemeQ *on=t cut it( the authors *rite+ QSome managers are li)e co*boy
actors in an old 2estern movie set( sitting on stationary *ooden horses( elbo*s( fla""ing(
"istols smo)ing( in front of the camera+Q
The authors also caution that Qtelling middle managers that they are going to be
coordinators( facilitators( boundary managers and coaches is not giving them anything that is
concrete+ The more a""ro"riate res"onse is that they are going to have to figure out *here
and for that they are needed+Q Em"loyees( *ith a little guidance( *ill have to do the same+
5.3. *e:inin7 com@etencies
etting "eo"le to define and value their s)ills and com"etencies( instead of their titles and
"aychec)s( is critical to the change "rocess+ ,n her consulting *or) *ith organi%ations li)e
'ever !rothers and Merc) Pharmaceutical( 'eibo*it% often uses a circular model that
Qestablishes a lin) bet*een *here the com"any is headed and *hat )inds of com"etencies
"eo"le need to develo" to be a "art of it+Q One version is designed for individuals and
another for teams+
The first ste" of the model involves defining the business strategy+ Q2e tal) about *hat
*idgets are going to loo) li)e three years from no*(Q 'eibo*it% says+ Q2e "roject *hat the
com"any *ill loo) li)e( *hat *ill give us added value( *hat the role of em"loyees *ill be+Q
The ne#t major ste" as)s em"loyees to assess themselves against a set of self/ or team/ or
com"any/defined com"etencies+ These com"etencies may be a set of broad characteristics
such as leadershi"( ada"tability and fle#ibility( or more finite s)ills( such as com"uter
a"titude( "roblem/solving s)ills and analytical abilities+
26
9sing an assessment form( individuals For team membersH gauge their o*n com"etencies(
then "rovide one co"y of the form to a boss or team leader+ Additional co"ies are given to
"eers or customers for their feedbac)+ The ans*ers( once scored and aggregated( give
em"loyees a "icture of *here they fit in the organi%ation+
QPeo"le need to be clear about *hat the organi%ation needs more of or less of+ Some "eo"le
have strengths here and *ea)nesses there(Q says+ QEm"loyees a""reciate )no*ing their
com"etencies because they ma)e clear *hat the "laying field is+ ,t sho*s that *e=re all
"laying by the same rules+ ,t ta)es us a ste" further and creates a common language for
diverse contributors+Q 3urther( *or)ing together *ith other em"loyees and managers to
define com"etencies hel"s build commitment and trust+
Once com"etencies are defined( em"loyees have a develo"ment discussion / focused on
continuous learning and career develo"ment / *ith the boss or team leader+ ,t=s an
o""ortunity to as)( Q0o* do , "ut in "lace a "lan to )ee" me For my teamH in line *ith the
organi%ation=s goalsSQ 'eibo*it% says+ The idea is to find a mutually satisfying "lan+
3inally( 'eibo*it%=s model incor"orates an a""lication stage+ QThis means more than just
sending a "erson to a training "rogram(Q she notes+ Q,t=s actual on/the/job trainingP it=s
*or)ing alongside someone else or shado*ing or mentoring them+ ,t=s e#"loring
nontraditional *ays to learn( because everyone doesn=t learn best in a classroom+ ,t=s about
discovering ho* each "erson learns best and then having them "ic) a *ay to achieve that
ty"e of learning+Q
5.4. LeAer te6ms ;@
One com"any using 'eibo*it%=s model to move from functional silos / such as mar)eting and
sales / into more focused team/based business "rocesses is 'ever !rothers+
After do*nsi%ing a""ro#imately :E "ercent of its *or)force( the Manhattan/based com"any
*ent to its em"loyees and as)ed *hat it could do to hel" them meet their "erformance
objectives+
The ans*ers revealed that the com"any needed to e#"lore ne* *ays of managing change
and measuring "erformance+ The em"loyees *anted a "rocess for setting team goals and
measuring their team=s success+
27
,nstead of using the *ord com"etencies( the com"any "refers the term success factors+
Across the business and at all levels( em"loyees got involved in defining the factors
necessary for 'ever=s future success+
'eibo*it% calls 'ever Qthe ultimate hori%ontal organi%ationQ because every "art of the
managerial "rocess today is tied into a team+ 3or e#am"le( the 4ove soa" "roduct line no*
includes teams of "eo"le from all areas of the business+ 3rom manufacturing to develo"ing
mar)eting "lans( to distributing the "roduct to stores( all team members *or) to*ard a
similar goal / such as reducing the cycle time in getting the "roduct off the assembly line( out
the door and into a customer=s hands+ Teams( not individuals( set their o*n "roject and
"roduction goals+
The ne* team orientation also means that mar)eting "ersonnel may have direct contact *ith
an e#ternal customer( such as the buyer for a su"ermar)et or discount drug chain /
something that *ouldn=t have ha""ened before+ One benefit has been a greater o""ortunity
for em"loyees to receive feedbac) and in"ut from their customers and colleagues+
Q,t=s a total com"any effort(Q says one 'ever em"loyee+ 2hatever the "roject( Qsales "eo"le
need to be able to *or) *ith mar)eting( *ho need to *or) *ith accounting( *ho need to
*or) *ith "roduct develo"ment+ +++ ,t=s all "art of learning to serve our customers better and
hel"ing em"loyees "erform better+Q
Se"arate teams are *or)ing on other goals( such as lin)ing re*ards and com"ensation+
'ever has found that money doesn=t drive "erformanceP career develo"ment o""ortunities
drive "erformance+
The 'ever restructuring is still in "rocess( and the com"any is scheduled to conduct a "ilot
test at a "lant in June( *ith a large/scale rollout slated for ne#t January+
5.5. The $69;e o: Comm;nic6tion
QAt first *e didn=t thin) the merging of cultures *as a big issue(Q Aor) says+ The organi%ation
already e#celled at the systems side of running a ban)/managing customer accounts(
maintaining a customer base( ac.uiring smaller ban)s and mortgage o"erations( etc+ / *hich
allo*ed it to increase assets *hile *hittling its *or)force+
Q2hat *e didn=t have(Q Aor) recalls( Q*as a system that communicated the organi%ation=s
value system and hel"ed our "eo"le understand the differences in the cultures from *hich
they came and ho* to develo" a comfort level in the ne* culture+Q Many em"loyees did not
28
have a vision of *hat *as im"ortant or valued in the ne* organi%ation+ The result *as a
huge "hiloso"hical rift+
5.!. The C6m@ *6Aid Process
To overcome the communication ga"( Aor) hel"ed initiate various reengineering "rocesses
throughout ,ntegra+ One of the "rocesses designed to hel" "eo"le brea) do*n the functional
silos and begin to o"erate in a team/based format *as a discussion session Aor) calls the
QCam" 4avid "rocess+Q
The first ste" involved *or)ing *ith management s"ecialists at 2illiam M+ Mercer ,nc+
Members of ,ntegra=s 0R grou"( for e#am"le( *ere as)ed to articulate their vision of the
de"artment=s function and their "erce"tion of the most "ressing needs of the larger
organi%ation+ The grou" as)ed .uestions li)e( Q2hat )ind of 0R function do *e needSQ
Q2hat is our vision of 0RS 0o* should human resources be aligned *ith the organi%ationSQ
Another ste" identified strategic trends of the core ban)ing business+ Q2e loo)ed at *hat
)inds of human ca"ital and ca"abilities the organi%ation needed to be able to accom"lish the
business "lan(Q Aor) says+
Aor) bro)e the em"loyees into eight cross/functional teams organi%ed around strategic
issues( such as "erformance management and streamlining the bureaucracy+ Among the
s"ecific goals *ere develo"ing individuals *ho *ere customer focused( and effective
e#ternal and internal communications for the overall organi%ation+ An entire team *as
dedicated to dealing *ith communication+
Aor) e#"lains that ,ntegra distinguishes itself from some of the large Qmoney/centeredQ
ban)s in the region by em"hasi%ing a community focus+ QOur niche is being a su"er
community ban) and understanding the needs of our customers+Q
Aor) encouraged the 0R staff to tal) face to face *ith ban) customers to get Qa line of sight
as to *hat the customers need and *ant( and the )inds of s)ills and services they *ant to
see *hen they come into oily ban)+Q
,n addition( she *anted other internal em"loyees / those *ho recruit( train or develo"
com"ensation and re*ard systems / to understand ho* the com"any=s vision and
ca"abilities aligned *ith ,ntegra=s customer needs and e#"ectations+
5.#. CrossBF;nction69 Comm;nic6tions
29
,nternally( the only real communication being done before the reengineering *as via "eriodic
ne*sletters from the mar)eting de"artment+ Q2e felt that *as not effective communication(Q
Aor) recalls+ The team decided to analy%e all e#isting communication "roducts+
Q2e audited every "iece of communication that *ent out / from forms to memos to
manuals(Q Aor) says( Qto find out =Are *e communicating consistentlyS 4o *e "resent a
unified imageS 4oes it really address our em"loyees= needsS=Q The audit sho*ed a
communication system *ith multi"le ga"s+
Today( ,ntegra has a formal "rocess of distilling information Qsound bitesQ to ensure
consistent messages throughout the com"any+ Team leaders and de"artment heads also
receive *ee)ly briefing sheets on )ey com"any ne*s+ A series of Qdevil=s advocate/ty"eQ
.uestions and ans*ers ensures that "eo"le *ho need to communicate a "articular message
understand it+
Another successful tool( Aor) says( is a Q"erformance score cardQ to measure financial and
nonfinancial success+ Q,t=s the glue that holds together our "erformance management
system+ ,t=s the *ay *e gauge ho* effectively *e=re achieving our objectives+Q
5.%. 'e99o/ Le:t '6nd=
etting "eo"le in a ban) / notorious for its traditional( vertically siloed functions / to change
their roles *as a real challenge( Aor) says+ QThe benefits "eo"le didn=t tal) to the
com"ensation "eo"le+ The com"ensation "eo"le "erceived that their function *as only to
develo" com" "rograms+ The "eo"le *ho delivered services in the field *eren=t integrated
*ith the benefits fol)s+ ,t *as e#tremely com"artmentali%ed( and a""eared that the left hand
didn=t )no* *hat the right hand *as doing+Q
Aor) recalls that many "eo"le *ere s)e"tical of the ne* "rocesses+ Although some did not
li)e being in teams( they *eren=t given an o"tion to get out+ One manager )e"t mourning her
old boss( saying( Q, *ish !ill *as still here and things *ere the old *ay+Q
Among the ,ntegra grou" *ere some *ho felt they lac)ed high/level recognition+ Although all
*ere at the "rofessional level( Qmany had never even s"o)en to u""er management(Q Aor)
says+ One brea)through *as having them "resent their "rogress re"orts and "lans directly to
e#ecutive management / something that *ould have been intimidating for individuals( but
became an e#citing challenge for the team+
30
Another grou" of em"loyees that 5C months earlier had been reluctant "artici"ants in the
change "rocess suddenly ta""ed into their creativity( Aor) says+ QThey "ut together a ra"
song to communicate their business results+Q The catchy lyrics allo*ed them to sho* they
had achieved .ualitative and .uantitative results *ith measurable cost savings+
One *oman in the benefits area( though doubting at first( became a cham"ion of the
reengineering "rocess after reading Reengineering the Cor"oration by Michael 0ammer and
James Cham"y+ 9ndergoing "rocess training at Mercer also hel"ed the *oman understand
the Q0R lingo(Q *hich Aor) admits is something many em"loyees *eren=t familiar *ith+
The Cam" 4avid "rocess brought about "ositive( more unified feedbac) *hich *as
Qe#tremely motivating(Q Aor) says( as *ell as a heightened sense of esteem and a
clarification of roles+ Q2hen the lights came on( that made it all *orth*hile+Q
QSuddenly( "eo"le *ho *ere =diamonds in the rough= came out and became stars+ They
finally felt li)e they *ere set u" to succeed+Q
5.&. Commitment to the C6;se
raham and 'e!aron believe that *hen "eo"le really get involved Qin the nature of their
changing roles( they gradually loosen u"( unfree%e their "erce"tions( broaden their thin)ing
and seriously consider effective actions+Q
,n the long run( they say( organi%ational success re.uires all "artici"ants to acce"t the
collective "ur"ose and goals as their o*n+ 2ithout a commitment to the cause( "eo"le tend
to "ursue their o*n agendas or Qthe *ay it=s al*ays been done+Q The res"onsibility of each
team member is to invest emotionally in the ne* organi%ation / and to live *ith the
conse.uences+
The hori%ontal organi%ation is intended to free em"loyees *ho have long *or)ed *ithin the
confines of functional de"artments and narro* job descri"tions+ ,deally( they *ill begin to
Qta)e on additional res"onsibilities such as cross/functional training( data gathering(
leadershi"( monitoring and self/correction+ They should thrive on autonomyP develo" a sense
of "ride( self/res"ect( dignity and a strong bond among themselves+Q
,n a 2ashington Post article on federal do*nsi%ing( Jane iles( a de"uty administrator *ith
the Agricultural Research Service( offers this advice- QChange is difficult for many fol)s(Q but
*or)ers facing big changes in their offices should Qste" u" to the table and be "art of the
31
"rocess+ ,f you=ve got .uestions( as) rather than *orry+ Aou might be *orried about
something you shouldn=t be+Q
32
INTERPRETATION, ANALYSIS AND
CONTRASTATION OF THE COLLECTED
INFORMATION WITH THE
THEORETICAL REFERENCES ABOUT THE
ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT OF
THE TEACHING IN THE EDUCATIONAL
INSTITUTIONS OF THE LOJA CITY.
