Monday Feb 17 Handouts PDF

Lecture Handouts
Monday,
17
th
Feb, 2014
Short Course on Sesimic Design of Reinforced and Confined Masonry Buildings, IIT Gandhinagar, Feb 17-21, 2014
1
Short Course on Seismic Design of Reinforced and Confined Masonry Buildings
February 17-21, 2014, I I T Gandhinagar, I ndia
MasonryConstructionAroundtheWorld:
anOverview
Welcome to the
World of Masonry!
2
No. 3
TomSchacher,Switzerland
RichardKlingner/MasonrySociety,USA
DurgeshRai,IITKanpur,India
C.V.R.Murty,IITJodhpur,India
SudhirJain,IITGandhinagar,India
BillMcEwen,MasonryInstituteofBC,Canada
MarcialBlondet,PUCP,Peru
Acknowledgments
Topics
Introducingspeakersandtheworldofmasonry
Unreinforcedmasonry(URM) stone,adobe,
claybricks
Nominallyreinforcedmasonry
Reinforcedmasonry
Confinedmasonry
No. 4
3
UnreinforcedMasonry
Masonrywallstructureswithoutanyreinforcement
Millionsofexistingunreinforcedmasonrybuildings
aroundtheworld
Variousmasonryunits:
Adobe
Stone
Claybricksorblocks
Concretebricksorblocks
No. 5
AdobeMasonry
Adobemudblocksareoneoftheoldestandmost
widelyusedbuildingmaterials.Useofthese
sundriedblocksdatesbackto8000B.C.
Around30to50%oftheworldspopulationlivesor
worksinearthenbuildings
Approximately 50% of population in developing
countries, including the majority of the rural
population and at least 20% of the urban
population, live in earthen dwellings
No. 6
4
No. 7
HistoricEarthenBuildings
Mesopotamia 8,000 BC
beehive domes made of
adobe blocks
Historic Adobe Structures: Ziggurats, Mesopotamia (1250 B.C.)
No. 8
Chogha Zanbil, Iran - the complex protected by three concentric
walls; the inner area taken up with a great ziggurat dedicated to the
main god Inshushinak;
5
HistoricAdobeConstruction:California,USA
MisionDolores,OldestBuildinginSanFrancisco(18
th
century)
No. 9
Adobe Housing Construction
Traditional construction practice followed for centuries in many
countries.
Practiced today by people of low economic status in many
countries (especially Asia, Africa, and Latin America)
Walls made of adobe (unburnt mud) blocks laid in mud mortar.
Roof structure: usually timber beams with timber planks
covered with a mud mortar overlay or with clay tiles or CGI
sheets
This construction is considered to be very vulnerable to
earthquake effects
10
6
11
Example: Adobe Construction in Peru
Source: World Housing
Encyclopedia
www.world-housing.net
12
Cane Reinforcement for Adobe Construction
Source: World Housing
Encyclopedia web site
www.world-housing.net
7
13
Reinforced Adobe Construction
Research at the Catholic University of Peru
14
Reinforced Adobe Construction
8
15
Shake-table Tests on Adobe Construction -
Catholic University of Peru (PUCP)
Original unstrengthened building model Strengthened building model
Source: Marcial Blondet, PUCP, Peru
FurtherReading:AdobeMasonry
www.world-housing.net/tutorials/adobe-tutorials
16
Printed copies available
from EERI
www.eeri.org
Free download:
9
StoneMasonry
Traditional form of construction that has been
practiced for centuries in regions where stone
is locally available.
Stone buildings range from cultural and
historical landmarks to simple dwellings built
by their owners in developing countries
where stone is an affordable and cost-
effective building material for housing
construction.
No. 17
18
Macchu Picchu, Peru (16
th
Century)
10
Macchu Picchu: Inca Stonework
No. 19
19
Detail of stone masonry laid
without mortar , using joints
less than 1 mm thick
20
Stone Masonry in Maharastra, India
11
Traditional Building Construction-Maharashtra
Over85%housingisstonemasonryconstruction
Thickstonemasonrywallssupportflattimberroofs
withearthenoverlays
Climaticconditions:lowrainfallandextremelyhot
summermonths(temperaturesover40C)
21
Traditional Building Construction
22
12
23
Stone Masonry Walls in Maharashtra, India
wall thickness ranges
from 50 cm to 2 m
ReconstructionaftertheEarthquake
24
13
25
FieldWorkinMaharashtra(199499)
Manual for earthquake-resistant masonry construction
authored by S. Brzev and a team from IIT Powai
Published by the Government of Maharashtra
HistoricBrickMasonryConstruction
Usedforretainingearth,fortificationof
communities,andenclosingbuildingssinceAncient
Rome;
Kilnfiredbricks constructiontechniquesand
qualityrangingwidely;
Earlymasonrywalls mortarmadefrommudor
bitumenorpozzolana(volcanicash);jointsranged
from13mmthicknessto40mmthickness.
No. 26
14
No. 27
ForumRomanum(Rome):AnExhibitionof
AncientRomanWalls
No. 28
ExamplesofRomanWalls
15
The Great Wall of China
No. 29
- The construction
spanned from 5
th
century BC through the
16
th
century
- Various forms of
masonry in various
periods (bricks, stone,
rammed earth)
- 6,260 km long wall,
running generally east-
west along the northern
edge of China.
TheGreatWallofChina(contd)
No. 30
16
ContemporaryUnreinforcedBrickMasonryConstruction
No. 31
Example from India
Source:Murty (2013)
BrickMasonryConstruction:Maharashtra,India
32
17
UnreinforcedBrickMasonry(URM)
UnreinforcedmasonryispracticedinNorthAmerica
inareaswithlowseismicity
Reinforcedmasonryconstructionstartedin
Californiaafterthe1933SantaBarbaraearthquake
Therearemanyexistingunreinforcedmasonry
buildings someofwhichhavebeenretrofitted
No. 33
No. 34
URMBuildings
URM Skyscrapers, Chicago, USA, 1890s
Example: Monadnock Building, 1889
16 stories
unreinforced masonry walls
6 ft thick at base, 1 ft thick at top
18
UnreinforcedConcreteBlockMasonryBuildings,
Santiago,Chile(builtaround1910)
35
ConcreteBlocks Chile
Typical block
501 mm x 138 mm x 251 mm
Block testing setup
Compressive strength 25 MPa
19
NominallyReinforcedMasonry
Mostlyunreinforced
Somereinforcementisprovidedatcriticallocations
inverticaland/orhorizontaldirection,e.g.:
Verticalreinforcementatdoor/windowopeningsandat
wallintersections
Reinforcedconcrete(RCC)bandsatplinth,lintel,and/or
floorlevel
No. 37
RCCBandsinNominallyReinforcedMasonry
ToEnsureIntegrity
No. 38
Source: Bothara and Brzev (2011)
20
RCCBandActslikeaBelt!
No. 39
NominallyReinforcedMasonry:RCCBands
No. 40
21
Demonstration buildling
in Bam, Iran after the
2003 earthquake
Source: T. Schacher
Example:
Reconstruction after
the 2005 Kashmir
earthquake in
Pakistan
Source: T. Schacher
22
Documentation in the form of simplified guidelines for Indian zones III, IV
and V can be found here:
www.ndmindia.nic.in/Simplified%20Guideline_Zone%20V.pdf
(replace V before .pdf with III or IV)
NominallyReinforcedMasonry:VerticalReinforcement
Quettabond:
pocketstoreceive
rebars
No. 44
23
QuettaBond:ReinforcementDetails
No. 45
Earthquake Safe Construction of Masonry
Buildings (Arya and Panda)
ReinforcedMasonry
Masonrywallconstructioninwhich
reinforcementisembeddedinsucha
mannerthattwomaterialsacttogetherin
resistingforces.
Reinforcementresiststensionwhilethe
masonryresistscompression.
Reinforcementusuallyinformofinternal
steelbarsgroutedintomasonryunitsor
laidinhorizontalmortarcourses.
No. 46
24
Concrete Masonry Block Construction
ReinforcedMasonryConstructionUsingHollowBlocks
Hollow concrete blocks
Vertical reinforcement placed in hollow cores
Horizontal reinforcement: joint reinforcement and/or
bond beam reinforcement
25
WallReinforcement
Horizontal
Reinforcement
J oint (ladder) reinforcement
Bond beam reinforcement
26
Reinforcement
No. 51
Horizontal
Reinforcement
TypicalMasonryReinforcement
No. 52
27
Masonry grout is a
cementitious mixture
used to fill cores or
cavities in masonry
construction
Drawing: Grouted brick
masonry, USA 1868
Grouting
Grouting
28
Grouting
No. 55
ReinforcedMasonry:HollowClayBlocks
No. 56
Example from Chile
29
ReinforcedMasonry:HollowClayBlocks
No. 57 Typical reinforcement arrangement, Chile (Moroni, Gomez, and Astroza, World Housing Encyclopedia Report 5)
Examples from Peru
58
MultiPerforatedMasonryUnits:
LatinAmericaandEurope
30
ConfinedMasonry
ConfinedMasonryConstruction:aDefinition
Confinedmasonryisaconstructionsystemwhere
thewallsarebuiltfirst,andRCcolumnsandbeams
arecastafterwards.
31
KeydifferencebetweentheconfinedmasonryandRC
frameconstruction=constructionsequence
ConfinedMasonry
Wallsfirst
Concretelater
ReinforcedConcreteFrame
Concretefirst
Wallslater
Source: Tom Schacher
KeyComponentsofaConfinedMasonryBuilding
Key structural components of a confined masonry
building are:
Masonry walls made either of clay brick or concrete block
units
Tie-columns =vertical RC confining elements which
resemble columns in reinforced concrete frame
construction
Tie-beams =horizontal RC confining elements which
resemble beams in reinforced concrete frame construction.
62
32
ConfinedMasonryBuilding:KeyComponents
ConfinedMasonry:Beginnings
Evolvedthoughaninformalprocessbasedonitssatisfactoryperformance
inpastearthquakes
Thefirstreporteduseinthereconstructionafterthe1908Messina,Italy
earthquake(M7.2) deathtoll70,000
PracticedinChileandColumbiasince1930sandinMexicosince1940s
64
Currently practiced in several countries/regions with high seismic risk,
including Latin America, Mediterranean Europe, Middle East (Iran),
South Asia (Indonesia), and the Far East (China).
33
Mexico
ElSalvador
Indonesia
Pakistan
65
Confined Masonry Construction Examples
ConfinedMasonryApartmentBuildings(Chile)
66
34
KeyElements LayoutRules
67
LocationofConfiningElementsisVeryImportant!
68
35
69
ConfinedMasonry:ConstructionProcess
Indonesia (C.Meisl) Slovenia (Lutman and Tomazevic)
ConfinedMasonryConstruction:Toothing attheWallto
TieColumnInterface
70
Toothing enhances interaction between masonry
walls and RC confining elements
36
No. 71
TajMahal:OneoftheMostOutstanding
MasonryStructuresintheWorld
No. 72
Questions?
1
MasonryConstructioninMexicoandCanada
Some facts about Mexico
Indian Territory 3,287,590 km
2
Mexican Territory 1,964,375 km
2
[Wikipedia]
Mexican population 118,395,054 (2013)
Indian population 1,239,830,000 (2014)
2
Mexico City
Wikipedia
Historic Centre
Main plaza, government palace
3
Historic Centre
Main plaza cathedral
Historic Centre
Palace of belle arts
4
Business District
West side, business district
Inhabitantes(thousands) 112,337
Annual growth rate 1.8
Medianage 26
Population density (inhabitants/km
2
) 57
Brute mortality per1000inhabitants 5.7
Child mortality, number ofdead child one year or less per1000
born
12.2
Life expectancy inyears 75
Average number ofoccupants perhouse 3.9
5
age
percent
57.3% 54.9%
Economic Activity
Economic activity
Services
Industry Primary
6
Some facts about housing
p
e
r
c
e
n
t
Housing annual growth rate
Percent of houses with walls made of durable m
Brick, concrete, Stone,etc.
p
e
r
c
e
n
t
7
Percent of houses with roof made of durable m
concrete, concrete joists and arched lightened
p
e
r
c
e
n
t
Percent of individual houses with piped wa
p
e
r
c
e
n
t
8
Percent of houses with electricity
p
e
r
c
e
n
t
About UNAM
J uan OGorman
9
UNAM Campus
A large campus south of Mexico city, green areas with
f th i it ( b
Basic numbers
218,400 Studentscycle20122013
26,878 Postgraduates
190,707 Undergraduates
815 Nationalmusicschool
37,610 Academics:teachers,researchers
techniciansetc.(11,889fulltime)
13Faculties
31Institutes
15centres
10
Budget
Budget2.59billionUSD(2013)
62%Teaching 25%Research 8%extensionactivities 5%Management
The Institute of Engineering
94 Researchers
101Technicians
500students
11
ResearchinMexico
Compression strength for different types of masonry
(Meli y Hernndez, 1971); Meli (1979)
Largetestprogram70s
2500 masonry units in
compression
1000 piles in compression
12
Effectofverticalload
Meli (1975).
Horizontalreinforcement
Alcocer
13
Horizontalreinforcement
ResearchonMasonry
Juan Guillermo Arias A (2005) and Sergio Alcocer
Shaking table test 3 floors, confined masonry
building, traditional masonry (crafted masonry
units) no horizontal reinforcement
14
Results

