THE DEVELOPMENT OF POST WAR PHILIPPINE LAND REFORM:

POLITICAL AND SOCIOLOGICAL EXPLANATIONS

1
By David Wurfel. In Second View from the Paddy, Antonio Ledesma, Perla Q.
Makil & Virginia A. Miralao, eds., Institute of Pili!!ine "ulture, Ateneo de
Manila, #$%&
Introduction
'e istory of Pili!!ine agrarian !oli(y sin(e inde!enden(e is a sadly
monotonous one for te s(olar, a )itterly disa!!ointing one for te o!eful
tenant (ultivator. It is a story of re!eated initiative from te (enter of
government tat did not result in any*ere near te announ(ed (ange in te
(ountryside. +,!lanations for tis series of ineffe(tual reforms ave varied from
insin(erity and (orru!tion to la(k of !easant interest in getting o*nersi! of
te land. 'e most (onvin(ing analysis, o*ever, seems to relate to te
!oliti(al and e(onomi( interests of te to! de(ision makers, tose initiating
!oli(y and su!ervising its im!lementations, and to te so(ioe(onomi(
(ara(teristi(s of te agrarian systems )eing reformed. 'e (umulative !oliti(al
(onse-uen(es of agrarian !oli(y also find )ot !oliti(al and so(ioe(onomi(
e,!lanations.
Agrarian reform is a (om!le, of !oli(ies designed to transform rural so(iety in
te dire(tion of greater e-uality of *ealt and !o*er among grou!s and
(lasses, and greater e-uality of o!!ortunity for individuals. Were agrarian
reform as follo*ed a su((essful revolution it as usually involved te
un(om!ensated redistri)ution of land. A mu( more modest attem!t at
transformation may )e te (reation of (oo!eratives in *i( small (ultivators
are given greater o!!ortunities tan teir large (om!etitors. But te ty!e of
reform on *i( *e *ill fo(us ere is te redistri)ution of tenanted land *it
(om!ensation to te original o*ner, land for *i( te )enefi(iary of reform
must re!ay te government. Des!ite all te !ermutations in Pili!!ine !oli(y
over more tan &. years, tese )asi( elements of land reform ave remained
(onstant/ government !ur(ase of tenanted land and its resale to tenants.
Pili!!ine land reform as )een furter restri(ted over te years to grain
(ro!s/ ri(e and (orn0for domesti( (onsum!tion. +,!ort (ro!s ave (onsistently
)een e,em!ted, te offi(ial argument )eing tat land reform migt disru!t
!rodu(tion and tus 1eo!ardi2e foreign e,(ange earnings. Pera!s a more
im!ortant reason, o*ever, *as tat large lando*ners in sugar, (o(onuts, and
to)a((o *ere !oliti(ally too !o*erful to )e tou(ed. 'e s(o!e and nature of
1
http://davidwurfel.ca/philippines/the-development-of-post-war-
philippine-land-reform-political-and-sociological-explanations
te reforms tat were im!lemented !osed no treat to te interests of te
!oliti(al elite, )ut *ere, in fa(t, !er(eived as strengtening teir !osition. 'e
(anges in te (ontent of reform from te #$3.s to te #$4.s indi(ated te
*aning influen(e of ri(e and (orn landlords *itin tat elite.
Land R!or" #ndr Ro$a% and &uirino '1()*+1(,-.
Agrarian !oli(y initiatives ad for te most !art )egun in te #$&.s under
President Que2on *o *as sensitive to te !easant unrest in "entral Lu2on and
*anted to a!!ear to meet some of its demands, *itout too seriously
dis(omforting is landlord friends and allies. 56is national !oliti(al organi2ation
de!ended on lo(al leaders *o *ere usually eiter landlords or teir !roteges.7
"om!onents of tat !oli(y in(luded regulation of tenan(y relations, organi2ed
land settlement in Mindanao for te landless of Lu2on and "e)u, te long0
standing anti0usury la*, issuan(e of free !atents to omesteaders on (ultiva)le
!u)li( land, and a 8landed estates !oli(y9 *i( !rovided funds for te
negotiated !ur(ase of large oldings for resale to te tenants.
#
Before World War II, te :ural Progress Administration 5:PA7 ad !ur(ased
tenant omesites on four estates and te agri(ultural land of t*o more; te
area of te si, totaled to little more tan <,... e(tares.
=
'e :PA ad also
leased te uge =4,... e(tare Buenavista +state *it future !ros!e(t of
redistri)ution. But dis!utes a)out tenant rigts a)ounded and none ad
)e(ome amorti2ing o*ners. 'e Ameri(an 8li)eration9 of Manila *as terri)ly
destru(tive of government offi(es, so tat landed estate re(ords after te *ar
*ere eiter (aoti( or none,istent.
>everteless, te a(-uisition of estates )y te :PA resumed in #$34, so tat
)y #$?. anoter #$ ad )een !ur(ased amounting to over #.,... e(tares in
addition to te vast Buenavista +state. @ver &A3 of tis area *as o*ned )y
some offi(ial or agen(y of te "atoli( "ur(. Most of te land a(-uired *as in
"entral Lu2on *ere te 6uk re)ellion made many villages unsafe for landlords
or teir agents; mu( of te area *as un(ultivated. Bome of te estates *ere
!ur(ased from !ersons *ose legal o*nersi! *as in -uestion. "learly te
landed estates !oli(y *as not 8land reform9 !rimarily designed to transform
tenants into o*ner0(ultivators, )ut *as a so(ial servi(e agen(y for landlords
*it saky titles or !oor !rofit ratios. Landlords *o *ere o!!osed to
a!!ro!riation *ere usually a)le to sto! it in te (ourts. In fa(t, it *as :PA
!oli(y to dis(ourage tenant !etitions for estate !ur(ases )y te im!ossi)le
re-uirement tat !etitioners de!osit an amount e-uivalent to te assessed
value of te land in -uestion on te date te !etition *as a!!roved7 'e :PA
*as starved for funds, re(eiving no !ost0*ar a!!ro!riation; tey o!erated
largely *it )orro*ed funds. +ven *en landed estates were !ur(ased, te
(ultivating tenant *as not likely to )e te main )enefi(iary. Many of te
estates ad (as tenants *o in turn su)let to (ultivating sare(ro!!ers. 'e
tenants *o *ere allo(ated lots for !ur(ase often ad farms of #. to ?.
e(tares, *ile te average si2e of a (ultivatorCs !lot *as under & e(tares.