33
!. E*"CATI$E INSTIT"TIONS AS OR+ANI1ATIONS
The develo"ment of societies brings the necessity to order the activities that need to be
reali%ed( thus a""ear a first organi%ation referring to the distribution of functions+ 3or the
develo"ment and com"le#ity of services the s"eciali%ed organi%ations have to com"lete
s"ecific tas)s directed to the accom"lishment of determined aims+
Any organi%ation is social because its origin and service "lace it into the social( although
they ac.uire s"ecific objectives in function of the social tas) assumed *ith time( so *e tal)
about "olitical( cultural( economical organi%ations+
According to the former arguments *e can say that $to organi%e educative institutions is to
"ut into relation the different elements of a reality in order to get the best reali%ation of an
educative "roject+
According to 4avid ,saacs( the educative organi%ation $is a grou" of e#act members *ith a
division of tas)s and res"onsibilities according to general educative objectives&+
,n this definition( the organi%ation is clearly established as a system *hich subsystems and
constitutive elements are interactive and interde"endent( and this means a mission( or
reason for being( common objectives( and an organi%ational structure( a regulation that
establishes hierarchy( functions( and s"ecific tas)s in relation to the educative object+
!.(. T'E STR"CT"RE OF AN E*"CATI$E CENTER
$2hen a ne* action is being "lanned or *hen the solution to a "roblem is being loo)ed for(
the immediate organi%er feels the necessity to analy%e the structure+ The roles of the
members and the relations bet*een them constitute the basic core of any action( because
the objectives and structure have a total corres"ondence and *e cannot conceive one
*ithout the other+ 2hen in a center *e discover that the hierarchical diagram is only a
decorative "a"er because there do not e#ist a real *or)ing relation bet*een the teachers(
there is more than routine *or) that ma)es that each teacher *or)s se"arately in their
34
classrooms *ith their grou" of students+ There is an obvious lac) of institutional objectives
so that there is no need of a structure+ Any model that is used is no more than a defined
theory( "ure scheme of a dramatic "iece in *hich it is costume to hide the inefficiency of the
organi%ation+
!.#. CONCEPT OF STR"CT"RE
Many times the hierarchy diagram reflects the structure of an organi%ation+ ,n each educative
center the structure *ill be different( because the tas)s *ill be organi%ed according to the
objectives( ta)ing into account the human resources and materials that e#ist in a given
moment( and therefore create distinct relations bet*een the grou"s or bet*een "eo"le+
March and Simon define the structure as a gathering of the models of behavior of the
organi%ation that are relatively stable and that change only very slo*ly+
Thom"son( follo*ing another a""roach( says T $the internal difference and the models of
relations of *hat *e call structure comes to refer to the structure as the basic mean for
*hich the organi%ation establishes limits and criteria for the efficient actuali%ation of its
members T delimiting res"onsibilities and establishing control over resources and other
materials&+
Another definition is of Jac)son Morgan( *ho defines the structure as T$the distribution of
"ositions of *or) and the administrative mechanisms that create a model of activities of *or)
in interrelation and allo*s the organi%ation to direct( coordinate and control its activities of
*or)+&
To define the constitutive elements of an organi%ation to re"resent the division of *or) and
the relations that are established bet*een them to determine( analy%e and reach institutional
objectives( constitute a structure that can be analy%ed from three basic dimensions- the si%e(
the com"le#ity and the formali%ation+
!.%. *IMENSIONS OF T'E STR"CT"RE
The organi%ations are created and develo" due to a com"le#ity and coo"eration that mean
reali%ing various grou" tas)s *ith a major effort and *ith a major .uality( since this
organi%ation builds itself on a structure based on the division of tas)s s"eciali%ing the "eo"le
rising their )no*ledge and abilities( differentiating grou"s to res"ond various necessities( to
coordinate each "erson and each unit and integrate the interest and efforts of each member
in the common march to*ards certain objectives+
35
To determine the dimensions of the structure there e#ist different "ositions( but *e *ill better
ta)e the one of 0all Richard that distinguishes three dimensions that( clearly delimited in the
structure( allo*( *hatever the unit be( ma)e a distinction bet*een one structure and another
that are-
!.%.(. SI1E
,t is advised to begin the analysis of the school structure *ith the si%e( because this is an
easy to "erceive basis and a )ey "iece to understand ho* much ha""ens in the organi%ation
and in its members+
The si%e is defined by the number of teachers( students( administrative and services staff
that intervene in the organi%ation( but to establish a coefficient of correlation it is "ossible to
ta)e the number of teachers for the total amount of students registered in the institution or
the total number of staff for the total amount of students( and it is "ossible to ma)e a relation
bet*een the t*o coefficient that al*ays reflect a macro image+
To resolve the "roblem of "art/time em"loyees 0all and Johnson recommend adding the
total time of these "eo"le and transform it to its e.uivalent in full/time+
Another im"ortant as"ect that the si%e reflects in the rationali%ation of staff( ta)ing it as the
scale of o"eration( is the o"timi%ation of human resources and the bettering of .uality in
education+
The si%e is also in correlation *ith the financial resources( since they constitute a
determining factor to reduce or increase the si%e of the structure+
!.%.2. COMPLE0IT,
One of the first "erce"tions that one ac.uires *hen analy%ing the structure of an
organi%ation is the com"le#ity that is re"resented by the hori%ontal( vertical and s"atial
differentiation bet*een the com"onents of an organi%ation and the interrelations or rules of
the behavior of the members( in the internal "rocesses and *ith the surroundings( that
re.uire levels of coordination and communication to achieve the efficient develo"ment of the
"ro"er activities of the institution+
2hen an organi%ation is created it is easy to coordinate the functions bet*een fe* "eo"le(
but *hereas the organi%ation increases in si%e difficulties a""ear( li)e the differentiation of
tas)s that is "ositive( but it is necessary to connect areas and integrate efforts a""reciating a
36
ne* coordinating tas)s that ma)es ne* units necessary+ This im"lies coordinators ma)ing
the hierarchic differentiation because the institution becomes more com"le#+
The com"le#ity refers to the differentiation bet*een the com"onents of an organi%ation( $it is
conceived as an effort of the grou" for the search for efficiency to achieve the objectives and
this brings differences in the behavior of the members( in the internal "rocesses and in the
relations bet*een the organi%ation and its surroundings&+
2e can easily identify three ty"es of com"le#ity- hori%ontal( vertical( and s"atial+
!.%.2.(. 'ori8ont69 *i::erenti6tion
This refers to the de"artmentali%ation in *hich the division of activities is re"resented(
according to the grade of s"eciali%ation of the "eo"le res"onsible for the o"eration grou"ing
that *ill e#ist( *hich needs a grade of coordination *ith the other de"artments+
The more "ositions and s"ecialties e#ist in the organi%ation the more com"le# before the
eyes of the observer+ The organi%ations gro* hori%ontally *hen they gro* in si%e and the
doing of the tas)s is subdivided+
!.3.2.2 $ertic69 *i::erenti6tion

This establishes hierarchy in the organi%ation+ 2hen *e reali%e an analysis of vertical
differentiation or design an organi%ation *e must not forget that the hierarchy is a
conse.uence of the hori%ontal organi%ation+ 2hereas the organi%ation gro*s( its objectives
are more numerous For the contraryH( the human dis"ersion and the necessity of integration(
coordination and communication are bigger+
The "erson res"onsible of a de"artment according to their s"eciali%ation has determined
functions and deals *ith a grou" of subordinated "eo"le *hose range of control has to be of
a feasible number and "ossible to deal *ith+
,n an educative institution the vertical differentiation in successive circles reaches three
levels+
The *irectiAe LeAe9 is constituted by the "eo"le *ho occu"y high functions inside the
school system and have the res"onsibility of the general structuring of teaching+ This level
signals the ultimate aims( ma)e the general action "lans( su"ervise( tutor and a""ly the
corrective means to reach the institutional objectives according to the total results+
37
The ECec;tiAe LeAe9 is constituted by the su"ervisors or ins"ectors and coordinators of the
different de"artment( *ho also de"end directly on the former level of *hich they can be
tutors+ ,ts function is to drive and control the "rocedures and efficiency in the educative
action and serve as a communicative line bet*een the former level and the o"erative level+
The O@er6tiAe LeAe9( in the case of an educative center it is constituted of the teacher( *ho
has the res"onsibility of "lanning( methodology( e#ecution and control over the contents that
are given to the students( *hose "roductivity de"ends on the efficiency of the teachers in the
"rocess+
Of the mentioned dimensions that com"le#ity is "robably *hat allo*s elaborating the
structural model or diagram *ith more security+ ,t ac.uires a functional character if it is
determined in the dimensions that formali%ation determines+
!.3.2.3. S@6ti69 *i::erenti6tion
,t is in relation *ith the s"ecifications of the center according to the "lace of the de"artments(
units( and environmental( "hysical sections and others+ ,t is a continuous .uantitative
variable that if not given the value according to its "lace( can cause "roblems such as a
brea) in the line of decision( difficulties in the central services( lac) of grou" interrelation( etc+
!.3.3 FORMALI1ATION
,t is the grade of regulation *ith *hich the "olicy of the institution regulates itself and the ty"e
of internal communication *ith *hich it *or)s+
3ormali%ation constitutes the variable that determines ho*( *hen and *ho has to reali%e the
tas)s+ ,t is another fundamental "art of a structure that establishes the norms to regulate the
o"eration( the tas)s and res"onsibilities that each de"artment has inside an institution+ ,t
facilitates the evaluation of the e#ecution of the former tas)s+
This *ay formali%ation is *hat establishes the norms and "rocedures to deal *ith situations
and conflicts created inside the organi%ation+ Even though it does not al*ays give solutions(
it serves as a basis for ma)ing decisions+
!.3.3.( SDstems o: o@er6tion o: the or76ni86tion
38
On another hand( inside the o"eration and formali%ation of an organi%ation *e can establish
various diagrams of flo*s of o"eration( coordination and communication that serve as a
basis to better the organi%ational structure+ !et*een the main ones *e can mention- System
of formal authority( System of regulated activity( System of informal communication( System
of *or) grou"( and System of decision ad/doc+
(. SDstem o: :orm69 6;thoritD
The line of formal "o*er lo*ering to hierarchy is re"resented by the diagram that serves to
establish and guide the structure and its o"eration according to the diagram ty"e+
This system can be e#"ressed by the follo*ing figure-

FaH- 3'O2 O3 3ORMA' A9T0OR,TA

2. SDstem o: Re7;96ted ActiAitD
$3igure FbH re"resents the organi%ation as a net of regulated flo*s of *or) of "roduction
through the o"erative nucleus of orders and instructions going do*n in the administrative
hierarchy to control the o"erative nucleus( of feedbac) information based on the results Fin a
system of administrative information or M,SH( and of information and advice coming from the
sides to the ma)ing of decision+ This is a vision of the organi%ation com"atible *ith the
traditional notions of authority and hierarchy( but( different from the first one( on that it
em"hasi%es standardi%ation more than direct surface+


39
FbH - 3'O2 O3 RE9'ATE4 ACT,8,TA

3. SDstem o: in:orm69 comm;nic6tion
This system is directly lin)ed to mutual adjusting+ !ecause the communication is informal it
does not have a hierarchic line+ This im"lies deceiving the authority canals+ ,t can function in
sim"le organi%ations but in com"le# ones this causes "roblems and there does not e#ist
consistency of communication( *hich very often does not involve res"onsibilities( it could
lead to legal "roblems+ According to Mit%berg the follo*ing figure re"resents this system-
FcH - SASTEM O3 ,73ORMA' COMM97,CAT,O7
4. SDstem o: EorF 7ro;@
This system consists of ma)ing grou"s or associations of *or)( not necessarily in order of
hierarchy but also in relation to the necessity of the organi%ation( this system is "roductive
*hen *e ta)e advantage of it to reali%e different activities such as "lanning( organi%ation or
to interchange e#"eriences and mutual evaluation+


40
FdH- SASTEM O3 2ORJ RO9P
5. SDstem o: *ecisions Ad 'oc
This system means that a decision of su"erior level is made through any member of the
organi%ation as a "rocess of innovation or im"rovementP it has to do *ith "artici"ation( self/
criticism( and "artici"ation+
FeH- SASTEM O3 4EC,S,O7S A4 0OC
!.3.4. MEC'ANISMS OF COOR*INATION
2hen *e tal) about the structure of the organi%ation it is fundamental to ta)e into
consideration the mechanisms of coordination to establish a system of division of *or) and
to coordinate it through certain mechanisms that according to Mint%berg can be- mutual
adjusting( direct su"ervision( standardi%ation of *or) "rocesses( standardi%ation of the
*or)ers1 s)ills and standardi%ation of *or) "roductions+
6G M;t;69 AdH;stin7
$Mutual adjusting allo*s the coordination of *or) by a sim"le "rocess of informal
communicationP it is used in general in sim"le organi%ation+ 2hen the organi%ation gro*s a
ne* mechanism of coordination is necessary+
IG *irect S;@erAision


41
4irect su"ervision is a mechanism of coordination that allo*s *atching over the activities of
a grou" of "eo"le to relation their *or) *ith the achievement reached+ The su"ervision is
also res"onsible of efficiency and "roductivity of the grou" that controls in res"ect to
reaching the organi%ational objectives because it does not only have to control( this function
also im"lies tutoring and feedbac)+
cH St6nd6rdi86tion o: -orF Processes
This means that *e can reali%e a standardi%ation or s"ecification of tas)s( "rograms(
"lanning and systems of control to achieve "redetermined organi%ational objectives+
St6nd6rdi86tion o: EorFersJ sFi99s
This refers to the s"ecific training that is necessary to develo" a determined *or) in the case
the teachers count *ith their "rofessionalisation+ Even though the s)ills and methodologies
are "ro"er to each individual( it is "ossible to im"lement "ermanent training to obtain better
results+
St6nd6rdi86tion o: Prod;ctions o: -orF
$The "roductions are standardi%ed *hen the result of the *or)( for e#am"le the dimensions
of the "roduct or of the acting( are s"ecified&
,n an educative organi%ation *e can establish an achievement average higher than the
general one s"ecified by the Education 'a* *ith the aim of im"roving the .uality of the
learning that im"lies a bigger effort of teachers and students( but it is difficult to standardi%e
the results in education because *e *or) to train and teach human beings+ 0o*ever the
educational institutions al*ays *or) *ith ideal "rofiles+
7. MANUAL OF FUNCTIONS
#. (. MAN"AL OF F"NCTIONS OF T'E STRATE+IC S"MMIT
N6me o: the @erson in ch6r7e2 director K @rinci@69
42
APPOINTMENT- The director is the "erson named by the Ministry of Education and Culture+
They are of free a""ointment and removal+
SIT"ATION AN* IMPORTANCE2
They are the highest authority( official re"resentative of the institution+ They are "art of the
4irective Council and the eneral Assembly of 4irective and Professors( Tutoring
Organisms of the institution+ They are the first administrative and e#ecutive authority of the
institution+
*EFINITION OF T'E POSITION2
They are res"onsible for the e#ecution of the la*s( "lans of study( "rograms( regulations(
agreements and restrictions of the school that are emanated of the 'a* of Education and
Culture+ They are res"onsible for the total o"eration of the institution+
LOCATION IN T'E A*MINISTRATI$E STR"CT"RE- Strategic Summit+
CARACTERISTICS OF T'E -OR.2
6G TheD 6re res@onsiI9e Ie:ore2
Ministry of Education and Culture
Provincial 4irector of Education
IG *e@end on him2
8ice 4irector O Princi"al
4e"artment of Orientation and Students1 2ell !eing
0umanistic Coordinator
Technical Coordinator
Center of Multimedia or Center of 'earning Resources
Administrative Coordinator
Educative 9nit of Production
eneral ,ns"ector
43
cG Re96tions o: Coordin6tion2
4irective Council
4irectives and Professors council
,nstitutional Planning Office
Committee of Ac.uisitions
Educative 9nit of Production
dG S;Istit;tion2
,n the absence of the director( the vice director substitutes himOher+ ,n case of absence of the
director and vice director( the first "erson of the 4irective Council *ill assume their
res"onsibilities and delegation continues in this order+ The subrogation *ill last until the
titular assume their functions+
eG M6in 9inFs2
Ministry of Education and Culture
Provincial 4irectors
Provincial Su"ervisors
Re"resentative Elements of the ,nternal and E#ternal Community+
Public and Private Entities and Productive Sectors
The students1 "arents
:G ReceiAed In:orm6tion2
Plan of Action of the overnment
Plan of Action of the Ministry of Education and Culture
Plan of Action of the Provincial 4irection of Education+
'a* of Education and Culture
,nternal Regulation
Organic 'a* of 3inancial Administration and Control+
Plans and "rograms of study
!oo) of records of the 4irective Council
eneral ,nventory of the School
Manual of accounting of the controllershi"
44
Others
7G M6in Emitted In:orm6tion
Elaboration of the Mission( Objectives and ,nstitutional Politics+
,nstitutional Plan
Plan of 4evelo"ment
Annual *or) re"ort
2or) distribution Table
A""ointment of administrative and service staff
Statistics of the facility
Annual Evaluation of Administrative( Academic( Physic and 3inancial Activities(+
RESPONSIBILITIES2
Assume the res"onsibilities- the "lanning( the coordination( the organi%ation and the control
of all activities of the educative "rocess+
0as *ide freedom to create or im"lement a suitable hierarchical line *ith the aim of being
able to reach the objectives of the center+ ,t is res"onsible for the financial e#ecution of the
institutional budget+
A"TORIT,2
The director has full authority to conduct the institution according to the orientations
emanated of the Ministry of Education and Culture and the ,nstitutional Plan of the Educative
3acilities+
SPECIFIC F"NCTIONS OF T'E *IRECTOR
,n addition to the ones established by the Art+ E? of the Regulation of the 'a* of Education(
their functions are the follo*ing-
To be concerned about maintaining and consolidating the "restige of the institution on
the basis of its lin)s *ith the community+
To resolve all "etitions that *ill be "resented on matters that are of their com"etence
45
according to the annual "lanning "resented by each one of the de"artments of the
institution+
To re.uest to the Ministry of Education and Culture the designation of the teachers(
technical and administrative staff( submitted to the determined norms in the effective
la*s and regulations+
To give "ossession of the staff in their charges( before the legal "romise to the teachers
and em"loyees of the institution+
To ta)e res"onsibility of the good investment and collection of the economical resources(
submitted to the actual la*s and regulations+
To elaborate economic( organi%ational and *or) "lans of the ne* school year and
subject them to consideration of the 4irective Council+
To elaborate the annual re"ort of administrative( technical and "edagogical activities in
association *ith the vice director and "resent it to the 4irective Council and the teachers+
To control the good *or) of all de"endences of the institution re.uesting the due care
and delegating res"onsibilities to the different organisms( according to the norms of the
'a* of Administration and Control of the goods of the State+
To order the renovation of the inventories according to the effective la* and regulations+
To re.uest to the Controller Organisms( the ins"ection of the institution or of any
de"endence of the latter *hen they *ould consider it convenient or by "etition of the
4irective Council+
To order in *riting to the Collector to reali%e the discounts for fines caused by
nonattendance or no fulfillment of their obligations to the teachers( administrative and
service staff+
To revie* "ermanently the mission( objectives and "olitics of the institution+
To maintain constant lin)s *ith the re"resentatives of the social( "olitical( "roductive(
economical( ecological( cultural and educational sectors+
To "ro"itiate moments of dialogue and good relations *ith all the staff of the institution+
To authori%e the financing office the investment in monthly dividends+
To im"ulse educative innovations( in accordance *ith the institutional change that drive
the socio/economical develo"ment of the area+
To "romote and coordinate the institutional evaluation+
To *atch over the de"artmental "rogramming and the educative activities+
To *atch over the handling of the financial and material resources and to ta)e "ertinent
actions *hen economical "rejudices are caused to the institution+
To stimulate and sanction the staff that develo"s financial and administrative functions in
46
conformity *ith the legal dis"ositions( of regulation and other ty"es+
To veil by an ade.uate administrative and financial organi%ation is maintained+
To authori%e the re"osition of the "revie*ed funds+
To dis"ose that the commission "artici"ate in dro"s( transfers( finish offs and legali%e
*ith his signature the res"ective acts
To "artici"ate in the elaboration of the budget ,nvoice of the ,nstitution and *atch over its
develo"ment+
To legali%e the "ayments that the institution re.uires together *ith the Collector+
To re.uire the o""ortune handing in of the financial re"orts that *ill include the
res"ective states( for his analysis and legali%ation+
To revise and ma)e )no*n the financial re"orts to the 4irective Council+
To negotiate the o""ortune rece"tion of the transferences together *ith the Collector+
To authori%e the im"ression of the valued s"ecies of the institution+
To designate the commission so that it reali%es "eriodic economical "olls+
To com"lete *ith the other functions assigned by the la*s and regulations+
NAME OF T'E POSITION2 +ENERAL MEETIN+ OF *IRECTI$ES AN*
PROFESSORS.
APPOINTMENTL
'a* of Education and Culture and Regulations+
SIT"ATION AN* IMPORTANCE2
,n the diagram( the eneral Meeting of 4irectives and Professors is an organism advisory of
the director *hich objective is to veil to the faithful accom"lishment of the ,nstitutional Plan(
"re"ared by the 4irective Council+
OF ITS INTE+RATION2
The general meeting of directives and "rofessors *ill be constituted of the follo*ing
members- the 4irector( 8ice 4irector( eneral ,ns"ector( teachers and ,ns"ectors *ho
*or) in the institution+
47
LOCATION IN T'E A*MINISTRATI$E STR"CT"RE2
Strategic summit+
C'ARACTERISTICS OF T'E -OR.
