Production of Castings

Casting is a manufacturing process by which a liquid material is (usually) poured into a mold,
which contains a hollow cavity of the desired shape, and then allowed to solidify. The solid
casting is then ejected or broken out to complete the process. Casting may be used to form hot
liquid metals or various materials that cold set after mixing of components (such as epoxy,
concrete, plaster and clay). Casting is most often used for making complex shapes that would
be otherwise difficult or uneconomical to make by other methods.

Seven Types of Casting Processes:

I. Sand Casting - casting the molten metal into sand molds. It is the method generally used
with cast iron, steel, & many of the nonferrous metals & alloys. The most
common metals are iron, steel, bronze, brass and aluminum.
Sand casting involves three distinct operations: patternmaking, molding and founding.

A. Patternmaking. The pattern for a sand casting is the beginning step in the production of a cast
part and is a replica of the part to be cast from which either a few or a large number of molds
may be made. In making patterns, several factors must be considered if the final casting is to
fulfill the requirements of the designer:

1. Draft – a taper or a thinning down of certain portions of the pattern. The draft depends on
the size and class of work but for ordinary patterns, a draft of 1/8 in. per foot of depth
may be considered as an average value.
2. Shrinkage. Most of the common metals shrink during cooling and solidification; due
provision must therefore be made for this change in dimension. Allowance for
shrinkage is approximately as follows:

Metal Shrinkage Metal Shrinkage

Aluminum 1/8 in per ft Gray cast iron 1/8 in per ft
Copper 3/16 in per ft Lead 5/16 in per ft
Brass 3/16 in per ft Malleable iron 3/32 in per ft
Magnesium 5/32 in per ft Steel ¼ in per ft

3. Machine Finish Allowance. This requires that those portions of the pattern be made
somewhat larger than the intended finished casting. The finish allowance will vary from
about 1/8 in. to as much as 5/8 in.
4. Material for Patterns. Most patterns and all large ones, are made of wood. The best
native wood is sugar pine, a straight-grained, uniform wood. An excellent but more
expensive wood is the tough uniform-grained Honduras mahogany.
5. Types of Patterns. Four general types of patterns are employed in commercial practice;
a) One-piece pattern. This type is used only when a few castings are to be made. It
is the cheapest type of pattern, but its use makes the molding process slow and
expensive.
 b) Multiple-piece pattern. In using multiple piece patterns, the molder is required to
form other impressions in the mold to provide for passage through which the
molten metal will reach the mold cavity.
c) Gated Patterns. Some time can be saved if provision is made on the pattern for
these appurtenances. Such patterns are called gated patterns.
d) Match Plate. When a large number of castings are to be made, greater efficiency
can be obtained by using a match plate. A modification of the match plate is the
cope and drag pattern, which consists of two separate boards, each bearing one
half of the pattern.
6. Tolerances. Sand castings may be produced to within tolerances of about 1/16 in. to
about 3/16 in., depending upon the particular conditions of manufacturing the casting and
the type of material being employed.

B. Molding – is the art of making definite impressions in sand by means of a pattern for the
purpose of producing a casting. There are three requirements in any molding operation:
a pattern: the molding material, which is usually sand: and the molding tools used to
assist in making the impression. Molding is done with either green or dry sand.
 Green sand – is a mixture of silica sand with clay or some other material
used as a binder, together with a small amount of water.
 Dry sand – is composed of silica sand combined with some sort of binder
such as linseed oil, molasses, dextrin, or flour, which is baked to a hard form.
C. Founding – is the art of making metal castings. In the making of cast iron castings, pig
iron is placed in a cupola in direct contact with fuel and flux.

DEFECTS
Unless the entire process of molding, including the placing of gates and risers and the
casting operations, is done carefully and properly, defects may result in the casting. The
defects and their possible remedy are discussed below.
- Blowholes occur whenever gases are trapped within the casting. These can be
greatly reduced by proper venting of the mold, by not unduly compacting the sand,
and by proper placing of sprues, gates, and risers. Even then it is not possible to free
the melt of all entrained gases, so that tiny, often microscopic, blowholes are
characteristics of castings poured in a flask.
- Cold shuts sometimes form in thin castings where the melt starts to solidify in some
narrow passageway and blocks the flow, and this part of the mold is then filled by
metal coming from the opposite direction. This can be eliminated by proper design of
the casting, by proper arrangement of gates and risers in the molding operation and
by proper pouring conditions.