&
Many of te (ultivating tenants *o *ere fortunate enoug to a(-uire !ur(ase
rigts (ould not afford to kee! tem. Des!ite te e,!li(it rules against transfer,
su( rigts ad )e(ome a salea)le (ommodity. Poor tenants dee!ly in de)t
surrendered teir rigts to (reditors. 'e same !ro(esses tat resulted in
(on(entration of land o*nersi! in te Pili!!ines generally o!erated *itin te
government estates. 'us, large !ortions of te estates under :PA
administration (ontinued to )e (ultivated )y sare tenants *it no !ros!e(t of
)e(oming o*ners. 'e 8landed estates !oli(y9 ad sim!ly dis!la(ed some large
landlords to (reate many medium si2ed ones. And sin(e te :PA, a government
agen(y, )e(ame dire(tly involved in te )urgeoning dis!utes over land rigts,
tat traditional sour(e of !easant anger and frustration more -ui(kly tan
)efore !rodu(ed !oliti(al unrest. >ot sur!risingly te Bell Mission to te
Pili!!ines a!!ointed )y President 'ruman in 1950 (on(luded tat 8te land
!ro)lem remains te same or *orse tan four years ago.9
'e Bell Mission :e!ort *as, in fa(t, e,!e(ted )y many to )e te im!etus for
te ne,t stage of land reform. It re(ommended tat 8a )road !rogram sould
)e inaugurated of a(-uiring large estates at fair value for resale in small
oldings to tillers of te soil.9 At te same time te re!ort re(ommended
e,!anded !rograms of agri(ultural (redit, organi2ed land settlement on virgin
land, and te im!roved administration of land registration and omesteading
on !u)li( land. +a( of tese oter re(ommendations, less treatening to elite
interests, *as )a(ked *it some D.B. aid, )ut not land redistri)ution. 'e D.B.
land reform advisor dre* u! a detailed !ro!osal, )ut it *as )lasted )y leading
Eili!ino (ongressmen, and not even su!!orted )y te D.B. aid mission. In fa(t,
in #$?. te :ural Progress Administration *as a)olised and its fun(tions
transferred to a ne*ly (reated landed +states Division of te Bureau of Lands.
>o ne* estates *ere !ur(ased trougout te remainder of te Quirino
administration, and redistri)ution !oli(y on :PA0a(-uired estates dro!!ed even
te !retense of !referen(e for te tiller. 'e simulation of land reform *as
sus!ended in te early #$?.s.
'is *as te same !eriod in *i( te 6uk re)ellion !eaked and ten *as !ut
do*n. 'e Li)eral PartyCs !oliti(al elite under Quirino (ertainly did not vie*
land reform as a (ure for !easant unrest, toug a num)er of o!!osition
figures did make te (onne(tion. Li)erals *ere, in fa(t, even less interested in
land reform in #$?&, *en te 6uks ad )een largely defeated, tan in #$?.
*en te re)ellion *as at its eigt. 'e ele(tion of :amon Magsaysay as
!resident in #$?& made some differen(e in tis regard, o*ever.
Land R!or" #ndr Ma/%a0%a0 and Garcia '1(,)+*1.
Magsaysay ad )rougt is (am!aign dire(tly to te !easantry in a manner
un!re(edented. After e *as ele(ted, several of is advisors understood te
im!ortan(e of taking (on(rete a(tion to meet !easant (om!laints and tus
redu(e unrest. Bin(e te 8landed estates !oli(y9 remained in te Bureau of
lands, te aggressive ne* Dnderse(retary of Agri(ulture, Faime Eerrer, ad an
im!ortant role, as did some of te !ro0tenant young offi(ers in te 'enan(y
Division of te Fudge Advo(ate GeneralCs @ffi(e. In t*o instan(es, in Ban Luis,
Pam!anga and Ban Pedro 'unasan, Laguna, *itin a fe* monts of
MagsaysayCs assuming te !residen(y, te +,e(utive @ffi(e took initiative
dire(tly to a(-uire landed estates. 'e landed +states Division )egan a num)er
of negotiations and e,!ro!riations, and *itin te estates tey already
administered, dramati(ally in(reased te rate of redistri)ution, giving (lear
!referen(e for te first time to (ultivating o((u!ants of te land. All tis a(tivity
(learly raised te e,!e(tation of tenants. During EH #$?? te Bureau of lands
re(eived ##< !etitions for te e,!ro!riation of landed estates (overing more
tan ##&,... e(tares.
3
But tose e,!e(tations (ould not )e ade-uately met *itout ne* legislation
and ne* im!lementing agen(ies. 'e Inter0De!artmental "ommittee on land
'enure, a!!ointed )y te President in Mar( #$?3, *orked at unusual s!eed
and !rodu(ed a draft of te land reform )ill )y < May *i( *as immediately
introdu(ed into te 6ouse of :e!resentatives. At a)out te same time,
o*ever, legislation to im!rove landlord tenant relations *as introdu(ed and
tis re(eived !riority attention. >o a(tion *as taken on land reform in te #$?3
regular session, and it did not even a!!ear on te agenda of te s!e(ial
session of tat year.
In is #$?? Btate of te >ation message Magsaysay did reiterate is desire for
ne* land reform legislation. But 1ust as te President announ(ed tat e *ould
take land reform seriously, so did its o!!onents. At every stage of te
legislative !ro(ess landlord interests atta(ked )ot dire(tly and *it su)tle
indire(tion. Magsaysay *as neiter so !ersistent nor so skillful. 6e never
issued a !u)li( statement in favor of any !ortion of te )ill. 6is only signifi(ant
effort *as to (all a s!e(ial session *it te 8land tenure )ill9 as igest !riority.