The secretary titular of the institution *ill act as secretary+
The eneral Meeting of 4irectives and Professors *ill meet ordinarily at the beginning and
at the end of the school year+ The convocation *ill be done in *ritten *ay at least forty days
beforehand+
SPECIFIC F"NCTIONS OF T'E +ENERAL MEETIN+ OF *IRECTI$ES AN*
PROFESSORS
The ordinary and e#traordinary sessions *ill be reali%ed before convocation of the 4irector(
for itself or by "etition of the t*o thirds of its members( and during *hich the constant matters
in the convocation *ill be treated+
,ts main functions are the ones established in the Art+ 5GE of the Regulation of the 'a* of
Education and moreover the follo*ing-
To suggest to the 4irective Council and to the 4irector about ho* they must drive the
"edagogical areas( disci"line( administration and the "roductive activity+
To fi# and coordinate criteria on the *or) of evaluation and catch u" of the students+
To "romote initiatives in the environment of e#"erimentation and "edagogical research+
To contribute to the "roductive "rocess that develo"s in the Educative Production 9nits+
To designate in the first session of the school year his re"resentative before the
Committee of Ac.uisitions+
To attend com"ulsorily to the meetings of the general meeting of directives and
"rofessors( ordinary and e#traordinary( "reviously summoned by the 4irector+
To resolve in the last instance the administrative( disci"linary "roblems and of any other
order if not e#"ressively assigned to other authorities+
NAME OF T'E POSITION2 *IRECTI$E CO"NCIL
APPOINTMENT2
The eneral Meeting of 4irectives and Professors
48
SIT"ATION AN* IMPORTANCE2
The 4irective Council is an advisory organism of the 4irector+
,t is the most im"ortant organism functioning in the ,nstitution+
,t is the natural cause of "artici"ation of all the educative establishments in the management
and control tas)s+
,t is the main governmental and legislative organism+
OF ITS INTE+RATION AN* ELECTION2
The 4irective Council *ill be constituted of-
The 4irector( *ho "resides over it+
The 8ice 4irector or 8ice 4irectors according to the caseP
Three main vo*els *ith their res"ective substitutes( elected by the eneral Meeting of
4irectives and Professors in the "ublic schools+ ,n semi/"rivate schools the Educative
Community designates the first vo*els and substitutes of the 4irective Council( and the
three main vo*els and substitutes are elected by the eneral Meeting of 4irectors and
Professors+ ,t *ill behave as Secretary the "rinci"al of the institution+ The secretary *ill
inform but not vote+
The vo*els of the 4irective Council *ill be elected in the last ordinary session of the eneral
Meeting of 4irectives and Professors( thirty days after its election( before ratification of the
Provincial 4irection+ ,t *ill last t*o years in its functions and *ill be reelected after a "eriod(
unless the number of teachers ma)es it im"ossible to com"lete this dis"osition+
To be elected( as vo*el of the 4irective Council re.uires- to be an full time teacher *or)ing
as suchP to have *or)ed in the institution for a minimum of t*o years( e#ce"t in the schools
of recent creationP and not having been sanctioned *ith the sus"ension of teaching e#ercise+
POSITION IN T'E A*MINISTRATI$E STR"CT"RE2
Strategic Summit+
C'ARACTERISTICS OF T'E -OR.2
The 4irective Council *ill meet ordinarily at least once a monthP and e#traordinarily *hen the
4irector summons it( for itself or by "etition of three of its members+ ,t *ill meet in the
"resence of at least four of its members+
49
,n the case of tem"oral absence of one or more vo*els( the substitutes *ill be summoned in
the order indicated+ ,f the absence of the vo*els or the substitutes is definitive the 4irector
*ill summon the eneral Meeting of 4irectives and Professors for the election of the main
vo*les and substitutes( *ho *ill enter in function after ratification of the Provincial 4irection
and *ill act until the end of the "eriod+
SPECIFIC F"NCTIONS OF T'E *IRECTI$E CO"NCIL AN* PROFESSORS
,n addition to the functions of the Art+ 5GB of the Regulation of the 'a* of Education( They
have these ones-
To define the mission( objectives and institutional "olitics( to *hich *ill have to assist the
activities of the institution+
To advise "ermanently the 4irector in the decisions that *ill be ta)en in the- economic(
administrative( academic and "roductive+
To maintain an ade.uate coordination( *ith all authorities and organisms that conform
the institution+
To motivate the e#ecution of activities of teaching and administrative im"rovement+
To a""rove the "lans( "rograms and Project "resented by the Technical/"edagogical
4e"artment+
To ta)e care of the e#act collection of benefits of its legal inversion and all that refers to
the economic drive+
To control and ta)e care of the correct administration of resources dedicated and coming
from the "roductive activity+
To study and resolve the causes and motives for the legal sanctions according to the
effective 'a*s and Regulations+
To re.uest to the Ministry of Education and Culture the creation( restructuration or
su""ression of s"ecialties+
To foment and "rotect the edition of te#ts( "am"hlets( and boo)s of scientific and
educative value+
To regulate the benefit andOor rent of the *or)sho"s( s"orts fields( use of multi"le use
rooms and bars+
To conform the "ermanent Commissions- of disci"line( s"orts( culture( etc+( and the ones
they *ill believe convenient+
To elaborate a S"ecial Regulation for each one of the Permanent Commissions and of
the others that conform it+
To evaluate "eriodically the ,nstitutional Plan and reali%e the necessary readjustments+
50
To stimulate the directive staff( teachers( administrative and of service for the faithful
accom"lishment of duties and obligations *ith the institution and the community+
To elaborate the budget invoice( on the basis of the information given by the Accountant
and
Collector+
To authori%e to the 4irector the e#"enses or investments su"erior to the three minimum
vital salary according to the legal dis"ositions+
To )no* and a""rove the re"orts "resented by the "eo"le res"onsible of the
4e"artments and commissions+
To designate the t*o servers *ho *ill do the "hysical verifications and u"dating of the
belongings of the institution+
To authori%e the auction( dro"s and donations of the belongings of the institution+
To a""rove the annual "lan of ac.uisitions and designate commissions for the e#ecution
of ac.uisitions in the cases those re.uire the integration of themselves+
To analy%e the financial re"orts and ma)e decisions to achieve the correct management
of the material and financial resources
To a""rove the budget ,nvoice of the institution and to remit it to the Ministry of
Education *ith the aim of definitive a""roval+
#.2. MAN"AL OF F"NCTIONS OF T'E MI**LE LINE
This "art is the organi%ation that serves as connection bet*een the Strategic Summit and
the O"erative 7ucleus and to a minor degree *ith the Techno structure and Su""ort StaffP
the s"ecific function is the one of Control/Tutoring/Evaluation of the educative "rocesses of
the institution+ ,t also organi%es the "roductive( academic and administrative "rocesses+ ,n
this "art of the organi%ation *e find-
- 8,CE 4,RECTOR O PR,7C,PA'
- E7ERA' ,7SPECTOR
- ,7SPECTOR O3 T0E !AS,C 'E8E' A74 0,0 SC0OO'
C9RR,C9'9M
- A4M,7,STRAT,8E COOR4,7ATOR
- 09MA7,ST,C ACA4EM,C COOR4,7ATOR
- TEC07,CA' COOR4,7ATOR+
51
NAME OF T'E POSITION2 $ICE *IRECTOR KPRINCIPAL
APPOINTMENT2
They are of free a""ointment and removal from the "art of the Ministry of Education and
Culture( subject to the dis"ositions of the 'a* of Scale and *ages of the 7ational Magisterial
,n the institutions of middle education *ith more than t*o thousand students and t*o "eriods
of daily *or) there *ill be t*o vice directors+ ,n this case each vice director *ill attend the
one the academic function and the other the administrative function+
SIT"ATION AN* IMPORTANCE2
,t is the second authority in the institution+ ,t "resides over the Meeting of 4irectors of Area(
the Meeting of Professors of Courses and the CO!E+ ,t coordinates the Permanent
Commissions and the Technical Pedagogical Commission+
*EFINITION OF T'E POSITION2
,t is res"onsible for coordinating and su"ervising the accom"lishment of "lans and "rograms
of study+
LOCATION IN T'E A*MINISTRATI$E STR"CT"RE2
Middle line+
C'ARACTERISTICS OF T'E -OR.2
6. It is res@onsiI9e Ie:ore2
The 4irector OPrinci"al
I. *e@end on him2
4O!E
0umanistic Coordinator
Technical Coordinator
CEME=s o CRA FCenter of learning ResourcesH
Administrative Coordinator
9EP
52
eneral ,ns"ector
c. Re96tions o: coordin6tion2
4irector O Princi"al
Orientation Council and Students1 2ell !eing
Meeting of 4irectors of Area
Permanent Commissions
Meeting of Professors of Courses
d. S;Istit;tion2
,n the absence of the 8ice 4irector the member of the 4irective Council substitute him
e. M6in 9inFs2
8ice 4irector of other schools
Su"ervisors
Civil servants of the 4irection of Education
Meeting of Professors of Courses
:. ReceiAed in:orm6tion2
'a* of Education and Culture
Plans and Programs of study
!oo) of Records of Meeting of 4irectors of Area
!oo) of Records of the Technical Pedagogical Commission
Chronogram of activities by selection of *or)
Productive 4idactic Plan
Records of evaluation
Sheets of Pedagogic tutoring
7. M6in Emitted in:orm6tion2
Annual *or) re"ort and evaluation
School statistics
Academic activities evaluation
Table of distribution of activities
Advance of the ,nstitutional Plan
Ruarterly re"ort of the accom"lishment of *or)(
RESPONSABILIT,2
Of the organi%ation of the activities of the institution
Of the develo"ment of the school day
53
Of the organi%ation of the technical "edagogical meetings
A"T'ORIT,2
They have full authority to ma)e accom"lish the objectives of the institution( the same that
*ill be achieved by the students *ith the hel" and direct orientation of the teachers+
SPECIFIC F"NCTIONS OF T'E $ICE *IRECTOR K PRINCIPAL
A"art from the ones established in the Art+ EC of the 'a* of Education and Culture( the
follo*ing-
To advise and hel" the 4irector in all as"ects of school "olitics and administrative
organi%ation+
To have the academic( social( cultural and s"orts "rogramming accom"lished
To "reside over the "ermanent commissions and the ones that are created according
to the necessities
To )no* and resolve "roblems such as- "lans and "rograms of courses( before the
re"ort of the Technical/"edagogical Commission and other "ro"ositions+
To revie* and orient the "lanning of *or) of the teachers in an o""ortune *ay+
To su"ervise the maintenance of disci"line of the students and to control the good
*or)ing of the de"endences and the attendance of the teachers+
To ta)e care of the activities that are develo"ed in the *or)sho"s( laboratories( farms
that constitute "ractical a""lications and favorable to the develo"ment of the
community+
To veil "ermanently the *or) and develo"ment of the Educative Production 9nit+
NAME OF T'E POSITION2 +ENERAL INSPECTOR
APPOINTMENT2
The eneral ,ns"ector *ill be named by the Ministry of Education and Culture
LOCATION AN* IMPORTANCE2
The eneral ,ns"ector is the immediate collaborator of the 4irector( 8ice 4irector and
res"onsible for the driving and disci"line of the institution+
0e *ill incline to form habits of good behavior through the conscious e#ercise of auto/
disci"line+
*EFINITION OF T'E POSITION2
0is main objective is to "artici"ate in the e#ecution of the ,nstitutional PlanP accom"lish and
54
ma)e accom"lish the la*s( regulations and other dis"ositions ta)en by the authorities of the
facility+
LOCATION IN T'E A*MINISTRATI$E STR"CT"RE2
Middle line+
C'ARACTERISTICS OF T'E -OR.2
These functions *ill be e#ercised by "rofessionals in "sychology in conformity *ith the 'a*
of Education and Culture+
6. 'e is res@onsiI9e Ie:ore2
8ice 4irector andOor 4irector
I. *e@end on him2
The eneral Subins"ector( the ,ns"ectors of courses o cycles( teachers and students+
c. Re96tions o: coordin6tion2
Committee of 4isci"line
Council of Orientation and Students1 2ell !eing
Occasional Commissions
eneral Meeting of 4irectives and Professors+
d. S;Istit;tionL
,n the absence of the eneral ,ns"ectors( the eneral Subins"ector or the ,ns"ectors of
courses or cycle *ill substitute him+
e. M6in 9inFs2
4irector andOor 8ice 4irector
Administrative Coordinator
0umanistic Coordinator
Technical Coordinator+
4e"artment of Orientation and Students1 2ell !eing+
Chief of Production+
:. M6in ReceiAed In:orm6tion2
,nstitutional Educative Plan
Programs of *or) of Area of Physical Education
2or) timetable of the teachers
Records of mar)s
Re"ort of students behavior
Activities Calendar
55
,nternal Regulation
7. M6in emitted in:orm6tion2
To motivate the staff that has "roblems of nonattendance
To control the attendance of the teachers
To control the attendance of administrative staff
To control the attendance and "unctuality of the students
7e*s re"ort
4is"ositions im"arted by the su"erior authorities of the facility+
A"T'ORIT,2
Emanate from the 4irector through the 8ice 4irector( maintain hierarchical authority and of
"restige to be a com"etent "rofessional+
RESPONSABILIT,2
To create and instrument mechanisms that allo* him maintain the best inter"ersonal
relationshi"s and a good environment bet*een all the staff of the institution+
To motivate "ermanently the students( activities and values that are in his benefit of them
during the formative "rocess+
To dialogue *ith the teachers( students and family "arents about "ersonal and institutional
"roblems *ith the aim to achieve ade.uate solutions+
SPECIFICATIONS OF T'E -OR.2
The facilities li)e institutions of middle education *ill have a eneral ,ns"ectors( designated
by the Ministry+
SPECIFIC F"NCIONS
,n addition to the ones established in the Art+ 5G5 of the Regulation of the 'a* of Education
and Culture( the follo*ing-
To direct and ma)e res"onsible of the driving of the unit *ith the aim of maintaining in
order and harmony the o"eration of the school( in the teaching( administrative( student
fieldsP and of services+
To accom"lish the *or) inherent to his a""ointment and the others that are originated
inside the "rocess of formative develo"ment+
To "resent monthly in *riting the re"orts of attendance of the teachers( administrative
56
and service staff and of the one that *ould be re.uired by the corres"onding authorities+
To inform daily about the disci"linary matters and summit them for the a""roval to the
8ice 4irector+
To notify the "arents or students re"resentatives( the nonattendance or the lac) of
"unctuality to class and the academic develo"ment of the students+
To .ualify the disci"line of the students( subject to "sycho/"edagogical criteria *ith
"artici"ation of his collaborators+
To confer certificates of behavior and attendance before authori%ation of the 4irector+
To ma)e res"onsible of the courses "ersonally or through the Courses ,ns"ectors for a
better "resentation of the school in "arades( "ublic( s"orts( social( cultural and scientific
acts+
To get to the institution at least fifteen minutes before the beginning of classes and to
leave *hen the *or) "eriod finishes+
#.3. MAM"AL OF F"NCTIONS OF T'E OPERATI$E N"CLE"S
The O"erative 7ucleus is found in the inferior "art of the structural diagram( it connects *ith
the Middle 'ine and Strategic Summit mainly and to a minor degree *ith the Techno
structural staff of su""ort+
,n this "art of the organi%ation they accom"lish s"ecific functions li)e the academic( research
and "roduction ones *ith the desire to better the educative "rocess of the institution+ There
*e find-
TEAC0ERS
0EA4 TEAC0ERS
E49CAT,8E 97,T O3 PRO49CT,O7
ST94E7TS
NAME OF T'E POSITION2 TEAC'ERS
APPOINTMENT2 4,RECTOR O PR,7C,PA'/ 4,RECT,8E CO97S,'
LOCATION IN T'E A*MINISTRATI$E STR"CT"RE2
O"erative 7ucleus
CLASS OF PROFESSORS FOR T'E APPOINTMENT2
The teachers of middle level are
6. TIT"LARS- The ones *ho have a""ointment for the institution in *hich they *or)P
I. S"BSTIT"TS- Those *ho re"lace titular teachers *ho are found in service commission
or enjoying a licenseP
c. ACCI*ENTALS- The teachers designated to cover a vacancy that "resents itself in the
57
course of the school year until a titular teacher is named( ,t *onNt be for more than a school
year timeP
d. TEA'CER B, CONTRACT- Those teachers *ho accom"lish s"ecific functions for a
determined time and are "aid *ith funds of s"ecial *ages activities of the institution+
C'ARACTRISTICS OF T'E -OR.2
The teachers *ill *or) t*enty t*o hours of *ee)ly class( distributed in the five *or) daysP of
*hich t*enty *ill be dedicated to teaching and t*o to the didactic "lanning( sessions of
Meeting of Area( Meeting of Course( Permanent Commissions and thesis tutoring+
The teachers of Arts( technological( *or)sho" "ractice and field "ractice activities *ill have
t*enty/four hours of classP the orientators t*enty/si# of *hich they *ill dedicate si# to
teaching and t*enty to *or) in the Orientation 4e"artment+ The teachers *ho e#ercise
medical or dentist functions *ill *or) a *ee)ly time e.uivalent to t*enty/t*o hours of class(
of *hich they can dedicate until si# "eriods for teaching( conforming to the dis"ositions of the
'a* of Scale and 2ages of the 7ational Magisterial+ The teacher *ith functions of doctor *ill
be res"onsible for the health education "rograms+ The teachers *ith functions of laboratory
and social *or) *ill *or) the time corres"onding to thirty "eriods *ee)ly class+
The 4irective Council *ill consider( inside the distribution of *or)( the "eriods necessary for
the develo"ment of s"ecial activities such as- course guides( e#tra/scholar activities( student
recu"eration activities and team s"orts "re"aration+
The social *or)ers *ithout teaching a""ointment( nurses( au#iliaries and *or)sho" masters
*ill summit themselves to the dis"ositions of the 'a* of Civil Service and Administrative
career+
SPECIFIC F"NCTIONS OF TEAC'ERS
,n addition to the ones established in the Art+ 5;E of the Regulation of the 'a* of Education
and Culture( the follo*ing-
,n the "ractice of teaching the teacher has to be in accordance *ith the mission( objective
and "olitics of the institution+
To maintain good relations *ith the directives( administrative staff( "arents and students+
To consign in the re"ort boo) the facts re.uired in it immediately finished the class+ ,n
notable cases notes of misbehavior( nonattendance or lac) of care in the other duties of
the students( communicate to the ,ns"ection+
58
To use the didactic resources in ade.uate form( in such a *ay that the direction of
learning be efficient+
To dictate conferences *hen the authorities dis"ose it+
To collaborate *ith the cor"s of ,ns"ection in the maintenance of disci"line inside and
outside the institution+
To "ut in "ractice the technical/"edagogical suggestions given by the authorities and
organisms of the institution+
0e is authori%ed to demand the "resence of the "arent or re"resentative if he believes
convenient to inform on disci"line and a""roval of their re"resentatives+
To suggest to the 4irective Council stimuli for the students to get noticed in the didactic
activities "rogrammed during the school year+
To give an e#am"le of good relations and cordial treatment bet*een co/*or)ers in front
of the students and "arents
To u"date "rofessional documents each year( or *hen the case *ould be re.uired at the
secretary and at financing office
Presence of the teachers is com"ulsory during the school or civic acts that the school
organi%es or during acts in *hich it "artici"ates+
To converge *ith the necessary elements and "unctually to the Meetings of Su"eriors
and Professors and to the Meetings of Courses+
,n necessary cases the school *ill re.uire the "resence of the teachers outside *or)
time+ 2hen they are named members of a commission the teachers have to serve *ith
all effectiveness that their ca"acity allo*s them( and to conclude( the mission
commended *ill have to be "resented in a re"ort+
The teachers *ho ta)e training/students are assigned for the accom"lishment of
