Chemical Nature of Cells

Property of Water How it helps life exist

Solubility All polar substances can be dissolved in water.
Water acts to transport solutes around the organism.
High heat capacity Water acts as a thermal buffer minimising temperature changes due
to the environment.
Provides a stable external and internal environment.
High latent heat of vaporisation Exploited by animals in cooling mechanisms.
As sweat goes from liquid to vapour, heat is removed from the
animal, cooling the body.
High latent heat of fusion Doesnt turn into a solid very easily, doesnt damage cells except in
extreme temperatures.
Density Bottom of lakes rarely freeze allowing animals to still be able to live
in that area.
Cohesion and surface tension Cohesion strong attraction of water molecules to one another.
Surface tension forms a skin on the surface.
Exploited for animals to live on and for some animals to hold onto
the skin.
Polar molecules bind to xylem walls, using cohesion and adhesion to
create a continuous column of water.
Reagent Acts as a source for many processes.

The 4 most common elements in living things are;
o Hydrogen
o Carbon
o Oxygen
o Nitrogen
All organic molecules contain complex carbon.
Biomolecule Elements Examples Use
Carbohydrates C, H, O Glycogen Stores energy
Lipids C, H, O, (N, P) Phospholipid Cell membrane
Proteins C, H, O, N Haemoglobin Transport
Nucleic Acids C, H, O, N, P DNA Genetic Material

Chapter 1.1
Water is the most abundant compound in organisms and cells.
75% - 85% of a cell weight is water.
Water is made up of one oxygen atom and two hydrogen atoms, linked by covalent bonds.
Water molecules most important feature is its dipole nature, meaning it has two charges.
Positive charge in hydrogen atoms and negative charge on oxygen atoms.
Water molecules are highly cohesive (form hydrogen bonds with each other because of dipole nature)
Hydrogen bonds explain properties seen in water, because they are weak and continually breaking.
At 4, there is no sufficient movement to break hydrogen bonds (turns to ice), water molecules form a
lattice structure that is less dense than liquid water.
At 100, movement increases to the point where hydrogen bonds cant hold together anymore, water is
converted to a gaseous state.
Water is a versatile solvent because of the polarity of water molecules (universal solvent)
Substances that can dissolve in water are hydrophilic or soluble (e.g. salts, etc.)
Substances that cant dissolve in water are hydrophobic or insoluble (e.g. fats, oils, petrol, etc.)
Many chemical reactions within cells produce acidic or alkaline/basic substances.
Level of hydrogen ions in solution can be measured using the pH scale.
Pure water is neutral (7), acidic (0-6.9), basic (7.1-14)
Vital that blood pH is maintained at steady level at mean 7.4
Cells maintain a relatively constant internal pH by using cytosols as buffers, removing and releasing
hydrogen.
Chapter 1.2
Water is not always pure, it may contain other substances.
The molecules that make up organisms are;
o Carbohydrates
o Proteins
o Lipids
o Nucleic acids
o Water
Large molecules are called macromolecules, classified as nucleic acids, complex carbohydrates, lipids and
organic proteins.
Large biomacromolecules are synthesised on site inside the cell.
Polymerisation - single units (monomers) link to form polymers.
Carbohydrates are made up of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen in the ratio 1:2:1.
Carbohydrates are important structural components and in energy storage.
Monosaccharides are used as structural components and in energy storage.
Disaccharides are double sugar molecules joined with a glycosidic bond.
Disaccharides provide a convenient way to transport glucose, sucrose, maltose and lactose.
Polysaccharides glycogen used to store energy in animals, more soluble in water, many insoluble in
water.
Polysaccharide starch is a polymer of glucose, energy storage in plants, insoluble.
Polysaccharide cellulose, glucose polymer, important structural material in plants.
Glycoproteins a molecule made up of carbohydrates and proteins.
Glycolipids a molecule made up of carbohydrates and lipids.
Carbohydrates used in energy production, energy storage, structural communication and genetic
components.
It is advantageous for starch and glycogen to be large and insoluble because they are used to store energy.
They are large and insoluble, they can form solid grains inside cells that dont affect the other parts of the
cell.
Condensation Monosaccharides join and water is released.
Hydrolysis Monosaccharides are broken down and water is added.

Chapter 1.3
18% of a cell is protein.
The whole set of proteins produced by the cell is called proteomes.
Proteins contain large complex molecules.
Motility allow movement of cells and their organelles (tubulin).
Structural provides support and protection (collagen, keratin).
Enzymes - catalyse biochemical reactions (catalase).
Transport carry molecules from one location to another or across all membranes (haemoglobin).
Hormones signalling between different cell types, stimulation or inhibition.
Cell surface receptors label cells as targets for hormones, viruses, growth factors, recognition of self,
transmission of nerve impulses.
Neurotransmitters signalling between neurons.
Immunoglobins recognition of foreign substances.
Poisons or toxins chemicals for defence and to aid in capture of food.
Amino acids are basic units which proteins are made.




