STDSGN2 Structural Timber Design Chapter 1

Introduction;
the particular type of tree from which wood comes is called species. Although
there are thousands of species of trees, most structural wood comes from a few
dozen species that are selected for commercial lumber processing.
The two groups of tress used for building purposes are the softwoods and
hardwoods. Softwoods are coniferous or cone bearing, whereas hardwoods have
broad leaves. The terms softwood and hardwood are not accurate indications of
the degree of hardness of the various species of trees. Certain softwoods are as
hard as medium-density hardwoods, whereas some species of hardwoods have softer
wood than some of the softwoods.
Wood as a Structural Material;
for structural applications, wood is most commonly found as either sewn
timbers, lumber, or glued laminated members (glulams. !n the interest of
economy and to permit using wood more efficiently, increasing amounts of wood to
day find their way into manufactured structural materials or members such as "
plywood, hardboard, chipboard, fla#eboard, waferboard and plastic$wood laminates
(these are #nown collectively as wood composites% and & manufactured members
such as plywood-lumber beams or wood trusses.
Problems in se o! Wood !or Structures;
for most structural applications, fortunately, wood's advantages far outweigh
its disadvantages. (owever, structural designers must learn how to cope up with
" wood's variability and & its response to environmental conditions.
"ariabilit#;
- probably the more serious of the problems encountered when using timber. )ood
properties vary from species to species, from one position to another in the
tree, from one tree to another grown in the same locality and between trees
grown in one locality and those grown in another. *enerally, humans have
little control over the +uality of wood a tree produces, although strides are
being made in that direction by means of selective tree farming.
Moisture Content;
- the moisture content of wood installed in a structure may change with time,
eventually reaching an e+uilibrium moisture content that depends on the
average relative humidity of the surroundings. (owever, as the relative
humidity within a building may not be constant, the e+uilibrium moisture
content may vary with time. )ith any change of moisture content, wood will
either shrin# or swell and warp. Collectively, these size and shape changes
are #nown as dimensional instability. ,imension and shape changes due to
moisture change can be reduced or avoided by proper seasoning (drying and by
proper attention to details of design.
Duration o! $oading;
- causes strength changes-the longer a load remains on a wood member, the
wea#er the wood member becomes. -uc#ily, the structural designer can easily
consider this problem and compensate for it in the design procedure. ,uration
of loading has negligible effect on modulus of elasticity but, because of
creep, deflections are time-dependent.
Durabilit#;
- finally, under some conditions of wood's durability will be limited.
)eathering, decay, insects or fire can obviously limit the useful life of a
wood structure. .et this problem, too, can be overcome by selecting the
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STDSGN2 Structural Timber Design Chapter 1
proper #ind of wood and by proper design, treatment, construction and
maintenance.
*d+antages o! Wood as a Structural Material;
wood's principal advantages over the other common structural materials are%
%conom#;
- a wood structure is fre+uently less costly to construct than a similar
structure in either structural steel, reinforced concrete, precast concrete
or masonry. /bviously, a completely valid cost comparison would have to
include such costs as operation, maintenance, insurance and the li#e over the
entire life of the structure. (owever, it should also be logical from
observing structures all around that, even, when all of the factors mentioned
are considered, wood is fre+uently the most economical choice for buildings
up to three or four stories high.
*ppearance;
- wood structures can be either aesthetically pleasing or unattractive,
depending entirely on the care that goes into its design. 0arly colonial
structures provide e1cellent e1amples of attractive design and of
construction details that ensure good durability despite the fact that wood
can decay.
%ase o! Wor,ing and 'e-or,ing;
- wood can easily be cut, shaped and finished in the field. 2refabrication at
another location is generally not needed, although prefabrication may be
employed as a timesaving or money-saving measure. 01isting wood structures
can be revised or added to more easily than similar structures of any other
material.
Durabilit#;
- if proper care is ta#en in details of design, in maintenance and in selecting
suitable preservative and fire retardant treatments, wood will be durable. !f
untreated wood is allowed to remain moist in service, however, it will decay.
The secret to ensuring durability is four-fold%
use proper species and grades
avoid undesirable environmental conditions
use proper design details
use whatever treatment is necessary and economically feasible
Strength.Weight 'atio o! Wood;
- when wood is used for all components of a structure, the total weight is
often less than for a structure of other materials. This is particularly true
in comparison to reinforced concrete. The strength-weight ratio of wood is
advantageous wherever dead load is an appreciable part of the total load.
Wood */es;
because of its internal structure, wood is orthotropic, which means that its
properties (physical and mechanical differ in the three main mutually
perpendicular directions 3 longitudinal, radial and tangential. Strength and
modulus of elasticity vary in the three directions and there are si1 values of
2oisson's ratio. Shrin#age (or swelling occurring as wood's moisture content
changes also differs in the three directions% this is what may cause wood to
warp as it either dries out or ta#es in additional moisture.