regulation or au#iliary "ractices have the res"onsibility of orientating and evaluating
them+
The teachers *ill have to be a*are constantly by announcements or e#isting dis"ositions
in the school( because its omission *ill not be justified in any *ay+
The relations *ith other members of the administrative and teaching staff have to be
based on considerations and mutual res"ect+
!efore receiving their corres"onding duties in July in the Sierra and in January on the
Coast( the teachers have to "resent to the Collector and to the Secretary a form of
discharge of the inventory of the belongings that he has used during the year+
Certification is conferred by the "erson in charge of the library and hold+
2hen terminating the year he has to "resent a course "lan and the micro/"lanning *ith
59
the res"ective readjustments and *ill have validity of t*o years to do the tutoring and
res"ective evaluation+
To communicate *ith the due antici"ation any missed class( in case of not giving notice(
the missed class *ill not be justified+
The technical teachers *ill e#ecute actions of diffusion and cultural e#tension in the
community+
To receive the *riting contributions in dates and times notified in common in accordance
*ith the students+
The ne* system of .uarter and annual evaluation *ill be reali%ed in accordance *ith the
regulations established for the effect of the institution+
The technical teachers( in addition to the academic *or)( *ill be in charge of other
functions li)e the e#ecution of "rojects in relation *ith his area+
The "ermanence in the institution is com"ulsory during the *hole *or) day+
The teachers have to im"ulse and "ro"itiate "ermanent a""roaches *ith the community+
NOMBRE2 'EA* TEAC'ER
POSITION2
The head teacher *ill be designated at the beginning of the school year by the 4irector of
the institution and *ill last in their functions until the beginning of the ne#t school year+
LOCATION IN T'E A*MINISTRATI$E STR"CT"RE2
O"erational nucleus
SPECIFIC F"NCTIONS OF T'E PROFESSOR +"I*E
According to the Art+ 55B of the 'a* of Education and Culture( the follo*ing-
Preside com"ulsorily the Course MeetingsP
To coordinate the *or) of the teachers and students of the course( to "artici"ate in the
Orientation( ,ns"ection staff and Parents Councils( to reach the best results in the
educative "rocess+
To "lan( e#ercise and evaluate their *or) in collaboration *ith the Orientation
4e"artment and Students1 2ell !eing and ,ns"ectionP
To coo"erate *ith the develo"ment of the association activities of class and to stimulate
"artici"ation of the students in academic( s"orts and social activities
To collaborate *ith the solution of students1 "roblems+
60
To establish mechanisms of communication *ith the "arents to treat matters in relation
to disci"line and "rogress of the students+
To "lan( organi%e and "artici"ate in the students1 tri"s( according to the norms and
regulations
To accom"lish the other functions that *ere noted by the authorities of the institution and
the ones determined in the internal regulation+
NAME OF T'E POSITION2 ST"*ENTS
*ESI+NATION2
The students *ho have obtained registration attend the educative institution+
LOCATION IN T'E A*MINISTRATI$E STR"CT"RE2
O"erative nucleus
*"TIES2
According to the Art+ 5>5 of the Regulation of the 'a* of Education and Culture( the
follo*ing-
To "artici"ate "unctually in the "rocess of training+
To attend "unctually to classes and to the different civil( cultural( s"orts and social acts
organi%ed by the course or the institution+
To )ee" due consideration and res"ect to the su"eriors( teachers and classmates inside
and outside of the institution+
To "artici"ate( under the direction of designated teachers( in the students1 cultural(
social( s"orts( environmental and health education activities( using their a"titudes and
s"ecial s)ills+
To ta)e the evaluation tests honestly and subject to the time determined by the
authoritiesP
To observe in all their acts( inside and outside the facility a correct behaviorP
To ta)e care of their good "resentation in clothes and "ersonal hygieneP
To contribute to the good conservation of the building( anne#es( furniture( didactic
material and other belongings of the institution+ To assume the res"onsibility for the
deterioration of any good occasioned by them and "ay the cost of its re"aration or
re"ositionP
To stay in the institution during the *hole day of *or)+
61
RI+'TS2
According to the Art+ 5>: of the Regulation of the 'a* of Education and Culture( the
follo*ing-
To receive a com"lete and integral education( according to their a"titudes and as"irationP
To receive efficient attention of their teachers( on "edagogical and formation as"ects+
To interact in an environment of com"rehension( security and tran.uilityP
To be res"ected in their dignity and integrityP
To "resent their as"irations and claims to the teachers and authorities of the institution in
a res"ectful *ay and to receive from the latter the corres"onding ans*er in an o""ortune
*ayP
To be evaluated in a fair *ay( considering their *or) and efforts( and noted *ith the
results in regulatory termsP
To receive orientation and stimulus in their activities to overcome the "roblems that
*ould "resent themselves in their study or in their relationshi" *ith the other members of
the institution+
To "artici"ate *ith educative aims in clubs( coo"eratives( and other forms of student
association under the guidance of the teachers and in conformity *ith the "ertinent
regulationsP
To use the services and facilities that the institution counts *ith according to the internal
regulation+
To re.uest tutoring from their teachers on academic as"ectsP
To "artici"ate( through their associations( in the "lan and e#ecution of the social and
cultural activities in *hich the institution intervenes+
To be treated *ithout discrimination of any ty"eP
To receive o""ortune attention to their re.uirements of certificates( mar)s( solicitudes
and other "rocesses in relation to their student lifeP and
7ot be sanctioned *ithout "roof of their res"onsibility or offer of the o""ortunity of being
listened to and to defend themselves+
NAME OF T'E OR+ANISM2 MEETIN+ OF T'E *IRECTORS OF AREA
*ESI+NATION2 *IRECTI$ CO"NCIL
LOCATION AN* IMPORTANCE2
62
,n the diagram( the Meeting of directors of area is a tutoring organism at the level of the vice
4irectorP its main objective is to "romote a "ermanent "rocess of the education( and a
continuous and integrated coordinated educational *or)+
OF ITS INTE+RATION2
The Meeting of 4irectors of Area is constituted of all the directors of area designated by the
4irective Council and by the Chiefs of Orientation 4e"artment+ ,t *ill be "resided over by the
8ice 4irector+ ,t *ill meet ordinarily once a month( and e#traordinarily *hen needed+
LOCATION IN T'E A*MINISTRATI$E STR"CT"RE2
Techno structure+
SPECIAL F"NCTIONS OF T'E MEETIN+ OF *IRECTORS OF AREA
,n addition to the ones described in the Art+ 55; of the Regulation of Education(
To )no* the diagram of s"ecific activities for each term( "resented by the 8ice 4irector
to have it accom"lished in the res"ective areas+
To maintain "ermanent control over the techno/"edagogical develo"ment of the teachers
of the area+
To observe the teachers *ho do not com"lete *ith the techno/"edagogical dis"ositions
before informing the director of the res"ective area+
To establish the economical necessities in the educative "roductive field( reali%ing a "lan
of goods necessary for the school year+
To "romote the relations of technical cultural scientific interchange through the
reali%ation of seminars( "anels( sym"osium( courses( etc+( as much for the teachers as
for the students+
To study the inde#es of sus"ension( re"etition and desertions in each course and subject
and to ado"t the a""ro"riate "edagogical means+
To re.uest to the 4irector and 4irective Council stimuli for the teachers that *ould have
been noticed in any relevant fact beneficiary to the institution+
NAME OF T'E OR+ANISM2 MEETIN+ OF T'E TEAC'ERS OF AREA
APPOINTMENT2 LA- OF E*"CATION AN* C"LT"RE AN* RE+"LATIONS
63
LOCATION AN* IMPORTANCE2
,nside the diagram the Meeting of Professors of Area is a tutoring organism at the level of
the 8ice 4irector and is in charge of the "roductive didactics "lanning of its s"ecialty+
OF ITS INTE+RATION2
The Meeting of Professor of Area *ill be constituted of the teachers of the subjects
corres"onding to an academic area+ The 4irector of this meeting *ill be designated by the
4irective Council+ The meeting *ill elect the secretary among its members+
LOCATION IN T'IE A*MINISTRATI$E STR"CT"RE2
Techno structure
SPECIFIC F"NCTIONS OF T'E MEETIN+ OF TEA'C'ERS OF AREA
,n addition to the ones mentioned in the Art+ 55D of the Regulation of the 'a* of Education(
the follo*ing-
To meet once a month or *hen necessary to analy%e the "lanning and e#ecution of the
technical teaching(
To revie* the e#isting didactic material and ma)e the same( corres"onding to each area
to "resent it in the Meeting of 4irectors of Area and *or) on the consecution of the
didactic material and team of the different areas+
To reali%e control of advance of the educative units of "roduction in the environment of
its com"etence+
To inform terminally the 8ice 4irector about the a""lication and accom"lishment of the
"lanning+
NAME OF T'E OR+ANISM2 MEETIN+ OF CO"RSE TEAC'ERS
APPOINTMENT2 LA- OF E*"CATION AN* C"LT"RE AN* RE+"LATION
LOCATION AN* IMPORTANCE2
,nside the diagram the Meeting of Course Professors is a tutoring organism at the level of
the 8ice 4irector( res"onsible for the technical/"edagogical *or)( the disci"line matters and
behaviors of the course in collaboration *ith the Techno/Pedagogical Commission+
64
OF ITS INTE+RATION2
The Meeting of Course Professors *ill be constituted of the "rofessors that *or) in a course
or grou"( the ins"ector of the course and the re"resentative of the 4e"artment of Orientation
and Student1s 2ell !eing+ The teacher designated by the meeting *ill act as secretary
during one year+
,t *ill meet ordinarily after the e#ams of each term and to decide the "romotion of the
studentsP and e#traordinarily *hen the 4irector( 8ice 4irector or the guide teacher orders it+
LOCATION IN T'E A*MINISTRATI$E STR"CT"RE2
Techno structure
SPECIFIC F"NCTIONS OF T'E MEETIN+ OF CO"RSE PROFESSORS
,n addition to the ones mentioned in the Regulation of the 'a* of Education Art+ 555( the
follo*ing-
The Meeting of Course teachers *ill be "resided over by the head teacher that *ill be
res"onsible of ho* it develo"s and the resolutions to it reaches+
The secretary is elected by the Meeting of the Course and *ill be directly res"onsible for
the elaboration of the act and the handing in of the same to the 4irector before :> hours
after the end of the meeting+
To study and resolve all the cases of students that re.uire s"ecial treatment( in sanctions
as *ell as in the stimulus and communicate it to the com"etent authorities+
To )no* and study the "roblems that the teachers are confronted to in the e#ercise of
teaching( suggest solutions that allo* im"roving the relation teacher/student+
To mar) the disci"line of the students to *hich the eneral ,ns"ector or the course *ill
inform about the disci"line according to the life sheet of the student+
To )no* the claims about mar)s "resented in *riting from the students1 "art( to resolve
and solution before corres"ondingly consulting the authorities if the case is necessary+
The resolutions of the Meeting of Professors of Course *ill enter in validity after having
been a""roved by the 4irector( *ho has a term of 5C hours to submit their criteria( if they
don1t do it during this time it is considered a""roved+
65
SETTING UP PROPOSAL
ALTERNATIVES TO IMPROVE THE
ORGANIZATION AND
MANAGEMENT OF THE TEACHING.
66
%. T'EORIES OF E*"CATIONAL MANA+EMENT
Educational management is a field of study and "ractice concerned *ith the o"eration of
educational organi%ations+ The "resent author has argued consistently that educational
management has to be centrally concerned *ith the "ur"ose or aims of education+
These "ur"oses or goals "rovide the crucial sense of direction to under"in the management
of educational institutions+ 9nless this lin) bet*een "ur"ose and management is clear and
close( there is a danger of managerialism + + + a stress on "rocedures at the e#"ense of
educational "ur"ose and valuesU F!ush( 5EEEH+ $Management "ossesses no su"er/ordinate
goals or values of its o*n+ The "ursuit of efficiency may be the mission statement of
management& but this is efficiency in the achievement of objectives *hich others define+
The "rocess of deciding on the aims of the organi%ation is at the heart of educational
management+ ,n some settings( aims are decided by the "rinci"al( often *or)ing in
association *ith senior colleagues and "erha"s a small grou" of lay sta)eholders+ ,n many
schools( ho*ever( goal setting is a cor"orate activity underta)en by formal bodies or informal
grou"s+
School aims are strongly influenced by "ressures from the e#ternal environment+ Many
countries have a national curriculum and these often leave little sco"e for schools to decide
their o*n educational aims+
,nstitutions may be left *ith the residual tas) of inter"reting e#ternal im"eratives rather than
determining aims on the basis of their o*n assessment of student need+ The )ey issue here
is the e#tent to *hich school managers are able to modify government "olicy and develo"
alternative a""roaches based on school/level values and vision+
%.(. *ISTIN+"IS'IN+ E*"CATIONAL LEA*ERS'IP AN* MANA+EMENT
The conce"t of management overla"s *ith t*o similar terms( leadershi" and administration+
$Management& is *idely used in !ritain( Euro"e( and Africa( for e#am"le( *hile
$administration& is "referred in the 9nited States( Canada( and Australia+ $'eadershi"& is of
great contem"orary interest in most countries in the develo"ed 2orld+ 4immoc) F5EEEH
67
differentiates these conce"ts *hilst also ac)no*ledging that there are com"eting definitions-
School leaders Ve#"erienceW tensions bet*een com"eting elements of leadershi"(
management and administration+ ,rres"ective of ho* these terms are defined( school leaders
e#"erience difficulty in deciding the balance bet*een higher order tas)s designed to im"rove
staff( student and school "erformance Fleadershi"H( routine maintenance of "resent
o"erations FmanagementH and lo*er order duties FadministrationH+
Administration is not associated *ith $lo*er order duties& in the 9+S+ but may be seen as the
overarching term( *hich embraces both leadershi" and management+ Cuban F5ECCH
"rovides one of the clearest distinctions bet*een leadershi" and management+
!y leadershi"( , mean influencing others actions in achieving desirable ends + + + + Managing
is maintaining efficiently and effectively current organisational arrangements + + + + , "ri%e both
managing and leading and attach no s"ecial value to either since different settings and times
call for varied res"onses+
'eadershi" and management need to be given e.ual "rominence if schools are to o"erate
effectively and achieve their objectives+ $'eading and managing are distinct( but both are
im"ortant + + + + The challenge of modern organisations re.uires the objective "ers"ective of
the manager as *ell as the flashes of vision and commitment *ise leadershi" "rovides&+
The English 7ational College for School 'eadershi"
The contem"orary em"hasis on leadershi" rather than management is illustrated star)ly by
the o"ening of the English 7ational College for School 'eadershi" F7CS'H in 7ovember
:GGG+ F7CS'H stress on leadershi" has led to a neglect of management+ 8isionary and
ins"irational leadershi" are advocated but much less attention is given to the structures and
"rocesses re.uired to im"lement these ideas successfully+
%.(.(. The Signii!"n!e # $he E%&!"$i#n"' C#n$e($
The Significance of the Educational Conte#t Educational management as a field of study and
"ractice *as derived from management "rinci"les first a""lied to industry and commerce(
mainly in the 9nited States+ Theory develo"ment largely involved the a""lication of industrial
models to educational settings+ As the subject became established as an academic field in
its o*n right( its theorists and "ractitioners began to develo" alternative models based on
their observation of( and e#"erience in( schools and colleges+ !y the :5st century the main
theories( featured in this cha"ter( have either been develo"ed in the educational conte#t or
68
have been ada"ted from industrial models to meet the s"ecific re.uirements of schools and
colleges+ Educational management has "rogressed from being a ne* field de"endent u"on
ideas develo"ed in other settings to become an established field *ith its o*n theories and
research+
%.2. CONCEPT"ALISIN+ E*"CATIONAL MANA+EMENT
'eadershi" and management are often regarded as essentially "ractical activities+
Practitioners and "olicy/ma)ers tend to be dismissive of theories and conce"ts for their
alleged remoteness from the $real& school situation+ 2illo*er F5ECGH( for e#am"le( asserts
that the a""lication of theories by "racticing administrators VisW a difficult and "roblematic
underta)ing+ ,ndeed( it is clear that theories are sim"ly not used very much in the realm of
"ractice+ This comment suggests that theory and "ractice are regarded as se"arate as"ects
of educational leadershi" and management+ Academics develo" and refine theory *hile
managers engage in "ractice+ ,n short( there is a theoryO "ractice divide( or $ga"& FEnglish(
:GG:H- The theory/"ractice ga" stands as the ordian Jnot of educational administration+
Rather than be cut( it has become a "ermanent fi#ture of the landsca"e because it is
embedded in the *ay *e construct theories for use + + + The theory/"ractice ga" *ill be
removed *hen *e construct different and better theories that "redict the effects of "ractice+
%.3. T'E RELE$ANCE OF T'EOR, TO +OO* PRACTICE
,f "ractitioners shun theory then they must rely on e#"erience as a guide to action+ ,n
deciding on their res"onse to a "roblem they dra* on a range of o"tions suggested by
"revious e#"erience *ith that ty"e of issue+ 0o*ever( $it is *ishful thin)ing to assume that
e#"erience alone *ill teach leaders everything they need to )no*&+
Teachers sometimes e#"lain their decisions as just $common sense+& 0o*ever( such
a""arently "ragmatic decisions are often based on im"licit theories+ 2hen a teacher or a
manager ta)es a decision it reflects in "art that "erson=s vie* of the organi%ation+ Such
vie*s or "reconce"tions are coloured by e#"erience and by the attitudes engendered by that
e#"erience+ These attitudes ta)e on the character of frames of reference or theories( *hich
inevitably influence the decision/ma)ing "rocess+
Theory serves to "rovide a rationale for decision/ma)ing+ Managerial activity is enhanced by
an e#"licit a*areness of the theoretical frame*or) under"inning "ractice in educational
69
institutions+ There are three main arguments to su""ort the vie* that managers have much
to learn from an a""reciation of theory( "roviding that it is grounded firmly Flaser X Strauss(
5E?BH in the realities of "ractice-
Reliance on facts as the sole guide to action is unsatisfactory because all evidence re.uires
inter"retation+
Theory "rovides $mental models& F'eith*ood 5EEEH to hel" in understanding the nature and
effects of "ractice+
4e"endence on "ersonal e#"erience in inter"reting facts and ma)ing decisions is narro*
because it discards the )no*ledge of others+ 3amiliarity *ith the arguments and insights of
theorists enables the "ractitioner to de"loy a *ide range of e#"erience and understanding in
resolving the "roblems of today+ An understanding of theory also hel"s reduces the
li)elihood of mista)es occurring *hile e#"erience is being ac.uired+
E#"erience may be "articularly unhel"ful as the sole guide to action *hen the "ractitioner
begins to o"erate in a different conte#t+ Organi%ational variables may mean that "ractice in
one school or college has little relevance in the ne* environment+ A broader a*areness of