Protein structure
o Primary sequence of amino acids joined together by peptide bonds
in polypeptide chains.
o Secondary repeated twisting and folding of polypeptide chains
forming hydrogen bonds (3D)
o Tertiary final folded 3D shape, by hydrogen bonds, ionic bonds,
disulphide bonds, Van der Waal forces and hydrophobic interactions.
o Quaternary more than one polypeptide chain
bonded to make a complete protein.
When proteins denature, their
bonds in tertiary and quaternary
structure is broken.
Chapter 1.4
Large macromolecules consist of monomers, called mononucleotides.
2 groups of bases
o Pyrimidines thymine (urasil in RNA) and cytosine
o Purines adenine and guanine
Polymerisation nucleotides can be joined by a sugar phosphate linkage.
During polymerisation, a bond forms between C3 and C5 called a 3-5 sugar
phosphate linkage
RNA is single stranded.
DNA is double stranded.
DNA is comprised of two nucleotide strands running anti-parallel to each other.
The base sequence in one strand determines the base sequence in the
complimentary strand (law of base pairing).
2 strands are held together by hydrogen bonds between the bases.
Each bond is weak and easily broken.
Adenine pairs with Thymine. Guanine pairs with Cytosine.
Chapter 1.5
Lipids are fats, oils and waxes.
They are all made of Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen.
Lipids can carry more energy than carbohydrates and proteins.
Fats are insoluble in water making carrying energy around the body
easier.
Adipose cells are cells that are used to store fats.
Polymer Monomer
Complex
Carbohydrates
Simple sugars
Lipid Triglycerides & Fatty
acids
Protein Amino acids
Nucleic Acid Nucleotides
There are two types of nucleic acids, DNA and RNA.
Function of Nucleic Acids
o Messenger RNA read by ribosome to produce functional protein.
o Ribosomal RNA makes ribosomes.
o Transfer RNA transports amino acids from cytoplasm to ribosome.
o DNA the code from which all proteins are synthesised.
Proteoglycans are molecules that contain both carbohydrates and proteins.
Membranes and cell organelles
Chapter 2.1

Apoptosis is programmed cell death.
Controlled by signals and receptors on the plasma membrane.
Important because if more cells are created than the number being destroyed, tumors form.
Body wasting diseases, cancers (not enough apoptosis), degenerative diseases.
Two main pathways of apoptosis
o Signals from inside a cell the mitochondrial pathways.
o Signals from outside a cell the death receptor pathways.
Necrosis occurs in cells that are seriously damaged (e.g. by infection).
Necrosis is the death of a portion of tissue or an organ in the body.
Tissue death occurs when not enough blood is supplied to the area.
Necrosis is irreversible.
Eukaryotic Cells have an outer boundary called the plasma membrane.
Cells produce substances that need to be modified and stored in organelles.
Inside the cell is a fluid called the cytosol.
Organelles are held in place by the cytoskeleton.
Cytosol fluid inside cells
Cytoplasm cytosol + organelles excluding nucleus
Protoplasm cytosol +ALL organelles
Cells vary in shape and contents to match their environment and biological function.
Unicellular organisms remain unspecialised and carries out a range of biological functions.
Prokaryotic Cells have a cell membrane and cytosol.
Prokaryotic cells lack membrane bound organelles and no nuclear membrane with just one circular
chromosome.
Every living cell of every part of an organism needs matter and a source of energy to keep it alive.
Multicellular organisms have specialised body systems.
Unicellular organisms have large surface area to volume ratio so that materials can diffuse into the cell
quickly.
Chapter 2.2
The plasma membrane selectively controls the movement of materials into and out of the cell.
It is responsible for cell-cell recognition.
Plasma membrane is described as selectively permeable, allowing only some and not other substances
through.
Function of the Plasma membrane
o Encloses cell content
o Regulates movement of materials into and out of the cell
o Helps maintain shape and communication with neighbouring cells
Lipid structure of the membrane gives it the unique property of being flexible and able to repair itself.
Specialised protein molecules are embedded in the bilayer.
Phosphobilipid layer has a hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tail.
Function of cell membrane components
o Glycoprotein cell recognition and triggers an immune response
o Glycolipid helps cells adhere together to make tissue
o Protein channels control movement of specific substances
o Cholesterol keeps membrane fluid
Membrane proteins
o Transport proteins channel and carrier allow some ions to move through
o Receptor proteins hormones and other substances bind to these affects cell activity
o Glycoproteins acts as markers, antigens, enables immune system to distinguish self from non-
self
o Adhesion proteins connects cells to multicellular organisms
Chapter 2.3
The main processes in which substances pass through the membrane are
o Diffusion (passive)
o Osmosis (passive of water)
o Facilitated diffusion (passive via transport proteins)
o Active transport (requires energy)
o Exocytosis (bulk movement requiring energy)
o Endocytosis (bulk movement requiring energy)
Chapter 2.4
Diffusion is the net movement of particles from a region of high concentration to an area of low
concentration not necessarily across a membrane not requiring energy.
The steeper the concentration gradient, the more rapid the rate of diffusion.
Diffusion occurs until equilibrium is met.
Factors affecting diffusion
o Concentration gradient
o Diffusion distance
o Surface area
o Physical barriers
Disadvantage is that molecules in the cell that are required may be lost if the external environment has a
lower concentration than the internal environment.
Smaller molecules and heat will increase the rate of diffusion.
Water is the universal solvent. The solute would be the substance that is added to the solvent, e.g. salt.
Osmosis is the net movement of water from a region of high concentration to an area of low
concentration across a semi permeable membrane not requiring energy.
Hypotonic is when there a net movement into the cells.
Hypertonic is when there is a net movement out of the cells.
Isotonic is when there is no net movement.

