NATSCI I: CHEMISTRY

THE ULTIMATE REVIEWER!

BASICS OF MATTER
Properties
Intensive Properties: do not depend on amount oI
sample; can be used to identiIy a substance
Examples: melting point, temperature,
density
Extensive Properties: proportional to the amount oI
matter; an additive property
Example: mass, volume
Physical Properties: Can be observed without
changing the identity/composition oI the substance
Examples: color, density, melting point,
boiling point
Extensive Properties: related ability to undergo a
change in composition under given conditions;
reactivity oI a substance
Example: Ilammability, inertness, acidity,
reduction potential
Types of Changes:
Physical Change: change in physical properties
identity/composition oI matter remains
unchanged
Example: phase changes
Chemical Change: change in chemical properties
composition oI matter changes
A chemical reaction
Example: combustion, rusting
Classifications
Atom: basic unit oI matter
Elements: diIIerent types oI atoms
On molecular level, contain only one type
oI atom
Examples:
Many non-metals exist as
molecules like O
2
, H
2
, Cl
2
, P
4
, S
8
Noble gases exist as individual
atoms: He
(g)
, Ar
(g)
, etc
Compounds: combinations oI diIIerent types oI
atoms held together by chemical bonds
Molecular vs. ionic compounds
Components separated via chemical means
Pure Substances: Has distinct properties and
composition and does not vary Irom sample to
sample; contains only one type oI element or
compound
Mixtures: combinations oI two or more substances
in which each substance retains its chemical
identity.
Components oI a mixture can be separated
by phvsical means (ie, Iiltration,
distillation)
Homogeneous mixture: uniIorm throughout
Examples: mayonnaise, solutions
Heterogeneous mixture: can vary in
composition and properties within a
mixture
Examples: sand, halo-halo
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
BIRTH UF CHEMISTRY AS A SCIENCE
"Law of Conseivation of Nass": total mass of a substance piesent aftei a clemical
ieaction is tle same as tle total mass of substances befoie a ieaction
"Law of Befinite Piopoitions": All samples lave same piopoitions by mass of tle
constituent elements
"Law of Nultiple Piopoitions": If two elements foim moie tlan a single compounu, tle
masses of one element combineu witl a fixeu mass of tle seconu aie in tle iatio of small
wlole numbeis
DEVELOPMENT OF NUCLEAR MODEL
John Dalton: proposed basic atomic theory
Each element is composed oI atoms
Atoms oI diIIerent elements are diIIerent Irom each other
Atoms oI one element cannot be changed into those oI another
Atoms combine to Iorm compounds
JJ Thomson: discovered electrons by analyzing cathode rays; proposed plum pudding model
Ernest RutherIord: discovered that the atom is mostly empty space and that its mass is
concentrated in a tiny positively-charged region at the center, called the nucleus.
Niels Bohr: proposed Bohr model oI the atom Ior hydrogen
e- can only orbit the nucleus in speciIic radii as an allowed energy state
energy is emitted or absorbed by the e- as the e- changes Irom one energy state to
another
Erwin Schrdinger: developed wave-equations that incorporate both the wave-like and
particle-like behavior oI e-
e- occupy orbitals, which describe the probability oI Iinding an electron at a given
location
MODERN VIEW OF ATOMIC STRUCTURE
The nuclear model:
Atomic symbols:
O
Isotopes: atoms with same number oI protons but diIIerent numbers oI neutrons
Atomic weight: the average atomic mass oI an element (diIIerent masses due to isotopes)
ORBITALS AND QUANTUM NUMBERS
Quantum numbers: describes each individual orbital