Plastic deformations concentrate in first floor
observed drifts are much lager than those in
pseudo-static tests
Aspectratio
J J Perez Gavilan E, L E Flores, Alcocer 2013
15
Effectofaspectratio
Shearmomentinteraction
16
ShearMomentInteraction
A. Manzano, J J Perez Gavilan E
My Students
3PhDstudents
Behaviourofmasonrywallssupportedbyflexibleelements(beams)
[experimental,CONACYT]
Momentshearinteractioninconfinedmasonrywalls[experimentalfinished,
CONACYT]
Behaviourofinfillwallssubjectedtolateralloads[experimentalstarting,
UniversityofSinaloa]
7Mastersstudents
Effectofflexiblediaphragms
Effectofmomentshearinteractioninmasonrystructures
Shearstrengthcontributionofhorizontalreinforcementsinconfinedmasonry
walls.[experimental,sponsoredbycitygovernment]
Nonlinearmodelsforinfillwalls[starting]
Detailedmodellingofconfinedmasonrywallswithhorizontalreinforcement
Comparisontwodesignsofabuildingusingthecurrentcodeandthenew
provisions.
17
TypicalMasonryUnits
Clay Concrete blocks
Typical masonry buildings
Urban middle income housing
18
19
LowIncomeHousing
Finalphaseofconstruction
20
ConstructionSite
Metallic formwork for large sites
MasonryConstructioninCanada
Canadaisacountrywitharelativelysmallpopulation
(about35million likeMumbaiandDelhicombined)
Andaverylargearea(around10millionkm) about3
timestheareaofIndia
Theclimateisverycoldinthewinters(upto 50
degreesC)andwarminthesummermonths(upto40
degreesCincitieslikeToronto)
Ayoungcountry CanadianConfederation
establishedin1867
21
MasonryinCanada:HeritageBuildings
No. 41
Quebec City,
Quebec
No. 42
MasonryinCanada:HeritageBuildings
Marine Building,
Vancouver, 1930s
22
A school building, Vancouver
Concrete block masonry walls
Concrete brick veneers
(cladding!)
Sustainability benefits: 20% fly
ash cement replacement
MasonryinCanada:ModernConstruction
Modern Masonry Construction - Fire Halls
23
ModernMasonryConstruction
45
University of British Columbia,
Vancouver
Use of recycled bricks
Sustainable design top priority
LEED rating system applied in many
projects
No. 46
1
Topics
Masonry buildings: key components
Load path
Design methods
Masonry design standards
2
MasonryBuildings:KeyComponents
Verticalstructuralcomponents:masonrywalls
Loadbearing resisttheeffectsofgravityloads
(includingselfweight)pluslateralloads
Nonloadbearing resistonlytheeffectsoftheir
selfweightandpossiblyoutofplanewindand
earthquakeloads
Horizontalstructuralcomponents(diaphragms)
Floorsandroof
KeyComponents
Source:Drysdale
3
LoadPath
Multipleelementsareusedtotransmitandresist
externalloadswithinabuilding.Theseelements
definethemechanismofloadtransferinabuilding
knownastheloadpath.
GravityLoadPath gravityloadonthefloorand
roofslabstransferredtothewalls,downtothe
foundations,andthentothesupportingsoil.
LateralLoadPath thewaylateralloads(dueto
windorearthquakes)aretransferredthrougha
building.
GravityLoadPath
4
GravityLoadPath TributaryArea
LateralLoadPath:
HowLateralForcesFlowThroughaBuilding
1
2
3
5
DesignMethods
AllowableStressDesign(ASD)Method
AlsoknownasWorkingStressDesign
LimitStatesDesign(LSD)Method
UltimateLimitStates(ULS)
ServiceabilityLimitStates(SLS)
AllowableStressDesignMethod
Basedontheelastictheory(elasticmaterialbehaviour)
Allowablestress=materialstrengthdividedbythefactor
ofsafety(FOS)
Usedfordesignofunreinforcedmasonrycomponents
accordingtoIS:1905(allowablestressesprovidedin
tabularform)
LongexperiencewithASDinIndia
IthasbeenreplacedbytheLimitStatesDesignapproach
bydesigncodesinmanycountries
Severaldeficiencies:doesnotshowrealstrengthortrue
FOS;uneconomicdesign;basedonmodularratio(n)
whichisanimaginaryquality
6
AllowableStressDesign(IS1905)
LoadCombinations
Nonearthquakeloadcombinations:
1)DL+LL
2)DL WL
3)DL+LL WL
Earthquakeloadcombinations:
4)0.9DL EL
5)DL+LL EL
LimitStatesDesignMethod
Thestructureshouldbeabletosafely
withstandexternalloads(strength)andit
shouldremainfunctionalduringitslifespan
(serviceability)
Basicrequirement:
Factoredresistance>Factoredloadeffect
e.g.M
r
>M
f
flexuralresistance
V
r
>V
f
shearresistance
7
FactoredLoadEffect
Factoredloadeffect=characteristicloadx
loadfactor
=loadfactor
Loadfactorsprescribedforvarioustypesof
loadsandloadcombinations
LoadfactorsperIS456willbeusedfordesign
ofmasonrystructuresaccordingtotheLSD
method
LimitStatesDesign FactoredResistance
Basedonthedesignstrength(f
d
)ofthematerial
(e.g.concrete)
InNorthAmericaandsomeothercountries use
materialresistancefactor
factor safety partial
strength stic characteri f
f
m
ck
d
_ _
_

ck d
f f

8
PartialSafetyFactorsforStrength:
Concrete,Masonry&Steel
India Canada India
Material Partialsafety
factor for
strength
m
Material
resistancefactor
= 1/
m
= 1/
m
Factorof
Safety (FOS)
ASDMethod
Concrete 1.5
(IS456)
0.67x0.67=0.45 0.65 3.0
Masonry 2.0* 0.5 0.60 4.0**
Steel 1.15
(IS456)
0.87 0.85 1.8
* proposed(provisionsnotcurrentlyavailableinIndianstandards)
** IITKGSDMAGuidelinesforStructuralUseofReinforcedMasonry(2005)
LimitStatesDesignMethodandThisCourse
Willbeusedfordesignofreinforcedmasonry
walls,andreinforcedconcretecomponentsin
confinedmasonrybuildings(tiecolumnsand
tiebeams)
Materialresistancefactors()willbeused
insteadofpartialsafetyfactors(
m
)indesign
calculations!
9
LimitStatesDesignMethod LoadFactorsand
LoadCombinations
SameasforRCstructuresperIS456
Nonearthquakeloadcombinations:
1)1.5DL+1.5LL
2a)1.5DL 1.5WL
2b)0.9DL 1.5WL(overturningorstressreversal)
3)1.2DL+1.2LL 1.2WL
Earthquakeloadcombinations:
4a)1.5DL 1.5EL
4b)0.9DL 1.5EL(overturningorstressreversal)
5)1.2DL+1.2LL 1.2EL
MasonryStandards India
IS:19051987
CodeofPracticeforStructuralUseofUnreinforcedMasonry
(3rdRevision1961,1969)
IS:10771986
SpecificationsforCommonBurntClayBuildingBricks
IS:22121962
CodeofPracticeforBrickwork
IS:2185141&142
SpecificationsforConcreteMasonryUnits(SolidandHollow)
IS:39521978
SpecificationsforBurntHollowClayBlocks
IS:33161974
SpecificationsforStones(inregularsize)
IS:22501981
CodeofPracticeforPreparationandUseofMasonryMortar
10
InternationalMasonryStandards(1/2)
USA(relevantforreinforcedmasonrydesign)
TMS40213/ACI53013.BuildingCodeRequirements&
SpecificationsforMasonryStructuresandRelated
Commentaries,AmericanConcreteInstitute,FarmingtonHills,
MI.
Canada(relevantforreinforcedmasonrydesign)
CSAS304.104(2004).DesignofMasonryStructures,Canadian
StandardsAssociation,Mississauga,Ontario(2014edition
currentlyunderreview).
NewZealand(relevantforreinforcedmasonrydesign)
NZS4230:2004DesignofReinforcedConcreteMasonry
Structures,StandardsAssociationofNewZealand,Wellington.
InternationalMasonryStandards(2/2)
Europe(relevantforreinforcedandconfinedmasonrydesign)
Eurocode6(2006).DesignofMasonryBuildings Part11:
CommonRulesforReinforcedandUnreinforcedMasonry
Structures,EN19961:2006,CEN,Belgium.
Mexico(relevantforconfinedmasonrydesign)
NTCM(2004).TechnicalNormsforDesignandConstructionof
MasonryStructures(NormasTcnicasComplementariaspara
DiseoyConstruccindeEstructurasdeMampostera),Mexico
D.F. availableinSpanishandEnglish.
11
Questions?
1
Durgesh C Rai
Professor
IIT Kanpur
Masonry Materials
Clay Bricks Clay Bricks
http://www.brick.com
2
3
Classification
Clay Bricks
Most Common
Two types of
Un-burnt
Burnt
Clay
Chemical composition
Silica & Alumina
4
Clay Brick units
Raw materials
Clay
Types
Surface clays : sedimentary formation
Shales : Clays subjected to high pressure until they become slate
Fire clay : Deeper sites, refractory like properties
Iron oxide
Hydrated silicates of alumina
Miscellaneous impurities (e.g., Ca, Mg, Na, Ti, K)
Metallic oxide gives color to fired product
3
5
Significant physical properties of clays
Plasticity
Fusibility
Tensile strength
Shrinkage
Clay Brick units
6
Manufacturing Bricks
Winning and storage of raw materials
Usually mined from open pits
Preparation
Grinding
Sieving
Pug mills
Forming
Tempering
To produce homogeneous , plastic mass ready for moulding
Mixing water to clays in pug mills
Clay Brick units
C
E
6
2
5
-
M
a
s
o
n
r
y
s
tr
u
c
tu
r
e
s
/D
r
D
u
r
g
e
s
h
R
a
i/IIT
K
/2
0
1
2
4
7
Forming
Three processes
Stiff mud process
12-15%water by weight
Pugging and De-airing gives increased strength
Forms clay strip through extruder-wire cutter
Soft mud process
20-30% of water by weight
Cast in moulds sand struck
Lubricated with water
Dry press process
7-10% of water by weight
Steel moulds under pressure of 3.4-10 MPa
Clay Brick units
8
Drying
Control temperature & humidity
To avoid excessive cracking
Firing
40-150 hours
Clays soften slowly and melt and fuse gradually when subjected to rising
temeperatures
This fusibility of clay makes it hars, solid and of low absorbing capacity
Fusion stages
Incipient stage: Soft particle stick together
Vitrification stage: Clays form solid, non-absorbent mass (875-1300 C)
Viscous stage: Clay mass breaks down and tends to become molten (should avoid
this stage)
Cooling
Important stage
48-72 hours
Rapid cooling will cause cracking
Clay Brick units
5
9
Brick forming machine
Clay Brick units
10
Firing in Clamps/Scoves
Clay Brick units
6
11
Bulls Trench Kiln
Continuous
Clay Brick units
12
Hoffmans Kiln
Clay Brick units
7
13
Engineering Properties
Absorption
Related to degree of burning of clay particles, fusing
temperatures and porosity
Durability
Incipient fusion
Partial Vitrification
Thermal Conductivity
Acoustics
Fire Resistance
14
Compressive strength
Properties of clays and methods of manufacture
Stiff mud process produces bricks of higher compressive
strength
Degree of firing
For given clay and method of manufacture, higher firing
temperature produces bricks of higher strength and lower
absorption
Flexural Strength
Factors affecting are same as those for compressive strength
Elastic Modulus
Split Tensile Strength
8
15
Physical Properties
Colour
Iron oxide content controls, but depends on
Oxidizing (red) or reducing (purple) environs
Texture
Smooth or sand finished
Form and size variation
Air 2-8%
Fire 2.5-10%
Dimensional stability
16
Water Absorption
Total Water Absorption =
Weight of water absorbed after 24 hrs in cold water
Total dry weight
(a) Saturation Coefficient C/B Ratio =
Weight of water absorbed after 24 hrs in cold water .
Total absorption after 5hr boiling + 24 hr in cold water
C/B ratio is measure of freeze-thaw durability and should not be
greater than 0.78.
Secondary pores filled
by boiling water
Primary pores filled by
cold water
9
17
Water Absorption and Initial Rate of Absorption
- Gives information about quality of bricks
f
b
WA
IRA
WA: Water Absorption capacity of the brick material
IRA: Suction of water from mortar due to capillary
action in bricks (per minute, per unit area, brick
immersed in about 3 mm deep water)
Water Absorption
18
(b) Initial Rate of Absorption
IRA = (W
1
-W)/A
net
W
1
=Weight of brick after 1 min in 1/8 (3 mm) water
W= Dry weight of the brick
IRA < 30g/min/30in
2
Usually IRA is 5.0-40.0g/min/30in
2
(0.25-2.05 kg/min/m
2
)
IRA < 0.25 kg/min/m
2
Bricks may float on mortar, if the brick is damp
Low Absorption-Low suction Units
IRA > 1.5 kg/min/m
2
Highly absorptive
Poor bond if dry thin layer of mortar is kept next to it
Should be wet before (3-24 hrs),
but surface is dry when laid with mortar
Water Absorption
10
19
(b) Initial Rate of Absorption
High IRA is undesirable because of
Rapid drying of mortar
Poor bond strength between brick and mortar
Poor non-structural performance
due to water penetration into masonry
Soaking of units is desired if IRA > 1.5 kg/min/m
2
Water Absorption
20
Compressive Strength
Depends on
Clays
Type of manufacturing process
Degree of burning
Tested Flat-wise (ASTM C67)
f
b
= P/A
net
If A
net
>A
gross
(75%), then use A
net
= A
gross
Since core will add strength because of
Uniform drying and Shrinkage
Bond action between mortar and brick
11
21
North American bricks
3-30ksi (21-210 MPa)
Nominal Strength (8-15ksi) (56-105 MPa)
Indian Bricks
> 3.5 MPa
10-20 MPa common for bricks in North India
22
Modulus of Elasticity
E
b
=1400-5000 ksi (9.8-35.0 GPa)
Modulus of Rupture
f
r
=1.5 Pl/bt
2
Sahlin: f
r
/f
b
varies ~0.1-0.32
Coefficient of Thermal Expansion
0.0045-0.0072 mm/m/C
(Fire clays Shale Surface clays)
l
t
b
P
12
23
Tensile Strength of Brick Units
Split tensile strength, f
t
(ASTM C 1006-07)
Flat position
On edge position
L
Split tensile failure
Alignment Jig
Flat Position On Edge Position
2
t
P
f
LH
P
P
H
24
Tests on Bricks
Flowchart
Dry Bricks in oven for 24 hours
Weigh dry bricks (determine density)
Run IRA
Dry Bricks
Run Modulus of Rupture Test
Run Absorption Test
Soak in cold water for 24 hours
Run Saturation Coefficient Test (optional)
Soak half-bricks in boiling water 5 hours
Run flat-wise Compressive Test (Cap and crush)
13
25
IS 1077: Bricks
Class of bricks
Based on compressive strength
26
IS 1077: Bricks
Dimension of bricks
Common brick size
Approx. 23511070 mm (94.52.75 in.)
14
27
IS 1077: Bricks
Water Absorption
28
Compressive Stress-Strain Curves of Brick Units
-Research at IIT Kanpur (Kaushik et al 2007)
Four brick manufacturers:
M: MBF
B: Bajrang
O: Onkar
S: Sarang
Average Dimensions:
Length 230 mm
Width 110 mm
Height 75 mm
Compressive Behaviour Clay Bricks
15
29
Typical crushing failure
Test Setup
30
Brick type f
b
(MPa) Failure strain E
b
(MPa)
M (10 specimens) 17.7 [0.23] 0.0072 [0.18] 5300 [0.15]
B (10 specimens) 16.1 [0.08] 0.0060 [0.19] 5030 [0.34]
O (10 specimens) 28.9 [0.23] 0.0070 [0.39] 7516 [0.26]
S (10 specimens) 20.6 [0.17] 0.0057 [0.28] 6534 [0.10]
Avg (40 specimens) 20.8 [0.33] 0.0065 [0.34] 6095 [0.29]
[] COV
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
0.000 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.010 0.012
Strain
C
o
m
p
r
e
s
s
i
v
e