- Shrinkage cavities will occur whenever liquid metal is prevented from supplying
demands made by contraction in cooling. The following general rules are an aid to
proper design:

1. Avoid combination of heavy and light sections; so far as possible, keep all parts
to the same thickness.
2. Avoid abrupt changes in thickness; where changes are necessary, make them
gradual.
3. Cast with the heavier part uppermost in the mold. The sprue gate or gates should
be located where they can best supply metal to all parts of the mold, with
preferred entry near the bottom. The risers should be near the top and connect
with as heavy a section as possible.
4. Complicated castings may have heavy sections so separated that one will cool
late and have a shrinkage cavity. The remedies are to use more risers, to make
 the castings in two pieces to be subsequently joined, or to put chills in the sand
adjacent to the slow cooling section.
5. Shrinkage cavities are likely to occur at the junction of two or more wall or frame
members that form an X. The remedies are either to supply liquid metal at the
junction through sprue gate or riser or, with heavy sections, to place a core at the
center.
- Hot tears are caused by heavy shrinkage strains set up in the tender metal during the
early stage of cooling. A common cause is the resistance to shrinkage imposed by the
mold.

II. Shell-mold Casting – a process in which the molten metal is cast into a thin shell mold. The
molds are made of a mixture of silica sand and a thermosetting resin binder. Shell-mold
Casting has several advantages over normal sand castings. Castings produced from
shell molds have a relatively smooth surface finish. Tolerances of the order of 0.002 to
0.006 in./in. can be can be maintained for casting that weigh anywhere from a few
ounces to over 100lb. Shell mold casting requires three steps: making the special
pattern, forming and curing the mold, and founding.

III. Die Casting – in which molten metal is forced into a metallic die or mold under pressure, the
pressure, usually about 1000 to 5000 lb/in, being maintained until solidification is
completed. Die casting require two operations: die making and founding.

 Dies for Die Casting

The dies for die casting are usually made of alloy steels which are heat-treated
prior to machining the impression in them.
- Single Cavity
- Multiple Cavity die is used when a large quantity of a part is to be produced
- Combination Die is used when a set of parts for an assembly is to be produced
- Unit Dies. In this case, each die fits a standard opening in the die holder. These units
can be changed independently.

 Die-Casting Machine
1. Plunger Injection – is used for casting zinc-base alloys. Injection rates are high, up
to 250 shots per hour or more. Injection pressures usually vary from 1000 to 2000
lb/in. It is claimed that 1500 lb/in is the minimum for optimum soundness of the
casting.
2. Air-pressure Injection. The melting temp. is higher, around 1150 F, and the alloys
dissolve iron, which makes them drossy, sluggish and brittle.
3. Cold Chamber. These are heavy pressure machines.

 Die-Casting Alloys

COMPOSITION AND PROPERTIES OF ALUMINUM ALLOYS FOR DIE-CASTING

Designation S5C S12B S12A SC34B SC34A SC84A SC84B SG100A SG100
ASTM ( B85-56T)
Aluminum company of 43 13 A13 85 ------- A380 A80 A360 B 360
America (Alcos)
Composition (ASTM)
Copper 0.6 max 0.6 max 0.6 3.0-4.0 3.0-4.0 3.0-4.0 3.0-4.0 0.6max 0.6max
Iron (max) 2.0 2.0 1.3 2.0 1.3 1.3 2.0 1.3 2.0
Silicon 4.5-6.0 11.0-13.0 11.0-13.0 4.5-5.5 4.5-5.5 7.5-9.5 7.5-9.5 9.0-10.0 9.0-10.0
Manganese (max) 0.35 0.35 0.35 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.35 0.35
0.10max 0.10max 0.10max
Magnesium 0.10max 0.10max 0.10max 0.10max 0.40-0.6 0.40-0.6
Zinc (max) 0.50 0.50 0.50 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.50 0.50
Nickel (max) 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50
Tin (max) 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.35 0.35 0.35 0.35 0.15 0.15
Others (max)----Total 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.25 0.25
Remainder Remainder Remainder Remainder Remainder Remainder Remainder Remainder Remainder
Aluminum
Properties – typical
(from Alcoa Aluminum
Handbook, 1956)
Yield Strength, lb/in 16000 21000 _____ ______ ______ 21000 26000 23000 27000
Tensile Strength, lb/in 30000 39000 _____ ______ ______ 42000 43000 41000 44000
Elongation, percent in 2 9.0 2.0 _____ ______ ______ 3.0 2.0 5.0 3.0
in