Facilitated diffusion
o Transport proteins in the cell membrane assist the movement of large polar and non polar
molecules that are relatively insoluble in lipids.
Transport proteins
o Carrier proteins
o Channel proteins

Chapter 2.5
Active transport processes require energy expenditure because material must be moved against their
concentration gradient.
Cells engaged in active transport have huge numbers of mitochondria whose function is to make energy
available to the cell.
It involves carrier proteins that are similar to those responsible for facilitated diffusion but that the carrier
protein is coupled to a source of energy.
Cells make very small containers within them from the plasma membrane itself called vesticles. (their
formation and movement is referred as cytosis)
Transport using vesticles into the cell is called endocytosis.
Transport using vesticles out of the cell is called exocytosis.
Phagocytosis is the endocytic process involves enclosing solid material.
Pinocytosis is the endocytic process involves enclosing liquid.
Smaller organisms have a large surface area to volume ratio.

Chapter 2.6
Features that are shared by both plant and animal cells include;
o Nucleus
o Plasma membrane
o Ribosomes
o Mitochondria
o Golgi apparatus
o Endoplasmic reticulum (rough and smooth)
o Cytoskeleton
o Vacuoles and vesticles
Organelles are membrane bound structures found in eukaryotic cells which carry out specific functions.
Organelle Function Location Structure Diagram
Nucleus Contains
genetic
material
Cytoplasm Nucleolus in
the centre
surrounded by
chromatin
enclosed in a
double layer
of nuclear
membrane
perforated
with nuclear
pores.

Mitochondria Site of cellular
respiration
Cytoplasm Cylindrical
organelles
occurring in
large
numbers.
Bounded by a
double
membrane,
the inner layer
is extensively
folded to form
cristae.

Ribosomes Synthesis of
proteins
Free in
cytoplasm or
bound to rough
endoplasmic
reticulum
Made up of
ribosomal
RNA, protein
and two
subunits. A
larger and
smaller one.

Rough
Endoplasmic
Reticulum
Synthesis,
folding and
modification of
proteins.
Transportation
of proteins
throughout the
cell.
Membrane
production
Continuous
with the
nuclear
membrane and
extending to
the cytoplasm
as part of the
endomembran
e system.
A complex
system of
membranous
tubules
studded with
ribosomes.
Connect to the
smooth ER.
Smooth
Endoplasmic
Reticulum
Synthesis of
lipids.
Transport of
materials
throughout the
cell.
Detoxification
of drugs and
poisons
Cytoplasm as
part of the
endomembran
e system
A system of
membranous
tubules similar
in appearance
to rough ER
but lacking
ribosomes

Golgi
apparatus
Modification of
proteins.
Sorting,
packaging and
storage of
proteins and
lipids to send
out of the cell.
Transport of
materials
through
vesicles.
Manufacture
of some
macromolecul
es
Cytoplasm,
associated with
ER
Stack of
flattened
membranous
sacs called
cisternae

Lysosomes Releases
intracellular
digestive
enzymes that
destroy
macromolecul
es (e.g.
apoptosis).
Recycling of
cellular
components.
Cytoplasm Single
membrane
bound sac of
hydrolytic
enzymes.
Lysosomes
bud off the
golgi
apparatus

Chloroplasts Site of
photosynthesis
Within the
cytoplasm of
plant leaf
Stacks of
thylakoids
stacked
together as
grana

Cellulose cell
wall
Protects the
cell. Maintains
- Cellulose
fibres.

cell shape.
Prevents
excessive
water uptake.
Between the
walls of
adjacent cells
is the middle
lamella.
Plastids Chloroplasts
site of
photosynthesis
Chromoplasts
attractants
and identifiers
Amyloplasts
storage of
starch and fats
Cytoplasm Double
membrane
structure
bound
structures

Centrioles Organizing
microtubule
assembly but
not essential
Cytoskeleton Found as a
pair, each
composed of
nine sets of
triplet
microtubules
arranged in a
ring

Vacuoles and
Vesticles
Food vacuoles.
Contractile
vacuoles.
Central
vacuole
Cytoplasm Membrane
bound sacs.
(vacuoles are
larger)