S
t
r
e
s
s
,

M
P
a
M
B
O
S
Average
b b
b b
b b
b b
b b
f E
f E
f E
f E
f E
300
317 S
260 O
312 B
300 M

E
b
- slope between
0.05f
b
- 0.33f
b
16
31
E
b
150f
b
to 500f
b
Variation of f
b
with E
b
C
r
Correlation Coefficient (Poor C
r
for E
b
300f
b
)
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
12000
0 10 20 30 40
Brick compressive strength, MPa
B
r
i
c
k

e
l
a
s
t
i
c

m
o
d
u
l
u
s
,

M
P
a
M bricks
B bricks
O bricks
S bricks
40 brick specimens
C
r
=0.39
b b
f E 300
b b
f E 150
b b
f E 500
32
IRA and f
b
are more closely correlated
Too low IRA, bricks may float on mortar
Too high IRA, rapid suction of water in mortar by bricks
Poor Brick-Mortar Bond
IRA test is not mandatory as per IS:3495 (1992)
0
10
20
30
40
0 1 2 3
IRA, kg/m2/min
C
o
m
p
.

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

M
P
a
C
r
=- 0.77
8 10 12 14 16
WA, %
C
r
=- 0.24
IRA vs. WA
17
33
Fly Ash Bricks Fly Ash Bricks
34
Fly Ash Bricks
Advantages
Higher cold crushing strength (10-15 MPa)
Low water absorption (13-15%)
Reduced efflorescence
Smooth and uniform size
Requires less quantity of
cement mortar & no plaster
Lower bulk density (1600 kg/m
3
)
Reduces dead weight
on load bearing walls
Saves transportation cost
18
35
Methods of Manufacturing
Primary Ingredients
Fly ash (Grade 1 or 2 of IS 3812)
Sand
Lime (Hydraulic Class C of IS 712)
Chemical accelerators, small quantity such as
Gypsum, cement, etc.
Mixing
In the first stage, only dry mixing is done
About 8- 10% water, 0.2% (by weight) chemical
accelerator is added in the second stage mixing.
This admixture is further subjected to thorough
mixing in the third stage.
36
Moulding
Fly ash is a non-plastic material
Raw mix is subjected to a pressure of ~25 MPa
in a suitable hydraulic press
Double acting brick press (Cybertek
Engineering, Faridabad)
Brick Press (CBRI, Roorkee)
19
37
Drying
Green bricks exposed to natural drying
for about 48-60 hours
Depending upon weather conditions
Steam Curing
Semi- dried bricks cured in Autoclaves
(steam chamber) at a desired pressure & temperature
Steam cured finished bricks stacked in open
They gain further strength
38
Specifications
IS 12894-2002
Dimensions same as clay bricks
20
39
Specifications
IS 12894-2002
Water Absorption
Efflorescence
40
AAC Blocks AAC Blocks
21
41
Autoclaved Aerated Concrete
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, IIT KANPUR
AAC Blocks
(Fortune EkoTech)
Cellular structure of AAC
(Tanner, 2003)
41
Light-weight cementitious material with closed cellular structure
Low strength and stiffness compared to conventional masonry
Easily cut into any shape with hand tools
Good fire, thermal and acoustic resistance
42
Concrete Masonry Units
Manufacturing
Developed by Swedish architect Johan Axel Eriksson in 1900s
AAC is a mixture of cement, sand, lime, gypsum and
aluminium powder which is steam cured
Aluminum powder reacts with calcium hydroxide and water
to form hydrogen, which increases the volume by two to three
times.
At the end of the foaming process, the hydrogen escapes into
the atmosphere and is replaced by air.
Finally, the blocks are cured in an autoclave, producing a
final material, with about one-fifth to one-third the density of
structural concrete.
Can be cut and nailed like wood and good thermal insulation
and fire resistance of concrete
22
43
Manufacturing
Properties
Clay Fly-Ash
AAC
block
A B A B
Density (kg/m
3
) 1774.0 1740.0 1520.0 1600.0 709
Water Absorption (%) 13.4 15.0 24.4 25.4 321.7
Saturation Coefficient - 0.82 0.91 0.88 0.58
IRA (kg/m
2
/min) 2.7 4.4 4.4 1.6 2.7
Compressive Strength (MPa) 21.9 5.4 5.3 9.1 2.4
Tensile Strength
(MPa)
Flat position 1.0 0.3 0.4 0.4
0.4
On edge 1.7 0.5 0.5 0.7
Comparison of Conventional Units and AAC Blocks
Tests conducted at IIT Kanpur (2012)
23
Concrete Blocks Concrete Blocks
46
Dimensions BHL
Specified dimension 3/8 < Nominal dimension
Actual dimension within 1/8 (3mm) of
Specified dimension
Example
Nominal Dimension: 200200400 mm
Specified Dimension: 190190390 mm
Tapered holes, top-thicker web for better mortar placement
and ease of lifting out of moulds
L
H
B
24
47
No. 47
48
Concrete Blocks
Physical Requirements
25
49
IS 2185 (Part 1):2005
50
IS 2185 (Part 1):2005
26
51
RAW MATERIALS
Constituents
Portland Cement
Pozzolanas
Reduce expansive characteristic
Add surface resistance
Other Admixtures
Air entrainment, pigments, water repellants,
Aggregates
Normal Weight
>125 pcf (2000 kg/m
3
)
Light Weight
<105 pcf (1680 kg/m
3
)
52
METHODS OF MANUFACTURING
Separate and weigh aggregates
Aggregate stored by density and gradation
Weighed
Transported
Mixing
Cement + Aggregate + water + pigments+
admixtures to create damp (but not wet) mix
27
53
Moulding
Feed to mould
Consolidated by vibration (feed time)
Press mix into mould
Second vibration cycle consolidates mix (finish time)
Ejection
Come out in a set of 3 supported on steel pallets
Bottom of mold cavities
Put in kiln for 6-8 hrs
54
Curing
Done under saturated conditions
Elevate temperature for accelerated hydration
Store outside for continued curing
28
55
Production Plant
http://www.besser.com
56
Absorption
Weight changes after 24hr immersion in cold water
200350 kg/m
3
Total Linear shrinkage
Up to 0.065% for Type I Units
Moisture Content
25-45%
14-42 MPa (lower values in India!)
Tensile Strength
1.75-3.50 MPa
Deformational Properties
E
m
=750 f
m
; G
m
=0.4E
m
;
m
=0.28
29
57
IS 2185 (Part 1) :2005 Concrete Blocks
Type Grade Density of
Block
(kg/m
3)
Minimum
Compressive
Strength (MPa)
Minimum
Compressive
Strength of
individual
units (MPa)
Hollow load
bearing unit
(Open & closed
cavities)
A(3.5) Not less than
1500
3.5 2.8
A(4.5) 4.5 3.6
A(5.5) 5.5 4.4
A(7.0) 7.0 5.6
A(8.5) 8.5 7.0
A(10.0) 10.0 8.0
A(12.5) 12.5 10.0
A(15.0) 15.0 12.0
58
IS Concrete Blocks
Type Grade Density of
Block
(kg/m
3)
Minimum
Compressive
Strength (MPa)
Minimum
Compressive
Strength of
individual
units (MPa)
Hollow non-load
bearing unit
(open & closed
cavity)
B (3.5) Less than
1500 but not
less than
1100
3.5 2.8
B(5.0) 5.0 4.0
Solid Load
bearing units
C(5.0) Not less than
1800
5.0 4.0
C(4.0) 4.0 3.2
30
59
Concrete Blocks Machines
60
Concrete Blocks Machines
Besser Machine in India in 1950s
Sindhu Resettlement Corporation
Gandhidham city
2001 Bhuj Earthquake
31
Mortars
for Masonry
Mortars
for Masonry
62
Basics
Mortar integrates a masonry wall
Bonding agent
Major properties
Strong, durable, capable of keeping wall intact,
create water resistant barrier
32
63
Good concrete practice does not mean good
mortar practice
It differs in
Working consistencies
Water-Cement ratio
Methods of placement
Between absorbent masonry units
Structural performance
High Water-Cement ratio at beginning decreases strength
Basics
64
Historical Masonry
Early mortars to fill voids between stones
First mortars were mud and tar
Early mortars lime + sand
Early admixtures
Egg whites, clays, urine, oxblood, jaggery, syrups
Basics
33
65
Constituents of Mortars
Cements
Portland cement
Contributes to durability, high strength and early
setting of mortar
Masonry cement
Proprietary mortar mixes for good workability
Portland cement + ground limestone as filler (55:45)
Additives for workability and water retentivity and
air entrainment
66
Limes
Contributes to bond, workability, water retentivity &
elasticity
Hydrated lime (Calcium hydroxide :: Ca(OH)
2
)
Derivative of Lime Stone - Preferred
Quick Lime (Calcium Oxide :: CaO)
Not Common
IS: 1905 Three types of Lime
A : Hydraulic lime
B : Semi-hydraulic lime
C : Fat Lime
34
67
Limes
Hardens only upon contact with CO
2
in the air
Occurs slowly over a period of time
Autogenous Healing
If small hairline cracks develop, water and CO
2
which penetrate the joint will form CaCO
3
and
newly developed CaCO
3
will seal the cracks and
prevent further water ingression.
68
Role of Lime
35
69
Role of Lime
70
Role of Lime
36
71
Aggregates
Natural sand
From rivers
Manufactured
Act as a filler
Give an economical mix
Control shrinkage
72
Aggregates
Grading (gradation) can be altered for specific use
IS: 1905
Well graded sand required
If not, reduce proportion to achieve minimum compressive
strength
ASTM C144 Sieve Analysis
No. 4 (4.75 mm) : 100%
No. 8 (2.36 mm) : 95-100%
No.16 (1.18 mm) : 60100
No.30 (600 m) : 35-70%
No.50 (300 m) : 1535%
No.100 (150 m) : 215%
No.200 (75 m) : 02%
37
73
Water
Clean
Free of acids, alkalis & organic materials
Admixtures
Usually not used
74
Mortar Proportions
ASTM C270 and US Practice
M a S o N w O r K
Strongest Weakest
ASTM
4 Types of Mortars, M, S, N, O
Proportions by volume
Aggregate Ratio
Measured in
loose/dump conditions
2.25 and 3.5 times
sum of separate volumes
Grade Cement Lime
M 1 1/4
S 1 Over 1/4 to 1/2
N 1 Over 1/2 to 5/4
O 1 Over 5/4 to 5/2
38
75
Common Mix Proportions
Mortar Proportions
Grade Cement Lime Sand
Air
Content
Average
Compressive
Strength
(MPa)
%
water
M 1 1/4 3 12% 17.2 0.75
S 1 1/2 4 12% 12.4 0.75
N 1 1 6
14%
(12%)
5.2 0.75
O 1 2 9
14%
(12%)
2.4 0.75
Sum of binder (cement +lime) equals 1/3 of sand volume
(assuming that sand has void ratio of 1 in 3)
76
IS:1905:1987, Table 1
Three grades
High (H), Medium (M) & Lean (L) Strength Mortars
Mortar Proportions
Grades Cement Lime Sand ASTM 28-day compressive
strength (MPa)
H1 1 ( C or B) 3
M
10.0
H2 1 ( C or B) 4
S
7.5
1 ( C or B) 4 6.0
M1 1 1 ( C or B) 5
N
5.0
1 6 3.0
M2 1 2 (B) 6 3.0
1 1 (A) 9 2.0
1 (C or B) 2 2.0
M3 1 3 (B) 7 O 1.5
1 1 (A) 12 1.5
1 (C or B) 3 1.5
39
77
Polymer modified mortars
Thin bed joints
2 to 3 mm thick
Typically used with AAC blocks
Higher water retentivity for improved bond
characteristics
78
Physical Properties
Two distinct sets
In plastic state
Compatibility and construction suitability
In hardened state
Performance of finished Masonry
(Flexural) Bond Strength
Durability
Extensibility
Workability
Water retentivity
Initial Flow
Flow after suction
40
79
Workability
Workable if
consistency allows it to be spread easily
adheres to vertical masonry surfaces
Masons are best judges!!
No laboratory test
Factors affecting
Water retentivity
Flow
Resistance to segregation effect
Physical Properties
80
Durability
Not a problem for unsaturated masonry
Water Content
Most misunderstood aspect of masonry
Many specifications incorrectly require
minimum water content consistent with workability
Maximum water consistent with workability provides
maximum bond strength within the capacity of the mortar
Re-tempering to compensate water lost by evaporation
Allowed within 2.5 hours after mixing on board
Physical Properties
41
81
Extensibility & Plastic Flow
Extensibility
Maximum tensile strain at failure
Plastic Flow
High lime mortars exhibit greater plastic flow
Plastic flow or creep with extensibility imparts
flexibility to masonry permitting slight movement
Where greater resiliency is required, lime content is
increased while satisfying other requirements
Physical Properties
82
Initial Flow and Water Retentivity
Initial flow a measure of mortars water-cement ratio
Water retention is ability to hold water
when in contact with absorbent units
To increase water retention
Add sand fines within allowable gradation limits
Use high plastic lime mortar (Type S)
Increase air content should not be greater 12%
ASTM C109, C110 and C230
Physical Properties
42
83
Too much water will result in mortar too fluid to support
weight of a few courses
Good water retention is important
To keep water from bleeding out of mortar
To prevent mortar from stiffening before units are laid
To ensure proper hydration of cement
Desirable to have consistent IRA of unit and water retentivity
of mortar
Low IRA with low water retentivity or high IRA with high
water retentivity
Physical Properties
84
Physical Properties
If water
migrates too
quickly from
mortar to unit,
cement may not
hydrate fully
resulting in
reduced bond
strength
43
85
Brick-Mortar interface
physical properties
86
Higher Flexural Bond strength
Roughened Surface
IRA<1.55 kg/min/m
2
control IRA by wetting
Air content to minimum
Mix mortar with
Maximum flow compatible workmanship
Maximum water
Re-tempering
Use Type S mortar
Cement : lime : sand :: 1 : 0.5 : 4.5
H2 : 6MPa
Bond Strength
44
87
Depends on
Cement content of mortar
Water-Cement ratio
Less important than
Bond strength
Workability
Water retentivity
88
Test Methods
50 mm cubes
50 mm diameter, 76 mm long cylinders
Consistent results
Can be used for comparing mortars
Durability
Not a problem in unsaturated masonry
Compressive Strength of Mortar
45
89
Influencing factors
Proportions
Increases with cement content
Decreases with lime content & over-sanding
Re-tempering
Re-tempering decreases compressive strength
But this reduction is less,
if it is done within 2 hrs after mixing
Compressive Strength of Mortar
90
Compressive Stress-Strain Behaviour of Mortar
Research at IIT Kanpur (Kaushik et al. 2007)
Three grades of mortar used:
[Cement : Lime : Sand]
1:0:6 (Weak)
1::4 (Intermediate)
1:0:3 (Strong)
Water-Cement ratio: 0.75
Compressive Behaviour of Mortar
46
91
Typical
Crushing
Failure
92
f
j
(MPa) Failure strain E
j
(MPa)
Weak mortar 1:0:6 (9 specimens)
3.1 [0.22] 0.0087 [0.38] 545 [0.30]
Strong mortar 1:0:3 (9 specimens)
20.6 [0.08] 0.0185 [0.21] 3750 [0.16]
Intermediate mortar 1:0.5:4.5 (9 specimens)
15.2 [0.06] 0.0270 [0.36] 3300 [0.26]
0
3
6
9
12
15
18
21
0.000 0.005 0.010 0.015 0.020 0.025 0.030
Strain
C
o
m
p
r
e
s
s
i
v
e