IV. Permanent-mold Casting – is the process of pouring molten metal into a metallic mold
without the application of pressure. The process involves the use of molds, of bronze,
cast iron, or steel made in two parts and split along a desired parting-line so that they
can be opened and closed as required. Tolerances are of the order of +/- 0.020 in./in.
and reasonably smooth finishes are possible. Permanent-mold Casting requires two
operations: die making and founding.

V. Centrifugal Casting – in which the molten metal is cast into a mold under centrifugal force.

Applications:
* This process is commonly used to shape glass into a spherical object such as a marble.
* In centrifugal casting, a permanent mold is rotated about its axis at high speeds (300 to 3000
rpm) as the molten metal is poured. The molten metal is centrifugally thrown towards the
inside mold wall, where it solidifies after cooling. The casting is usually a fine grain casting
with a very fine-grained outer diameter, which is resistant to atmospheric corrosion, a typical
situation with pipes. The inside diameter has more impurities and inclusions, which can be
machined away.
* Centrifugal casting is also applied to the casting of disk and cylindrical shaped objects such as
railway carriage wheels or machine fittings where the grain, flow, and balance are important to
the durability and utility of the finished product. It is used by UFIP for casting cymbals.

VI. Plaster-mold Casting – in which the molten metal is cast into a mold composed primarily
of gypsum. Plaster molds, in general, limited to metals which do not have melting
points in excess of about 2000F. Plaster-mold casting involves about the same
operations as sand casting except the molding material is cast into the pattern box.

In plaster mold casting, a plaster, usually gypsum or calcium sulfate, is mixed with talc,
sand, asbestos, and sodium silicate and water to form a slurry. This slurry is sprayed
on the polished surfaces of the pattern halves (usually brass). The slurry sets in less
than 15 minutes to form the mold. The mold halves are extracted carefully from the
pattern, and then dried in an oven. Low temperature melting materials such as
aluminum, copper, magnesium and zinc can be cast using this process. This process
is used to make quick prototype parts as well as limited production parts.

VII. Precision Investment Casting – by which intricate small parts can be cast accurately. A
special expendable wax or plastic pattern is used to make the investment. It has
sometimes been called the lost-wax process. Precision investment casting requires
making a master pattern, molds for a wax pattern, investing, elimination of wax and
 curing the investment, and, founding. The first step in this process involves the
production of a die in which the expendable patterns can be formed. The next step is
to produce the expandable pattern. Then, it must be invested to make the mold.

Applications:

* Investment casting is used in the aerospace and power generation industries to produce
turbine blades with complex shapes or cooling systems. Blades produced by investment
casting can include single-crystal (SX), directionally solidified (DS), or conventional equiaxed
blades. It is also widely used by firearms manufacturers to fabricate firearm receivers, triggers,
hammers, and other precision parts at low cost. Other industries that use standard
investment-cast parts include military, medical, commercial and automotive.

* Investment casting offers high production rates, particularly for small or highly complex
components, and extremely good surface finish (CT4-CT6 class accuracy and Ra1.6-6.3
surface roughness) with very little machining. The drawbacks include the specialized
equipment, costly refractories and binders, many operations to make a mold, and occasional
minute defects.

• Powder Metallurgy
Powder Metallurgy is defined as the art of making, forming, and treating metal
powders and their products. These products are made essentially without melting.
Powder metallurgy is useful in making parts that have irregular curves, or recesses
that are hard to machine. It is suitable for high volume production with very little
wastage of material. Secondary machining is virtually eliminated. Typical parts that
can be made with this process include cams, ratchets, sprockets, pawls, sintered
bronze and iron bearings (impregnated with oil) and carbide tool tips.

• Properties of Castings
It should be pointed out that, in general, cast materials will have a coarser grain
structure than hot-worked materials as a consequence of the method by which they
are produced. The properties of well-made castings can be made to approach those
of forgings by the annealing treatment. Most castings have unequal sections and do
not solidify uniformly; hence internal stresses are set up within the casting.