Cell
Cytoskeleton
Shape and
mechanical
support for the
cell. Regulation
of cellular
activities.
Motility
Network
throughout the
cytoplasm
Dynamic
system of
protein
microtubules,
microfilament
s and
intermediate
filaments


Biochemical Processes in the Cell
Chapter 3.1
All organisms require energy for metabolism the overall chemical activity of the cell.
It involved the action of enzymes in the manufacture of organic molecules in various energy transforming
and recycling processes, and the breakdown of unwanted substances.
Reactants go in the chemical reaction and Products come out.
Metabolic reactions are reversible.
Chemical reactions will only occur if it has sufficient amount of energy to begin the reaction (activation
energy)
Anabolic / Endergonic reactions
Reduction involves the removal of oxygen or additional electrons
Requires energy input
E.G. photosynthesis 6CO
2
+ 6H
2
O -> C
6
H
12
O
6
+ 6O
2

Small molecules combine to build larger ones
Catabolic / Exergonic reactions
Oxidation involves the addition of oxygen or electrons
Reactions release energy
E.G. cellular respiration C
6
H
12
O
6
+ 6O
2
-> 6CO
2
+ 6H
2
O + Energy
Larger molecules break down into smaller, less complex molecules
Autotrophs produce their own energy through photosynthesis (light) or chemosynthesis (inorganic).
Heteroths cannot produce their own and must consume energy via eating.
Glucose stores energy within animals
ATP provides the energy for metabolic reactions
Adenosine triphosphate structure

ATP works through hydrolysis, losing the end phosphate group
reaction is reversible.

The energy that is released from the lost of the phosphate is immediately ready to be used inside the cell.
3.2
Catalysts speed up reactions without being used up or changed in the reaction
Enzymes are protein catalysts that increase the rate of a chemical reaction
Substrates are the reactant/s in the enzyme-catalysed reaction
Active site is the area of the enzyme to which the substrate binds to, it is highly specific
Enzymes only catalyse one (or very few) types of substrate
Enzymes lower the activation energy required and do not change the nature of the reaction or the end
result
Enzymes are needed so that reactions occur ata a fast enough rate to support the requirements of the cell
/ organism.
Substrates have specific shapes to fit into the active sites (lock and key model)
The Amino acid R groups in the active site help the substrate bind
Poisons such as cyanide and arsenic can block the active site and stop a reaction
Induced Fit model says that the enzyme structure is flexible not rigid and that it adjusts its shape to bind
to the substrate
This increases the range of substrate specificity
Two types of Inhibitors, competitive and non competitive, both are reversible
Competitive inhibitor binds temporarily with the active site preventing the binding of the enzyme and
substrate
Non competitive inhibitor binds with the enzyme in another part, not the active site. These inhibitors
change the shape of the enzyme therefore affecting its ability to bind with the substrates.
Rate of enzyme catalysed reactions are affected by temperature, pH, cofactors and coenzymes, enzyme
and substrate, and stimulatory and inhibitory effects of the products
At low temperature, there is low activity, temporarily inactive
The rate increase with the temperature, most active at optimum temp.
High temperature denature the enzyme by disrupting the hydrogen bonds, resulting in a loss of tertiary
structure from the unfolding and unwinding of the protein.
Different enzymes have different optimum pH. It often depends on the location and type of enzyme.
Increasing the substrate concentration increases the reaction rate as it increases the number of collisions
between the enzyme. However eventually all active sites will be occupied at which this point the
maximum rate of reaction has been reached and can no longer increase.
Cofactors are non protein molecules that bind to the enzyme (is not changed by the enzyme) and assists
in catalysing process. E.g. iron, calcium, copper, zinc, potassium & magnesium
Coenzymes are organic cofactors. E.g. vitamins
3.3 / 3.4



Cellular respiration is the process by which mitochondria break down glucose to make ATP
Cellular respiration is a 3 stage process
Glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm and is where the glucose is broken down
Glucose breaks down into 2 pyruvate and 2 ATP
1 glucose + 2 atp + enzymes -> 2 pyruvates + 4 ATP (2 gained) + 2 NADH (goes to ETC)
Pyruvate is converted to acetyl CoA
2 pyuruvate -> 2 Acetyl CoA + 2 Co
2
(waste) + 2NADH (goes to ETC)
Krebs cycle breaks down pyruvate into C0
2
and occurs in the mitochondrial matrix
Generates electrons for use in electron transport
2 Acetyl CoA -> 2 ATP + chain6 NADH (goes to ETC) + 2 FADH
2
(goes to ETC) + 4CO
2
(waste)
Electron Transport Chain occurs in inner membrane of mitochondria. ATP is synthesised
Electrons are transported through the chain.
Electrons are carried to this step by NADH and FADH
2
, oxygen is used and water is given off
10 NADH + 2 FADH
2
+ Oxygen -> 34 ATP + Water
There is a total of 38 ATP by the end of Cellular Respiration
2 ATP made in glycolysis
2 ATP made in Krebs Cycle
34 ATP made in ETC
1 NADH = 3 ATP
10 X 3 = 30
1 FADH
2
= 2 ATP
2 X 2 = 4
Anaerobic Respiration (Fermentation) yields 2 pyruvate and 2 ATP, occurs in glycolysis
Two types of fermentation, alcoholic and lactic acid
Alcoholic pyruvate converted to ethyl alcohol and carbon dioxide, carried out by yeast and bacteria and
is used in producing alcohol and baking
Lactic Acid pyruvate converted to lactic acid, carried out by muscles when dont get enough oxygen,
causes muscle soreness and cramps
Photosynthesis is carried out by MOST autotrophs, opposite of cellular respiration.
2 steps of photosynthesis, Light dependent and Light Independent
Light dependent traps sunlight, produces electrons and ATP required to power the light independent
stage. Oxygen is released.
Light independent (aka Calvin Cycle) uses the ATP and electrons from the light dependent stage and
carbon dioxide to make glucose.
Chapter 4 Rational Drug Design
Rational drug design involves finding out how the infective agent works against the cell and using that
information to design a drug that prevents the infective agent from being able to do what it is supposed
to do.
1. Analyse the organism that causes disease and determine the structure of the active site
2. Design a drug that binds to the agent and blocks the active site.