theory and "ractice may be valuable as the manager attem"ts to inter"ret behaviour in the
fresh situation+
Of course( theory is useful only so long as it has relevance to "ractice in education+ 0oyle
F5EC?H distinguishes bet*een theory/for/understanding and theory/for/"ractice+ 2hile both
are "otentially valuable( the latter is more significant for managers in education+ The
relevance of theory should be judged by the e#tent to *hich it informs managerial action and
contributes to the resolution of "ractical "roblems in schools and colleges+
%.3.(. The N6t;re o: TheorD
There is no single all/embracing theory of educational management+ ,n "art this reflects the
astonishing diversity of educational institutions( ranging from small rural elementary schools
to very large universities and colleges+ ,t relates also to the varied nature of the "roblems
encountered in schools and colleges( *hich re.uire different a""roaches and solutions+
Above all( it reflects the multifaceted nature of theory in education and the social sciences-
$Students of educational management *ho turn to organi%ational theory for guidance in their
attem"t to understand and manage educational institutions *ill not find a single( universally
a""licable theory but a multi"licity of theoretical a""roaches each jealously guarded by a
70
"articular e"istemic community&+
The e#istence of several different "ers"ectives creates *hat !olman and 4eal F5EEBH
describe as $conce"tual "luralism- a jangling discord of multi"le voices+ $ Each theory has
something to offer in e#"laining behaviour and events in educational institutions+ The
"ers"ectives favoured by managers( e#"licitly or im"licitly( inevitably influence or determine
decision/ma)ing+
riffiths F5EEBH "rovides strong arguments to under"in his advocacy of $theoretical
"luralism+& The basic idea is that all "roblems cannot be studied fruitfully using a single
theory+ Some "roblems are large and com"le# and no single theory is ca"able of
encom"assing them( *hile others( although seemingly sim"le and straightfor*ard( can be
better understood through the use of multi"le theories + + + "articular theories are a""ro"riate
to certain "roblems( but not others&
%.3.2. The Ch6r6cteristics o: TheorD
Most theories of educational leadershi" and management "ossess three major
characteristics-
Theories tend to be normative in that they reflect beliefs about the nature of educational
institutions and the behaviour of individuals *ithin them+ Sim)ins F5EEEH stresses the
im"ortance of distinguishing bet*een descri"tive and normative uses of theory+ $This is a
distinction *hich is often not clearly made+ The former are those *hich attem"t to describe
the nature of organisations and ho* they *or) and( sometimes( to e#"lain *hy they are as
they are+ The latter( in contrast( attem"t to "rescribe ho* organisations should or might be
managed to achieve "articular outcomes more effectively&
Theories tend to be selective or "artial in that they em"hasi%e certain as"ects of the
institution at the e#"ense of other elements+ The es"ousal of one theoretical model leads to
the neglect of other a""roaches+
Schools and colleges are arguably too com"le# to be ca"able of analysis through a single
dimension+
Theories of educational management are often based on( or su""orted by( observation of
"ractice in educational institutions+ English F:GG:( "+ 5H says that observation may be used in
t*o *ays+ 3irst( observation may be follo*ed by the develo"ment of conce"ts( *hich then
become theoretical frames+ Such "ers"ectives based on data from systematic observation
are sometimes called $grounded theory&+ !ecause such a""roaches are derived from
em"irical in.uiry in schools and colleges( they are more li)ely to be "erceived as relevant by
71
"ractitioners+ Secondly( researchers may use a s"ecific theoretical frame to select conce"ts
to be tested through observation+ The research is then used to $"rove& or $verify& the efficacy
of the theory+
Mode9s o: Ed;c6tion69 M6n67ement2 An Introd;ction
Several *riters have chosen to "resent theories in distinct grou"s or bundles but they differ
in the models chosen( the em"hasis given to "articular a""roaches and the terminology
used to describe them+ T*o of the best )no*n frame*or)s are those by !olman and 4eal
F5EEBH and Morgan F5EEBH+
The main theories are classified into si# major models of educational management+ All these
models are given significant attention in the literature of educational management and have
been subject to a degree of em"irical verification+ Table 5 sho*s the si# models and lin)s
them to "arallel leadershi" models+ The lin)s bet*een management and leadershi" models
are given e#tended treatment in !ush F:GG;H+
Management model 'eadershi" model
3ormal managerial
Collegial Partici"ative
Political Transactional
subjective Post/modern
Ambiguity Contingency
Cultural Moral
%.4. FORMAL MO*ELS
3ormal model is an umbrella term used to embrace a number of similar but not identical
a""roaches+ The title $formal& is used because these theories em"hasi%e the official and
structural elements of organi%ations-
3ormal models assume that organisations are hierarchical systems in *hich managers use
rational means to "ursue agreed goals+ 0eads "ossess authority legitimised by their formal
"ositions *ithin the organi%ation and are accountable to s"onsoring bodies for the activities
of their organisation+
This model has seven major features-
They tend to treat organi%ations as systems+ A system com"rises elements that have clear
organi%ational lin)s *ith each other+ 2ithin schools( for e#am"le( de"artments and other sub
/units are systemically related to each other and to the institution itself+
3ormal models give "rominence to the official structure of the organi%ation+ 3ormal
structures are often re"resented by organi%ation charts( *hich sho* the authori%ed "attern
72
of relationshi"s bet*een members of the institution+
,n formal models the official structures of the organi%ation tend to be hierarchical+ Teachers
are res"onsible to de"artment chairs *ho( in turn( are ans*erable to "rinci"als for the
activities of their de"artments+ The hierarchy thus re"resents a means of control for leaders
over their staff+
All formal a""roaches ty"ify schools as goal/see)ing organi%ations+ The institution is thought
to have official "ur"oses( *hich are acce"ted and "ursued by members of the organi%ation+
,ncreasingly( goals are set *ithin a broader vision of a "referred future for the school+
3ormal models assume that managerial decisions are made through a rational "rocess+
Ty"ically( all the o"tions are considered and evaluated in terms of the goals of the
organi%ation+ The most suitable alternative is then selected to enable those objectives to be
"ursued+
3ormal a""roaches "resent the authority of leaders as a "roduct of their official "ositions
*ithin the organi%ation+ Princi"als1 "o*er is "ositional and is sustained only *hile they
continue to hold their "osts+
,n formal models there is an em"hasis on the accountability of the organi%ation to its
s"onsoring body+ Most schools remain res"onsible to the school district+ ,n many centralised
systems( school "rinci"als are accountable to national or state governments+ ,n
decentralised systems( "rinci"als are ans*erable to their governing boards+
These seven basic features are "resent to a greater or lesser degree in each of the
individual theories( *hich together com"rise the formal models+ These are-
structural modelsP
systems modelsP
bureaucratic modelsP
rational modelsP
hierarchical models+
%.5. MANA+ERIAL LEA*ERS'IP
The ty"e of leadershi" most closely associated *ith formal models is $managerial+&
Managerial leadershi" assumes that the focus of leaders ought to be on functions( tas)s and
behaviours and that if these functions are carried out com"etently the *or) of others in the
organisation *ill be facilitated+
Most a""roaches to managerial leadershi" also assume that the behaviour of organisational
members is largely rational+ Authority and influence are allocated to formal "ositions in
73
"ro"ortion to the status of those "ositions in the organisational hierarchy+
4ressler=s F:GG5H revie* of leadershi" in Charter schools in the 9nited States sho*s the
significance of managerial leadershi"- $Traditionally( the "rinci"al1s role has been clearly
focused on management res"onsibilities+ Managerial leadershi" is focused on managing
e#isting activities successfully rather than visioning a better future for the school+
%.5.(. The Limit6tions o: Form69 Mode9s
The various formal models "ervade much of the literature on educational management+They
are normative a""roaches in that they "resent ideas about ho* "eo"le in organi%ations
ought to behave+ 'evacic et al F5EEEH argue that these assum"tions under"in the
educational reforms of the 5EEGs( notably in England-
A major develo"ment in educational management in the last decade has been much greater
em"hasis on defining effective leadershi" by individuals in management "osts in terms of
the effectiveness of their organisation( *hich is increasingly judged in relation to measurable
outcomes for students + + + This is argued to re.uire a rational/technicist a""roach to the
structuring of decision/ma)ing+
There are five s"ecific *ea)nesses associated *ith formal models-
5+ ,t may be unrealistic to characteri%e schools and colleges as goal/oriented organi%ations+
,t is often difficult to ascertain the goals of educational institutions+ 3ormal objectives may
have little o"erational relevance because they are often vague and general( because
there may be many different goals com"eting for resources( and because goals may
emanate from individuals and grou"s as *ell as from the leaders of the organisation+
Even *here the "ur"oses of schools and colleges have been clarified( there are further
"roblems in judging *hether objectives have been achieved+ Policy/ma)ers and
"ractitioners often rely on e#amination "erformance to assess schools but this is only
one dimension of the educational "rocess+
:+ The "ortrayal of decision/ma)ing as a rational "rocess is fraught *ith difficulties+ The
belief that managerial action is "receded by a "rocess of evaluation of alternatives and a
considered choice of the most a""ro"riate o"tion is rarely substantiated+ Much human
behaviour is irrational and this inevitably influences the nature of decision/ma)ing in
education( for e#am"le( asserts that rational "ractice is the e#ce"tion rather than the
norm+
74
;+ 3ormal models focus on the organi%ation as an entity and ignore or underestimate the
contribution of individuals+ They assume that "eo"le occu"y "reordained "ositions in the
structure and that their be/haviour reflects their organi%ational "ositions rather than their
individual .ualities and e#"erience+ reen/field F5EB;H has been "articularly critical of
this vie*+ Samier F:GG:H ado"ts a similar a""roach( e#"ressing concern $about the role
technical rationality "lays in cri""ling the "ersonality of the bureaucrat( reducing him VsicW
to a cog in a machine&+
>+ A central assum"tion of formal models is that "o*er resides at the a"e# of the "yramid+
Princi"als "ossess authority by virtue of their "ositions as the a""ointed leaders of their
institutions+ This focus on official authority leads to a vie* of institutional management
*hich is essentially to" do*n+ Policy is laid do*n by senior managers and im"lemented
by staff lo*er do*n the hierarchy+ Their acce"tance of managerial decisions is regarded
as un"roblematic+
Organi%ations *ith large numbers of "rofessional staff tend to e#hibit signs of tension
bet*een the conflicting demands of "rofessionalism and the hierarchy+ 3ormal models
assume that leaders( because they are a""ointed on merit( have the com"etence to
issue a""ro"riate instructions to subordinates+ Professional organi%ations have a
differerent ethos *ith e#"ertise distributed *idely *ithin the institution+ This may come
into conflict *ith "rofessional authority+
D+ 3ormal a""roaches are based on the im"licit assum"tion that organi%ations are
relatively stable+ ,ndividuals may come and go but they slot into "redetermined "ositions
in a static structure+ $Organisations o"erating in sim"ler and more stable environments
are li)ely to em"loy less com"le# and more centralised structures( *ith authority( rules
and "olicies as the "rimary vehicles for coordinating the *or)&
Assum"tions of stability are unrealistic in contem"orary schools+ March and Olsen
F5EB?( "+:5H are right to claim that $,ndividuals find themselves in a more com"le#( less
stable and less understood *orld than that described by standard theories of
organisational choice+&
%.5.2. Are Form69 Mode9s Sti99 $69id=
These criticisms of formal models suggest that they have serious limitations+ The dominance
of the hierarchy is com"romised by the e#"ertise "ossessed by "rofessional staff+ The
su""osed rationality of the decision/ma)ing "rocess re.uires modification to allo* for the
"ace and com"le#ity of change+ The conce"t of organi%ational goals is challenged by those
75
*ho "oint to the e#istence of multi"le objectives in education and the "ossible conflict
bet*een goals held at individual( de"artmental and institutional levels+ $Rationalistic/
bureaucratic notions + + + have largely "roven to be sterile and to have little a""lication to
administrative "ractice in the $real *orld&
4es"ite these limitations( it *ould be ina""ro"riate to dismiss formal a""roaches as
irrelevant to schools and colleges+ The other models discussed in this cha"ter *ere all
develo"ed as a reaction to the "erceived *ea)nesses of formal theories+ 0o*ever( these
alternative "ers"ectives have not succeeded in dislodging the formal models( *hich remain
valid as "artial descri"tions of organi%ation and management in education+
O*ens and Sha)eshaft F5EE:H refer to a reduction of confidence in bureaucratic models( and
a $"aradigm shift& to a more so"histicated analysis( but formal models still have much to
contribute to our understanding of schools as organisations+
%.!. COLLE+IAL MO*ELS
Collegial models include all those theories that em"hasi%e that "o*er and decision/ma)ing
should be shared among some or all members of the organi%ation+ Collegial models assume
that organi%ations determine "olicy and ma)e decisions through a "rocess of discussion
leading to consensus+ Po*er is shared among some or all members of the organi%ation *ho
are thought to have a shared understanding about the aims of the institution+
!rundrett F5EECH says that $collegiality can broadly be defined as teachers conferring and
collaborating *ith other teachers+& 'ittle F5EEGH e#"lains that $the reason to "ursue the study
and "ractice of collegiality is that( "resumably( something is gained *hen teachers *or)
together and something is lost *hen they do not+&
Collegial models have the follo*ing major features-
5+ They are strongly normative in orientation+ $The advocacy of collegiality is made more on
the basis of "rescri"tion than on research/based studies of school "ractice&
:+ Collegial models seem to be "articularly a""ro"riate for organi%ations such as schools
and colleges that have significant numbers of "rofessional staff+ Teachers have an
authority of e#"ertise that contrasts *ith the "ositional authority associated *ith formal
models+ Teachers re.uire a measure of autonomy in the classroom but also need to
collaborate to ensure a coherent a""roach to teaching and learning+ Collegial models
assume that "rofessionals also have a right to share in the *ider decision/ma)ing
"rocess+ Shared decisions are li)ely to be better informed and are also much more li)ely
to be im"lemented effectively+
;+ Collegial models assume a common set of values held by members of the organi%ation+
76
These common values guide the managerial activities of the organi%ation and are
thought to lead to shared educational objectives+ The common values of "rofessionals
form "art of the justification for the o"timistic assum"tion that it is al*ays "ossible to
reach agreement about goals and "olicies+ !rundrett F5EECH goes further in referring to
the im"ortance of $shared vision& as a basis for collegial decision/ma)ing+
>+ The si%e of decision/ma)ing grou"s is an im"ortant element in collegial management+
They have to be sufficiently small to enable everyone to be heard+ This may mean that
collegiality *or)s better in elementary schools( or in sub/units( than at the institutional
level in secondary schools+ Meetings of the *hole staff may o"erate collegially in small
schools but may be suitable only for information e#change in larger institutions+
The collegial model deals *ith this "roblem of scale by building/in the assum"tion that
teachers have formal re"resentation *ithin the various decision/ma)ing bodies+ The
democratic element of formal re"resentation rests on the allegiance o*ed by "artici"ants
to their constituencies+
D+ Collegial models assume that decisions are reached by consensus+ The belief that there
are common values and shared objectives leads to the vie* that it is both desirable and
"ossible to resolve "roblems by agreement+ The decision/ma)ing "rocess may be
elongated by the search for com"romise but this is regarded as an acce"table "rice to
"ay to maintain the aura of shared values and beliefs+ The case for consensual decision/
ma)ing rests in "art on the ethical dimension of collegiality+ ,m"osing decisions on staff
is considered morally re"ugnant( and inconsistent *ith the notion of consent+
%.!.(. P6rtici@6tiAe Le6dershi@+
!ecause "olicy is determined *ithin a "artici"ative frame*or)( the "rinci"al is e#"ected
to ado"t "artici"ative leadershi" strategies+ 0eroic models of leadershi" are
ina""ro"riate *hen influence and "o*er are *idely distributed *ithin the institution+
$The collegial leader is at most a $first among e.uals& in an academic organisation
su""osedly run by "rofessional e#"erts + + + the collegial leader is not so much a star
standing alone as the develo"er of consensus among the "rofessionals *ho must
share the burden of the decision+&
2hile transformational leadershi" is consistent *ith the collegial model( in that it
assumes that leaders and staff have shared values and common interests( the
leadershi" model most relevant to collegiality is $"artici"ative leadershi"(& *hich
77
$assumes that the decision/ma)ing "rocesses of the grou" ought to be the central focus
of the grou"+ This is a normative model( under"inned by three criteria-
Partici"ation *ill increase school effectiveness+
Partici"ation is justified by democratic "rinci"les+
'eadershi" is "otentially available to any legitimate sta)eholder+
Sergiovanni F5EC>H claims that a "artici"ative a""roach succeeds in $bonding& staff
together and in easing the "ressures on school "rinci"als+ $The burdens of leadershi"
*ill be less if leadershi" functions and roles are shared and if the conce"t of leadershi"
density *ere to emerge as a viable re"lacement for "rinci"al leadershi"+&
%.!.2. Limit6tions o: Co99e7i69 Mode9s
Collegial models have been "o"ular in the academic and official literature on
educational management since the 5ECGs+
0o*ever( their critics "oint to a number of limitations-
5+ Collegial models are so strongly normative that they tend to obscure rather than
"ortray reality+ Prece"ts about the most a""ro"riate *ays of managing educational
institutions mingle *ith descri"tions of behaviour+ 2hile collegiality is increasingly
advocated( the evidence of its "resence in schools and colleges tends to be s)etchy
and incom"lete+ $The collegial literature often confuses descri"tive and normative
enter"rises + + + The collegial idea of round table decision ma)ing does not accurately
reflect the actual "rocesses in most institutions&
:+ Collegial a""roaches to decision/ma)ing tend to be slo* and cumbersome+ 2hen
"olicy "ro"osals re.uire the a""roval of a series of committees( the "rocess is often
tortuous and time consuming+ Partici"ants may have to endure many lengthy