n: Principle quantum number (n 1, 2, 3.): energy level, or shell
l: Second quantum number, or angular momentum quantum number (l 0 to n-1): shape oI
orbital, describes subshell
m
l
: Magnetic quantum number (m
l
- l, ., 0, . l): describes orientation oI orbitals
m
s
: magnetic spin quantum number (m
s
1/2, -1/2): describes the spin oI an electron in an
orbital (does not describe orbital)
Orbitals:
Shell, n l
(0, . n-1)
Subshell
designation
m
l
(- l, ., 0, . l)
# of
orbitals
in
subshell
Total
number of
orbitals in
shell
1 0 1s 0 1 1
2 0 2s 0 1 4
1 2p -1, 0, 1 3
3 0 3s 0 1
9 1 3p -1, 0, 1 3
2 3d -2, -1, 0, 1, 2 5
NUCIFUS: contoins nucleor porticles;
0ccupies tiny reqion ot center of otom, but
contoins virtuolly oll tbe moss
- Protons {p): positively cborqeJ
- Neutrons {n): neutrol
FIFC1RONS (e
-
):
clouJ of ropiJly
movinq electrons
occupies most of tbe
volume of tbe otom
Mass number = p + n
Symbul uf element
Atumic number = t of p
Cbarge: # of p - t of e-
If neutial, (# of p = t of e-}
claige is anu is omitteu
Niels Bohr: proposed Bohr model oI the atom Ior hydrogen
e- can only orbit the nucleus in speciIic radii as an allowed energy state
energy is emitted or absorbed by the e- as the e- changes Irom one energy state to
another
Erwin Schrdinger: developed wave-equations that incorporate both the wave-like and
particle-like behavior oI e-
e- occupy orbitals, which describe the probability oI Iinding an electron at a given
location
MODERN VIEW OF ATOMIC STRUCTURE
The nuclear model:
Atomic symbols:
O
Isotopes: atoms with same number oI protons but diIIerent numbers oI neutrons
Atomic weight: the average atomic mass oI an element (diIIerent masses due to isotopes)
ORBITALS AND QUANTUM NUMBERS
Quantum numbers: describes each individual orbital
n: Principle quantum number (n 1, 2, 3.): energy level, or shell
l: Second quantum number, or angular momentum quantum number (l 0 to n-1): shape oI
orbital, describes subshell
m
l
: Magnetic quantum number (m
l
- l, ., 0, . l): describes orientation oI orbitals
m
s
: magnetic spin quantum number (m
s
1/2, -1/2): describes the spin oI an electron in an
orbital (does not describe orbital)
Orbitals:
Shell, n l
(0, . n-1)
Subshell
designation
m
l
(- l, ., 0, . l)
# of
orbitals
in
subshell
Total
number of
orbitals in
shell
1 0 1s 0 1 1
2 0 2s 0 1 4
1 2p -1, 0, 1 3
3 0 3s 0 1
9 1 3p -1, 0, 1 3
2 3d -2, -1, 0, 1, 2 5
NUCIFUS: contoins nucleor porticles;
0ccupies tiny reqion ot center of otom, but
contoins virtuolly oll tbe moss
- Protons {p): positively cborqeJ
- Neutrons {n): neutrol
FIFC1RONS (e
-
):
clouJ of ropiJly
movinq electrons
occupies most of tbe
volume of tbe otom
Mass number = p + n
Symbul uf element
Atumic number = t of p
Cbarge: # of p - t of e-
If neutial, (# of p = t of e-}
claige is anu is omitteu
Niels Bohr: proposed Bohr model oI the atom Ior hydrogen
e- can only orbit the nucleus in speciIic radii as an allowed energy state
energy is emitted or absorbed by the e- as the e- changes Irom one energy state to
another
Erwin Schrdinger: developed wave-equations that incorporate both the wave-like and
particle-like behavior oI e-
e- occupy orbitals, which describe the probability oI Iinding an electron at a given
location
MODERN VIEW OF ATOMIC STRUCTURE
The nuclear model:
Atomic symbols:
O
Isotopes: atoms with same number oI protons but diIIerent numbers oI neutrons
Atomic weight: the average atomic mass oI an element (diIIerent masses due to isotopes)
ORBITALS AND QUANTUM NUMBERS
Quantum numbers: describes each individual orbital
n: Principle quantum number (n 1, 2, 3.): energy level, or shell