S
t
r
e
s
s
,

M
P
a
1:0.5:4.5 mortar
1:0:6 mortar
1:0:3 mortar
j j
j j
j j
j j
f E
f E
f E
f E
200
215 4.5 : 0.5 : 1
180 3 : 0 : 1
175 6 : 0 : 1

47
93
Lime mortar (Intermediate) performed well in terms of both
strength and ductility
Intermediate
mortar
Strong
mortar
~ 35% less
~ 45% more
Failure Strain
Comp. Strength
Lime in mortar
beneficial
mandatory in several international codes
(but not in Indian Code)
Compressive behaviour of mortar
94
Variation of f
j
with E
j
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
0 5 10 15 20 25
Mortar compressive strength, MPa
M
o
r
t
a
r

e
l
a
s
t
i
c

m
o
d
u
l
u
s
,

M
P
a
1:0:6 mortar
1:0.5:4.5 mortar
1:0:3 mortar
27 mortar cube specimens
C
r
=0.90
j j
f E 200
j j
f E 400
j j
f E 100
E
j
100f
j
to 400f
j
C
r
Correlation Coefficient (Good C
r
for E
j
200f
j
)
Compressive behaviour of mortar
48
95
Selection of Mortar
Basics
Function of needs of the finished structural element
Stronger is better
could not be farther from the truth for mortar
96
Two competing properties
Bonding agent which must be
Strong
Capable of keeping wall intact
Must create water-resistant barrier
Contain certain resilient properties, and
Easy to use by mason
Huge compressive strength is of no use, if
It does not bond well
It cannot be laid properly & easily by masons
Selection of Mortar
49
97
Two competing properties
Neither is acceptable,
if the mortar has high cement content
High compressive strength & shrinkage characteristics
will cause separation cracking between mortar & unit
Results in wind driven rain penetration of wall
elements
Selection of Mortar
98
Basic Rule
No single type of mortar is best for all purposes
Never use a mortar stronger than
that is required by structural requirement
Always select weakest mortar than
that is consistent with the performance requirements
of the project
Selection of Mortar
50
99
Recommendations for general uses
Selection of Mortar
ASTM Location Building
Segment
Mortar Type
Recommended
Alternative
Exterior
Above grade
Load-bearing
Non-load bearing
Parapet Walls
N
N
N
S or M
O or S
S
Exterior
Below grade
Foundation walls,
Retaining walls,
manholes, sewers
M S
Interior Load bearing
Partitions
N
O
O, S, M
N or S
100
General Properties
Type N Mortar (1 : 2 : 6)
Exterior walls subjected to excessive exposure,
chimneys, parapets
Medium strength suitable for exposed masonry
above grade
Selection of Mortar
51
101
General Properties
Type S Mortar (1 : : 4 )
For RM and URM
Where maximum flexural bond strength is required
Where mortar adhesion is sole bonding agent between facing &
backing
Reasonably high compressive strength & high tensile
strength with most units
Selection of Mortar
102
General Properties
Type M Mortar (1 : : 3 )
For RM & URM below grade in contact with earth
High compressive strength & excellent durability
Type O Mortar (1 : 2 : 9 )
Interior load-bearing/ non-load bearing walls in no
contact with water
Selection of Mortar
52
Grout Grout
104
Grout
Purpose
To fill voids and cover for rebars
Grout properties affect development length
Constituents
Portland cement
Fine aggregate
Sand
Coarse aggregate
Pea gravel:: 10mm max
Lime
53
105
Composition
Mortars with high slump shall not be used as grout
Mixture should flow without segregation
Lime is rarely used in grouts
Especially when they are ready mixed
Cement : Sand : Pea gravel : Lime
Fine Grout :: 1 : 2-3 : 0 : 0-0.1
Coarse Grout :: 1 : 2-3 : 1-2 : 0-0.1
Grout
106
Water content
Mortars with high slump shall not be used as grout
Slump varies from 200-275 mm
Grout
54
107
Test for compressive strength
ASTM 1019 and UBC 24-22
Form work made from the units used for masonry
To simulate moisture absorption as in reality
Wrap with paper towel, for easy removal of the
specimen
108
Test for compressive strength
ASTM 1019 and UBC 24-22
For concrete blocks
55
109
Mortar and Grout Testing
[Brzev, BCIT]
110
Grout placement methods
Two types
Low lift
Placed and consolidated as masonry is constructed
Low slump values
Max. height = 1.5 m
High lift
Placed after a story is constructed
Vibration needed
C
E
6
2
5
-
M
a
s
o
n
r
y
s
tr
u
c
tu
r
e
s
/D
r
D
u
r
g
e
s
h
R
a
i/IIT
K
/2
0
1
2
56
Reinforcement in
Masonry
Reinforcement in
Masonry
112/CE625-Masonry Structures-IITK-DCRai
Reinforced Masonry
Historical Perspective
5. BREBNER, A. Notes on Reinforced
Brickwork. Technical Paper No. 38,
Volumes 1 and 2. Calcutta, Public Works
Department, Government of India, 1923.
In the 1920s a great deal of reinforced
brickwork was built in Bihar and
orissa in India which was reported by
Sir Alexandar Brebner[5]. Figure 6
shows a beam being subjected to a
live load, whilst Figure 7 shows an
attractive application.
ROBERTS, J . J ., EDGELL, G. J . and RATHBONE, A. J .
(1986). HANDBOOK TO BS 5628: PART2 Structural
use of reinforced and prestressed masonry, Viewpoint
Publications, UK
57
Reinforced Masonry
In the 1920s a great deal of reinforced
brickwork was built in Bihar and
orissa in India which was reported by
Sir Alexandar Brebner[5]. Figure 6
shows a beam being subjected to a
live load, whilst Figure 7 shows an
attractive application.
Publications, UK
Reinforced Masonry
6. LORD BAKER OF WINDRUSH. Enterprise vs Beaurocracy.
The development of structural air raid precautions during the
Second World War. Pergamon Press, 1978.
At Quetta reinforced brickwork was
built in a special bond (Quetta bond),
as shown in Figure 8, to increase
resistance to seismic loads. This same
technique was considered in the UK
during the Second World War for the
construction of air raid shelters[6].
Publications, UK
58
Structural Masonry Code
IS 2213 : 1991 (2005)
Brick Works Code of Practice
Sec. 11.8 for Reinforced Brickwork
Bed-joint reinf. every 3-4 course in -bk walls
Detailing guidelines such as
rebar dia. not less than 8 mm
wall thick not less than 100 mm
brick strength not less than 7.5 MPa
Cement : sand mortar of 1:4 mix, no lime
Cover in direction of joint not less than 15 mm
Mortar between reinf. and brick not less than 5 mm
No structural design provisions
116
Steel Reinforcement
Reinforcement Bars
Mild Steel Bars
Deformed bars
Conforming to IS 1786
Joint reinforcements
Cold-drawn wire for cement concrete reinforcement
C
E
6
2
5
-
M
a
s
o
n
r
y
s
tr
u
c
tu
r
e
s
/D
r
D
u
r
g
e
s
h
R
a
i/IIT
K
/2
0
1
2
59
Reinforcement Placement
Reinforcement shall be located
Such that it acts compositely with the masonry
Perforated clay bricks & Hollow blocks Perforated clay bricks & Hollow blocks
Bed joint reinforcement Bed joint reinforcement
Grout/concrete
Quetta Bond
Pockets to receive rebars
Quetta Bond
Pockets to receive rebars
Joint reinforcement to
Connect multi-wythe walls
Joint reinforcement to
Connect multi-wythe walls
60
Reinforcement placed in the
bed joints of grooved Units
Reinforcement placed in the
bed joints of grooved Units
Concrete filled
cavity wall
Concrete filled
cavity wall
Reinforced hollow
blockwork wall
Reinforced hollow
blockwork wall
[McKenzie 2001]
61
Indian Standards
on Masonry
Indian Standards
on Masonry
122
Indian Standards
Masonry related
IS:1905-1987
Code of Practice for Structural Use of Unreinforced Masonry
IS:1077-1986
Specifications for Common Burnt Clay Building Bricks
IS:2212-1962
Code of Practice for Brickwork
IS:2185 (Part 1)-2005
Specifications for Concrete Masonry Units (Solid and Hollow)
IS:3952-1978
Specifications for Burnt Hollow Clay Blocks
IS:3316-1974
Specifications for Stones (in regular size)
IS:2250-1981
Code of Practice for Preparation and Use of Masonry Mortar
IS:12894-2002
Specifications for Pulverized Fuel Ash-Lime Bricks
1
Durgesh C Rai
Professor
IIT Kanpur
Mechanical Properties of Masonry
Characterization of Characterization of
Masonry
2
Masonry Characterization: Brick Assemblages
Tests conducted on assemblages
Masonry
Properties
Compressive
strength
Stack bonded
prism
Elastic
modulus
Bond
strength
Tension bond test
Flexural
strength
Parallel to bed
joint
Perpendicular to bed
joint
Masonry Characterization: Brick Assemblages
Tests conducted on assemblages
Masonry
Properties
Shear strength
One-brick triplet Two-brick triplet
Diagonal
tensile strength
Half-brick thick Full-brick thick
3
Mechanics of Masonry Mechanics of Masonry
in Compression
6
Typical failure modes
Compressive Behaviour
Masonry Prism Masonry Prism Brick Unit Brick Unit Mortar Cube Mortar Cube
Uniaxial state of stress Uniaxial state of stress Triaxial state of stress Triaxial state of stress
4
7
Mechanics of compression
Masonry Prism
Masonry Prism Masonry Prism
Triaxial state of stress
at theinterfaceof brick and
mortar in masonry prism, brick
subjected to net tension
Brick Unit Brick Unit Mortar Cube Mortar Cube
8
State of stress
Masonry Prism Masonry Prism
Brick Unit Brick Unit
Mortar Cube Mortar Cube
o
xb o
xb
o
y
=P/A
o
y
o
zb
o
zb
t
b
t
j
o
y
o
y
o
zj
o
zj
o
xj
o
xj
Stresses shown for
v
j
> v
b
5
9
Bi-axial Strength of Units
C
o
m
p
r
e
s
s
i
o
n
C
o
m
p
r
e
s
s
i
o
n
Flat-wise compressive
strength of unit from test
Flat-wise compressive
strength of unit from test
f
b
f
bdt
f
b
Direct-tensile strength
of unit from test
Direct-tensile strength
of unit from test
f
bdt
f
b
f
bdt
o
y
Tension Tension
o
xb
'
'
1
y
xb bdt
b
f
f
o
o
| |
=
|
\ .
Brick splits when:
10
Bi-axial Strength of Mortar
Uni-axial compressive
strength from test
Uni-axial compressive
strength from test
Multi-axial compressive
strength from test
Multi-axial compressive
strength from test
f
j
f
j
o
y
o
xj
o
y
o
xj
C
o
m
p
r
e
s
s
i
o
n
C
o
m
p
r
e
s
s
i
o
n
1
f
j
o
y
Compression Compression
o
xj
'
4 . 1
y j
xj
f o
o
| |
= |
|
\ .
Mortar splits when:
4.1
6
11
Masonry Compressive Strength
Equilibrium relation
If mortar crushes
If brick splits
'
4.1
y j
xj
f o
o
| |
= |
|
\ .
t
b
t
j
'
'
1
y
xb bdt
b
f
f
o
o
| |
=
|
\ .
( ) ( )
j
xb b xj j xb xj
b
t
t l t l
t
o o o o = =
( )
'
'
( );
4.1 4.1
y j j b
xb j b y j
f t t
t t f
o
o o o o
| |
= = = |
|
\ .
12
Masonry Compressive Strength
If mortar crushes and brick splits
simultaneously
Prism Strength
U
u
is coefficient of non-uniformity (typical
range 1.1 to 2.5)
' y
m
u
f
U
o
=
t
b
t
j
' '
'
' '
bdt j
y b
bdt b
f f
f
f f
o
o
o
| | +
=
|
|
+
\ .
' '
'
1 ( )
y
xb bdt y j
b
f f
f
o
o o o
| |
= =
|
\ .
Hilsdorf Equation Hilsdorf Equation
7
13
Non-linear Behaviour of Mortar
Tri-axial test Tri-axial test
o
y
o
xj
o
y
o
xj
o
y
0.2 MPa= o
zj
=o
xj
o
zj
o
zj
7 MPa= o
zj
=o
xj
c
y
c
x
c
z
0.2 MPa= o
zj
=o
xj
7 MPa= o
zj
=o
xj
14
Unit Splitting vs. Mortar Crushing
Linear Mortar
o
xj Tension Tension
o
xb
f
b
f
bdt
o
y
f
j
Mortar crushes
Unit stress path Mortar stress path
Failure Failure
Mortar
Failure
Envelope
Unit
Failure
Envelope
8
15
Unit Splitting vs. Mortar Crushing
Non-Linear Mortar
o
xj Tension Tension
o
xb
f
b
f
bdt
o
y
f
j
Unit stress path