>everteless, te )ill *as almost s(uttled at te (onferen(e (ommittee stage.
'e final legislative !rodu(t *as so inade-uate tat Atty. Eernando Bantiago,
one of te autors of te first draft, sent a memo to te President
re(ommending tat e veto it and ask for a sim!le a!!ro!riation instead.
?

"ongressman "asas of la Dnion tried to amend te )illCs title at te last minute,
so tat it *ould read I ironi(ally )ut a((urately I 8An a(t defining a landlord
tenure !oli(y,9 :e!u)li( A(t #3..
<
, signed )y te President in Be!tem)er, ad
only one im!rovement over !ree,isting legislation, a modest a!!ro!riation and
autori2ation of a )ond issue.
'e !o*er of e,!ro!riation *as more restri(ted tan it ad )een under
"ommon*ealt legislation. It *as limited to tat !ortion of individual land
oldings in e,(ess of &.. (ontiguous e(tares, and (or!orate oldings of more
tan <.., toug tere *ere no su( restri(tions on negotiated !ur(ase.
Petitions signed )y a ma1ority of tenants in te *ole estate *ere re-uired to
initiate an e,!ro!riation, or negotiations.
'e Land 'enure Autority 5L'A7 esta)lised )y te A(t to im!lement tis
!oli(y, did not )egin to a(tually fun(tion until Fanuary #$?<; Magsaysay ad
named a defeated "ongressman to ead it. In large !art, !era!s, )e(ause of
te administrative resuffle resulting from te (losing of te Landed +states
Division in te Bureau of Lands and transfer of its !ersonnel to L'A, te !a(e of
a(tivities slo*ed do*n in early #$?</ only one estate *it #%4 tenants *as
!ur(ased. Witin te same < monts !etitions from tenants (ame in at a rate
of one a day.
4
As!irations ad (learly )een raised )y te ne* A(t, )ut *ere not
)eing fulfilled. 5Het not all su( !etitions (ould )e regarded as indi(ative of
!ure tenant as!irations; tere *ere many (ases in *i( tenants *ere
mani!ulated )y landlords .*o *anted to sell un!rodu(tive, !artially idle or
im!ro!erly titled land.7
Btrangely enoug, landlords sometimes seemed to favor e,!ro!riation over
negotiated sale. 'ey ad friends in (ourt. 'e !ri(e set )y (ourts in
e,!ro!riation !ro(eedings *ere sometimes nearly dou)le tose of negotiated
settlements, disadvantaging te tenant *o ad to re!ur(ase te land at te
same !ri(e. 5Landlords *ere !aid in (as andAor negotia)le )onds.7
%
:igts of
re!ur(ase remained (onfusing *it L' A !oli(y often failing to !rote(t te
a(tual (ultivator.
$
@nly on estates *ere (ultivating tenants *ere *ell
organi2ed (ould tey )e assured of !riority in land redistri)ution, and most
*ere not. +ven *en lots *ere allo(ated, and )efore tey *ere fully !aid for,
te transfer of rigts for (as J es!e(ially to non0(ultivators0*as ram!ant.
#.

>or (ould tenants on sugar estates e,!e(t to )enefit from L' A !rograms in
any *ay; tere *as an informal understanding tat !etitions for te
e,!ro!riation of sugar land *ould not )e a(ted u!on favora)ly.
##
Des!ite (onfusions in im!lementation, te L'A in(reased te !a(e of land
a(-uisition several times over in EH #$?4; seven estates *ere !ur(ased. 'e
rising num)er of investigations in #$?4 resulted in te a(-uisition of #% estates
in EH #$?% en(om!assing over #3,... e(tares *it more tan ?,=.. tenants.
But in Mar( #$?4 President Magsaysay died, su((eeded )y is Vi(e0President,
"arlos P. Gar(ia. Witin a year many of te offi(ials (ommitted to land reform
left te Administration. In te ne,t t*o fis(al years only < estates *ere
a(-uired, and (orru!tion in te !ro(ess )e(ame more *ides!read.
#=
During te time of President Gar(ia tere *as 8*at amounts to a stalemate
)et*een landlords and teir allies in "ongress and in te e,e(utive
de!artments, and te elements favoring land reform.9
#&
'e o!es of
a((om!lisment raised in #$?3 ad again )een dased. 'oug oter agrarian
!rograms may ave some*at im!roved te )argaining !osition of te tenant
vis0K0vis te landlord, only an insignifi(ant !ortion of te nationCs tenant
farmers *ere on te *ay to )e(oming o*ners. 'e land a(-uired for
redistri)ution )y te L' A in te first ? years of its e,isten(e amounted to less
tan #. !er(ent of te area of landed estates over IB@ e(tares in te five
!rovin(es of "entral Lu2on aloneL
#3
At te rate of !rogress maintained under Magsaysay and Gar(ia it *ould ave
taken a!!ro,imately 4.. years to re!ur(ase and redistri)ute te #.% million
e(tares of tenanted agri(ultural land in te Pili!!ines.
#?
'e defeat of President Gar(ia in te #$<# ele(tion *as not, terefore, a great
loss to te (ause of land reform. >or did it a!!ear to )e any !arti(ular gain. It
*as ardly mentioned in te (am!aign, nor *as it referred to at te
inauguration of te vi(tor, Diosdado Ma(a!agal. 'oug a (ongressman in te
#$?.Cs, Ma(a!agal ad not !arti(i!ated in te land reform de)ate in #$?3 or
#$??, and ad not even voted on te )ill tat )e(ame :.A. #3...