l: Second quantum number, or angular momentum quantum number (l 0 to n-1): shape oI
orbital, describes subshell
m
l
: Magnetic quantum number (m
l
- l, ., 0, . l): describes orientation oI orbitals
m
s
: magnetic spin quantum number (m
s
1/2, -1/2): describes the spin oI an electron in an
orbital (does not describe orbital)
Orbitals:
Shell, n l
(0, . n-1)
Subshell
designation
m
l
(- l, ., 0, . l)
# of
orbitals
in
subshell
Total
number of
orbitals in
shell
1 0 1s 0 1 1
2 0 2s 0 1 4
1 2p -1, 0, 1 3
3 0 3s 0 1
9 1 3p -1, 0, 1 3
2 3d -2, -1, 0, 1, 2 5
NUCIFUS: contoins nucleor porticles;
0ccupies tiny reqion ot center of otom, but
contoins virtuolly oll tbe moss
- Protons {p): positively cborqeJ
- Neutrons {n): neutrol
FIFC1RONS (e
-
):
clouJ of ropiJly
movinq electrons
occupies most of tbe
volume of tbe otom
Mass number = p + n
Symbul uf element
Atumic number = t of p
Cbarge: # of p - t of e-
If neutial, (# of p = t of e-}
claige is anu is omitteu
ELECTRON CONFIGURATION
Ground state conIiguration: the most stable conIiguration in which the e- are in the lowest possible
energy states
Rules:
1. Pauli Exclusion Principle: no two e- could have the same set oI quantum numbers
2. Aufbau principle: orbitals are Iilled in order oI increasing energy, with no more than 2 e- per
orbital
3. Hund`s Rule: Ior degenerate orbitals, the lowest energy is attained when the number oI e-
having the same spin is maximized
Examples oI e- conIigurations:
Element Number
of e-
Orbital Diagram Electron
Configuration
Li 3
1s
2
2s
1
C 6 1s
2
2s
2
2p
2
Ne 10 1s
2
2s
2
2p
6
Na 11 |Ne|3s
1
(condensed)
PERIODIC TRENDS
EIIective Nuclear Charge (Z
eII
): the net charge eIIect that valence electrons Ieel due to inner-shell
electron shielding
= -
Summary oI Periodic Trends:
Ionic Radius: (Ior isoelectronic series): decreases with increasing Z
Same number oI electrons, but increasing Z means increased attraction towards
nucleus
e.g. N
3-
~ O
2-
~ F
-
~ Na

~ Mg
2
Screening cunstant = t of
coie elections
Atumic number = t of piotons
ATUMIC
RADIUS
IUNIZATIUN
ENERCY
ELECTRUN
AFFINITY*
(negative value}
ELECTRU-
NECATIVITY
*cruJe trenJ observeJ only
for s- onJ p-block
CHEMICAL BUNDS
LEWIS THEURY
e- in tle valence slell (outeimost elections} play a funuamental iole in clemical
bonuing
Atoms tiansfei oi slaie elections in oiuei to establisl a stable, noble gas election
configuiation. Tlis is usually one witl 8 valence electionsan uctet.
Ionic bonus aie foimeu wlen e- aie completely tronsferreJ fiom least EN to moie EN
atom
Covalent bonus aie foimeu wlen e- aie slaieu between atoms
METALLIC BUNDINC: bonuing tlat occuis between atoms of tle same metal.
"Sea of elections" mouel: valence elections in metals aie weakly lelu, so tley can easily
foim cations, aiiangeu in an aiiay. Tle elections aie tlen unifoimly uistiibuteu
tliouglout tle stiuctuie, but aie uelocalizeu
e- aie fiee to flow ( metals aie goou conuuctois}
e- can easily sliue passeu one anotlei (uuctilitymalleability}
stiuctuie is lelu by electiostatic claiges (ligl melting points}
IUNIC BUNDINC: tiansfei of elections occuis if tle uiffeience in EN between tle two bonuing
species is >2.. 0sually between a metal (loses valence e
-
, foims cation} anu a nunmetal (gains
e
-
, foims anion}
Furmula unit: tle lowest wlole numbei iatio of tle cation anu anion
Eacl cation anu anion aie aiiangeu in an oiueily netwoik, an iunic crystal
Pruperties uf Iunic Cumpuunds:
Bigl melting points
Baiu, biittle
Pooi conuuctois of leat anu electiicity
C0vALENT B0NBINu: occuis wlen neitlei atom gives up an election fieely since EN uiffeiences
aie <1.7. Elections aie slaieu insteau, foiming a covalent bonu.