Mortar
stress path
F
a
i
l
u
r
e
Mortar
Failure
Envelope
Unit
Failure
Envelope
Brick splits
16
Effect of Mortar on Compression
Weaker Mortar
Weaker mortar result in low f
m
Ratio v
j
/v
b
is larger
Weaker mortar is more nonlinear
Compressive Strength of Masonry
M
S
N
O
f
m
Strain
9
17
Effect of Mortar on Compression
Stronger Mortar
May not adhere to units well
A larger scatter of experimental data
Create a stiffer masonry prism which is more
sensitive to alignment problems during testing and
more brittle
More variable compressive strength
M
S
N
O
f
m
Strain
18
Compressive Strength of MASONRY
Influencing factors
Units
In general,
increases with compressive strength of unit
Tensile strength & geometry play an important role
10
19
Influencing factors
Mortar
Low strength mortars result in low prism strength
Nonlinear behaviour of mortar and its low stiffness (low Poisson's
ratio)
Subjects units to tensilestresses
Reduces compressivestrength of masonry from compressive
strength of unit
Largescatter of data with stronger mortars
Stiffer mortar do not adhere& sensitiveto alignment
Thickness of mortar with respect to thickness of unit
Prism compressivestrength increases with increasein
brick height/mortar thickness (t
b
/t
j
)
y
Compressive strength
of Masonry
11
21
Table 10 (Draft IS:1905) provides Basic
Compressive Strength for masonry based on
Crushing strengths of Brick and Mortar
Code values much lower than observed prism strength
Becausethey correspond to lowest results for units & mortar allowed
(lower-bound values )
S.No. Mortar Basic Compressive Strength (MPa) of Masonry
corresponding to masonry units whose height-to-width ratio does not exceed 0.75 and
crushing strength (in MPa) is not less than the values given below
3.5 5.0 7.5 10.0 12.5 15.0 17.5 20.0 25.0 30.0 35.0 40.0
1 H1 0.35 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.16 1.31 1.45 1.59 1.91 2.21 2.50 3.05
2 H2 0.35 0.50 0.74 0.96 1.09 1.19 1.30 1.41 1.62 1.85 2.10 2.50
3 M1 0.35 0.50 0.74 0.96 1.06 1.13 1.20 1.27 1.47 1.69 1.90 2.20
4 M2 0.35 0.44 0.59 0.81 0.94 1.03 1.10 1.17 1.34 1.51 1.65 1.90
5 M3 0.25 0.41 0.56 0.75 0.87 0.95 1.02 1.10 1.25 1.41 1.55 1.78
6 L1 0.25 0.36 0.53 0.67 0.76 0.83 0.90 0.97 1.11 1.26 1.40 1.06
7 L2 0.25 0.31 0.42 0.53 0.58 0.61 0.65 0.69 0.73 0.78 0.85 0.95
22
Masonry Prism strength
Basic Compressive Strength, f
m
5-brick/block prism test
Appendix B of IS:1905
f
m
=P/A
net
Correction for different aspect ratios
of prism for h/t in the range of 2 and 5
Tabl e 15: Cor r ect i on Fact or s f or Di f f er ent
h /t Rat i os
(Clause B-1.1)
Ratio of height
to thickness
(h/t)
2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 5.0
Correction
factors for
brickworks*
0.73 0.8 0.86 0.91 0.95 1.0
Correction
factors for
blockworks*
1.0 - 1.20 - 1.30 1.37
*Interpolation is valid for intermediate values.
12
23
Prism Testing
Appendix B of IS:1905-1987
Same material, joint thickness and workmanship as
in field
h > 400 mm
Tested at 28 days
4 mm plywood as and platens larger than prism
Spherical seated in themachine
Rateof loading 350-750 kN/min
24
Madras Detailed Standard Specification 1956
(Reprint 1964)
Effect of Mortar on Masonry Strength
As proportion of lime in mortar increases
Mortar loses strength
But, masonry does not loose much strength
13
Elastic Modulus Elastic Modulus
26
Elastic Modulus
Elastic Modulus in Compression
A
t
b
t
j
P = o
y
A
net
14
27
Elastic Modulus
Elastic Modulus in Compression
A
t
b
t
j
P = o
y
A
net
28
Elastic Modulus
Prism Testing
Masonry Modulus E
m
<Brick Modulus E
b
Block masonry
t
j
=10mm, t
b
=200 mm,
t
=0.05
Brick masonry
t
j
=8mm, t
b
=57 mm,
t
=0.14
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6
Clay brick
B
r
i
c
k
B
l
o
c
k
Block
m
b
E
E
m
15
29
Prism Testing
But, if brick is softer than mortar, E
m
> E
b
IISc Bangaloredata
f
b
=5.36 MPa, E
b
=730 MPa
E
j
=6000 MPa (1 : 6)
f
j

=4.38 MPa
E
m
=~1100-1600 MPa
Elastic Modulus
30
y
of Masonry
16
31
Prism Testing
Elastic Modulus E
m
Chord modulus for stress levels 0.05f
m
-0.33f
m
Stress
Strain
Strain
Stress
E
m
=
f
m
0.33f
m
0.05f
m
Stress
Strain
Compressive Behaviour masonry Prisms
32
Compressive Stress-Strain Curves for Masonry Prisms
5 bricks high prisms
(400-410 mm high)
10 mm thick mortar joints
Typical vertical splitting failure
Compressive Behaviour masonry Prisms
17
33
Prism Testing
Clay Brick Units
(4 manufacturers)
Mortar (3 types-
1:0:3, 1:0.5:4.5)
Prism
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
0.000 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.010 0.012
C
o
m
p
r
e
s
s
i
v
e

S
t
r
e
s
s
,

M
P
a
M
B
O
S
Average
b b
b b
b b
b b
b b
f E
f E
f E
f E
f E
300
317 S
260 O
312 B
300 M
~
=
=
=
=
(a)
(b)
(c)
0
3
6
9
12
15
18
21
0.000 0.005 0.010 0.015 0.020 0.025 0.030
C
o
m
p
r
e
s
s
i
v
e

S
t
r
e
s
s
,

M
P
a
1:0.5:4.5 mortar
1:0:6 mortar
1:0:3 mortar
j j
j j
j j
j j
f E
f E
f E
f E
200
215 4.5 : 0.5 : 1
180 3 : 0 : 1
175 6 : 0 : 1
~
=
=
=
0
2
4
6
8
10
0.000 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.010
C
o
m
p
r
e
s
s
i
v
e

S
t
r
e
s
s
,

M
P
a
1:0:6mortar
1:0.5:4.5 mortar 1:0:3 mortar
'
'
'
'
550
570 4.5 : 0.5 : 1
555 3 : 0 : 1
550 6 : 0 : 1
m m
m m
m m
m m
f E
f E
f E
f E
=
=
=
=
34
Effect of Mortar & Unit
on Masonry Strength
Prominent increase
when weaker mortar is
used
Higher strength mortar
is not advisable
A case for use of
LIME in mortar
0
2
4
6
8
10
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Brick Strength, MPa
P
r
i
s
m

S
t
r
e
n
g
t
h
,

M
P
a
1:0.5:4.5 mortar
1:0:6 mortar
1:0:3 mortar
B M S O
0
2
4
6
8
10
0 5 10 15 20 25
Mortar Strength, MPa
P
r
i
s
m

S
t
r
e
n
g
t
h
,

M
P
a
B
M
O
S
1:0:3
1:0.5:4.5
1:0:6 mortar
18
35
Effect of WA and IRA on Masonry Strength
f
b
strongly dependent on IRA, rather than on WA
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
M B O S
Brick Type
B
r
i
c
k

P
r
o
p
e
r
t
i
e
s
Comp. strength, MPa
WA, %
IRA, kg/sq.m/min
0
10
20
30
40
0 1 2 3
IRA, kg/m2/min
C
o
m
p
.

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

M
P
a
C
r
=- 0.77
8 10 12 14 16
WA, %
C
r
=- 0.24
36
Non-linear Stress-Strain
curves of bricks, mortar
& masonry are
determined
Greater flexibility of
lime mortar and
masonry.
0
5
10
15
20
25
C
o
m
p
r
e
s
s
i
v
e

S
t
r
e
s
s
,

M
P
a
Brick units
1:0:6 Mortar cubes
Masonry prism
0
5
10
15
20
25
C
o
m
p
r
e
s
s
i
v
e

S
t
r
e
s
s
,

M
P
a
Brick units
1:0:3 Mortar cubes
Masonry prism
0
5
10
15
20
25
0.000 0.005 0.010 0.015 0.020 0.025 0.030
Strain
C
o
m
p
r
e
s
s
i
v
e

S
t
r
e
s
s
,

M
P
a
Brick units
1:0.5:4.5 Mortar cubes
Masonry prism
19
37
Best performance shown by prisms constructed with
Intermediate mortar (mortar containing lime)
Masonry
with Strong
mortar
Masonry with
Intermediate
mortar
~ 13% less
~ 50% more
Failure Strain
Prism Strength
Importance of using lime in mortar
Significant improvement in Flexibilitywithout
considerable compromise with the Prism Strength
38
Clay Brick Units
E
u
= ~ 300 f
u
Mortar
E
j
= ~ 200 f
j
Prism
E
m
= ~ 550 f
m
Elastic Modulus
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
12000
0 10 20 30 40
Brick compressivestrength, MPa
B
r
i
c
k

e
l
a
s
t
i
c

m
o
d
u
l
u
s
,

M
P
a
M bricks
B bricks
O bricks
Sbricks
40 brick specimens
C
r
=0.39
b b
f E 300 ~
b b
f E 150 ~
b b
f E 500 ~
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
0 5 10 15 20 25
Mortar compressivestrength, MPa
M
o
r
t
a
r

e
l
a
s
t
i
c

m
o
d
u
l
u
s
,

M
P
a
1:0:6 mortar
1:0.5:4.5 mortar
1:0:3 mortar
27 mortar cubespecimens
C
r
=0.90
j j
f E 200 ~
j j
f E 400 ~
j j
f E 100 ~
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Masonry prismstrength, MPa
M
a
s
o
n
r
y

e
l
a
s
t
i
c

m
o
d
u
l
u
s
,

M
P
a
1:0:6 mortar
1:0.5:4.5 mortar
1:0:3 mortar
84 masonry prismspecimens
C
r
=0.63
'
1100
m m
f E ~
'
250
m m
f E ~
'
550
m m
f E ~
20
39
Control Points Defining Stress-Strain Curves of Masonry
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
0.000 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.010
Strain
N
o
r
m
a
l
i
z
e
d