Coordination and Regulation: Endocrine System
5.1
Homeostasis is defined as the maintenance of a constant internal environment, maintained within narrow
limits.
The endocrine and nervous systems together control homeostasis.
The endocrine system is a ductless gland system that produces hormones into the blood.
Hormones are chemical substances that target and excite particular cells. They are slowly released and
have a long lasting effect.
Extracellular fluid surround the outside of the cell
o Interstitial / Tissue fluid
o Blood plasma
Intracellular fluid is inside the cell
o Cytosol
Exchange between fluids is required to maintain homeostasis.
Substances within these fluids are exchanged via
o Vesicular transport
o Diffusion
o Bulk flow
Variables subject to homeostasis
o Body temperature
o Water balance
o Nutrient balance
o Ions
o pH
o Blood volume
o Blood pressure
o Oxygen
o Carbon Dioxide
o Red Blood Cells
Homeostasis may not occur when
o Infection
o Trauma
o Toxic exposure
o Automimmune disease
o Genetic disease
Negative feedback system is negative because the response to the stimulus reduces the effect of the
original stimulus.
5.2
The different cells in the Pancreas respond to the change in blood glucose levels in two ways.
o Alpha cells increase production of glucagon
o Beta cells decrease production of insulin

Diabetes mellitus is a condition characterised by less glucose being absorbed by cells so excreted in urine
(lack of insulin activity)
o Type 1 due to undersupply of insulin
o Type 2 due to insulin not binding with its effector cells
Signal transduction involves getting a signal from a target cells exterior to the cells interior during which
the cell converts one kind of signal into another.
Amino acid hormones is a water soluble signal molecule that travels in the bloodstream.
It cannot pass through the cell membrane so it uses the second messenger system.
The receptor for amino acids is located on the outside of the plasma membrane.
The first messenger is the binding between the hormone and the receptor.
This stimulates production of a second messenger inside the cell.
The second messenger system is rapid is it activates enzymes already present in the cell causing the
response.

Steroid hormones are lipid soluble signal molecules that are carried in the bloodstream and are able to
pass through the cell membrane.
Steroid hormones are able to diffuse directly across the plasma membrane and bind to the receptor that
is located within the cytosol.
The receptor then moves to the nucleus, interacting with the DNA and thus altering protein production.
The action of the steroid hormones is slower than that of amino acid hormones as it takes time to
activate genes and to adjust protein production.

5.3
Pheromones are chemical signalling molecules secrete by animals, they are not hormones as they are not
secreted by ductless glands.
Pheromones can be used for communication purposes, to mark trails or to warn others.
Sexual pheromones are secreted by organisms seeking a mate, however they can be misused by
predators who use them to attract prey.
Plant hormones are produced in small amounts, act on target cells and cause a response.
External factors influencing plant growth
o Light intensity
o Gravity
o Water
o Light direction
o Day length
o Temperature
Plants are able to respond to physical parameters in their environment
o Phototropism growing towards light
o Positive geotropism growing downwards towards gravity
o Negative geotropism growing upwards against gravity
o Vernalisation response to periods of cold
Plant hormones are transported throughout the plant via the xylem and/or phloem and/or diffusion.