meetings before issues are resolved+ This re.uires "atience and a considerable
investment of time+ Several English "rimary school heads intervie*ed by 2ebb and
8ulliamy F5EE?H refer to the time/consuming nature of meetings *here $the
discussion "hase seemed to go on and on& and $, felt *e *eren=t getting any*here+&
;+ A fundamental assum"tion of democratic models is that decisions are reached by
consensus+ ,t is believed that the outcome of debate should be agreement based on
the shared values of "artici"ants+ ,n "ractice( though( teachers have their o*n vie*s
and may also re"resent constituencies *ithin the school or college+ ,nevitably these
sectional interests have a significant influence on committees= "rocesses+ The
"artici"atory frame*or) may become the focal "oint for disagreement bet*een
factions+
>+ Collegial models have to be evaluated in relation to the s"ecial features of
78
educational institutions+
The "artici"ative as"ects of decision/ma)ing e#ist alongside the structural and
bureaucratic com"onents of schools and colleges+ Often there is tension bet*een
these rather different modes of management+ The "artici"ative element rests on the
authority of e#"ertise "ossessed by "rofessional staff but this rarely trum"s the
"ositional authority of official leaders or the formal "o*er of e#ternal bodies+
!rundrett F5EECH claims that $collegiality is inevitably the handmaiden of an ever
increasingly centralised bureaucracy+&
D+ Collegial a""roaches to school and college decision/ma)ing may be difficult to
sustain because "rinci"als remain accountable to various e#ternal grou"s+ They may
e#"erience considerable difficulty in defending "olicies that have emerged from a
collegial "rocess but do not enjoy their "ersonal su""ort+ !rundrett F5EECH is right to
argue that $heads need to be genuinely brave to lend "o*er to a democratic forum
*hich may ma)e decisions *ith *hich the headteacher may not themselves agree&+
?+ The effectiveness of a collegial system de"ends in "art on the attitudes of staff+ ,f
they actively su""ort "artici"ation then it may succeed+ ,f they dis"lay a"athy or
hostility( it seems certain to fail+ 2allace F5ECEH argues that teachers may not
*elcome collegiality because they are disinclined to acce"t any authority
intermediate bet*een themselves and the "rinci"al+
B+ Collegial "rocesses in schools de"end even more on the attitudes of "rinci"als than
on the su""ort of teachers+ Partici"ative machinery can be established only *ith the
su""ort of the "rinci"al( *ho has the legal authority to manage the school+ 0oyle
F5EC?H concludes that its de"endence on the "rinci"al=s su""ort limits the validity of
the collegiality model+
%.!.2.(. ContriAed Co99e7i69itD
0argreaves F5EE>H ma)es a more fundamental criticism of collegiality( arguing that it
is being es"oused or $contrived& by official grou"s in order to secure the
im"lementation of national or state "olicy+ Contrived collegiality has the follo*ing
features F0argreaves( 5EE>H-
Administratively regulated rather than s"ontaneous+
Com"ulsory rather than discretionary+
eared to the im"lementation of the mandates of government or the "rinci"al+
79
3i#ed in time and "lace+
4esigned to have "redictable outcomes+
2ebb and 8ulliamy F5EE?H argue that collegial frame*or)s may be used for
essentially "olitical activity( the focus of the ne#t section of this cha"ter F2ebb X
8ulliamy( 5EE?H-
The current climate encourages headteachers to be "o*erful and( if necessary(
mani"ulative leaders in order to ensure that "olicies and "ractices agreed u"on are
ones that they can *holeheartedly su""ort and defend+
%.!.3. Is Co99e7i69itD 6n "n6tt6in6I9e Ide69=
Collegial models contribute several im"ortant conce"ts to the theory of educational
management+ Partici"ative a""roaches are a necessary antidote to the rigid
hierarchical assum"tions of the formal models+ 0o*ever( collegial "ers"ectives
underestimate the official authority of the "rinci"al and "resent bland assum"tions of
consensus( *hich often cannot be substantiated+ 'ittle F5EEGH follo*ing substantial
research in the 9nited States( concludes that collegiality Qturns out to be rare& +
Collegiality is an elusive ideal but a measure of "artici"ation is essential if schools
are to be harmonious and creative organisations+
%.#. POLITICAL MO*ELS
%.#.(. Centr69 Fe6t;res o: Po9itic69 Mode9s
Political models embrace those theories that characteri%e decision/ma)ing as a
bargaining "rocess+ Analysis focuses on the distribution of "o*er and influence in
organi%ations and on the bargaining and negotiation bet*een interest grou"s+
Conflict is regarded as endemic *ithin organi%ations and management is directed
to*ards the regulation of "olitical behaviour F!ush( :GG;H-
Political models assume that in organi%ations "olicy and decisions emerge through a
"rocess of negotiation and bargaining+ ,nterest grou"s develo" and form alliances in
"ursuit of "articular "olicy objectives+ Conflict is vie*ed as a natural "henomenon
and "o*er accrues to dominant coalitions rather than being the "reserve of formal
leaders+
!aldridge=s F5EB5H research in universities in the 9+S+ led him to conclude that the
"olitical model( rather than the formal or collegial "ers"ectives( best ca"tured the
realities of life in higher education+
Political models have the follo*ing major features-
80
5+ They tend to focus on grou" activity rather than the institution as a *hole+ !all F5ECBH
refers to $baronial "olitics& and discusses the nature of conflict bet*een the leaders
of subgrou"s+ 0e adds that conflict bet*een $barons& is "rimarily about resources
and "o*er+
:+ Political models are concerned *ith interests and interest grou"s+ ,ndividuals are
thought to have a variety of interests that they "ursue *ithin the organi%ation+ ,n
tal)ing about $ interests&( *e are tal)ing about "re/dis"ositions embracing goals(
values( desires( e#"ectations( and other orientations and inclinations that lead a
"erson to act in one *ay rather than another FMorgan( 5EEB+
;+ Political models stress the "revalence of conflict in organi%ations+ ,nterest grou"s
"ursue their inde"endent objectives( *hich may contrast shar"ly *ith the aims of
other subunits *ithin the institution and lead to conflict bet*een them+ $Conflict *ill
al*ays be "resent in organisations + + + its source rests in some "erceived or real
divergence of interests&
>+ Political models assume that the goals of organi%ations are unstable( ambiguous and
contested+ ,ndividuals( interest grou"s and coalitions have their o*n "ur"oses and
act to*ards their achievement+ oals may be dis"uted and then become a significant
element in the conflict bet*een grou"s F!olman X 4eal( 5EE5H-
The "olitical frame + + + insists that organisational goals are set through negotiations
among the members of coalitions+ 4ifferent individuals and grou"s have different
objectives and resources( and each attem"t to bargain *ith other members or
coalitions to influence goals and decision/ma)ing "rocess+
D+ As noted above( decisions *ithin "olitical arenas emerge after a com"le# "rocess of
bargaining and negotiation+ $Organisational goals and decisions emerge from
ongoing "rocesses of bargaining( negotiation( and joc)eying for "osition among
members of different coalitions&+
?+ The conce"t of "o*er is central to all "olitical theories+ The outcomes of the com"le#
decision/ma)ing "rocess are li)ely to be determined according to the relative "o*er
of the individuals and interest grou"s involved in the debate+ $Po*er is the medium
through *hich conflicts of interest are ultimately resolved+
Po*er influences *ho gets *hat( *hen and ho* + + + the sources of "o*er are rich
and varied&
81
%.#.2. So;rces o: PoEer in Ed;c6tion
Po*er may be regarded as the ability to determine the behaviour of others or to
decide the outcome of conflict+ 2here there is disagreement it is li)ely to be resolved
according to the relative resources of "o*er available to the "artici"ants+ There are
many sources of "o*er but in broad terms a distinction can be made bet*een
authority and influence+ Authority is legitimate "o*er( *hich is vested in leaders
*ithin formal organi%ations+ ,nfluence de"ends on "ersonal characteristics and
e#"ertise+
There are si# significant forms of "o*er relevant to schools and colleges-
5+ Positional "o*er+ A major source of "o*er in any organi%ation is that accruing to
individuals *ho hold an official "osition in the institution+ 0andy says that "ositional
"o*er is $legal& o $legitimate& "o*er+ ,n schools( the "rinci"al is regarded as the
legitimate leader and "ossesses legal authority+
:+ Authority of e#"ertise+ ,n "rofessional organi%ations there is a significant reservoir of
"o*er available to those *ho "ossess a""ro"riate e#"ertise+ Teachers( for e#am"le(
have s"ecialist )no*ledge of as"ects of the curriculum+ $The e#"ert + + + often carries
an aura of authority and "o*er that can add considerable *eight to a decision that
rests in the balance&
;+ Personal "o*er+ ,ndividuals *ho are charismatic or "ossess verbal s)ills or certain
other characteristics may be able to e#ercise "ersonal "o*er+ These "ersonal s)ills
are inde"endent of the "o*er accruing to individuals by virtue of their "osition in the
organi%ation+
>+ Control of re*ards+ Po*er is li)ely to be "ossessed to a significant degree by
individuals *ho have control of re*ards+ ,n education( re*ards may include
"romotion( good references( and allocation to favoured classes or grou"s+ ,ndividuals
*ho control or influence the allocation of these benefits may be able to determine the
behaviour of teachers *ho see) one or more of the re*ards+
D+ Coercive "o*er+ The mirror image of the control of re*ards may be coercive "o*er+
This im"lies the ability to enforce com"liance( bac)ed by the threat of sanctions+
$Coercive "o*er rests on the ability to constrain( to bloc)( to interfere( or to "unish&+
82
Control of resources+ Control of the distribution of resources may be an im"ortant
source of "o*er in educational institutions( "articularly in self/managing schools+
4ecisions about the allocation of resources are li)ely to be among the most
significant as"ects of the "olicy "rocess in such organisations+
Control of these resources may give "o*er over those "eo"le *ho *ish to ac.uire
them+
Consideration of all these sources of "o*er leads to the conclusion that "rinci"als
"ossess substantial resources of authority and influence+ 0o*ever( they do not have
absolute "o*er+ Other leaders and teachers also have "o*er( arising "rinci"ally from
their "ersonal .ualities and e#"ertise+ These other sources of "o*er may act as a
counter/balance to the "rinci"al=s "ositional authority and control of re*ards+
%.#.3. Tr6ns6ction69 Le6dershi@
The leadershi" model most closely aligned *ith "olitical models is that of
transactional leadershi"+ $Transactional leadershi" is leadershi" in *hich
relationshi"s *ith teachers are based u"on an e#change for some valued resource+
To the teacher( interaction bet*een administrators and teachers is usually e"isodic(
shortlived and limited to the e#change transaction&
This e#change "rocess is an established "olitical strategy+ As *e noted earlier(
"rinci"als hold "o*er in the form of )ey re*ards such as "romotion and references+
0o*ever( they re.uire the co/o"eration of staff to secure the effective management
of the school+ An e#change may secure benefits for both "arties to the arrangement+
The major limitation of such a "rocess is that it does not engage staff beyond the
immediate gains arising from the transaction+ Transactional leadershi" does not
"roduce long/term commitment to the values and vision "romoted by school leaders+
%.#.4. The Limit6tions o: Po9itic69 Mode9s
Political models are "rimarily descri"tive and analytical+ The focus on interests(
conflict bet*een grou"s( and "o*er "rovides a valid and "ersuasive inter"retation of
the decision/ma)ing "rocess in schools+ 0o*ever( these theories do have four major
limitations-
5+ Political models are immersed so strongly in the language of "o*er( conflict and
mani"ulation that they neglect other standard as"ects of organi%ations+ There is little
recognition that most organi%ations o"erate for much of the time according to routine
bureaucratic "rocedures+ The focus is heavily on "olicy formulation *hile the
83
im"lementation of "olicy receives little attention+ The outcomes of bargaining and
negotiation are endorsed( or may falter( *ithin the formal authority structure of the
school or college+
:+ Political models stress the influence of interest grou"s on decision/ma)ing+ The
assum"tion is that organi%ations are fragmented into grou"s( *hich "ursue their o*n
inde"endent goals+ This as"ect of "olitical models may be ina""ro"riate for
elementary schools( *hich may not have the a""aratus for "olitical activity+The
institutional level may be the center of attention for staff in these schools( invalidating
the "olitical model=s em"hasis on interest grou" fragmentation+
;+ ,n "olitical models there is too much em"hasis on conflict and a neglect of the
"ossibility of "rofessional collaboration leading to agreed outcomes+ The assum"tion
that teachers are engaged in a calculated "ursuit of their o*n interests
underestimates the ca"acity of teachers to *or) in harmony *ith colleagues for the
benefit of their "u"ils and students+
>+ Political models are regarded "rimarily as descri"tive or e#"lanatory theories+ Their
advocates claim that these a""roaches are realistic "ortrayals of the decision/ma)ing
"rocess in schools and colleges+ There is no suggestion that teachers should "ursue
their o*n self/interest( sim"ly an assessment( based on observation( that their
behaviour is consistent *ith a"olitical "ers"ective+ 7evertheless( the less attractive
as"ects of "olitical models may ma)e them unacce"table to many educationists for
ethical reasons+
%.#.5. Are Po9itic69 Mode9s $69id=
Political models "rovide rich descri"tions and "ersuasive analysis of events and
behaviour in schools and colleges+ The e#"licit recognition of interests as "rime
motivators for action is valid( as are the conce"ts of conflict and "o*er+ 3or many
teachers and school leaders( "olitical models $their e#"erience of day/to/day reality in
schools+ 'indle F5EEEH( a school administrator in the 9nited States( argues that it is a
"ervasive feature of schools+
%.%. S"BECTI$E MO*ELS
%.%.(. Centr69 Fe6t;res o: S;IHectiAe Mode9s
Subjective models focus on individuals *ithin organi%ations rather than the total
84
institution or its subunits+ These "ers"ectives suggest that each "erson has a
subjective and selective "erce"tion of the organi%ation+
Events and situations have different meanings for the various "artici"ants in
institutions+ Organi%ations are "ortrayed as com"le# units( *hich reflect the
numerous meanings and "erce"tions of all the "eo"le *ithin them+ Organi%ations are
social constructions in the sense that they emerge from the interaction of their
"artici"ants+ They are manifestations of the values and beliefs of individuals rather
than the concrete realities "resented in formal models+
Subjective models assume that organi%ations are the creations of the "eo"le *ithin
them+ Partici"ants are thought to inter"ret situations in different *ays and these
individual "erce"tions are derived from their bac)ground and values+ Organi%ations
have different the e#"erience of those members+
Subjective models became "rominent in educational management as a result of the
*or) of Thomas reenfield in the 5EBGs and 5ECGs+ reenfield *as concerned about
several as"ects of systems theory( *hich he regarded as the dominant model of
educational organi%ations+ 0e argues that systems theory is $bad theory& and
critici%es its focus on the institution as a concrete reality-
Most theories of organisation grossly sim"lify the nature of the reality *ith *hich they
deal+ The drive to see the organisation as a single )ind of entity *ith a life of its o*n
a"art from the "erce"tions and beliefs of those involved in it blinds us to its
com"le#ity and the variety of organisations "eo"le create around themselves+
Subjective models have the follo*ing major features-
(. They focus on the beliefs and "erce"tions of individual members of organi%ations
rather than the institutional level or interest grou"s+ The focus on individuals rather
than the organi%ation is a fundamental difference bet*een subjective and formal
models( and creates *hat 0odg)inson F5EE;H regards as an unbridgeable divide+ $A
fact can never entail a value( and an individual can never become a collective&
2. Subjective models are concerned *ith the meanings "laced on events by "eo"le
*ithin organi%ations+
The focus is on the individual inter"retation of behaviour rather than the situations
and actions themselves+ $Events and meanings are loosely cou"led- the same events
can have very different meanings for different "eo"le because of differences in the
schema that they use to inter"ret their e#"erience&
85
3. The different meanings "laced on situations by the various "artici"ants are "roducts
of their values( bac)ground and e#"erience+ So the inter"retation of events de"ends
on the beliefs held by each member of the organi%ation+ reenfield F5EBEH asserts
that formal theories ma)e the mista)e of treating the meanings of leaders as if they
*ere the objective realities of the organi%ation+ $Too fre.uently in the "ast(
organisation and administrative theory has + + + ta)en sides in the ideological battles
of social "rocess and "resented as <theory=( the vie*s of a dominating set of values(
the vie*s of rulers( elites( and their administrators+
4. Subjective models treat structure as a "roduct of human interaction rather than
something that is fi#ed or "redetermined+ The organi%ation charts( *hich are
characteristic of formal models( are regarded as fictions in that they cannot "redict
the behaviour of individuals+ Subjective a""roaches move the em"hasis a*ay from
structure to*ards a consideration of behaviour and "rocess+ ,ndividual behaviour is
thought to reflect the "ersonal .ualities and as"irations of the "artici"ants rather than
the formal roles they occu"y+ $Organisations e#ist to serve human needs( rather than
the reverse&+
5. Subjective a""roaches em"hasi%e the significance of individual "ur"oses and deny
the e#istence of organi%ational goals+ reenfield F5EB;H as)s $2hat is an
organisation that it can have such a thing as a goalS& The vie* that organi%ations are
sim"ly the "roduct of the interaction of their members leads naturally to the
assum"tion that objectives are individual( not organi%ational +
%.%.2. S;IHectiAe Mode9s 6nd M;69it6tiAe Rese6rch
The theoretical dialectic bet*een formal and subjective models is reflected in the
debate about "ositivism and inter"retivism in educational research+ Subjective
models relate to a mode of research that is "redominantly inter"retive or .ualitative+
This a""roach to en.uiry is based on the subjective e#"erience of individuals+
The main aim is to see) understanding of the *ays in *hich individuals create(
modify and inter"ret the social *orld *hich they inhabit+
The main features of inter"retive( or .ualitative( research echo those of the subjective
models-
(. They focus on the "erce"tions of individuals rather than the *hole organisation+ The
subject=s individual "ers"ective is central to .ualitative research+
86
2. ,nter"retive research is concerned *ith the meanings( or inter"retations( "laced on
events by "artici"ants+ $All human life is e#"erienced and constructed from a
subjective "ers"ective&+
3. Research findings are inter"reted using $grounded& theory+ $Theory is emergent and
must arise from "articular situationsP it should be $grounded& on data generated by
the research act+ Theory should not "roceed research but follo* it&
%.%.3. Postmodern Le6dershi@
Subjective theorists "refer to stress the "ersonal .ualities of individuals rather than
their official "ositions in the organi%ation+ The subjective vie* is that leadershi" is a
"roduct of "ersonal .ualities and s)ills and not sim"ly an automatic outcome of