S
t
r
e
s
s
1:0.5:4.5
1:0:6
1:0:3
'
m
f
'
9 . 0
m
f
'
75 . 0
m
f
'
33 . 0
m
f
'
6 . 0
m
f
'
5 . 0
m
f
'
2 . 0
m
f
6 Control Points corresponding to 6 significant events
observed experimentally (4 in Rising and 2 in falling branch)
Stress-Strain curves can be plotted for given Prism Strength
Stress in
terms of
Prism
Strength
Strain in prism for different
mortar grades
1:0:6 1:0:3 1:0.5:4.5
0.00 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
0.33 0.0009 0.0005 0.0005
0.75 0.0021 0.0014 0.0015
0.90 0.0029 0.0021 0.0021
1.00 0.0036 0.0025 0.0030
0.60 0.0059 - -
0.50 - 0.0045 0.0062
0.20 - 0.0053 0.0080
40
6 Control Points:
1. 0.33 : Stress-strain curves remain linear
2. 0.75 : Vertical splitting cracks appear in bricks; masonry still
resists loads without much deterioration
3. 0.9 : Vertical splitting cracks propagate excessively
4. : Ultimate stress level in masonry after which the load
drops and strains increase excessively
5. 0.5 : Proposed as maximum dependable compressive
strength of masonry
6. 0.2 : Residual compressive stress in masonry
'
m
f
'
m
f
'
m
f
'
m
f
'
m
f
'
m
f
21
41
Analytical Model for Prism Strength of Masonry
What is the need?
- Significant variation in material properties geographically
- Controlled compression testing of masonry prisms not
always feasible
A simple analytical model is required
f
b
, f
j
: readily available in design codes or
can be obtained easily by conducting tests
- Can be conveniently used in the analytical model
42
Analytical Estimation of Masonry Prism Strength
Kaushiks Study:
Unconstrained Linear Regression Analysis of
using experimentally obtained compressive strengths
Proposed Equation:
'
m
f
= 0.63
0.49
b
f
0.32
j
f
R
2
= 0.93 (Coefficient of Determination)
o = 0.48 MPa (Standard Error of Estimate)
Excellent Prediction
'
m
f
= K
o
b
f
|
j
f
22
43
Proposed Analytical Model for Stress-Strain
Curves of Brick Masonry
44
Tri-Linear Stress-Strain Model
23
45
Summary : Compressive Behaviour of Masonry
Non-linear o - ecurves determined experimentally
Relations suggested for estimation of E
b
, E
j
, and E
m
IRA more directly related (than WA) to f
b
Use of lime in mortar beneficial - increases ductility
Analytical models developed for o - ecurves of masonry
are fairly Accurate and Simpler and Tri-linear model is for
use in computer analysis programs
46
Concrete Block Masonry
Material Testing for Compressive strength:
Masonry blocks
Mortar cubes
Grout cylinders and prisms
Masonry prisms (two blocks high)
24
47
Prism Testing Grouted Prisms
Note grouted cores which remained
intact inside the prism
[Brzev, BCIT]
48
Prism Testing Hollow Prisms
Characteristic vertical splitting failure
[Brzev, BCIT]
25
49
Test Results: Prisms (fm)
Specimen
Area
(mm
2
)
Load
kN
Compressive
Strength
(MPa)
Avg. Compressive
Strength
(MPa)
Standard
Deviation
(MPa)
COV
G1 54990 1322.15 24.0
22.9 1.4 6% G2 54990 263098 21.3
G3 54990 288742 23.4
H1 30245 148178 21.8
25.0 3.4 14%
H2 30245 195669 28.8
H3 30245 183392 27.0
H4
30245 681.0 22.5
H5 - (5) 30245 480.0 15.9
B1 30245 260648 38.3
37.8 1.3 4% B2 30245 246505 36.3
B3 30245 263573 38.8
Notes:
1. G =Grouted Masonry Prism
2. H=Hollow Masonry Prism
3. B =Masonry block (both ends plain)
4. Average cross-sectional area of masonry blocks:
Both ends plain: 30245 mm
2

Regular stretcher: 32417 mm
2

5. The strength of prism specimen H5 was not taken into account

[Brzev, BCIT]
Draft Code Approach for
Elastic Modulus &
Draft Code Approach for
Elastic Modulus &
26
51
f
m
and E
m
from prism tests
Basic compressive strength, f
b
= 0.25 f
m
f
m
and E
m
from prism tests
b
= 0.25 f
m
b
from unit
compressive strength f
u
and mortar grade
(Table 10, Draft IS: 1905)
b
from unit
compressive strength f
u
and mortar grade
(Table 10, Draft IS: 1905)
Compressive
Strength &
Modulus
Compressive
Strength &
Modulus
Prism Tested Prism Tested
No Prism Tested
UNIT Strength Method:
No Prism Tested
UNIT Strength Method:
Specified compressive strength, f
m
= 4f
b
E
m
= 550 f
m
Specified compressive strength, f
m
= 4f
b
E
m
= 550 f
m
52
IS:1905 Design Compressive Strengths
UNIT Strength Method: UNIT Strength Method:
Specified compressive strength f
m
= 4f
b
and E
m
= 550 f
m
Specified compressive strength f
m
= 4f
b
and E
m
= 550 f
m
Sl.
no
Mortar
Type
Table 10: Basic compressive strength in MPa corresponding to masonry
units of which height to width ratio does not exceed 0.75 and crushing
strength in MPa is not less than
3.5 5.0 7.5 10 12.5 15 17.5 20 25 30 35 40
1 H1 0.35 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.16 1.31 1.45 1.59 1.91 2.21 2.50 3.05
2 H2 0.35 0.50 0.74 0.96 1.09 1.19 1.30 1.41 1.62 1.85 2.10 2.50
3 M1 0.35 0.50 0.74 0.96 1.06 1.13 1.20 1.27 1.47 1.69 1.90 2.20
4 M2 0.35 0.44 0.59 0.81 0.94 1.03 1.10 1.17 1.34 1.51 1.65 1.90
5 M3 0.25 0.41 0.56 0.75 0.87 0.95 1.02 1.10 1.25 1.41 1.55 1.78
6 L1 0.25 0.36 0.53 0.67 0.76 0.83 0.90 0.97 1.11 1.26 1.40 1.06
7 L2 0.25 0.31 0.42 0.53 0.58 0.61 0.65 0.69 0.73 0.78 0.85 0.95

27
Bond Strength Bond Strength
54
Bond Strength
Most important property of hardened mortar
Factors affecting bond strength
Brick texture
Greater for roughened surfaces
Smaller for sanded finishes
Brick suction
IRA<1.5 kg/min/m
2
If greater, wet 3-24 hrsprior to laying
Air content
<12 %higher value reduces bond strength
28
55
Flow
Bond strength increases with increase in flow
Time lapse between spreading of mortar and placing
of brick affects mortar flow
Should beminimised, especially on hot days
Re-tempering (mixing water)
Encouraged to compensatefor water evaporating from mortar board
May reducecompressivestrength but increases bond strength
Should bedonewithin 2.5 hrs after mixing
Flow measurement
ASTM C109
Bond Strength
56
Flow
Flow measurement
2 cakeof mortar dropped 0.5, 25 times in 15 s
% flow =diameter of cakeafter testing/original diameter of 2
Bond Strength
29
57
Movement
No tapping and attempt to move brick once mortar
has begun to harden
Proportion
No precise combination, but type S mortar gives
higher flexural strength (H2-6 MPa)
Curing
Wet curing generally produces higher bond strength
Bond Strength
58
Bond strength
Tests
ASTM C 1072: Bond Wrench Test
Flexural bond strength of each joint in brick prism
Aliter E518, E72
Bond Strength
http://www.masonrysociety.org
30
59
Tension Bond Strength
Various tests procedures and specimens have been suggested
Bond wrench test, direct tension test, and crossed couplet test
Each of these tests has its own drawbacks and problems
Direct tension test
Crossed couplet test
60
A new z-shaped specimenproposed by Khalaf (2005)
A simple test to evaluate the flexural bond strength by bending

Plaster of Paris
packing
lb/2
wb
lb/2 lb - tbar
tb Brick Sample
Plaster of
Mortar J oint
P
Steel bar
lb/2 lb/2
LVDT

Location of hinge
forming at failure
P
lmj
lb
RA
Brick weight, W
Bar thickness, tbar
ffb
5/8 lmj
Tensile bond
stress distribution
( ) +
=
0.5 1.5
1.5
b b bar
A
b bar
l P l t W
R
l t
( ) ( )
( )( )
2 2 2 2
2
0.5 0.5 0.75 1.25 0.5
0.42 1.5
b b bar bar b b bar
fb
mj b b bar
l l t t P l l t W
f
l w l t
+ + +
=
Tension Bond Strength, f

fb
31
61
0.00
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.20
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
T
e
n
s
i
o
n

b
o
n
d

s
t
r
e
s
s

(
M
P
a
)
Normalized displacement (mm/mm)
Failure was observed most
commonly on the upper face of bed
joint (or bottom face of upper brick)
for clay and fly-ash masonry
AAC block masonry with Polymer
modifiedmortar failed along the
centerline of the upper block
Tension bond failure
Typical failure for clay and fly-ash bricks AAC with Polymer mortar
Flexural Tensile
Strength
Flexural Tensile
Strength
C
E
6
2
5
-
M
a
s
o
n
r
y
s
tr
u
c
tu
r
e
s
/D
r
D
u
r
g
e
s
h
R
a
i/IIT
K
/2
0
1
2
32
63
Flexural Strength
Under the two-way action for mobilization of cracks in both the
horizontal and the vertical direction, the flexural bond strength is
crucial in normal as well as parallel directions to the bed joint.
Tests conducted in accordance with BS EN 1052-2 (BSI 1999)

l2
l1
ls
b
wb

l2
l1
b
wb
ls
( )
1 2
2
3
2
f
f
b
P l l
f
bw
=
Flexural Strength, f
f
64
flexural Tensile Strength
Tension Normal to bed joints
Effective area
hollow solid
MPa 05 0 F mortar 2 M Grade
MPa 07 0 F better or 1 M Grade
t
t
. ,
. ,
=
=

0.21 MPa (Half-scaled brick Masonry)
0.17 MPa (Full scale brick Masonry)

l2
l1
ls
b
wb
IS 1905 Permissible values
Experimental Ultimate Strength:
33
65
flexural Tensile Strength
Tension Parallel to bed joints
No direct tensile strength assumed normal to bed joint - just
shear strength along bed joints
Strong units Weak units
Effective
MPa 5 7 f units for MPa 10 0 F
MPa 10 f units for MPa 14 0 F
ut t
ut t
. .
.
'
'
> =
> =

l2
l1
b
wb
ls
1.10 MPa (Half-scaled brick Masonry)
1.02 MPa (Full scale brick Masonry)
IS 1905 Permissible values
Experimental Ultimate Strength:
66
Flexural Strength
Flexural bond strength
Plane of failure parallel to the bed joints = 0.17 MPa
Plane of failure perpendicular to bed joints = 1.02 MPa
Failure occurs between the inner (loading) bearings
Failure under flexural loading
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
F
l
e
x
u
r
a
l

s
t
r
e
s
s

(
M
P
a
)
34
67
Shear Strength Shear Strength
68
In-Plane Shear Behaviour of URM Walls
Possible Modes of Shear Failure
Failure through masonry units
Strong mortar and weak units
Sliding along bed joints
Low vertical compressive stress
Stair-steeping through bed and head joints
Weak mortar and strong units
35
69
In-Plane Shear Strength
For high axial pre-compression (> 2MPa)
Mann & Muller (1982)
Based on tensile cracking of units
f
tb
= Tensile strength of brick
= 0.33 f
u
= Axial pre-compression
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
tb
c
tb
f
f
o
t 1 45 . 0
c
o
70
In-Plane Shear Strength
For Low Pre-compression (< 2MPa)
Mohr-Coulomb type relations
) & ( . & .
) . & .
. .
. .
Hendry Sinha 50 0 MPa 30 0
Epperson ( 22 0 MPa 37 0
85 0 7 0
MPa 45 1 13 0
stress axial f
factor friction
cohesion
f
c
d
c
d c
=
=
=
=
=
+ =
t
t t
36
71
Calculation of Shear Stress
net
avg v
avg v
net
v
net
v
A
V
f
f
2
3
A
V
2
3
f
b I
VQ
f
=
= =
=
,
, max ,
f
v,max
f
v,avg.
72
Design criteria for shear
UBC
Clay units : F
v
= 0.3\f
m
< 80 psi [0.55 MPa]
CMU : F
v
= 34 psi [0.23 MPa] (M or S mortar)
= 23 psi [0.16 MPa] (N mortar)
Allowable stress increased by 0.2 f
md
wheref
md
=Compressivestress dueto dead loads
F
v
=Averageshear stress =V/A
net
In-Plane transverse Loading
37
73
ACI :
F
v
is lesser of
1.5\ f
m
psi [0.124 \ f
m
MPa]
120 psi [0.827 MPa]
v +0.45P
v
/ A
n
wherev =37 psi [0.26 MPa] for running bond, but not solid grouted
=37 psi [0.26 MPa] for stack bond & solid grout
=60 psi [0.41 MPa] for running bond +solid grout
15 psi [0.10 MPa] for masonry in other than running bond
Shear Stress is Maximum Shear Stress
F
v
= VQ/(A
n
b)
74
Permissible Shear Stress in Draft IS:1905
In-plane permissible shear stress F
v
lesser of
0.1 +0.2f
d
MPa
0.5 MPa
f
d
= compressivestress
dueto dead loads in MPa
m
0.125 f
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0 1 2 3
0.1 +0.2f
d
A
l
l
o
w
a
b
l
e