Coordination and Regulation: Nervous System
6.1

6.2
Neurons / nerve cells are the basic unit of the nervous system.
A number of neurons bound tougher is called a nerve.
There are 3 types of neurons;
o Sensory / affector neuron (PNS > CNS)
o Motor / effector neuron (CNS > PNS)
o Inter / connecting neuron (in CNS connecting sensory& motor neurons)
Axon lengths and dendrites all vary.
The nervous system involves a more direct pathway communication around the body.
Neurons do not touch each other. The gap is called synaptic cleft / synapse.
Nervous impulse pathway
o Neuron one is stimulated
o The nervous impulse moves along the dendrites of the first neuron
o The nervous impulse moves along the axon of the first neuron
o The nervous impulse arrives at the synapse and vesticles release their neurotransmitter into the
space
o The neurotransmitter diffuses across the synaptic cleft to receptors of the second neuron
o The neurotransmitter binds with the receptor of the receiving neuron
o The nervous impulse stimulates the second neuron
o The neurotransmitter is deactivated by the enzyme in the synaptic cleft
Nervous System
Central Nervous System
(Brain & Spinal Cord)
Peripheral Nervous System
(nerve cells not part of CNS)
Sensory/Afferent Division
(transmit to CNS)
Somatic sensory nerurons
(monitors events outside of
body)
Viseral sensory neurons
(monitors events inside of
body)
Motor/Efferent Divison
(transmit from CNS)
Somatic nervous system
(under voluntary/conscious
control)
Autonomic nervous system
(involuntary)
Sympathetic nervous
system
(brings system into action,
increases impulse action in
response to stress)
Parasymthetic nervous
system
(system returns to normal,
decreses impulse action
after stress)
o The nervous impulse passes along the second neuron
Sensory neurons act as different types of receptors
o Chemoreceptors
o Mechanoreceptors
o Photoreceptors
o Thermo-receptors
o Pain receptors
Nerve impulse involves a change in a charge across the axon membrane.
Nerve impulse is a wave of electrical charge (an action potential) that passes rapidly along an axon.
Nerve impulse transmission Action potential
o As the impulse passes along the nerve, Na+ ions move in and the inside becomes positive and the
outside negative.
o As the impulse moves, K+ ions move out and the outside becomes positive once more and the
inside negative, taking it back to its original state.
Action potential is the burst of electrical activity caused by the process of depolarisation.

6.3
Neurotransmitters are specialised chemical messengers.
Neurons have a large amount of mitochondria to provide energy.
The junction between a neuron and a muscle is called a nerve-muscle junction.
Neurohormones is any hormone secreted by the nervous system into the bloodstream.
Neurohormonal activity is distinguished from that of classical neurotransmitters as it can have an effect
on cells distance from the nerve.
Diverging pathways spread out. One cell can influence many others.

Converging pathways come in. One cell can be influenced by many others.

Neurotoxins prevent the transmission of nerve impulses at nerve muscle junctions.
Antitoxins react with toxins to destroy their normal abilities.
6.5
Nervous Communication Endocrine Communication
Rapid response to a stimuli (within fractions of a
second)
Relatively slow response (within minutes or
longer)
Travels electrochemically along axons and
chemically across a synapse
Travels as chemicals in the circulation
Response short lived Response usually long lasting
Response is specific in target neuron, muscle or
gland
Response often widespread in several target
tissue

The nervous system may stimulate glands to correct a change that disturbs homeostasis.
Osmoregulation is controlled largely by the kidneys.



Thermoregulation

Infection and Disease
Chapter 7
Disease describes a condition where a change impairs the normal functioning of an animal.

Infectious Disease any illness caused by the invasion of the body by pathogens
Non-infectious Disease any disease NOT caused by a pathogen
Transmission of Infectious disease by;
o Direct contact
Categories of
Disease
Infectious Non-infectious
Environmental Social Genetic Deficiency Degenerative Mental
o Ingestion
o Aerosols
o Vectors
Stages of infectious disease;
o Entry of pathogen
o Incubation period
o Symptoms
Pathogens may be cellular or non cellular.
Prions are non-cellular pathogenic agents.
Prions are unenclosed proteins that can infect plants but mostly affect animals.
Prions are not destroyed by heat (that usually destroy virus) but are destroyed by procedures that destroy
proteins.
Prion Proteins are capable of self-replication and of being infectious.
Prions are abnormal forms of a normal cell protein. They are produced by mutations in the gene that codes
for a normal cell protein.
A shape change transforms the harmless protein into its infectious prion form.
Prions are unique in that they are both infectious and a hereditary disease.
Viruses are non-cellular pathogens, they contain DNA or RNA and can only reproduce inside a hot cell.
Stages in viral infection are;
o Attachment to host cell
o Penetration
o Uncoating and replication of genetic material
Viruses can only be killed by destroying the host cell.