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STDSGN2 Structural Timber Design Chapter 1
Material Properties o! Wood;
mechanical properties of wood, determined from small, nearly perfect wood
specimens (small clear specimens become the bases for the allowable stresses
given by design codes and specifications. /f these properties, those concerning
strength and stiffness are the interest of the structural designer. (owever, the
designer is also interested in other properties, though on a lesser degree, such
as creep, durability, hardness, dimensional stability and thermal insulating
+ualities. The strength and stiffness properties of wood of most interest in
structural design are%
- compressive parallel to the grain
- modulus of elasticity parallel to the grain
- tensile strength parallel to the grain
- compressive strength perpendicular to the grain
- modulus of rupture (bending strength
- longitudinal shear strength (horizontal shear
- shear modulus
Speci!ic Gra+it#0
all strength and stiffness properties depend on how much cellulose is present,
so it is e1pected that heavier woods to be both stronger and stiffer than
lighter woods.
Time.Dependent (eha+iour o! Wood;
Creep;
- when a wood structural member is loaded, it deflects immediately. !f the load
remains on the member, deflection increases with time. This increase above
and beyond the initial deflection is called creep deflection. Creep can occur
in any type of member (beam, column or tension member but is of greatest
concern for beams.
$oad.Duration %!!ect;
- since the length of time that a load is present on a wood member affects the
ultimate or brea#ing strength of that member, the designer of wood structures
must consider that effect. /therwise, to ensure a desired level of safety,
the designer would have to be overly conservative, designing as though all
loads were to be in place forever.
De!ects in $umber;
any irregularity in wood that affects its strength or durability is called a
defect. 4ecause of the natural characteristics of the material, several common
defects are inherent in wood.
1not;
- a portion of a branch or limb that has been surrounded by subse+uent growth
of the tree. There are several types and classification of #nots and the
strength of a structural member is affected by the size and location of those
it may contain. The grading rules for structural lumber are specific
concerning the number, sizes and position of #nots and their presence is
considered when establishing the allowable unit stresses.
Sha,e;
- a separation along the grain, principally between the annual rings. Sha#es
reduce the resistance to shear and conse+uently members sub5ected to bending
are directly affected by their presence. The strength of members in
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STDSGN2 Structural Timber Design Chapter 1
longitudinal compression (columns, posts, etc. is not greatly affected by
sha#es.
Chec,;
- a separation along the grain, the greater part of which occurs across the
annual rings. Chec#s generally arise from the process of seasoning. -i#e
sha#es, chec#s also reduce the resistance to shear.
Split;
- defined as the lengthwise separation of the wood that e1tends through the
piece from one surface to another.
Deca#;
- the disintegration of wood substance due to the action of wood-destroying
fungi. ,ecay is easily recognized, for the wood becomes soft, spongy or
crumbly. The growth of fungi is encouraged by air, moisture and a favorable
temperature. !f air is e1cluded, for instance, when wood is constantly
submerged, fungi cannot e1ist. )ood is often impregnated with preservatives
such as coal tar and creosote to prevent growth of fungi. The development of
fungi is also prevented by the application of paint to the wood when it is
dry. The e1tent of decay is generally difficult to determine% therefore any
form of decay is usually prohibited in structural grades of wood.
Pitch Poc,et;
- an opening parallel to the annual rings that contains pitch, either solid or
li+uid.
Seasoning o! Wood;
all green wood contains moisture and the serviceability of wood is improved by
its removal. The process of removing moisture from green wood is #nown as
seasoning% it is accomplished by e1posing lumber to the air for an e1tended
period or by heating it in #ilns. )hether air-dried or #iln dried, seasoned wood
is stiffer, stronger and more durable than green wood. The removal of moisture
results in the shrin#age of the fiber cells. This shrin#age causes internal
stresses that result in chec#ing and warping, but development of these defects
can be controlled to some e1tent by proper seasoning procedures. The moisture
content of wood is defined as the ratio of the weight of water in a specimen to
the weight of the oven-dry wood e1pressed as percentage.
se Classi!ication o! Structural $umber;
because the effects of natural defects on the strength of lumber vary with the
type of loading to which an individual piece is sub5ected, structural lumber is
classified according to its size and use. The four principal classifications are
defined as follows%
Dimension;
- this consists of rectangular cross sections with nominal dimensions, &7 to 87
thic# and &7 or more wide. This classification is further divided into light
framing grades, &7 to 87 wide and 5oists and plan#s, 97 and wider.
(eams and Stringers;
- rectangular cross sections, 97 or more thic# and a width more than &7 greater
than the thic#ness are graded for strength in bending when loaded on the
narrow face.
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STDSGN2 Structural Timber Design Chapter 1
Posts and Timbers;
- s+uare or nearly s+uare cross sections with nominal dimensions, 97 1 97 and
larger are graded primarily for use as posts or columns but adapted to other
uses where bending strength is not especially important.
Dec,ing;
- this consist of lumber, &7 to 87 thic#, :7 and wider, with tongue and groove
edges or grooved for spline on the narrow face. ,ec#ing is graded for use
with the wide face placed flatwise in contact with supporting members.
Nominal and Dressed Si)es;
an individual piece of structural lumber is designated by its nominal cross-
sectional dimensions. (owever, after being dressed or surfaced on four sides
(S8S, the actual dimensions of this piece decreases.
Grading o! Structural $umber;
grading is necessary to identify the +uality of lumber, which are established
in relation to strength properties and use classification so that allowable
stresses for design can be assigned.
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