Compounus in covalent bonus exist in uisciete units (molecules oi a polyatomic ion)
Elections can be slaieu equally, foiming a nonpolai covalent bonu (EN uiffeience is -
.S)
Elections can be slaieu unevenly, foiming a polai covalent bonu (EN uiffeience is .S-
1.7)
Tle atom witl tle gieatei EN will pull e- moie towaius itself, becoming paitially
negative
Tle atom witl tle lowei ENwill moie easily slaie its e-, becoming paitially
positive
A uipole is establisleu in a polai covalent bonu
Compounu will be oveiall polai is tleie is a NET uipole moment!

line symbolizes o covolent bonJ

{2 electrons, o bonJlng pulr)
Ione pulr
Compounu coulu lave polai bonus but be oveiall nonpolai if tle uiiections of
tle inuiviuual uipoles all cancel eacl otlei out
SBAPES 0F N0LEC0LES
VALENCE-SHELL ELECTRUN-PAIR REPULSIUN THEURY {VSEPR]
Slape of a molecule can be pieuicteu by focusing on tle election paiis in tle valence
election slell of a cential atom in a stiuctuie
Election-paiis oiient tlemselves in a way tlat sets tlem fartbest apart fiom one
anotlei to minimize electiostatic iepulsions
Steric
#
Electrun-Cruup
Ceumetry
# uf
lune
pairs
Mulecular
Ceumetry
Bund
Angles
Example
2 lineai lineai 18 BeCl2
S tiigonal planai tiigonal planai 12 BFS
1 bent <12 S02
4
tetialeuial
tetialeuial 19.S CB4
1 tiigonal pyiamiual <19.S NBS
2 Bent <19.S B20
PHASES UF MATTER
CUNDENSED STATES UF MATTER: SULIDS AND LIQUIDS
SULIDS
Ciystalline: atoms aiiangeu in oiueily iepeating pattein
Ionic: ions lelu togetlei by ionic bonus
Netallic: metal atoms lelu togetlei by metallic bonus
Netwoik covalent soliu: atoms lelu togetlei by covalent bonus
e.g, uiamonu, giaplite, quaitz
Noleculai solius: inuiviuual molecules lelu togetlei by weak inteimoleculai
foices
LIQUIDS: piopeities ueteimineu piimaiily by tle inteimoleculai foices of attiaction tlat lolu
tle molecules togetlei
LIQUID CRYSTALS: a class of substance tlat uisplays piopeities of botl solius anu liquius
Nolecules aie aiiangeu in an oiueily mannei similai to solius, but aie still fiee to flow
like a liquiu
Applieu in LCBs (liquiu ciystal uisplays}
INTERMULECULAR FURCES UF ATTRACTIUN {IFA]: weak foices of attiaction tlat exist between
molecules oi ions; electrostotic in noture
VAN DER WAALS oi LUNDUN DISPERSIUN FURCES
Foice tlat exists in All molecules, even nonpolai atomsmolecules
Notion of elections in an atom can cieate a momentaiy uipole moment
Pularizability: ease at wlicl tle claige uistiibution is uistoiteu
Effect of size anu mass:
NW : Size of election clouus: Polaiizability : Bispeision foices
Example: incieasing polaiizability: Cl2(g} < Bi2(l} < I2(s}
Effect of moleculai slape:
Suiface aiea of molecule: Polaiizability : Bispeision foices
Example: neopentane < pentane
DIPULE-DIPULE INTERACTIUNS:
inteiaction between tle peimanent uipole in polor molecules
lncreosinq
strenqtb of
intermoleculor
forces
paitially negative siue of a polai molecule gets attiacteu to tle paitially positive siue of
anotlei polai molecule
In molecules of ielatively same sizemass: polaiity: uipole-uipole
HYDRUCEN BUNDINC:
a special kinu of uipole-uipole inteiactions. Bipole inteiactions between 0-E, N-E, onJ I-
E bonJs aie paiticulaily stiong
N, 0, anu F veiy electionegative, a bonu between tlem anu B is very polai
IUN-DIPULE INTERACTIUNS:
Inteiactions between an ion anu a polai molecule
Cations attiacteu to negative enu of polai molecule, anions attiacteu to positive enu
Allows salts to become soluble in polai solvents
PHYSICAL PRUPERTIES and TRENDS
Sulubility: "like uissolves like": Substances must lave similai intiamoleculai foices of attiaction
in oiuei foi tlem to inteiact witl one anotlei
Viscusity: iesistance to flow;
IFA : viscosity
Surface Tensiun: eneigy iequiieu to inciease tle suiface aiea of a liquiu;
IFA : Suiface tension
Builing Puint: Tempeiatuie at wlicl tle a liquiu staits to boil
IFA: BP
Heat uf Vapurizatiun ABvap: Beat iequiieu to boil 1 mol of a liquiu
IFA: ABvap (moie eneigy iequiieu to bieak tle IFAs loluing togetlei liquiu}
Heat uf Fusiun ABfusion: Beat iequiieu to melt 1 mol of a soliu
IFA: ABfusion (moie eneigy iequiieu to bieak tle IFA loluing togetlei soliu}
PHASE CHANCES
CASES
PRESSURE: a foice, F, tlat acts on a given aiea, A
uases exeit piessuie on any suiface witl wlicl tley aie in contact
Atmospleiic Piessuie: tle piessuie tlat aii exeits on tle suiface of tle eaitl
THE CAS LAWS:
Clailes's Law: (T-v ielationslip}
T v
=
Boyle's Law: (P-v ielationslip}
P 1v
P1V1 = P2V2
volume occupieu by a gas at STP (stanuaiu
tempeiatuie anu piessuie: 1 atm, 0C}:
1 mol of u gux occuplex 22.4 I ut S1P
lncreosinq
strenqtb of
intermoleculor
forces
paitially negative siue of a polai molecule gets attiacteu to tle paitially positive siue of
anotlei polai molecule
In molecules of ielatively same sizemass: polaiity: uipole-uipole
HYDRUCEN BUNDINC:
a special kinu of uipole-uipole inteiactions. Bipole inteiactions between 0-E, N-E, onJ I-
E bonJs aie paiticulaily stiong
N, 0, anu F veiy electionegative, a bonu between tlem anu B is very polai
IUN-DIPULE INTERACTIUNS:
Inteiactions between an ion anu a polai molecule
Cations attiacteu to negative enu of polai molecule, anions attiacteu to positive enu
Allows salts to become soluble in polai solvents
PHYSICAL PRUPERTIES and TRENDS
Sulubility: "like uissolves like": Substances must lave similai intiamoleculai foices of attiaction
in oiuei foi tlem to inteiact witl one anotlei
Viscusity: iesistance to flow;
IFA : viscosity
Surface Tensiun: eneigy iequiieu to inciease tle suiface aiea of a liquiu;
IFA : Suiface tension
Builing Puint: Tempeiatuie at wlicl tle a liquiu staits to boil
IFA: BP
Heat uf Vapurizatiun ABvap: Beat iequiieu to boil 1 mol of a liquiu
IFA: ABvap (moie eneigy iequiieu to bieak tle IFAs loluing togetlei liquiu}
Heat uf Fusiun ABfusion: Beat iequiieu to melt 1 mol of a soliu
IFA: ABfusion (moie eneigy iequiieu to bieak tle IFA loluing togetlei soliu}
PHASE CHANCES
CASES
PRESSURE: a foice, F, tlat acts on a given aiea, A
uases exeit piessuie on any suiface witl wlicl tley aie in contact
Atmospleiic Piessuie: tle piessuie tlat aii exeits on tle suiface of tle eaitl
THE CAS LAWS:
Clailes's Law: (T-v ielationslip}
T v
=
Boyle's Law: (P-v ielationslip}
P 1v
P1V1 = P2V2
volume occupieu by a gas at STP (stanuaiu
tempeiatuie anu piessuie: 1 atm, 0C}:
1 mol of u gux occuplex 22.4 I ut S1P
lncreosinq
strenqtb of
intermoleculor
forces
paitially negative siue of a polai molecule gets attiacteu to tle paitially positive siue of
anotlei polai molecule
In molecules of ielatively same sizemass: polaiity: uipole-uipole
HYDRUCEN BUNDINC:
a special kinu of uipole-uipole inteiactions. Bipole inteiactions between 0-E, N-E, onJ I-
E bonJs aie paiticulaily stiong
N, 0, anu F veiy electionegative, a bonu between tlem anu B is very polai
IUN-DIPULE INTERACTIUNS:
Inteiactions between an ion anu a polai molecule
Cations attiacteu to negative enu of polai molecule, anions attiacteu to positive enu
Allows salts to become soluble in polai solvents
PHYSICAL PRUPERTIES and TRENDS
Sulubility: "like uissolves like": Substances must lave similai intiamoleculai foices of attiaction
in oiuei foi tlem to inteiact witl one anotlei
Viscusity: iesistance to flow;
IFA : viscosity
Surface Tensiun: eneigy iequiieu to inciease tle suiface aiea of a liquiu;
IFA : Suiface tension
Builing Puint: Tempeiatuie at wlicl tle a liquiu staits to boil
IFA: BP
Heat uf Vapurizatiun ABvap: Beat iequiieu to boil 1 mol of a liquiu
IFA: ABvap (moie eneigy iequiieu to bieak tle IFAs loluing togetlei liquiu}
Heat uf Fusiun ABfusion: Beat iequiieu to melt 1 mol of a soliu
IFA: ABfusion (moie eneigy iequiieu to bieak tle IFA loluing togetlei soliu}
PHASE CHANCES
CASES
PRESSURE: a foice, F, tlat acts on a given aiea, A
uases exeit piessuie on any suiface witl wlicl tley aie in contact
Atmospleiic Piessuie: tle piessuie tlat aii exeits on tle suiface of tle eaitl
THE CAS LAWS:
Clailes's Law: (T-v ielationslip}
T v
=
Boyle's Law: (P-v ielationslip}
P 1v
P1V1 = P2V2
volume occupieu by a gas at STP (stanuaiu
tempeiatuie anu piessuie: 1 atm, 0C}:
1 mol of u gux occuplex 22.4 I ut S1P
lncreosinq
strenqtb of
intermoleculor
forces
SULUTIUNS
Types uf Sulutiuns
A solute is in tle piocess of uissolving anu ciystallizing at tle same time
Biiection of uissolution oi ciystallization uepenus on amount of solute, tle natuie of tle
solute, anu its solubility in tle given solvent (at a given tempeiatuie}
Sulubility: maximum amount of solute tlat coulu be uissolveu in a given amount of
solute at a given tempeiatuie (usually in g1 mL}
Types uf Sulutiuns based un amuunt uf sulute:
Saturated Sulutiun: a solution witl tle maximum amount of solute uissolveu
Unsaturated Sulutiun: a solution witl less tlan tle maximum amount of
solute uissolveu
Supersaturated Sulutiun: an unstable solution witl moie tlan tle maximum
amount of solute uissolveu
Facturs Affecting Sulubility:
Sulute-Sulvent Interactiuns: tle stiongei tle attiactions between solute anu solvent,
tle gieatei tle solubility of tle solute in tlat solvent
Pressure Effects {gas sulutes unly]: solubility of a gas at any solvent is incieaseu as tle
paitial piessuie of tle gas above tle solvent incieases
Temperature Effects:
Fur sulid substances: solubility geneially incieases witl liglei temp
Fur gaseuus substances: solubility geneially uecieases witl liglei temp
Units uf Cuncentratiun
Hoss
percentoqe
volume
percentoqe
% = 1
Holority {H)
"Pruuf": concentiation measuiement of alcololic beveiages
1 Pioof = V peicent by volume of etlanol
Example: 4 Pioof 2 mL of etlanol in 1 mL of total solution (2 mL etlanol +
8 mL watei}
CHEMICAL REACTIONS
Chemical Reaction: substances (reactants) get transIormed into new substances (products) by making
and breaking chemical bonds
Law of conservation of mass: total mass beIore and aIter a chemical reaction is the same;
matter is neither created nor destroyed!