Treatment of viral infections;
o Antiviral drugs
It is more difficult to treat a viral infection than a bacterial infection sine the virus is
contained within host cells
Some antiviral drugs have been developed that specifically act on enzymes important to
the virus without damage to the host cell
o Interferon protein chemical secreted by host cell that is infected by the virus
Help the uninfected cells to resist the virus.
Viroids are non-cellular. They are the smallest particle that is able to replicate, made of a short single strand
of RNA with no cell wall. Like viruses, viroids need a host to make protein coat.
Bacteria are of many different shapes.
Reproduce by binary fission.
Some are aerobic and some are anaerobic.
Bacteria causes disease by entering hosts and reproducing in hosts.
Bacteria have many different structures
o Flagella to move
o Spores to protect themselves
o Capsule that determines the degree that it can cause disease
o Polysacharide cell wall
Disease can be transmitted in three ways
o Contact transmission
Airborne droplets
Sexual contact
Direct contact
o Vehicle transmission
Food and waterborne
Carried in blood
o Vector transmission
Arthropod borne
Incubation period is the most infectious period.
There are two types of toxins
o Exotoxins
o Endotoxins
Pathogen Cellular/Non-
cellular
Mode of
Transmission
Means of Action Disease Caused
Prion Non-cellular Infectious and
hereditary
Mutates proteins to
become prions
Degenerative
neurological disease
Non-cellular DNA enters host cell
and replicates

Vector (mosquito) Malaria
RNA Virus Airborne spores Influenza
Parasidic protozoa &
Worms
Primary and
secondary host
Tapeworm
Bacteria

Immunity: Defence against Disease
Self: materials made by the bodys cells
Non-self: materials foreign to the body
Immune system is a group of lymphoid tissue and organs and lymphatic vessels that assist the body to
resist infection and disease through specialised cells.
Non-specific (innate) immunity
o Levels 1 & 2
o Acts in the same way for every infection
o Has no memory of a prior infection
o Cannot adapt
Specific (acquired) immunity
o Level 3
o Involves production of specialised cells and chemical substances known as antibodies
o Has a memory so when another infection from the same organism occurs, an increased
response is obtained
o Targets specific pathogens
o Is adaptive and acquired
1
st
Line of defence prevents entry of the pathogen
o Mucus secretions and ciliated linings line respiratory, reproductive, urinary and gastrointestinal
tracts.
o The sticky mucus traps foreign substances which are then removed by cilia.
o Intact skin forms a physical barrier that mot pathogens cannot pass through.
o Secretions include tears, sweat, saliva, urine and gastric juices.
o Gastric juices have a pH that is unfavourable to micro-organisms.
o Saliva, tears and urine flush micro-organisms away.
o Tears and sweat contain chemicals that destroy the bacterial cell walls.
o Natural flora are the usually harmless populations of bacteria that exist on the outer surfaces
whose presence inhibits the ability of pathogens to colonise these surfaces.
2
nd
Line of defence is responsible for destroying and inhibiting pathogens
o Phagocytosis is the process where phagocytes engulf and destroy micro-organisms and foreign
materials.
o Phagocytes are produced in the bone marrow and include neutrophils and macrophages.
o Complement proteins are continually present in the blood, they stick to microbes so that they can
be recognised by phagocytes.
o They stimulate phagocytes to become more active, attract phagocytes to the site of infection and
others destroy the membranes of invading micro-organisms.
o Interferons are secreted by some virally infected cells.
o They induce resistance to the viral infection in the surrounding cells, act as a warning signal from
the infected cell and causes changes in the surfaces of the surrounding cells, making it more
difficult for the virus to infect, prevents viral protein synthesis and plays an important role in
reducing and slowing down the development of the pathogen and minimising symptoms.
o Cytokines are a group of proteins and peptides that are produced by all cells as signalling
molecules to send messages between cells.
o They are similar to hormones and neurotransmitters in allowing cells to communicate with
another, they are involved in a variety of immunological, inflammatory and infectious diseases
and each cytokine binds to a specific cell-surface receptor.
o Inflammation is a defensive response caused by physical agents, chemical agents or microbial
infection when there is damage to the bodys tissues.
o Inflammation causes dilation of nearby arterioles to allow more blood to reach the affected area,
increasing the blood flow allows a greater number of platelets, macrophages, mast cells and
additional substances to reach the affected area.
o The blood vessels become more permeable which allows response agents to leave the
bloodstream and move into the damaged tissue and phagocytes release histamines to attract
more phagocytes to the infection site.
o Fevers are caused by bacterial or viral infections. It raises the body temperature and metabolic
rate, increases speed of blood flow including delivery of white blood cells to the site of the
infection, increases effective of interferon and the release of interleukin-1 which speeds up the
immune system.
o Stages in a fever;
Pathogen or toxin is taken into the body.
Macrophages ingest the foreign substance releasing
interleukin into the bloodstream.
Interleukin-1 causes the bodys thermostat to reset to a
higher temperature.
Fever is initiated.
o Blood Clotting occurs when a blood vessel is torn or ruptured.
o Sequence of events include;
Collagen fibres are exposed to blood.
Platelets stick to the fibres, making the other platelets
sticky to form a platelet plug sealing the wound.
Fibrin traps blood cells, causing blood to coagulate and
produce a more permanent seal for the wound. Fibres
form a crusty scab as they dry and falls off when tissue
underneath has healed properly.
3
rd
Line of defence occurs inside the body when the foreign antigen has been identified.
o Third level of defence is acquired, specific and adaptive.
o It is produced by the lymphocytes T cells and B cells.
o T cells are responsible for T mediated immunity.
o B cells are responsible for antibody mediated immunity and memory of the antigen.
o The humoral immune system involves B cells, which produce antibodies. The humoral system is
associated with serum, the non-cellular part of the blood.
o The cell mediated immune system Is associated with the production of specialised lymphocytes
called T cells.
o B cells produce specific antibodies which are produced against specific antigens.
o T cells target pathogens directly.
o The Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) markers are attached to the surface of body cells so
that the immune system can recognise its own and foreign material.
o Foreign MHC molecules are antigenic which cause T cells to lyse the foreign cells, macrophages to
engulf the foreign cells, antibodies are released to attack the foreign cells and injure the blood
vessels that supply the transplant organ with blood.
o B cells and T cells recognise and ignore cells that have the same MHC markers as themselves.
o Antigens are foreign substances that cause the formation of antibodies.
o Two membrane-bound receptor molecules for antigens are found in the immune system.
Antibodies are found on B cells and T cell receptors are found on T cells.
o An antibody molecule has 4 polypeptide chains. The hinge area allows the antibody to bend if
needed to bind better with the antigen. 5 different kinds of heavy chains result in 5 different
classes of antibodies / immunoglobulins.
o
B cells defend against bacteria and viruses outside the cell and toxins produced by bacteria.
Each B cell only has one type of antibody.
It is helpful having a small number of each antibody because it means there is more chance of recognising
the antigen.
The humoral response begins when an antigen activates a particular B cell. The particular B cell multiplies
using colonal expansion to form plasma cells. Plasma cells make antibodies make antibodies specifically
designed to attack and kill the indentified pathogen. Some B cells differentiate into long lived memory cells.
B cells originate in the bone marrow and differentiate into memory cells and plasma cells. When memory
cells encounter the same antigen again, they will rapidly differentiate into antibody producing plasma cells.
Plasma cells secrete antibodies against antigens.
Clonal expansion is when B cells reproduce rapidly so that there is a large number of identical cells.