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

M
P
a
St r ess due t o dead loads, MPa
0.5 MPa or f
m
16 MPa
f
m
<16 MPa
0.125f
m
38
75
Initial Shear Strength and Friction Factor
One-brick and Two-brick triplets (for estimating the effect of vertical
joint on the shear strength)
Without pre-compression initial shear strength
With pre-compressionat 0.2, 0.4, 0.6 and 0.8 MPa friction factor
76
Test Setup
Test was carried out in accordance with provisions of BS EN 1052-3: 2002
Two independent actuators used for lateral (shear) and vertical load
Horizontal force applied on middle course of brick triplets
Compressive force was applied gradually to required pre-
compression level and maintained constant throughout the test
One-brick triplet Two-brick triplet
39
77
Shear failure
Initial Shear Strength
Typical failure plane along the mortar
bed; a failure line on either side of the
middle brick
For AAC masonry with Polymer
mortar, the blocks failed in shear prior
to shear failure of the bond
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
S
h
e
a
r

s
t
r
e
s
s

(
M
P
a
)
Typical failure for clay and fly-ash bricks
AAC with Fixoblock mortar
78
Friction Factor,
Values agree well with the typical range for standard masonry
= 0.70 to 1.20 which depends on the different combinations of
brick units and mortars (Lourenco et al. 2004)
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
F
r
i
c
t
i
o
n
a
l

s
t
r
e
s
s

(
M
P
a
)
Vertical pressure (MPa)
=0.88
=0.97
40
79
Diagonal tension (shear) strength
Test method commonly used to estimate shear strength for both new
and existing masonry constructions (ASTM E 519-07)
0.707
s
n
P
S
A
=
In-situ test Laboratory test
P = Applied load
A
n
= net area of the specimen
80
Diagonal tension (shear) strength
Half-brick (Running bond) and full-brick thick (English bond)
specimens were tested to examine the effect of the type of bond
English bond specimen showed slightly higher strength compared to
the running bond - attributed to presence of header bricks at
alternate bed joints
Typical failure is diagonal splitting of masonry wallets
Diagonal tension failure
Running Bond
S
s
= 0.43 MPa
English Bond
S
s
= 0.45 MPa
41
81
Comparison of
Masonry types
Comparison of
Masonry types
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, IIT KANPUR
Properties
Conventional Bricks Blocks
Clay Fly-Ash A Fly-Ash B AAC
1:1:6 1:4 1:1:6 1:4 1:1:6 1:4 1:3 PM
1
2
3.89 3.81 3.03 3.57 7.33 6.82 2.05 2.38
Elastic Modulus 1646 1344 2382 2605 5623 6256 1505 2107
Split Tensile
3
- - - - - - 0.13 0.34
Tension Bond Strength 0.11 0.09 0.19 0.17 0.14 0.10 0.03 0.12
Bed-Joint Shear Strength 0.17 0.19 0.23 0.18 0.29 0.27 0.10 0.32
Diagonal Tension
Strength
- - - - - - 0.11 0.30
1
Polymer modified mortar with water retention properties
2
Compressive strength of AAC masonry obtained on 5-brick stack bond prismin half-scale
3
Splitting tensile strength of thin bed mortar joint
ConventionalBricksandAACmasonryproperties
Research at IIT Kanpur
1
Acknowledgement
Text Book: Geotechnical Earthquake
Engineering, by S.L. Kramer
Text Book: Dynamics of Structure, by Anil
K Chopra
Lecture Notes by Prof A M Reinhorn,
SUNY, Buffalo
Short-course materials previously
prepared by Profs. D C Rai, S K J ain
and CVR Murthy
2
EarthquakebyDefinition
Anearthquakeisasudden,rapidshakingoftheEarth
causedbythereleaseofstrainenergystoredinrocks.
Layersoftheearth
Layered(likehardboiledegg)
Crustisliketheshell
~2540km beneaththecontinents
~6070km beneathsomeyoungmountain
ranges
~asthinas5km beneaththeoceanfloors
Mantleislikethewhite
~Plastic,semisolidconsistency
~Depthofthemantleisabout2,850km
Coreisliketheyolk
Liquidoutercore:
~2260km indepth
Solidmetalliccore:
~Fe&Ni
~ContinuestotheEarthscenter
Crust
Mantle
Outer
Core
Inner
Core
3
Earthquakes: Why and Where?
Continental Drift Theory
Wegener (1915)
Earth had only one large continent, called
Pangaea, in 200 million years ago
Pangaea broke into pieces and drifted leading
into the present configuration of the
continents
4
Drift of Pangaea
Theory Plate Tectonics
Hypothesis
Earth surface consists of a number of large
intact blocks, called plates
These plates move with respect to each other
Earth crust is divided
into six continental sized plates
African, American, Antarctic, Australia-Indian,
Eurasian and Pacific
into Fourteen sub-continental sized plate
5
Major Plates: Arrow indicating the direction of
plate movements
Plate Boundaries
At the boundaries, larger plates are broken
into smaller platelets or micro-plates
Due to continuous plate movement, relative
deformation between plates occur at the
plate boundaries
Strain energy build up and release
Cause of earthquakes
Map of earthquake epicenters are near
the plate boundaries
6
Map of Earthquake Epicenters
Driving Force for Plate Movements
Thermo-mechanical
equilibrium of earths
materials
Upper part of mantle is
in contact with relatively
cool crust
Lower part of mantle is
inc contact with
relatively hot outer core
Temperature gradient
and variation of mantle
density with
temperature
Cooler materials begins
to sink and denser
materials begins to rise--
-leading to convection
current
7
Types of Plate Boundaries
Spreading Ridge
Boundaries
Plates move apart
from each other in
certain areas
Molten rock from
underlying mantle
rises to the surface
After cooling, it
becomes part of the
spreading plates
Plates grow at the
spreading ridges
Types of Plate Boundaries
Subduction Zone
Boundaries
Size of earth crust remains
constant
Growth of plate at the
spreading ridges MUST be
compensated by consumption
of materials at other locations
Results in subduction zone
Two plates move toward each
other
One plate plunges or subducts
beneath the other
8
Transform Fault Boundaries
Transform fault
boundaries
When plates
cross each
other without
creating a new
crust or
consuming the
old crust
Interrelating Plate Boundaries
9
Plate BoundariesViewed in Smaller Scale
Plate tectonic theory describes the movement of
plates through three types of plate boundaries
Actual movement is quiet complicated when
viewed in smaller scale
Breaking of the plates into a large number of
microplates and trapped into larger plates
Movement between two portions of crust will take
place on a new or pre-existing weaker plane (or
offset) in geologic structure---FAULTS
Length: several meters to hundreds of kilometers
Depth: several tens of kilometers from the ground
surface
Defining a Fault Geometry
Strike: horizontal line produced by the intersection
of fault plane and a horizontal plane
Dip: downward slope of the fault plane
Azimuth: Orientation of the strike wrt to North
10
Characterization of Faults
Usually based on Fault movement
Direction of dip
Direction of strike
May be along both but one of these as
predominant
Dip-Slip Movement
Normal Fault
Horizontal component of
the movement is
extensional
Associated with the tensile
stress and horizontal
lengthening of the crust
Materials above the
inclined fault (hanging
wall) moves downward
relative to the materials
below the fault (foot wall)
11
Dip-Slip Movement
Reverse Fault
Horizontal component of the
movement is Compressional
Associated with the
compressive stress and
horizontal lengthening of the
crust
Materials above the inclined
fault (hanging wall) moves
upward relative to the materials
below the fault (foot wall)
Thrust Fault
A special case of Reverse Fault
when dip angle is small
Strike-Slip movement
Fault movement is
parallel to the strike
Right lateral strike-slip
fault
Observer standing on one
part of the fault would
observe the ground on
other side of the fault
moving towards right
Left lateral strike-slip
fault
12
How Earthquakes Occur?
Brittle Rupture
BrittleMaterial (Forexample,Rock)
F
F
Elongation of Bar
F
o
r
c
e

F
Rupture Rupture
0
Final elongation is
small
Maximum
Force
13
Elastic Rebound Theory
Analogy of Elastic Rebound
14
Elastic Stress and Slip
Time (years)
Strength
Energy
Build-Up
E
l
a
s
t
i
c

S
t
r
e
s
s

Energy
Release
C
u
m
u
l
a
t
i
v
e

S
l
i
p
C
A
Slip
A
B
C
A
B
C
EQ
EQ
Time (years)
EQ
Reservoir Triggered Earthquake
15
Basic Terminology in Earthquake
Engineering And Engineering
Seismology
Focus (Hypocenter)
Pointwheremotionfirststarts
Area/volume
ruptured
Focus
16
Epicenter
Projectionoffocusonground
90
Focal Depth
Depthoffocusbelowground
<70km ShallowFocusEQs
70to300kmIntermediateFocusEQs
>300km DeepFocusEQs
Epicenter
Focus
90
17
Epicentral Distance
Distanceofepicenter
frompointofinterestontheEarth
Epicentral
Distance
Station
Station
1
o
= 112 km
Epicenter
Focus
A
o
Epicenter
Hypocentral Distance
DirectdistancefromFocustoStationofinterest
Epicenter
Focus
Epicentral Distance
Fault
Rupture
Focal
Depth
18
Foreshocks/Aftershokes
Eventsofshakingbefore/afterthemainEQevent
Size
Time
Main Shock
Foreshocks
Aftershocks
Seismic Waves
19
Source to Site Travel Path
EQ
Surface Waves
Fault
Rupture
Body Waves
Structure
Soil
Geologic Strata
Body Waves
Primary or P-wave
Horizontal tension and compression waves, which travel in the
direction of wavefront
High frequency
First wave to reach a structure
Direction of
Energy Transmission
P-Waves
Push and pull
Compression Extension
20
Body Waves
Secondary or S-wave
Shear waves, which travel perpendicularly to the
wavefront
Lower frequency
Greater amplitude
Most destructive vibrations
Direction of
Energy Transmission
Side to side
Up and down
S-Waves
Body Wave Propagation
21
Surface Waves
Love Wave
Horizontal waves traveling on the ground
Love Waves
Sideways in horizontal plane
Direction of
Energy Transmission
Surface Waves
Rayleigh Wave
Vertical wave traveling on the ground surface
Retrograding ellipse
Rayleigh Waves
Elliptic in vertical plane
Direction of
Energy Transmission
22
Surface Wave Propagation
Types of Ground Motion and
Characteristics
23
Teleseismic Events
LowAmplitudeVibrations
Longdistanceevents
Lowfrequency
Usuallydisplacements
EarthScientists
0
200 400 600 800 1000 1200
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
Time (s)
Teleseismic Earthquake Recording
P PP S
Surface Waves
Strong Motion Events
StrongGroundMotions
Nearfieldgroundmotions
RelativelyHighfrequencycontents
Usuallyaccelerations
StructuralEngineers
-0.3
-0.2
-0.1
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
A
c
c
n
.

(
g
)
PGA=0.32g
Time (seconds)
24
Ground Motion Characteristics
PeakGroundParameters
Acceleration(PGA)
Velocity(PGV)
Displacement(PGD)
PGA and PGV of Some Recorded Events
25
Other Parameters affecting Structural
Performance
Parameters
DurationofSignificantShaking
FrequencyContent
Factors Affecting Recorded Motion
Influenceof
MagnitudeofEQ
Sourcemechanism
Typeoffaulting
Distancefrom
source
Soil/rockmedium
alongtravelpath
Localsoilsite,
geology,topology,
etc.,.
Attenuation
with Distance
Fault
Fault
26
Seismic Instruments
Early Seismograph
Magnet
String
Pendulumbob
Rotatingdrum
Pen
Support
Chartpaper
Directionofshaking
Anchoredto
theGround
HorizontalShaking
27
Early Seismograph
Vertical
Shaking
Inertial Seismometers
Mass on rod type
Mass on spring
Natural frequency of
system is far higher than
the predominant frequency
contents of ground motion
Separate units to measure
horizontal and vertical
shaking
Weight of the bob acts
differently to horizontal
and vertical units
Special design requirement
to record vertical shaking
Mass m
Spring k
Damping c
Sensor Sensor
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
2
2
2
n n n g
n g
u t u t u t u t
u t u t
e e
e
+ + =
~

28
Galperin Configuration
Each sensor is mounted at an angle of 54.74
o
wrt
vertical with 120
o
spacing when projected onto
horizontal plane
No special design for any of the three
TriaxialgeometryoftheStreckeisen STS2seismometer
Instruments and Functions
Measureonlytranslations
Nomenclature
Seismometre
Sensor
Seismograph
Sensor+RecordingDevice+TimeDevice
RecordsDisplacementversus Time
Seismoscope
Instrument
RecordsPeakDisplacement
Seismogram
GraphorRecord
ObtainedfromaSeismograph
29
Instruments and Classifications
Classification
Seismographs
LowAmplitudeVibrations(longdistanceevents)
Displacement
RangerSS1
StrongMotionInstruments
HighAmplitudeVibrations(nearfieldstrongevents)
Acceleration
Examples
Digital
DigitalStrongMotionAccelerograph(DSA1,3)
SolidStateAccelerograph(SSA1,2)
Analog
StrongMotionAccelerograph(SMA1,SMA2,SMA3)
Seismic Strong Motion Array
30
Some Indian Array
Closely spaced strong motion instruments
Shillong Array
!! !!
KangraArray
Uttar Pradesh Array
Array in Taiwan
DenseSeismicarrayatLotung
31
Locating the Epicenter
Arrival of P and S waves
Differentarrivaltimes
P S
P-waves : 1.5-8 km/sec
S-waves : 60-70% of P-waves (1-5 km/sec)
Speeds may vary
Ratio between average speeds of P and S waves
is quite constant!
Time-delay between arrival of P-and S-waves
is used to estimate location of epicenter
32
Differential Arrival Time
T
i
m
e