#<
But in Fanuary #$<& President Ma(a!agal a!!ointed a s!e(ial (ommittee on
land reform, eaded )y A(ting Be(retary of La)or Bernadino A)es, to draft
*at eventually (ame to )e kno*n as te Agri(ultural Land :eform "ode of
#$<&. It *as introdu(ed into "ongress in Mar( and ado!ted )y )ot ouses in
Fuly. Wat ad led te President to issue an emotional (all in is Btate of te
>ation Address/ 8We must give te tenants li)erty from e(onomi( !eonage, in
*i( tey ave long languised9M In !art it seemed to )e te arguments of
is to! e(onomi( advisor, Bi,to :o,as, tat land reform *as a ne(essary
(om!onent of a strategy for ra!id e(onomi( develo!ment, !ermitting, for
instan(e, te transfer of (a!ital in land to industry. It *as also a!!arent to
many tat Ma(a!agal intended to (reate mass su!!ort among tenants, tus
insuring is reele(tion.
#4
>or *as e unres!onsive to te vie*s of Ameri(an
advisors.
Ma(a!agal *as not te !o!ular leader Magsaysay *as, (oming into offi(e on a
*ave of !roreform sentiment. But Ma(a!agal *as a mu( more skillful
strategist, using su((essfully *at influen(e e ad to gain early !assage, even
toug te Benate *as not under is !artyCs (ontrol. 6e ad a!!ointed
Eederation of Eree EarmersC leader Feremias Montemayor and Philippines Free
Press editor 'eodoro Lo(sin to is s!e(ial (ommittee, tus el!ing to !rovide
some a(tive su!!ort for is legislation in te !ress and from tenant grou!s.
And *en te legislation ad not yet )een !assed )y Benate at te end of te
regular session, e (alled seven s!e(ial sessions of a fe* days ea( until it *as
ado!ted, el!ing to dire(t ta(ti(s from Mala(anang.
'e Land :eform "ode of #$<& *as te most (om!reensive !ie(e of
legislation ever ena(ted in te Pili!!ines on te su)1e(t. It reorgani2ed and
strengtened land settlement, small farmer (redit, te dissemination of ne*
agri(ultural te(nology, legal assistan(e to tenants and small farmers, and
(reated a stru(ture for )etter (oordination of all tese fun(tions, as *ell as
dealing *it land reform more narro*ly defined. A Land Autority *as (reated
to take over most of te a(tivities of te L'A and a Land Bank *as esta)lised
to andle te finan(ial as!e(t of land a(-uisition.
'oug te initial )ill *as some*at *eakened )efore final !assage, te
emas(ulation *as no*ere nearly as great as in #$??. 'e most serious
e,(ision *as te (a!ter on land ta,ation *i( *ould ave im!osed a
!rogressive ta, )ased on assessment of !otential !rodu(tivity and (ould ave
greatly im!roved (olle(tion. A ma1or in(entive for landlordsC a((e!tan(e of
government !ur(ase and redistri)ution *as tus lost.
'e "ode ad several advantages over !revious legislation, es!e(ially te
autori2ation for te Land Autority to a(-uire estates of more tan 4?
e(tares, *eter o*ned )y individuals or (or!orations, removing te term
8(ontiguous.9 6o*ever, te earlier a)sen(e of any effe(tive restraints on
landlord evasion )y transforming land use or transferring o*nersi! to family
mem)ers remained. And *ile in #$?? sugar and (o(onut *ere e,(luded from
land reform )y ta(it agreement, in #$<& tis e,(lusion *as made legislatively
s!e(ifi(, *it fruits and oter (ro!s added to te list. Eurtermore, te
!rovision tat te >ational Land :eform "oun(il needed to de(lare all
government agen(ies dealing *it land reform fully o!erative in a region
)efore im!lementation (ould )egin *as, *ile logi(al from one stand!oint, an
additional 1un(ture at *i( landlord !ressure and )ureau(rati( *rangling (ould
delay any a(tion.
Pera!s te greatest tragedy, o*ever, *as tat after President Ma(a!agal
ad so*n (onsidera)le !oliti(al so!isti(ation in getting te "ode ena(ted, e
*as la, in !using its im!lementation. It. *as a dramati( e,am!le of te
!oliti(s of sym)olism tat as so !ermeated Pili!!ine !u)li( affairs. It *as as
if Ma(a!agal, aving signed an im!ortant do(ument, found little (om!ulsion to
a(t on it. 'e ne* agen(ies esta)lised )y te (ode *ere not fully o!erative
until Mar( #$<3.
#%
As late as #$<< no agri(ultural land ad yet )een
!ur(ased under te terms of te "odeL
#$
+ven under te !rovisions of
!revious legislation in te = years follo*ing ena(tment of te "ode only #,<#.
e(tares *ere !ur(ased, or less tan te annual average under Magsaysay
and Gar(ia.
=.
A fe* monts )efore te >ovem)er #$<? ele(tion Ma(a!agal
!ani(ked, and made vigorous efforts to im!lement te "ode.
=#
But it *as too
late to turn te !oliti(al tide against im.
President Mar(os (ame to offi(e, like is immediate !rede(essor, *itout any
re(ord of interest in land reform. 'e fa(t tat ma(inery for im!lementation
*as esta)lised )y is defeated rival may ave (aused im to )e even less
entused. "ertainly te (ommitment of funds *as modest. >one oter tan
"onrado +strella, a!!ointed (airman of te Land :eform "oun(il )y Mar(os
and later se(retary of te De!artment of Agrarian :eform, (alled attention in
early #$4= to te fa(t tat in #$<? te total a!!ro!riation for all land reform
agen(ies *as PI?< million, )ut tat 8out of tis amount only N =. !er(ent *as
released. 'is trend as (ontinued troug te years. 'e !ro!ortion of te
amount released against a!!ro!riations ranged from =. to &. !er(ent.9 8In
#$4# only N =3 !er(ent O*asP released from an a!!ro!riation of PI%=
million.9
==
As of Be!tem)er #$4# land reform, ad not even )een 8!ro(laimed9
in more tan =&< of te nationCs #,?.< (ities and muni(i!alities 5varying in si2e
from a (ountry to a to*nsi!7, Agri(ultural land !ur(ase and redistri)ution
ad fallen to a lo* level/ during te first 3 years of te Mar(os !residen(y
a!!ro,imately =,<.. e(tares ad )een !ur(ased )y te Land Autority and
anoter #,?.. )y te Land Bank, or a)out #,... e(tares !er year. 'oug
sligtly a)ove te !a(e of a(tivity in Ma(a!agalCs last = years in offi(e, tis *as
only QRS of te annual average during te MagsaysayAGar(ia years.