T cells originate from stem cells and mature in the thymus. They only respond to antigen fragments that have
been processed and bound to macrophages.
There are 4 types of T cells;
o Helper T cell
o Suppressor T cell
o T cell for delayed hypersensitivity
o Cytotoxic T cell
Infected cells display antigen-MHC
T helper cells are activated and stimulate cytotoxic T cells to destroy the infected cells.
Major steps in immunity
o Macrophages engulf pathogens and then display some of the pathogens antigens on their
surface (antigen-MHC complex)
o T-helper cells are attracted to the macrophages and are activated by the antigen- MHC complex
o T-helper cells stimulate B cells
o If appropriate B cell is present with the antibody specific to the microbe antigen it will bind to the
antigen-MHC complex on eth macrophage
o The B cell divides to form a clone of the plasma cells that produce a specific antibody
o B-memory cells are produced to identify the antigen in the future

Antibodies are also known as immunoglobulins and are made in response to antigens.

There are 5 classes of antibodies, each has a different function;
o IgG activate complement proteins and can neutralise toxins directly
o IgM causes agglutination of antigens
o IgA neutralises pathogens in the digestive, respiratory and reproductive tracts
o IgD located on surface of B cells
o IgE binds to mast cells and helps initiate inflammation
Monoclonal antibodies are artificially produced antibodies that only neutralises one specific antigen. They
are useful as they are totally uniform, can be produced in large quantities and are highly specific.


Defence
Mechanisms in
Humans
Non Specific
(Innate)
First line of
Defence
Mucus
secretions
Ciliated linings
Intact skin
Secretions
Natural flora
Second line of
Defence
Phagocytes
Complement
proteins
Interferons
Cytokines
Bloodclots
Inflammation
Fever
Stimulate mast
cells (release
histamines)
Specific
(Acquired)
Third line of
Defence
Humoral (B cells
involved)
MHC recognises
self from non
self
Class 1 (human
cells)
Class 2
(macrophage B
cells)
B plasma cells
(antibodies)
B memory cells
Cell mediated (T
cells involved)
T supressor
cells
T cells for
delayed
hypersensitivity
Cytotoxic (killer
T cells)
T Helper cells
Activates
cytotoxic T cells
Activates B cells

Herd immunity is where majority of the population is vaccinated against a disease and the few people that arent
rely on the rest of the community being immune as there will be less occurrence of that disease and so they be
unlikely to get it.
Failures in the immune system include:
1. Allergies and Hypersens
2. Rhesus incompatibility
3. Auto-immune diseases
4. Rejection of transplanted organs
5. Immune deficiency diseases
6. Acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS)
Mast cells release histamines that cause inflammation.
Allergic reactions can occur by inhalation, ingestion, injection and skin contact.
Blood groups are the marker proteins on the surface of the red blood cells.
Plants prevent entry of pathogens by passive defence that is always present. It includes the cuticle being a
mechanical barrier, but the pathogen can still enter from the stomata causing abnormal swelling called a gall.
Active defence is after the pathogen has been identified, it uses chemical barriers, such as oils to act as antibiotics
to repel insects, or gum seals infected area.