e
l
a
p
s
e
d

a
f
t
e
r

s
t
a
r
t

o
f

E
Q

(
s
e
c
)
Distance from Earthquake (km)
Arrival of
S-Wave
Arrival of
S-Wave
Arrival of
P-Wave
Arrival of
P-Wave
A
C B
Epicentral Distance
Estimates
ArrivaltimesofPandSwaves
Wavevelocitiesintheregion
P S
V
1
V
1
P S
S P
t
d
V
d
V
d
t
V V
A
=
= A
>
Focal Distanced
Station Epicenter
Focus
Approximate Distance (km) =At 8 km/s! Approximate Distance (km) =At 8 km/s!
33
Triangulation to Estimate Epicenter
Station 3
Station 1
Station 2
Strength and Impact of Earthquake
34
Magnitude versus Intensity
Bright
(100 lumens)
Normal
(50 lumens)
Dull
(20 lumens)
Near
Far
100 Watt Bulb Magnitude
Intensity
Magnitude versus Intensity
Wattage
isakintoEQMagnitude
Brightness
isakintoEQIntensity
35
Earthquake Magnitude
Quantitativemeasureof
physicalshakinggeneratedbytheEQ
SizeoftheEarthquake
Waysofmeasuring
Motion
Energy
Richter Magnitude---Background
WoodAndersonTorsion
Seismograph
36
Richter Magnitude
Richter Magnitude
37
Richter Magnitude
Richter Magnitude
38
Richter Magnitude
Richter Magnitude
39
Richter Magnitude
Richter Magnitude
40
Richter Magnitude
Nomogram
Richter Magnitude
41
Richter Magnitude
Evolution of Magnitude Scales
42
Evolution of
Energyreleasedis30timesifMagnitudeisincreasedby1order
Sub-Topic
43
Evolution of
Evaluation of
44
Evolution of
Evolution of
SaturationofMagnitudeScales
M
a
g
n
i
t
u
d
e
Moment Magnitude M
w
M
w
M
w
M
S
M
S
M
L
M
L
M
b
M
b
4 6 8 10
45
Evolution of
Impact of Earthquake
46
Earthquake Intensity
Qualitativemeasureofstrengthofshaking
manifestedatagivenplaceduringtheEQ
InfluenceoftheEarthquake
Beforeseismographs,ItalianseismologistG.
Mercalli andotherEuropeanscientistsclassified
earthquakesbythedamagetheyproduced
qualitatively
IntensityScaleisaRomannumeralIXIIpointscale
torate
Buildingdamage
Groundmovements
Humanimpactduetoanearthquake
Many Intensity Scales
1883:RossiForelScale IX
DeRossiandForel
1902:MercalliScale IXII
Mercalli
1931:ModifiedMercalliScale IXII
WoodandNeumann
1956:ModifiedMercalliScale IXII
(1956Version)
Richter
1964:MSKScale IXII
Medvedev,Sponheuer,Karnik
1897
Great
Assam
EQ
1897
Great
Assam
EQ
47
Intensity Scales
NewerScales
Notwidelyusedyet
1998EuropeanMacroseismicScale IXII
Firstproposedin1981;modifiedin1992,1998
JapanMeteorologicalAgencyScale 17
UsedinJapanandTaiwan
Arabic
Numerals!!!
Arabic
Numerals!!!
Shortened Mercalli Scale
I Onlyinstrumentdetectit
II Peoplelyingdownfeelit
III Peopleonupperfloorsofbuildingfeelit,
butmaynotknowthatitisearthquake
IV Peopleindoorswillprobablyfeelit,
butthoseoutsidemaynot.
V Nearlyeveryonefeelsit
andwakesupevenifsleeping.
VI Everyonefeelsthequake
anditshardtowalk.
VII Itishardtostand.
48
Shortened Mercalli Scale
VIII Peoplewillnotbeabletodrivecars.
Poorlybuiltbuildingsmayfall.
Chimneysmayfall.
IX Mostfoundationsaredamaged.
Thegroundcracks.
X Mostbuildingsaredestroyed.
Wateristhrownoutofriversandlakes.
XI Railsarebent.Bridgesandunderground
pipelinesareputoutofservice.
XII Mostthingsareleveled.
Largeobjectsmaybethrownintotheair.
MSK Intensity Scale (1964 Version)
RussianScientists
Medvedev,Sponheuer andKarnik
TypesofStructures(Buildings)
StructureA
Buildingsinfieldstone,ruralstructures,
adobehouses,clayhouses
StructureB
Ordinarybrickbuildings,buildingsoflargeblockand
prefabricatedtype,halftimberedstructures,
buildingsinnaturalhewnstone
StructureC
Reinforcedconcretebuildings,wellbuiltwooden
structures
49
MSK (1964 Version)
Definitionofquantity
Single,few :~5%
Many :~50%
Most :~75%
MSK (1964 Version)
Classification of damage to buildings
Grade 1 : Sight damage
Fine cracks in plaster, fall of small pieces of plaster
Grade 2 : Moderate damage
Small cracks in walls, fall of fairly large piece of plaster,
pantiles slip off, cracks in chimneys, parts of chimneys fall
down
Grade 3 : Heavy damage
Large cracks in walls, fall of chimneys
Grade 4 : Destruction
Gaps in walls, parts of buildings may collapse, separate
parts of the building lose their cohesion, inner walls
collapse
Grade 5 : Total damage
Total collapse of buildings
50
MSK (1964 Version)
ArrangementoftheScale
Introductorylettersareusedinparagraphs
throughoutthescaleasfollows:
(a) Persons and surroundings
(b) Structures of all kinds
(c)Nature
MSK (1964 Version)
MSKIntensityScale
I.Notnoticeable
(a)Theintensityofvibrationsisbelowthelimitofsensibility;the
tremorisdetectedandrecordsbyseismographsonly.
II.Scarcelynoticeable(veryslight)
(a)Vibrationisfeltonlybyindividualpeopleatrestinhouses,
especiallyonupperfloorsofbuildings.
III.Weak,partiallyobservedonly
(a) Theearthquakeisfeltindoorsbyafewpeople,outdoorsonly
infavourable circumstances.Thevibrationislikethatdueto
thepassingofalighttruck.Attentiveobserversnoticeaslight
swingingofhangingobjects.
51
MSK (1964 Version)
IV.Largelyobserved
(a) Theearthquakeisfeltindoorsbyafewpeopleoutdoorsby
fewpeople.Hereandtherepeopleawake,butnooneis
frightened.Thevibrationislikethatduetothepassingofa
heavilyloadedtruck.Windows,doors,anddishesrattle.
Floorsandwallscreak.Furniturebeginstoshake.Hanging
objectsswingslightly.Liquidsinopenvesselsareslightly
disturbed.Instandingmotorcarstheshockisnoticeable.
(b)
(c)
MSK (1964 Version)
V.Awakening
(a)Theearthquakeisfeltindoorsbyall,outdoorsbymany.
Manysleepingpeopleawake.Afewrunoutdoors.Animals
becomeuneasy.Buildingstremblethroughout.Hanging
objectsswing.Picturesknockagainstwallsorswingoutof
place.Occasionallypendulumclocksstop.Unstableobjects
maybeoverturnedorshifted.Doorsandwindowsarethrust
openandslambackagain.Liquidsspillinsmallamounts
fromwellfilledopencontainers.Thesensationofvibration
islikethatduetoaheavyobjectfallinginsidethebuilding.
(b)
(c)Slightwavesonstandingwater;sometimeschangeinflowof
springs.
52
MSK (1964 Version)
VI.Frightening
(a) Feltbymostindoorsandoutdoors.Manypeopleinbuildings
arefrightenedandrunoutdoors.Afewpersonslosetheir
balance.Domesticanimalsrunoutoftheirstalls.Inmany
instances,dishesandglasswaremaybreak,booksfalldown,
picturesmove,andunstableobjectsoverturn.Heavy
furnituremaypossiblymoveandsmallsteeplebellsmayring.
(b) DamageofGrade1issustainedinsinglebuildingsofTypeB
andinmanyofTypeA.DamageinsomebuildingsofTypeAis
ofGrade2.
(c) Cracksuptowidthsof1cmpossibleinwetground;in
mountainsoccasionallandslips;changeinflowofspringsand
inlevelofwellwater.
MSK (1964 Version)
VII.Damagetobuildings
(a) Mostpeoplearefrightenedandrunoutdoors.Manyfindit
difficulttostand.Thevibrationisnoticedbypersonsdriving
motorcars.Largebellsring.
(b)InmanybuildingsofTypeC,damageofGrade1iscaused;in
buildingsofTypeB,damageisofGrade2.Mostbuildingsof
TypeAsuffersdamageofGrade3,someofGrade4.Insingle
instances,landslipsofroadwayonsteepslopes;cracksinroads;
seamsofpipelinesdamages;cracksinstonewalls.
(c)Wavesareformedonwater,andismadeturbidbymudstirred
up.Waterlevelsinwellschange,andtheflowofsprings
changes.Sometimesdryspringshavetheirflowrestoredand
existingspringsstopflowing.Inisolatedinstances,partsof
sandyorgravellybanksslipoff.
53
MSK (1964 Version)
VIII.Destructionofbuildings
(a) Frightandpanic;alsopersonsdrivingmotorcarsare
disturbed.Hereandtherebranchesoftreesbreakoff.Even
heavyfurnituremovesandpartlyoverturns.Hanginglamps
aredamagedinpart.
(b) MostbuildingsofTypeCsufferdamageofGrade2,andfew
ofGrade3.MostbuildingsofTypeBsufferdamageofGrade3.
MostbuildingsofTypeAsufferdamageofGrade4.Many
buildingsofTypeCsufferdamageofGrade4.Occasional
breakingofpipeseams.Memorialandmonumentsmoveand
twist.Tombstonesoverturn.Stonewallscollapse.
(c)Smalllandslipsinhollowsandonbankedroadsonsteep
slopes;cracksingroundupto widthsofseveralcentimeters.
Waterinlakesbecometurbid.Newreservoirscomeinto
existence.Drywellsrefillandexistingwellsbecomedry.In
manycases,changeinflowandlevelofwaterisobserved.
MSK (1964 Version)
IX.Generaldamagetobuildings
(a)Generalpanic;considerabledamagetofurniture.Animalsrun
toandfroinconfusion,andcry.
(b)ManybuildingsofTypeCsufferdamageofGrade3,andafew
ofGrade4.ManybuildingsofTypeBshowadamageofGrade
2andafewofGrade5.ManybuildingsofTypeAsuffer
damageofGrade5.Monumentsandcolumnsfall.
Considerabledamagetoreservoirs;undergroundpipespartly
broken.Inindividualcases,railwaylinesarebentandroadway
damaged.
(c)Onflatandoverflowofwater,sandandmudisoften
observed.Groundcrackstowidthsofupto10cm,onslopes
andriverbanksmorethan10cm.Furthermore,alarge
numberofslightcracksinground;fallsofrock,manyland
slidesandearthflows;largewavesinwater.Drywellsrenew
theirflowandexistingwellsdryup.
54
MSK (1964 Version)
X.Generaldestructionofbuildings
(a)
(b)ManybuildingsofTypeCsufferdamageofGrade4,andafew
ofGrade5.ManybuildingsofTypeBshowdamageofGrade5.
MostofTypeAhavedestructionofgrade5.Criticaldamageto
dykesanddams.Severedamagetobridges.Railwaylinesare
bentslightly.Undergroundpipesarebentorbroken.Road
pavingandasphaltshowwaves.
(c) Inground,cracksuptowidthsofseveralcentimeters,
sometimesupto1meter.Paralleltowatercoursesoccurbroad
fissures.Loosegroundslidesfromsteepslopes.Fromriver
banksandsteepcoasts,considerablelandslidesarepossible.In
coastalareas,displacementofsandandmud;changeofwater
levelinwells;waterfromcanals,lakes,rivers,etc.,thrownon
land.Newlakesoccur.
MSK (1964 Version)
XI.Destruction
(a)
(b)Severedamageeventowellbuiltbuildings,bridges,water
damsandrailwaylines.Highwaysbecomeuseless.
Undergroundpipesdestroyed.
(c) Groundconsiderablydistortedbybroadcracksandfissures,
aswellasmovementinhorizontalandverticaldirections.
Numerouslandslipsandfallsofrocks.Theintensityofthe
earthquakerequirestobeinvestigatedspecifically.
55
MSK (1964 Version)
XII.Landscapechanges
(a)
(b)Practicallyallstructuresaboveandbelowgroundaregreatly
damagedordestroyed.
(c)Thesurfaceofthegroundisradicallychanged.Considerable
groundcrackswithextensiveverticalhorizontalmovements
areobserved.Fallsofrockandslumpingofriverbanksover
wideareas,lakesaredammed;waterfallsappear,andrivers
aredeflected.Theintensityoftheearthquakerequirestobe
investigatedspecially.
M-I-PGA Relationship
56
Magnitude-PGA
PeakGroundAccelerations(PGA)
MMI V VI VII VIII IX X
PGA (g)
0.03-0.04 0.06-0.07 0.10-0.15 0.25-0.30 0.50-0.55 >0.60
-0.3
-0.2
-0.1
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
A
c
c
n
.

(
g
)
PGA=0.32g
Time (seconds)
Magnitude-Intensity
Magnitudeversus I
GutenbergandRichter,1956
M
L
~ (2/3)I
0
+1
Forusingthisequation,theRomannumbersofintensity
arereplacedwiththecorrespondingArabicnumerals,e.g.,
intensityIXwith9.0
Severalotherrelations
57
Attenuation Relation
Strong Motion Attenuation
Reductionwithdistance
1979 Imperial Valley 1979 Imperial Valley M~6.6 Earthquakes M~6.6 Earthquakes
58
New Generation Strong Motion
Attenuation
Many relations
Isoseismals
2001BhujEarthquake
IX
VIII
X
VII
Meizoseismal region Meizoseismal region
59
Intensity Attenuation
Comparison of attenuation relation (M=6 ) in India (ours), Philippinse
(Benjamin, 1983), Turkey (Yarar et al., 1984) and J amaica (Wang et al.,
1995)
Indian Earthquake Scenario
60
Geographical Layout &
Tectonic Plate Boundaries
Deccan Shield
Gangetic
Plains
Himalayas
Bayof Bengal
Arabian Sea
Indo-Australian
Plate
Eurasian Plate
Narmada
Plains
Godavari
Plains
Mahanadi
Plains
Some Past Earthquakes
2001 Bhuj
1934 Bihar-Nepal
1905 Kangra
1950 Assam 1897 Assam
<5
5<6
6<7
7<8
>8
Magnitude
61
Indian Seismic Zone Map
Zone Factor
IS 1893-part-1
PGA at MCE = Z
PGA at DBE = Z/2
On What BASIS??
Need of Seismic Hazard Analysys
Seismic Zone II III IV V
Z 0.10 0.16 0.24 0.36
62
Deterministic Seismic Hazard
Analysis
Probabilistic Seismic Hazard
Analysis
63
Typical Results from PSHA
Questions?

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