official authority+
The notion of "ost/modern leadershi" aligns closely *ith the "rinci"les of subjective
models+ Jeough and Tobin say that $current "ostmodern culture celebrates the
multi"licity of subjective truths as defined by e#"erience and revels in the loss of
absolute authority+& They identify several )ey features of "ostmodernism-
'anguage does not reflect reality+
Reality does not e#istP there are multi"le realities+
Any situation is o"en to multi"le inter"retations+
Situations must be understood at local level *ith "articular attention to diversity+
Sac)ney and Mitchell F:GG5H stress the centrality of individual inter"retation of events *hile
also criticising visionary leadershi"+ $'eaders must "ay attention to the cultural and symbolic
structure of meaning construed by individuals and grou"s + + + "ostmodern theories of
leadershi" ta)e the focus of vision and "lace it s.uarely on voice& ,nstead of a com"elling
vision articulated by leaders( there are multi"le voices( and diverse cultural meanings+
%.%.4. The Limit6tions o: S;IHectiAe Mode9s
Subjective models are "rescri"tive a""roaches in that they reflect beliefs about the
nature of organi%ations+
They can be regarded as $anti/theories& in that they emerged as a reaction to the
"erceived limitations of he formal models+ Although subjective models introduce
several im"ortant conce"ts into the theory of educational management( they have
87
four significant *ea)nesses( *hich serve to limit their validity-
(. Subjective models are strongly normative in that they reflect the attitudes and beliefs
of their su""orters+ 2illo*er F5ECGH goes further to describe them as $ideological+&
VPhenomenologicalW "ers"ectives feature major ideological com"onents and their
"artisans tend to be true believers *hen "romulgating their "ositions rather than
offering them for critical e#amination and test&+
Subjective models com"rise a series of "rinci"les rather than a coherent body of
theory- $reenfield sets out to destroy the central "rinci"les of conventional theory
but consistently rejects the idea of "ro"osing a "recisely formulated alternative&
2. Subjective models seem to assume the e#istence of an organi%ation *ithin *hich
individual behaviour and inter"retation occur but there is no clear indication of the
nature of the organi%ation+ Organi%ations are "erceived to be nothing more than a
"roduct of the meanings of their "artici"ants+ ,n em"hasi%ing the inter"retations of
individuals( subjective theorists neglect the institutions *ithin *hich individuals
behave( interact and derive meanings+
3. Subjective theorists im"ly that meanings are so individual that there may be as many
inter"retations as "eo"le+ ,n "ractice( though( these meanings tend to cluster into
"atterns( *hich do enable "artici"ants and observers to ma)e valid generali%ations
about organi%ations+ $!y focussing e#clusively on the individual& as a theoretical + + +
entity( VreenfieldW "recludes analyses of collective enter"rises+ Social "henomena
cannot be reduced solely to <the individual&
4. Subjective models they "rovide fe* guidelines for managerial action+ 'eaders are
e#"ected to ac)no*ledge the individual meanings "laced on events by members of
organi%ations+ This stance is much less secure than the "rece"ts of the formal
model+
%.%.5. The Im@ort6nce o: the IndiAid;69
The subjective "ers"ective offers some valuable insights( *hich act as a corrective to
the more rigid features of formal models+ The focus on individual inter"retations of
events is a useful antidote to the uniformity of systems and structural theories+
Similarly( the em"hasis on individual aims( rather than organi%ational objectives( is an
im"ortant contribution to our understanding of schools and colleges+
Subjective models have close lin)s *ith the emerging( but still *ea)ly defined( notion
of "ost/modern leadershi"+ 'eaders need to attend to the multi"le voices in their
88
organisations and to develo" a $"o*er to(& not a $"o*er over(& model of leadershi"+
0o*ever( as Sac)ney and Mitchell F:GG5H note( $*e do not see ho* "ostmodern
leadershi" + + + can be underta)en *ithout the active engagement of the school
"rinci"al&
,n other *ords( the subjective a""roach *or)s only if leaders *ish it to *or)( a fragile
basis for any a""roach to educational leadershi"+
reenfield=s *or) has broadened our understanding of educational institutions and
e#"osed the *ea)nesses of the formal models+ 0o*ever( it is evident that subjective
models have su""lemented( rather than su""lanted( the formal theories reenfield
set out to attac)+
%.&. AMBI+"IT, MO*ELS
%.&.(. Centr69 Fe6t;res o: AmIi7;itD Mode9s
Ambiguity models stress uncertainty and un"redictability in organi%ations+ These
theories assume that organi%ational objectives are "roblematic and that institutions
e#"erience difficulty in ordering their "riorities+
Sub/units are "ortrayed as relatively autonomous grou"s( *hich are connected only
loosely *ith one another and *ith the institution itself+ 4ecision/ma)ing occurs *ithin
formal and informal settings *here "artici"ation is fluid+ Ambiguity is a "revalent
feature of com"le# organi%ations such as schools and is li)ely to be "articularly acute
during "eriods of ra"id change F!ush( :GG;H-
Ambiguity models assume that turbulence and un"redictability are dominant features
of organi%ations+
There is no clarity over the objectives of institutions and their "rocesses are not
"ro"erly understood+
Partici"ation in "olicy ma)ing is fluid as members o"t in or out of decision
o""ortunities+
Ambiguity models are associated *ith a grou" of theorists( mostly from the 9nited
States( *ho develo"ed their ideas in the 5EBGs+ They *ere dissatisfied *ith the
formal models( *hich they regarded as inade.uate for many organi%ations(
"articularly during "hases of instability+ The most celebrated of the ambiguity
"ers"ectives is the $garbage can& model develo"ed by Cohen and March F5EC?H+
March F5EC:H "oints to the jumbled reality in certain )inds of organi%ation-
Theories of choice underestimate the confusion and com"le#ity surrounding actual
decision ma)ing+ Many things are ha""ening at onceP technologies are changing and
"oorly understoodP alliances( "references( and "erce"tions are changingP "roblems(
89
solutions( o""ortunities( ideas( "eo"le( and outcomes are mi#ed together in a *ay
that ma)es their inter"retation uncertain and their connections unclear+
The data su""orting ambiguity models have been dra*n largely from educational
settings( leading March and Olsen F5EB?H to assert that $ambiguity is a major feature
of decision ma)ing in most "ublic and educational organi%ations&
Ambiguity models have the follo*ing major features-
(. There is a lac) of clarity about the goals of the organi%ation+ Many institutions are
thought to have inconsistent and o"a.ue objectives+ ,t may be argued that aims
become clear only through the behaviour of members of the organi%ation
The organi%ation a""ears to o"erate on a variety of inconsistent and ill/defined
"references+ ,t can be described better as a loose collection of changing ideas than
as a coherent structure+ ,t discovers "references through action more often than it
acts on the basis of "references+
Educational institutions are regarded as ty"ical in having no clearly defined
objectives+ !ecause teachers *or) inde"endently for much of their time( they may
e#"erience little difficulty in "ursuing their o*n interests+ As a result schools and
colleges are thought to have no coherent "attern of aims+
2. Ambiguity models assume that organi%ations have a "roblematic technology in that
their "rocesses are not "ro"erly understood+ ,n education it is not clear ho* students
ac.uire )no*ledge and s)ills so the "rocesses of teaching are clouded *ith doubt
and uncertainty+ !ell F5ECGH claims that ambiguity infuses the central functions of
schools+
3. Ambiguity theorists argue that organi%ations are characteri%ed by fragmentation+
Schools are divided into grou"s *hich have internal coherence based on common
values and goals+ 'in)s bet*een the grou"s are more tenuous and un"redictable+
2eic) F5EB?H uses the term $loose cou"ling& to describe relationshi"s bet*een sub/
units+ $'oose cou"ling + + + carries connotations of im"ermanence( dissolvability( and
tacitness all of *hich are "otentially crucial "ro"erties of the <glue& that holds
organi%ations together+
Client/serving bodies( such as schools( fit the loose cou"ling meta"hor much better
than( say( car assembly "lants *here o"erations are regimented and "redictable+ The
degree of integration re.uired in education is mar)edly less than in many other
settings( allo*ing fragmentation to develo" and "ersist+
90
4. 2ithin ambiguity models organi%ational structure is regarded as "roblematic+
Committees and other formal bodies have rights and res"onsibilities( *hich overla"
*ith each other and *ith the authority assigned to individual managers+ The effective
"o*er of each element *ithin the structure varies *ith the issue and according to the
level of "artici"ation of committee members+
5. Ambiguity models tend to be "articularly a""ro"riate for "rofessional client/serving
organi%ations+ The re.uirement that "rofessionals ma)e individual judgments( rather
than acting in accordance *ith managerial "rescri"tions( leads to the vie* that the
larger schools and colleges o"erate in a climate of ambiguity+
!. Ambiguity theorists em"hasi%e that there is fluid "artici"ation in the management of
organi%ations+
$The "artici"ants in the organi%ation vary among themselves in the amount of time
and effort they devote to the organi%ationP individual "artici"ants vary from one time
to another+ As a result standard theories of "o*er and choice seem to be inade.uate&
#. A further source of ambiguity is "rovided by the signals emanating from the
organi%ation=s environment+
,n an era of ra"id change( schools may e#"erience difficulties in inter"reting the
various messages being transmitted from the environment and in dealing *ith
conflicting signals+ The uncertainty arising from the e#ternal conte#t adds to the
ambiguity of the decision/ma)ing "rocess *ithin the institution+
%. Ambiguity theorists em"hasi%e the "revalence of un"lanned decisions+ The lac) of
agreed goals means that decisions have no clear focus+ Problems( solutions and
"artici"ants interact and choices someho* emerge from the confusion+
The rational model is undermined by ambiguity( since it is so heavily de"endent on
the availability of information about relationshi"s bet*een in"uts and
out"uts++bet*een means and ends+ ,f ambiguity "revails( then it is not "ossible for
organi%ations to have clear aims and objectives+
&. Ambiguity models stress the advantages of decentrali%ation+ iven the com"le#ity
and un"redictability of organi%ations( it is thought that many decisions should be
devolved to subunits and individuals+ 2eic) F5EB?H argues that devolution enables
organi%ations to survive *hile "articular subunits are threatened F!ush( :GG;H-
,f there is a brea)do*n in one "ortion of a loosely cou"led system then this
91
brea)do*n is sealed of and does not affect other "ortions of the organi%ation + + + A
loosely cou"led system can isolate its trouble s"ots and "revent the trouble from
s"reading+
The major contribution of the ambiguity model is that it uncou"les "roblems and
choices+ The notion of decision/ma)ing as a rational "rocess for finding solutions to
"roblems is su""lanted by an uneasy mi# of "roblems( solutions and "artici"ants
from *hich decisions may eventually emerge+ $,n the garbage can model( there is no
clear distinction bet*een means and ends( no articulation of organi%ational goals( no
evaluation of alternatives in relation to organi%ational goals and no selection of the
best means&
%.&.2. Contin7ent Le6dershi@
,n a climate of ambiguity( traditional notions of leadershi" re.uire modification+ The
contingent model "rovides an alternative a""roach( recogni%ing the diverse nature of
school conte#ts and the advantages of ada"ting leadershi" styles to the "articular
situation( rather than ado"ting a $one si%e fits all& stance+ Au)l F:GG:H claims that $the
managerial job is too com"le# and un"redictable to rely on a set of standardised
res"onses to events+ Effective leaders are continuously reading the situation and
evaluating ho* to ada"t their behaviour to it& Contingent leadershi" de"ends on
managers $mastering a large re"ertoire of leadershi" "ractices&
%.&.3. The Limit6tions o: AmIi7;itD Mode9s
Ambiguity models add some im"ortant dimensions to the theory of educational
management+ The conce"t of "roblematic goals( unclear technology and fluid
"artici"ation are significant contributions to organi%ational analysis+ Most schools and
colleges "ossess these features to a greater or lesser e#tent( so ambiguity models
should be regarded "rimarily as analytical or descri"tive a""roaches rather than
normative theories+ The ambiguity model a""ears to be increasingly "lausible but it
does have four significant *ea)nesses-
5+ ,t is difficult to reconcile ambiguity "ers"ectives *ith the customary structures and
"rocesses of schools and colleges+ Partici"ants may move in and out of decision/
ma)ing situations but the "olicy frame*or) remains intact and has a continuing
influence on the outcome of discussions+ S"ecific goals may be unclear but
teachers usually understand and acce"t the broad aims of education+
:+ Ambiguity models e#aggerate the degree of uncertainty in educational
92
institutions+ Schools and colleges have a number of "redictable features( *hich
serve to clarify the res"onsibilities of their members+ Students and staff are
e#"ected to behave in accordance *ith standard rules and "rocedures+ The
timetable regulates the location and movement of all "artici"ants+ There are
usually clear "lans to guide the classroom activities of teachers and "u"ils+ Staff
are a*are of the accountability "atterns( *ith teachers res"onsible ultimately to
"rinci"als *ho( in turn( are ans*erable to local or State government+
Educational institutions are rather more stable and "redictable than the ambiguity
"ers"ective suggests-
$The term organised anarchy may seem overly colourful( suggesting more
confusion( disarray( and conflict than is really "resent&
;+ Ambiguity models are less a""ro"riate for stable organi%ations or for any
institutions during "eriods of stability+ The degree of "redictability in schools
de"ends on the nature of relationshi"s *ith the e#ternal environment+ 2here
institutions are able to maintain relatively im"ervious boundaries( they can e#ert
strong control over their o*n "rocesses+ Po"ular schools( for e#am"le( may be
able to insulate their activities from e#ternal "ressures+
>+ Ambiguity models offer little "ractical guidance to leaders in educational
institutions+ 2hile formal models em"hasi%e the head=s leading role in "olicy/
ma)ing and collegial models stress the im"ortance of team/*or)( ambiguity
models can offer nothing more tangible than contingent leadershi"+
%.&.4. AmIi7;itD or R6tion69itD=
Ambiguity models ma)e a valuable contribution to the theory of educational
management+ The em"hasis on the un"redictability of organi%ations is a significant
counter to the vie* that "roblems can be solved through a rational "rocess+ The
notion of leaders ma)ing a considered choice from a range of alternatives de"ends
crucially on their ability to "redict the conse.uences of a "articular action+ The edifice
of the formal models is sha)en by the recognition that conditions in schools may be
too uncertain to allo* an informed choice among alternatives+
,n "ractice( ho*ever( educational institutions o"erate *ith a mi# of rational and
anarchic "rocesses+ The more un"redictable the internal and e#ternal environment(
the more a""licable is the ambiguity meta"hor-
93
$Organi%ations + + + are "robably more rational than they are adventitious and the
.uest for rational "rocedures is not mis"laced+ 0o*ever + + + rationalistic a""roaches
*ill al*ays be blo*n of course by the contingent( the une#"ected and the irrational
Cultural Models
C"LT"RAL MO*ELS
%.&.5. -h6t *o -e Me6n BD C;9t;re=
Cultural models em"hasi%e the informal as"ects of organi%ations rather then their
official elements+ They focus on the values( beliefs and norms of individuals in the
organi%ation and ho* these individual "erce"tions coalesce into shared
organi%ational meanings+ Cultural models are manifested by symbols and rituals
rather than through the formal structure of the organi%ation F!ush( :GG;H-
Cultural models assume that beliefs( values and ideology are at the heart of
organi%ations+ ,ndividuals hold certain idea and vale/"references( *hich influence
ho* they behave and ho* they vie* the behaviour of other members+ These norms
become shared traditions( *hich are communicated *ithin the grou" and are
reinforced by symbols and ritual+
!eare( Cald*ell( and Milli)an F5EE:H claim that culture serves to define the uni.ue
.ualities of individual organi%ations- $An increasing number of + + + *riters + + + have
ado"ted the term QcultureQ to define that social and "henomenological uni.ueness of
a "articular organisational community + + + 2e have finally ac)no*ledged "ublicly that
uni.ueness is a virtue( that values are im"ortant and that they should be fostered& +
%.&.!. Societ69 C;9t;re
Most of the literature on culture in education relates to organi%ational culture and that
is also the main focus of this section+ 0o*ever( there is also an emerging literature
on the broader theme of national or societal culture+ 2al)er and 4immoc) F:GG:H
refer to issues of conte#t and stress the need to avoid $deconte#tuali%ed "aradigms&
in researching and analy%ing educational systems and institutions+
4immoc) and 2al)er F:GG:H "rovide a hel"ful distinction bet*een societal and
organi%ational culture-
Societal cultures differ mostly at the level of basic values( *hile organi%ational
cultures differ mostly at the level of more su"erficial "ractices( as reflected in the
recognition of "articular symbols( heroes and rituals+
This allo*s organi%ational cultures to be deliberately managed and changed(
*hereas societal or national cultures are more enduring and change only gradually
over longer time "eriods+
94
Societal culture is one im"ortant as"ect of the conte#t *ithin *hich school leaders
must o"erate+ They must also contend *ith organi%ational culture( *hich "rovides a
more immediate frame*or) for leadershi" action+
%.&.!.(. Centr69 Fe6t;res o: Or76ni86tion69 C;9t;re
5+ ,t focuses on the values and beliefs of members of organi%ations+ $Shared values(
shared beliefs( shared meaning( shared understanding( and shared sensema)ing are
all different *ays of describing culture + + + These "atterns of understanding also
"rovide a basis for ma)ing one=s o*n behaviour sensible and meaningful&
:+ The cultural model focuses on the notion of a single or dominant culture in
organi%ations but this does not necessarily mean that individual values are al*ays in
harmony *ith one another+ $There may be different and com"eting value systems
that create a mosaic of organi%ational realities rather than a uniform cor"orate
culture& 'arge( multi"ur"ose organi%ations( in "articular( are li)ely to have more than
one culture+
;+ Organi%ational culture em"hasi%es the develo"ment of shared norms and meanings+
The assum"tion is that interaction bet*een members of the organi%ation( or its
subgrou"s( eventually leads to behavioural norms that gradually become cultural
features of the school or college+
>+ These grou" norms sometimes allo* the develo"ment of a monoculture in a school
*ith meanings shared throughout the staff T $the *ay *e do things around here+& 2e
have already noted( ho*ever( that there may be several subcultures based on the
"rofessional and "ersonal interests of different grou"s+ These ty"ically have internal
coherence but e#"erience difficulty in relationshi"s *ith other grou"s *hose
behavioural norms are different+
D+ Culture is ty"ically e#"ressed through rituals and ceremonies( *hich are used to