'e *ay in *i( Mr. Mar(os *on reele(tion in #$<$ *it (arges of massive
fraud, indu(ement and intimidation, triggered a !oliti(al rea(tion tat ad a
!rofound im!a(t on te national attention to and !er(e!tion of land reform. It
marked te )eginning of a ne* stage in te istory of Pili!!ine agrarian
reform.
Land R!or" Sinc 1(11
'e rau(ous demonstrations tat a((om!anied President Mar(osC se(ond
inauguration marked te tenor of te times. Btudents *ere aroused and *ere
making (ommon (ause *it tenants and trade unionists. 'e only !ositive
res!onse in te PresidentCs Btate of te >ation address *as a !ro!osal to sell
military (am!s near Manila to generate funds for land reform. Later s!e(ial
(ommittees in )ot (am)ers of "ongress (ondu(ted earings *i( eard
re!resentatives of !easant grou!s and land reform Agen(ies.
=&
@n ? May as a
(onse-uen(e of tose earings, omni)us )ills *ere introdu(ed to !romote land
reform in )ot te Benate and te 6ouse, )ut te !ro)lems and (osts *i(
)e(ame asso(iated *it te idea of selling military land s(uttled tat !lan. Eor
te first time in Pili!!ine istory legislative initiative on land reform did not
(ome from te President, )ut resulted in large !art from !o!ular (lamor
eeded )y "ongress.
'e Benate )ill *as favored )y !easant organi2ations sin(e it in(or!orated teir
demands for a lo*ering of te retention limit to =3 e(tares and a !roi)ition
on te (reation of su)divisions or te 8resum!tion of !ersonal (ultivation9
5troug *age la)orers7 as 1ustifi(ation for te e1e(tion of tenants, and tus
avoidan(e of land reform. 5Bot *ere *ides!read !ra(ti(es sin(e #$??.7 'ey
*ere less entusiasti( a)out te +strel#a0favored )ill to (reate a De!artment of
Agrarian :eform. But te regular session ended *itout any land reform
related )ills )eing !assed. 'e first and se(ond s!e(ial sessions sa* little
!rogress eiter, and )efore te tird s!e(ial session *as (alled a meeting of
"ongressional leaders *it te President agreed to strike land reform from te
agenda.
=3
It *as de(ided to sus!end a(tion on land reform *ile a s!e(ial
(ommittee (ondu(ted an in0de!t study, su)mitting its re!ort to te regular
session )eginning in Fanuary #$4#. Peasant and student grou!s *ere angry.
=?

Feremias Montemayor, President of te Eederation of Eree Earmers, -uestioned
te sin(erity of President Mar(os for saying tat land reform *ould )e(ome te
8e!i(enter9 of all government a(tivities.
Boon after te Fanuary regular session )egan sitting, de)ate on land reform
*as again sus!ended to refer te matter to anoter su)(ommittee, (aired )y
Benator Balvador Laurel. 'e !easant0favored Benate Bill 34% *as amended,
omitting te lo*ered retention of =3 e(tares. Des!ite = days of
demonstrations at Mala(aftang in May )y ?,... farmer0mem)ers of te
"oo!erative League of te Pili!!ines, demanding to see te President, te
regular session ended *itout land reform legislation aving )een (ertified as
urgent.
=<
Bot !easant leaders and !rogressive legislators in(reasingly )lamed
te President for ina(tion.
Wit te (alling of te first s!e(ial session of #$4# tere *as laun(ed a
uni-ue form of !oliti(al a(tion, te 8live0in !i(ket.9 @n # Fune undreds of small
farmers, su!!orted )y students, !riests, nuns, and ur)an trade unions,
en(am!ed in front of te "ongress )uilding to insist on effe(tive reform
legislation. At te )eginning of te se(ond s!e(ial session, *en legislative
a(tion on land reform *as still far from (om!lete, te demonstration ad
already lasted for = monts.
=4
Peasant organi2ations, es!e(ially te Eree
Earmers, )rougt in )uses and 1ee!s loaded *it tenants from villages as far
as =.. kilometers a*ay. During ea( legislative day small grou!s )adgered
individual "ongressmen demanding to kno* o* tey *ould vote on ea(
arti(le of ea( !ending land reform )ill, and *y, and e,!laining te
im!ortan(e of te reforms !ro!osed. Mem)ers of "ongress ad in(reasing
diffi(ulty in andling tis un!re(edented !ressure. In te early days of te
se(ond s!e(ial session tey )egan to -uestion te legality of su( a(tion;
de)ates on land reform *ere even sus!ended, to reinfor(e te demand tat
demonstrators a)andon teir round0te0(lo(k !i(ket.
=%
But te !i(keters only
gained greater mass su!!ort. :e!resentatives of te Pili!!ine Pu)li( B(ool
'ea(ers Eederation 1oined te demonstration. 'e %4,@@@0mem)er Pili!!ine
Eederation of La)or treatened to strike nation*ide if farmer demonstrators
*ere evi(ted from te "ongress )uilding.
=$
Einally on $ August 6ouse B!eaker
Villareal announ(ed tat te leadersi! ad de(ided to *itdra* teir demand
for te !i(ketsC removal and to resume de)ate on land reform. Baid a
s!okesman for te Pili!!ine "ongress of 'rade Dnions, 8tis !roved tat
demo(ra(y, if given a (an(e, (an still *ork in tis (ountry.9 @ne o)servant
"ongressman tre* ligt on te motivation for te turna)out *en e
(ommented, 8tose *o *ould evi(t te demonstrators *ould )e doing e,a(tly
*at te :ussian aristo(ra(y N did 1ust )efore te @(to)er revolution )egan N
&.
Erom ten on de)ate on land reform, es!e(ially in te 6ouse, *as more
(onstru(tive. '*o )ills ad )een ena(ted, :.A. <&%$ and :.A. <&$., *en te
fift s!e(ial session ended on ? Be!tem)er.