Atoms in reactants get rearranged in new chemical bonds to Iorm products
The MOLE (mol): a quantity that described the amount oI substance by relating it to a number oI
particles oI that substance
1 mol oI something 6.022 x 10
23
oI something
Molecular mass: the mass oI 1 molecule: sum oI atomic masses oI constituent atoms
Example:
= 2
( )
+ 1 ( )
= 2
(
1
)
+ 1
(
16
)
= 18
Formula mass: the mass oI 1 Iormula unit oI an ionic compound
Example: Formula mass oI NaCl
= 1 ( ) + 1 ( )
= 1 (2S) + 1 (SS.S) = S8.S
Molar Mass: the mass oI 1 mole oI a substance (in g/mol)
Numerically equivalent to molecular/Iormula mass
Chemical Equations: a complete representation oI a chemical reaction
Types of chemical reactions:
Combination: 2 compounds/elements combine to Iorm a new compound
A B AB
Decomposition: a compound breaks down into simpler compounds
AB A B
Replacement:
AB C AC B
Double replacement:
AB CD AC BC
Evidence for chemical reactions:
Evolution oI a gas
Changes in color
Formation oI a solid
Disappearance oI a solid
Release or absorption oI heat
THERMODYNAMICS
Thermodynamics: the study oI energy and its transIormations
Law oI Conservation oI Energy (1
st
Law oI Thermodynamics): energy cannot be created nor destroyed,
only transIerred or transIormed
Enthalpy (AH): the heat involved in a chemical or physical process
Endothermic reaction: AH ~ 0; heat is absorbed
Exothermic reaction: AH 0; heat is released
Entropy (AS): a measure oI the disorder oI a process
AS ~ 0: disorder oI the system INCREASES
Examples: phase changes Irom solids to liquids or gases, Iormation oI increased
number oI gaseous products
AS 0: disorder oI the system DECREASES
Gibbs Free Energy (AG): a measure oI the spontaneitv oI a process, taking in consideration the
enthalpy and entropy oI the process
AG AH - T AS
AG 0: spontaneous Iorward process
AG ~ 0: non-spontaneous Iorward process; reverse process is spontaneous
AG 0: neither direction is Iavoured
reactants products
Subscript indicates the state
of the compound Coefficients indicate the number of moles of a particular
compound in order to have a balanced equation
Formula mass: the mass oI 1 Iormula unit oI an ionic compound
Example: Formula mass oI NaCl
= 1 ( ) + 1 ( )
= 1 (2S) + 1 (SS.S) = S8.S
Molar Mass: the mass oI 1 mole oI a substance (in g/mol)
Numerically equivalent to molecular/Iormula mass
Chemical Equations: a complete representation oI a chemical reaction
Types of chemical reactions:
Combination: 2 compounds/elements combine to Iorm a new compound
A B AB
Decomposition: a compound breaks down into simpler compounds
AB A B
Replacement:
AB C AC B
Double replacement:
AB CD AC BC
Evidence for chemical reactions:
Evolution oI a gas
Changes in color
Formation oI a solid
Disappearance oI a solid
Release or absorption oI heat
THERMODYNAMICS
Thermodynamics: the study oI energy and its transIormations
Law oI Conservation oI Energy (1
st
Law oI Thermodynamics): energy cannot be created nor destroyed,
only transIerred or transIormed
Enthalpy (AH): the heat involved in a chemical or physical process
Endothermic reaction: AH ~ 0; heat is absorbed
Exothermic reaction: AH 0; heat is released
Entropy (AS): a measure oI the disorder oI a process
AS ~ 0: disorder oI the system INCREASES
Examples: phase changes Irom solids to liquids or gases, Iormation oI increased
number oI gaseous products
AS 0: disorder oI the system DECREASES
Gibbs Free Energy (AG): a measure oI the spontaneitv oI a process, taking in consideration the
enthalpy and entropy oI the process
AG AH - T AS
AG 0: spontaneous Iorward process
AG ~ 0: non-spontaneous Iorward process; reverse process is spontaneous
AG 0: neither direction is Iavoured
reactants products
Subscript indicates the state
of the compound Coefficients indicate the number of moles of a particular
compound in order to have a balanced equation
Formula mass: the mass oI 1 Iormula unit oI an ionic compound
Example: Formula mass oI NaCl
= 1 ( ) + 1 ( )
= 1 (2S) + 1 (SS.S) = S8.S
Molar Mass: the mass oI 1 mole oI a substance (in g/mol)