su""ort and celebrate beliefs and norms+ Schools are rich in such symbols as
assemblies( "ri%e/givings and cor"orate *orshi"+ $Symbols are central to the "rocess
of constructing meaning+& ?+ Organi%ational culture assumes the e#istence of heroes
and heroines *ho embody the values and beliefs of the organi%ation+ These
honoured members ty"ify the behaviours associated *ith the culture of the institution+
Cam"bell/Evans stresses that heroes or heroines are those *hose achievements
match the culture- $Choice and recognition of heroes + + + occurs *ithin the cultural
boundaries identified through the value filter + + + The accom"lishments of those
individuals *ho come to be regarded as heroes are com"atible *ith the cultural
em"hases&
95
%.&.#. Mor69 Le6dershi@
'eaders have the main res"onsibility for generating and sustaining culture and
communicating core values and beliefs both *ithin the organi%ation and to e#ternal
sta)eholders F!ush( 5EECH+ Princi"als have their o*n values and beliefs arising from
many years of successful "rofessional "ractice+ They are also e#"ected to embody
the culture of the school or college+ Schein F5EEBH argues that cultures s"ring
"rimarily from the beliefs( values and assum"tions of founders of organi%ations+
0o*ever( it should be noted that cultural change is difficult and "roblematic+
0argreaves F5EEEH claims that $most "eo"le1s beliefs( attitudes and values are far
more resistant to change than leaders ty"ically allo*&+
The leadershi" model most closely lin)ed to organi%ational culture is that of moral
leadershi"+ This model assumes that the critical focus of leadershi" ought to be on
the values( beliefs and ethics of leaders themselves+ Authority and influence are to be
derived from defensible conce"tions of *hat is right or good+
Sergiovanni F5EC>H says that $e#cellent schools have central %ones com"osed of
values and beliefs that ta)e on sacred or cultural characteristics&+ The moral
dimension of leadershi" is based on $normative rationalityP rationality based on *hat
*e believe and *hat *e consider to be good& Moral leadershi" is consistent *ith
organi%ational culture in that it is based on the values( beliefs and attitudes of
"rinci"als and other educational leaders+ ,t focuses on the moral "ur"ose of
education and on the behaviours to be e#"ected of leaders o"erating *ithin the moral
domain+ ,t also assumes that these values and beliefs coalesce into shared norms
and meanings that either sha"e or reinforce culture+ The rituals and symbols
associated *ith moral leadershi" su""ort these values and under"in school culture+
%.&.%. Limit6tions o: Or76ni86tion69 C;9t;re
Cultural models add several useful elements to the analysis of school and college
leadershi" and management+
The focus on the informal dimension is a valuable counter to the rigid and official
com"onents of the formal models+ !y stressing the values and beliefs of "artici"ants(
cultural models reinforce the human as"ects of management rather than their
structural elements+ The em"hasis on the symbols of the organi%ation is also a
valuable contribution to management theory *hile the moral leadershi" model
"rovides a useful *ay of understanding *hat constitutes a values/based a""roach to
96
leadershi"+ 0o*ever( cultural models do have three significant *ea)nesses-
5+ There may be ethical dilemmas because cultural leadershi" may be regarded as the
im"osition of a culture by leaders on other members of the organi%ation+ The search
for a monoculture may mean subordinating the values and beliefs of some
"artici"ants to those of leaders or the dominant grou"+ FMorgan( 5EEBH refers to $a
"rocess of ideological control& and *arns of the ris) of mani"ulation+
:+ The cultural model may be unduly mechanistic( assuming that leaders can determine
the culture of the organi%ation FMorgan( 5EEBH+ 2hile they have influence over the
evolution of culture by es"ousing desired values( they cannot ensure the emergence
of a monoculture+ As *e have seen( secondary schools and colleges may have
several subcultures o"erating in de"artments and other sections+ This is not
necessarily dysfunctional because successful subunits are vital com"onents of
thriving institutions+
;+ The cultural model=s focus on symbols such as rituals and ceremonies may mean
that other elements of organi%ations are underestimated+ The symbols may
misre"resent the reality of the school or college+ 0oyle F5EC?H refers to $innovation
*ithout change&+ Schools may go through the a""earance of change but the reality
continues as before+
%.&.&. $69;es 6nd Action
The cultural model is a valuable addition to our understanding of organi%ations+ The
recognition that school and college develo"ment needs to be "receded by attitudinal
change is salutary( and consistent *ith the ma#im that teachers must feel
$o*nershi"& of change if it is to be im"lemented effectively+ $Since organi%ation
ultimately resides in the heads of the "eo"le involved( effective organi%ational change
al*ays im"lies cultural change& FMorgan( 5EEBH+
Cultural models also "rovide a focus for organi%ational action( a dimension that is
largely absent from the subjective "ers"ective+ 'eaders may ado"t a moral a""roach
and focus on influencing values so that they become closer to( if not identical *ith(
their o*n beliefs+ ,n this *ay( they ho"e to achieve *ides"read su""ort for or
$o*nershi"& of ne* "olicies+ !y *or)ing through this informal domain( rather than
im"osing change through "ositional authority or "olitical "rocesses( heads and
"rinci"als are more li)ely to gain su""ort for innovation+ An a""reciation of
organi%ational culture is an im"ortant element in the leadershi" and management of
schools and colleges+
97
Conc9;sion
%.&.(). Com@6rin7 the M6n67ement Mode9s
The si# management models discussed in this cha"ter re"resent different *ays of
loo)ing at educational institutions+ Each screen offers valuable insights into the
nature of management in education but none "rovides a com"lete "icture+ The si#
a""roaches are all valid analyses but their relevance varies according to the conte#t+
Each event( situation or "roblem may be understood by using one or more of these
models but no organi%ation can be e#"lained by using only a single a""roach+ There
is no single "ers"ective ca"able of "resenting a total frame*or) for our
understanding of educational institutions+ $The search for an all/encom"assing model
is sim"listic( for no one model can delineate the intricacies of decision "rocesses in
com"le# organi%ations such as universities and colleges& F!aldridge 5EBC H+
The formal models dominated the early stages of theory develo"ment in educational
management+ 3ormal structure( rational decision/ma)ing and $to"/do*n& leadershi"
*ere regarded as the central conce"ts of effective management and attention *as
given to refining these "rocesses to increase efficiency+ Since the 5EBGs( ho*ever(
there has been a gradual reali%ation that formal models are $at best "artial and at
*orst grossly deficient& FCha"man( 5EE;H+
The other five models featured in this volume all develo"ed in res"onse to the
"erceived *ea)nesses of *hat *as then regarded as $conventional theory+& They
have demonstrated the limitations of the formal models and "ut in "lace alternative
conce"tuali%ations of school management+ 2hile these more recent models are all
valid( they are just as "artial as the dominant "ers"ective their advocates see) to
re"lace+
There is more theory and( by e#"loring different dimensions of management( its total
e#"lanatory "o*er is greater than that "rovided by any single model+
Collegial models are attractive because they advocate teacher "artici"ation in
decision/ma)ing+ Many "rinci"als as"ire to collegiality( a claim that rarely survives
rigorous scrutiny+ The collegial frame*or) all too often "rovides the setting for
"olitical activity or $to"/do*n& decision/ma)ing F!ush( :GG;H+
98
The cultural model=s stress on values and beliefs( and the subjective theorists=
em"hasis on the significance of individual meanings( also a""ear to be both "lausible
and ethical+ ,n "ractice( ho*ever( these may lead to mani"ulation as leaders see) to
im"ose their o*n values on schools and colleges+
The increasing com"le#ity of the educational conte#t may a""ear to lend su""ort to
the ambiguity model *ith its em"hasis on turbulence and anarchy+ 0o*ever( this
a""roach "rovides fe* guidelines for managerial action and leads to the vie* that
$there has to be a better *ay+&
The si# models differ along crucial dimensions but ta)en together they do "rovide a
com"rehensive "icture of the nature of management in educational institutions+
3igure : com"ares the main features of the si# models+
Elements of
managemen
t
3ormal Collegial Political Subjective Ambiguity Cultural
'evels at
*hich goals
are
determined
,nstitutiona
l
,nstitutional Sub+/unit ,ndividual 9nclear ,nstitutional
or Sub+/unit
Process
*hy goals
are
determined
Set by
leaders
Agreement Conflict Problemati
c may be
im"osed
by leaders
9n"redictabl
e
!ased on
collective
value
Relationshi"
bet*een
goals and
decisions
4ecisions
based on
goals
4ecisions
based on
agreed goals
4ecisions
based on
goals of
dominant Y
,ndividual
behaviour
based on
"ersonal
goals
4ecisions
unrelated to
goals
4ecisions
based on
goals of
organisation
of its sub/
units
7ature of
decision
"rocess
Rational Collegial Political Personal arbage can Rational
*ithin a
frame*or)
of values
7ature of
the structure
Objective
reality
0ierarchic
al
Objective
reality
lateral
Setting for
subunits
activity
Constructe
d through
human
interaction
Problematic Physical
manifestatio
n of culture
lin)s *ith
environment
s
May be
closed or
o"en
Princi"al
accountabl
e
Accountabilit
y blurred by
shared
decision
ma)ing
9nstable
e#ternal
bodies
"ortrayed
as interest
grou"s
Source of
individual
meanings
Source of
uncertainty
Sources of
values and
beliefs
Style of
leadershi"
Princi"al
establishe
Princi"al
see)s to
Princi"al is
both
Problemati
c may be
May be
tactical or
Symbolic
99
s goals
and
initiates
"olicy
"romote
consensus
"artici"ant
and
mediator
"erceived
as a form
of control
unobtrusive
Related
leadershi"
model
Managerial Partici"ative Transaction
al
Postmoder
n
Contingent Moral
%.&.((. Attem@ts 6t SDnthesis
Each of the models discussed in this volume offers valid insights into the nature of
leadershi" and management in schools and colleges+ Aet all the "ers"ectives are
limited in that they do not give a com"lete "icture of educational institutions+
$Organi%ations are many things at onceZ They are com"le# and multifaceted+ They
are "arado#ical+ That=s *hy the challenges facing management are so difficult+ ,n any
given situation there may be many different tendencies and dimensions( all of *hich
have an im"act on effective management& FMorgan( 5EEBH+
The inade.uacies of each theory( ta)en singly( have led to a search for a
com"rehensive model that integrates conce"ts to "rovide a coherent analytical
frame*or)+ Cha"man F5EE;H stresses the need for leaders to develo" this broader
"ers"ective in order to enhance organi%ational effectiveness- $8isionary and creative
leadershi" and effective management in education re.uire a deliberate and
conscious attem"t at integration( enmeshment and coherence&+
Enderud F5ECGH( and 4avies and Morgan F5EC;H( have develo"ed integrative models
incor"orating ambiguity( "olitical( collegial and formal "ers"ectives+ These syntheses
are based on the assum"tion that "olicy formation "roceeds through four distinct
"hases *hich all re.uire ade.uate time if the decision is to be successful+ These
authors assume an initial "eriod of high ambiguity as "roblemsP solutions and
"artici"ants interact at a""ro"riate choice o""ortunities+ This anarchic "hase serves
to identify the issues and acts as a "reliminary sifting mechanism+ ,f conducted
"ro"erly it should lead to an initial cou"ling of "roblems *ith "otential solutions+
The out"ut of the ambiguous "eriod is regarded as the in"ut to the "olitical "hase+
This stage is characteri%ed by bargaining and negotiations and usually involves
relatively fe* "artici"ants in small( closed committees+ The outcome is li)ely to be a
broad measure of agreement on "ossible solutions+
,n the third collegial "hase( the "artici"ants committed to the "ro"osed solution
attem"t to "ersuade less active members to acce"t the com"romise reached during
the "olitical stage+ The solutions are tested against criteria of acce"tability and
100
feasibility and may result in minor changes+ Eventually this "rocess should lead to
agreed "olicy outcomes and a degree of commitment to the decision+
The final "hase is the formal or bureaucratic stage during *hich agreed "olicy may
be subject to modification in the light of administrative considerations+ The outcome
of this "eriod is a "olicy *hich is both legitimate and o"erationally satisfactory F!ush(
:GG;H+
Theodossin F5EC;H lin)s the subjective to the formal or systems model using an
analytical continuum+ 0e argues that a systems "ers"ective is the most a""ro"riate
*ay of e#"laining national develo"ments *hile individual and subunit activities may
be understood best by utili%ing the individual meanings of "artici"ants-
Theodossin=s analysis is interesting and "lausible+ ,t hel"s to delineate the
contribution of the formal and subjective models to educational management theory+
,n focusing on these t*o "ers"ectives( ho*ever( it necessarily ignores the
contribution of other a""roaches( including the cultural model( *hich has not been
incor"orated into any of the syntheses a""lied to education+
The Enderud F5ECGH( and 4avies and Morgan F5EC;H( models are valuable in
suggesting a "lausible se.uential lin) bet*een four of the major theories+ 0o*ever( it
is certainly "ossible to "ostulate different sets of relationshi"s bet*een the models+
3or e#am"le( a collegial a""roach may become "olitical as "artici"ants engage in
conflict instead of see)ing to achieve consensus+ ,t is "erha"s significant that there
have been fe* attem"ts to integrate the management models since the 5ECGs+
%.&.(2. "sin7 TheorD to Im@roAe Pr6ctice
The si# models "resent different a""roaches to the management of education and
the syntheses indicate a fe* of the "ossible relationshi"s bet*een them+ 0o*ever(
the ultimate test of theory is *hether it im"roves "ractice+ There should be little doubt
about the "otential for theory to inform "ractice+ School managers generally engage
in a "rocess of im"licit theorising in deciding ho* to formulate "olicy or res"ond to
events+
3acts cannot be left to s"ea) for themselves+ They re.uire the e#"lanatory frame*or)
of theory in order to ascertain their real meaning+
The multi"licity of com"eting models means that no single theory is sufficient to guide
"ractice+ Rather( managers need to develo" $conce"tual "luralism& F!olman X 4eal(
5EC>H to be able to select the most a""ro"riate a""roach to "articular issues and
avoid a unidimensional stance- $Managers in all organi%ations can increase their
101
effectiveness and their freedom through the use of multi"le vantage "oints+ To be
loc)ed into a single "ath is li)ely to "roduce error and self/im"risonment&+
Conce"tual "luralism is similar to the notion of contingent leadershi"+ !oth recogni%e
the diverse nature of educational conte#ts and the advantages of ada"ting leadershi"
styles to the "articular situation rather than ado"ting a $one si%e fits all& stance+
A""reciation of the various models is the starting "oint for effective action+ ,t "rovides
a $conce"tual tool/)it& for the manager to de"loy as a""ro"riate in addressing
"roblems and develo"ing strategy+
Morgan F5EEBH argues that organi%ational analysis based on these multi"le
"ers"ectives com"rises t*o elements-
A diagnostic reading of the situation being investigated( using different meta"hors to
identify or highlight )ey as"ects of the situation+
A critical evaluation of the significance of the different inter"retations resulting from
the diagnosis+
These s)ills are consistent *ith the conce"t of the $reflective "ractitioner& *hose
managerial a""roach incor"orates both good e#"erience and a distillation of
theoretical models based on *ide reading and discussion *ith both academics and
fello* "ractitioners+ This combination of theory and "ractice enables the leader to
ac.uire the overvie* re.uired for strategic management+
2hile it is *idely recogni%ed that a""reciation of theory is li)ely to enhance "ractice(
there remain relatively fe* "ublished accounts of ho* the various models have been
tested in school or college/based research+ More em"irical *or) is needed to enable
judgments on the validity of the models to be made *ith confidence+ The objectives
of such a research "rogramme *ould be to test the validity of the models "resented
in this volume and to develo" an overarching conce"tual frame*or)+ ,t is a tough tas)
but if a*areness of theory hel"s to im"rove "ractice( as *e have sought to
demonstrate( then more rigorous theory should "roduce more effective "ractitioners
and better schools+
(). IN*E0
5+ 0OR,6O7TA' A74 8ERT,CA' STR9CT9RES- T0E 4A7AM,CS O3
ORA7,6AT,O7 ,7 0,0ER E49CAT,O7
:+ 3ROM ,74,8,49A' A74 PRORAMMAT,C ACT,O7 TO ORA7,6AT,O7A'
REA',7ME7T
102
;+ OR,,7ATOR O3 T0E <<0OR,6O7TA' ORA7,6AT,O7== JO,7S 4E'O,TTE
X TO9C0E
>+ T0E 0OR,6O7TA' ORA7,6AT,O7- 20AT T0E ORA7,6AT,O7 O3 T0E
39T9RE ACT9A''A 'OOJS ',JE A74 0O2 ,T 4E',8ERS 8A'9E TO
C9STOMERS+ / RE8,E2 / !R,E3 ART,C'E / !OOJ RE8,E2
>+5+ Creating the 0ori%ontal Organi%ation of the 3uture
D+ MA7A,7 A 0OR,6O7TA' RE8O'9T,O7
D+5+ 2hatNs in it for MeS
D+:+ 2hat=s missing in the .uest for successful changeS
D+;+ 4efining com"etencies
D+>+ 'ever teams u"
D+D+ The 8alue of Communication
D+?+ The C6m@ *6Aid Process
D+B+ Cross/3unctional Communications
D+C+ 0ello( 'eft 0andS
D+E+ Commitment to the Cause
?+ E49CAT,8E ,7ST,T9T,O7S AS ORA7,6AT,O7S
?+5+ T0E STR9CT9RE O3 A7 E49CAT,8E CE7TER
?+E+ CO7CEPT O3 STR9CT9RE
?+5G+ 4,ME7S,O7S O3 T0E STR9CT9RE
?+5G+5+ S,6E
?+5G+:+ COMP'E@,TA
?+5G+;+ 3ORMA',6AT,O7
?+5G+;+5+ 0ori%ontal 4ifferentiation
?+;+:+:+ 8ertical 4ifferentiation
?+;+:+;+ S"atial 4ifferentiation
?+;+;+: Systems of o"eration of the organi%ation
5+ System of formal authority
:+ System of Regulated Activity
103
;+ System of informal communication
>+ System of *or) grou"
D+ System of 4ecisions Ad 0oc
?+5G+>+ MEC0A7,SM O3 COOR4,7AT,O7
B+ MA79A' O3 397CT,O7S
B+ 5+ MA79A' O3 397CT,O7S O3 T0E STRATE,C S9MM,T
B+:+ MA79A' O3 397CT,O7S O3 T0E M,44'E ',7E
B +;+ MAM9A' O3 397CT,O7S O3 T0E OPERAT,8E 79C'E9S
C+ T0EOR,ES O3 E49CAT,O7A' MA7AEME7T
C+5+ 4,ST,79,S0,7 E49CAT,O7A' 'EA4ERS0,P A74 MA7AEME7T
C+5+5+ The Significance of the Educational Context
C+:+ CO7CEPT9A',S,7 E49CAT,O7A' MA7AEME7T
C+;+ T0E RE'E8A7CE O3 T0EORA TO OO4 PRACT,CE
C+;+5+ The 7ature of Theory
C+;+:+ The Characteristics of Theory
C+>+ 3ORMA' MO4E'S
C+D+ MA7AER,A' 'EA4ERS0,P
C+D+5+ The 'imitations of 3ormal Models
C+D+:+ Are 3ormal Models Still 8alidS
C+?+ CO''E,A' MO4E'S
C+?+5+ Partici"ative 'eadershi"+
C+?+:+ 'imitations of Collegial Models
C+?+:+5+ Contrived Collegiality
C+?+;+ ,s Collegiality an 9nattainable ,dealS
C+B+ PO',T,CA' MO4E'S
C+B+5+ Central 3eatures of Political Models
C+B+:+ Sources of Po*er in Education
C+B+;+ Transactional 'eadershi"
C+B+>+ The 'imitations of Political Models
C+B+D+ Are Political Models 8alidS
C+C+ S9!JECT,8E MO4E'S
104
C+C+5+ Central 3eatures of Subjective Models
C+C+:+ Subjective Models and Rualitative Research
C+C+;+ Postmodern 'eadershi"
C+C+>+ The 'imitations of Subjective Models
C+C+D+ The ,m"ortance of the ,ndividual
C+E+ AM!,9,TA MO4E'S
C+E+5+ Central 3eatures of Ambiguity Models
C+E+:+ Contingent 'eadershi"
C+E+;+ The 'imitations of Ambiguity Models
C+E+>+ Ambiguity or RationalityS
C+E+D+ 2hat 4o 2e Mean !y CultureS
C+E+?+ Societal Culture
C+E+?+5+ Central 3eatures of Organi%ational Culture
C+E+B+ Moral 'eadershi"
C+E+C+ 'imitations of Organi%ational Culture
C+E+E+ 8alues and Action
C+E+5G+ Com"aring the Management Models
C+E+55+ Attem"ts at Synthesis
C+E+5:+ 9sing Theory to ,m"rove Practice
105