Dnlike every e,!erien(e in te !ast, te final version of te first !ie(e of #$4#
land reform legislation *as in some *ays more favora)le to te tenant tan
te first. "ertainly lo*ering te retention limit to =3 e(tares and !reventing
landlords from (laiming 8!ersonal (ultivation9 or su)division as an e,(use for
e1e(tment of tenants *ould not ave survived te legislative !ro(ess *itout
intense !easant !ressure. Eurtermore, te !ie(emeal a!!roa( *as ended
and te *ole (ountry *as de(lared a land reform area. :.A. <&$., te funding
)ill, *as more disa!!ointing, !roviding a!!ro!riation for on#y P?. million, no
iger tan te funding level in te !revious fe* years, and mu( less tan te
original Benate )ill. It *as, in fa(t, te PresidentCs intervention *i( ti!!ed
te s(ale for te mu( more modest figures in te 6ouse version.
&#
@nly te
!rovision in :.A. <&%$ (reating a De!artment of Agrarian :eform 5DA:7
re(eived (onsistent Administration )a(king.
'ere are t*o ma1or (on(lusions to )e dra*n from tis legislative istory. 'e
more general one *as arti(ulated )y )ot (onservative solons and radi(al
!easant leaders/ te demo(rati( !ro(ess *orks, te !eo!le may !ea(ea)ly
assem)le to redress teir grievan(es. More s!e(ifi(ally, genuine !rogress
to*ard land reform *as !ossi)le troug "ongress if small farmers *ere
organi2ed. >eiter of tese (on(lusions *as (onsistent *it te (ontentions in
Be!tem)er and @(to)er #$4= tat only troug te setting aside of "ongress
and !residential rule )y de(ree (ould genuine land reform )e a((om!lised.
'e eviden(e of !easant mo)ili2ation in #$4# and te im!li(ations it ad for
te future of te Pili!!ine !oliti(al system, *ere undou)tedly fa(tors tat
el!ed President Mar(os de(ide to redu(e mass !arti(i!ation troug Martial
la*. 5A fuller e,!lanation for te a)ru!t transition in Be!tem)er #$4= to
autoritarian rule must )e found else*ere, o*ever.7
Pr%idntia2 Dcr No3 41
In te early years of martial la* agrarian reform *as given great !rominen(e.
@ne mont after its de(laration te President issued Presidential De(ree >o. =4
for 8te eman(i!ation of te tiller from te )ondage of te soil.9 And on te
first anniversary of P .D. =4 e *ent so far as to say/ 8land reform is te only
gauge for te su((ess or failure of te >e* Bo(iety. If land reform fails, tere
is no >e* Bo(iety. 8
&=
In te de(reeCs !ream)le President Mar(os inted at one of te motivations for
tis em!asis/ 8Inasmu( as te old (on(e!t of land o*nersi! )y a fe* as
s!a*ned valid and legitimate grievan(es tat gave rise to violent (onfli(t and
so(ial tension, te redress of su( N grievan(es N O)e(omesP one of te
fundamental o)1e(tives of te >e* Bo(ietyN8'e fear of agrarian unrest, and
"ommunist leadersi! tereof, *as (ertainly te e,!lanation for te fa(t tat
only = *eeks after martial la* ad )een de(lared, Dr. :oy Prostermann, of te
Dniversity of Wasington, autor of te
#$4. land reform in Vietnam 5and te su)se-uent !rogram in +l Balvador7
arrived in te Pili!!ines *it a draft de(ree in is !o(ket. 56is draft influen(ed
)ut did not determine te final do(ument.7 A)out te same time, +,e(utive
Be(retary Ale1andro Mel(or *as in Wasington trying to 1ustify martial la* on
te grounds tat it *as ne(essary for te -ui(k im!lementation of )road so(ial
reforms. But for te President imself, land reformCs most im!ortant !oliti(al
fun(tion *as to strike a )lo* at te 8oligar(y,9 tose *ealty elite *o ad
formed te (ore of is !oliti(al o!!osition. >ot sur!risingly te A-uino estates
*ere among te first to )e e,!ro!riated. 'e su)se-uent !attern of
im!lementation el!ed to (onfirm tis inter!retation. 'e President sim!ly lost
is originally keen interest after te o*ners *it more tan #.. e(tares ad
)een dis!ossessed.
In sum, te !oliti(al !ur!ose of land reform and its an(illary !oli(ies *as to
(reate mass su!!ort for te >e* Bo(iety and its leader, legitimi2e im a)road,
and undermine su!!ort for alternative leadersi! on )ot te rigt and te left.
Bin(e great estates in sugar, (o(onut and oter e,!ort (ro!s *ere e,(luded
from its (overage in any (ase, it is !ro)a)ly fair to say tat in te long run
none of tese goals *ere a((om!lised. In te first fe* years of martial la*,
o*ever, agrarian !oli(y did el! (reate su!!ort for Mar(os in te (ountryside,
)lunted foreign (riti(ism of is regime, and !ut te landed elite on te !oliti(al
defensive.
In !rin(i!le P.D. =4 *as a great im!rovement over !revious legislation )e(ause
all ri(e and (orn tenants *ose landlords o*ned more tan 4 e(tares *ere to
)e sold te land tey tilled at a !ri(e = #A= times te average annual
!rodu(tion; tey *ere given #? years to !ay te land Bank at < !er(ent
Interest. >o tenant initiative *as re-uired. Wen te tenant fully !aid, and
only ten, e *ould re(eive a title transfera)le e,(lusively to is eirs.
5Landlords *ere to )e !aid #. !er(ent in (as and $. !er(ent in Land Bank
)onds.7 In te meantime te eligi)le tenant *ould re(eive a 8"ertifi(ate of
Land 'ransfer9 5"L'7 identifying is (ultivated area and !romising im te rigt
to !ur(ase te land.