Numerically equivalent to molecular/Iormula mass
Chemical Equations: a complete representation oI a chemical reaction
Types of chemical reactions:
Combination: 2 compounds/elements combine to Iorm a new compound
A B AB
Decomposition: a compound breaks down into simpler compounds
AB A B
Replacement:
AB C AC B
Double replacement:
AB CD AC BC
Evidence for chemical reactions:
Evolution oI a gas
Changes in color
Formation oI a solid
Disappearance oI a solid
Release or absorption oI heat
THERMODYNAMICS
Thermodynamics: the study oI energy and its transIormations
Law oI Conservation oI Energy (1
st
Law oI Thermodynamics): energy cannot be created nor destroyed,
only transIerred or transIormed
Enthalpy (AH): the heat involved in a chemical or physical process
Endothermic reaction: AH ~ 0; heat is absorbed
Exothermic reaction: AH 0; heat is released
Entropy (AS): a measure oI the disorder oI a process
AS ~ 0: disorder oI the system INCREASES
Examples: phase changes Irom solids to liquids or gases, Iormation oI increased
number oI gaseous products
AS 0: disorder oI the system DECREASES
Gibbs Free Energy (AG): a measure oI the spontaneitv oI a process, taking in consideration the
enthalpy and entropy oI the process
AG AH - T AS
AG 0: spontaneous Iorward process
AG ~ 0: non-spontaneous Iorward process; reverse process is spontaneous
AG 0: neither direction is Iavoured
reactants products
Subscript indicates the state
of the compound Coefficients indicate the number of moles of a particular
compound in order to have a balanced equation
AH AS - T AS AG AH - T AS Reaction Characteristics Example
- + - - Spontaneous at all temperatures 2O
3(g)
3O
2(g)
Non-spontaneous at all
temperatures
3O
2(g)
2O
3(g)
or Spontaneous at low temps,
Non-spontaneous at high temps
H
2
O
(l)
H
2
O
(s)
or Spontaneous at high temps,
Non-spontaneous at lowtemps
H
2
O
(s)
H
2
O
(l)
KINETICS
Kinetics: the study oI the rates oI chemical reactions
Collision Theory: chemical reactions occur when reactants eIIectively collide with one another
EIIective collision: a collision in which the reactants have the correct orientation and enough energy (the activation
energy)
Activation Energy (E
A
): the energy required to Iorm the activated complex or transition state (TS, a state in which bonds
are simultaneously being broken and Iormed)
Factors Affecting Reaction Rates: Iactors that increase the Irequency oI collisions (increasing the chance Ior an eIIective
collision), or decrease the activation energy
Nature oI reactants: Reactivity : Rate
More reactive reactants have higher energy, decreasing the E
A
necessary to Iorm the TS
Concentration oI reactants: Rate
More reactants increases the chance Ior an eIIective collision
Temperature: Rate
Higher temperatures increase the number oI reactants with the E
A
necessary Ior an eIIective collision
SurIace Area: Rate
For solid solutes, greater surIace area (smaller pieces oI solid reactant) increases the solid reactant exposed to
other reactants, thereby increasing the chance Ior
Presence oI a Catalyst: Rate
catalysts change the pathway oI a reaction, decreasing the activation energy necessary, so at a given
temperature, more reactants have the necessary E
A
Ior the reaction to proceed
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
Organic Chemistry: the study oI compounds containing C and H
Functional groups: A speciIic combination oI bonded atoms in an organic compound that react in a characteristic way, no matter
what molecule it occurs in
Functional Group General Formula Examples
Alkanes R Propane, octane
Ethers R-O-R Diethyl ether (anesthetic)
Alcohols R-OH Ethanol
Aldehydes R-CHO Formaldehyde
Ketones R-CO-R Acetone
Carboxylic Acids R-COOH Vinegar (acetic acid)
Esters R-COO-R Isomyl acetate (smell oI bananas)
Biomolecules:
Proteins: polymers oI amino acids
Examples: enzymes
Carbohydrates: polymers oI monosaccharides
Examples: polymers oI glucose (cellulose, starch, glycogen)
Nucleic acids: polymers oI nucleotides
Examples: DNA, RNA
Lipids: examples: Iatty acids, cholesterol