'e num)er of tenants to )enefit from tis de(ree -ui(kly )e(ame a
(ontroversial -uestion. In te first mont te De!artment of Agrarian :eform
5*i( ad already )een (reated )efore martial la*7 announ(ed tat over I
million tenants tilled #.33 million e(tares of ri(e and (orn land. But resear( in
#$4? esta)lised tat ?4 !er(ent of tenants farmed land o*ned )y !ersons
*it less tan 4 e(tares. Bu)se-uently DA: announ(ed tat )ased on its o*n
8field identifi(ation,9 its goal *as to servi(e more tan &$.,... tenants on
4&.,... e(tares, or little more tan #A& of all ri(e and (orn tenants. By #$%.,
DA: (laimed to ave 8issued9 "L's to $. !er(ent of te targeted tenants, )ut
)est estimates are tat nearly alf of tose !rinted in Manila never a(tually
rea(ed te ands of te (ultivator.
"L ' olders *ere still )eing asked to !ay rent to teir landlords. >ot until te
!ri(e of te land *as fi,ed and te tenant )egan to !ay installments to te
land Bank *as e an 8amorti2ing o*ner.9 @nly %<,?.., or == !er(ent of te
target, ad rea(ed tat stage; and of tat num)er only #,<<4 ad (om!leted
!ayments early and )e(ome full o*ners.
&&
Most amorti2ing o*ners *ere
delin-uent.
&3
Delay in fi,ing te !ri(e, and delin-uen(y in amorti2ation resulted from te fa(t
tat instead of setting land !ri(e on te )asis of !rodu(tion as te de(ree
!rovided, landlords *ere allo*ed to negotiate *it tenants and DA: field
offi(ials sometimes aided te landlord, already te stronger !arty. @n oter
o((asions, to )e sure, *en DA: offi(ials stood u! for tenant rigts under te
la*, tey *ere ver)ally treatened or 1udi(ially arassed )y landlords. Many
DA: offi(ials ad (ourt (ases initiated against tem for merely doing teir
duty.
&?
Landlord foot0dragging (ould !ost!one a !ri(ing agreement indefinitely.
'us )y #$44, te average !ri(e !er e(tare )eing !aid )y te tenant of nearly
P4,... *as 33 !er(ent iger tan it *ould ave )een if it ad )een )ased on
te average yield as re!orted )y te Ministry of Agri(ulture.
&<
Bin(e land Bank
)onds (ould )e sold for (as )y landlords, at a dis(ount to )e sure, in order to
make oter investments, or (ould )e invested in a!!roved !ro1e(ts at fa(e
value, te loss of land usually did not involve a signifi(ant loss of *ealt. By
#$%., ?,%<. lando*ners ad )een !aid )y te Land Bank an average of
P=.4,&34 ea(.
'e net result of land redistri)ution *as to !ut more tan %<,... tenants on
te road to o*nersi! 5*it only = !er(ent (om!leting te !ro(ess7; *ile tis
*as less tan $ !er(ent of a very (onservative estimate of all ri(e and (orn
tenants, it *as, neverteless, a greater a((om!lisment tan in any !revious
administration. 6o*ever, sin(e te announ(ement and te early stages of
im!lementation gave te vast ma1ority of all tenants a feeling tat tey
!ersonally *ere going to )enefit, te (onse-uen(e *as tat for every farmer
*o *as grateful to te government for aving a(ieved a ne* status, and
!era!s im!roved in(ome, tere *ere many resentful tat teir o!es ad
)een frustrated. Pro)a)ly te tousands of tenants *o first re(eived "L's,
and ten ad tem re(alled I eiter )e(ause of sim!le )ureau(rati( (onfusion
or )e(ause of landlord intervention I *ere most u!set. 'oug te tousands
more *o *ere illegally e1e(ted from teir tenant oldings in #$4=043 )y
foresigted landlords *ising to evade te reform may ave )een at least
e-ually frustrated.
'e slo* !a(e of im!lementation *as due !artly to a (roni( )ureau(rati(
(om!laint, la(k of !ersonnel )e(ause of la(k of )udget. +ven toug tere *as
a real in(rease in funds 5even after (om!ensating for inflation7 for agrarian
reform )et*een EH #$4& and EH #$44, te !riority for te Ministry of Agrarian
:eform *itin te total national )udget (ontinued to slide, o*ever. In #$4& it
*as ..% !er(ent of te total, in #$44 only ..4 !er(ent and in #$%# do*n to ..?
!er(ent7.
&4
More serious, o*ever, *as te delay, and even retreat, in te fa(e
of landlord !ressure )y to! de(ision makers. >or *as tis te result of
inattention )y te President; Minister of Agrarian :eform "onrado +strella, *o
remained in offi(e from )efore te de(laration until after te lifting of martial
la*, )oasted of easy a((ess to President Mar(os to (onsult on !ro)lems *itin
te ministry. 'ere *as a!!arently a feeling in Mala(anang tat more *as to
)e gained !oliti(ally )y easing te !ressure on landlords 5es!e(ially tose *it
less tan =3 e(tares7 tan )y !using troug to te full e,tent of te la*.
Eoreign analysts, o*ever, *ere more in(lined to (on(lude tat alf measures
*ere *orse tan none at all, i.e., tat in(om!lete reform raised e,!e(tations
and tus intensified te frustration of tose *o did not )enefit. :evolutionary
!oliti(al organi2ation in te (ountryside )y #$%# *ould seem to ave 1ustified
tat (on(lusion. Bome !rime land reform areas ad )e(ome )ases for te
"ommunist0led >e* Peo!leCs Army 5>PA7.
In any (ase, government s!okesmen did not )oter temselves *it trying to
e,!lain sort(omings; tey !ro(laimed (om!lete su((ess. 'e government0
o*ned Pili!!ine >e*s Agen(y release on te eve of te %t anniversary of
P.D. =4 stated/ 8&?$,... farmers no* o*n te land tey till via te issuan(e of
501,36 (ertifi(ates of land title Osi(P. 'e figures re!resent %= !er(ent of te
total target.9
&%
'e !reviously su)tle attem!t to e-uate "L 's *it titles ad
lost its su)tlety. Bome foreign !u)li(ations used te language of te release,
tus !er!etuating te gross ina((ura(y. +ven AID offi(ials in Wasington
)ougt tis line, toug teir Pili!!ine s!e(ialists kne* oter*ise. 'e AID
!resentation to te 6ouse Eoreign Affairs su)0"ommittee on Asia and Pa(ifi(
Affairs earings in Wasington in Mar( #$%# re!orted flatly tat 8%% !er(ent
of eligi)le families ad re(eived land titles9 under Pili!!ine agrarian reform.
&$
Conc2u%ion
'o look at te s*ee! of !oli(y over more tan &. years raises te very )asi(
-uestion *eter 8(onservative land reform9 is !ossi)le, i.e., *eter te
announ(ed goals, to transform (ultivators into o*ners, (an )e a((om!lised )y
any regime dominated )y men of great !rivate *ealt. Does its a(ievement
eiter re-uire a !eriod of foreign domination, as in Fa!an, or a !rior
so(io!oliti(al revolution, as in "inaM @r, !osed anoter *ay, does te goal of
!easant o*nersi! re-uire ra!id industriali2ation as te (onte,t for agrarian
(ange, as in Fa!anM And is te only alternative agrarian revolution tat
ultimately denies te !rin(i!le of (ultivator o*nersi! any*ay, as in "inaM
Pera!s farmer o*ners are a transitory )reed in any (ase; )ot Fa!an and
Western so(ieties tat *ere long )ased on !easant o*nersi! are seeing te
rise of te (or!orate farm.
'ese -uestions lead us into te )road field of (om!arative istory, fas(inating,
)ut sometimes s!e(ulative. 'e -uestions *i( are more dire(tly related to
te istori(al survey of Pili!!ine land reform !oli(y ere !resented are/ Wy
*as tis ty!e of !oli(y ena(tedM Wy *as im!lementation so (onsistently
frustratedM And *at are te !oliti(al (onse-uen(es of su( !rogramsM
It is a)undantly (lear tat until #$## !easant demands ad no dire(t effe(t on
!oli(ies ena(ted. 'us eroi( retori(, e.g., 8'e evolution of te various land
reform legislations sin(e #$.? is te story of a((umulated !ie(emeal
(on(essions )itterly fougt for )y te Eili!ino !easantry,9 sometimes la(ks
istori(al a((ura(y.
3.
'e !resen(e of te Eederation of Eree Earmers 5EEE7
!resident on Ma(a!agalCs s!e(ial (ommittee gave an o!!ortunity for a !easant
leader 5)alan(ed )y an influential landlord on te same (ommittee7 to !resent
is ideas in te drafting !ro(ess. But !easant mo)ili2ation *as insignifi(ant;
tus it *as only te !er(e!tions of te !oliti(al elite a)out !ossi)le future
!easant rea(tions tat affe(ted !oli(y. And tose !er(e!tions *ere im!ortant to
de(ision makers !rimarily as tey entered into )roader (al(ulations of self
interest, i.e., o* elite interests are influen(ed )y !easant rea(tion.
Insofar as !easant !rotests *ere violent, and (onstituted a treat to system
sta)ility, tey stimulated (on(ern *itin te elite, toug *itout legislative
(onse-uen(e at least until te #$=.?.
3#
As early as #$&&, o*ever, te :i(e
Bare 'enan(y A(t may )e seen to )e a kind of res!onse to te furious 'ayug
u!rising of Fanuary #$&#. 'e more e,tensive !easant mo)ili2ation in "entral
Lu2on of te late #$&.s frigtened President Que2on into laun(ing te landed
estates !oli(y, toug te more sort0sigted mem)ers of te >ational
Assem)ly effe(tively amstrang oter agrarian reform measures. Dltimately,
8Que2onCs desire simultaneously to !la(ate )ot landlords and tenants N
!leased neiter, and in #$3# rural (lass (onfli(t *as more a(ute tan ever.9
3=

'is (ara(teri2ation of te #$&.s a!tly fits, as *e sall see, te intera(tions in
later stages of land reform !oli(y.
'e :o,as Administration, te first after inde!enden(e, *as (losely linked, as
ad )een Que2on, to te landed elite of "entral Lu2on. Its res!onse to te
rising 6uk :e)ellion *as te 8mailed fist,9 tus (ontri)uting to mo)ili2ation of
te !easantry )y te left. :o,asC Vi(e0President and su((essor, +l!idio Quirino,
*as imself from te Ilo(os region and *as terefore less (losely tied to te
great lando*ners of te Pili!!inesC 8ri(e)o*l.9 6e sa* some !oliti(al
advantage in *ooing te dissidents, (alled for a (ease0fire, granted amnesty to
te 6uks and seated 'aru( in "ongress. But te a((umulated distrust *as too
great; militants on )ot sides sa)otaged te (ease0fire and te guerrilla
movement *as resumed. Dnder D.B. !rodding, Quirino did attem!t, o*ever,
to mount some agrarian reform !rograms e,(e!t for land reform. 'e 6ardie
:e!ort from te D.B. aid mission, *i( !ro!osed a s*ee!ing land
redistri)ution, *as )randed as 8(ommunist9 )y veement (ongressmen,
undou)tedly s!eaking for te landed elite. Land reform ad to *ait until after
te ele(tion of Magsaysay.
In te Magsaysay Administration te elite (om!osition again (anged, )ringing
in younger, and more middle (lass elements, dedi(ated to solve te underlying
!ro)lems tat (aused unrest. Magsaysay imself ad aroused te e,!e(tation
of reform among te masses. But Magsaysay *as, in !oliti(s, a ta(ti(al
neo!yte. And te landed interests in "ongress *ere still strong. Bin(e e
delayed more tan a year in !using land reform legislation, te treat of te
6uk :e)ellion ad drifted into te a2y !ast for most !arliamentarians J tey
lost interest in forestalling unrest. 8"ommunity develo!ment9 *as a more
(omforta)le (on(e!t, *itout im!li(ations of (lass (onfli(t; it *as tus a ig
!riority !rogram. Gar(ia, *o )e(ame !resident on MagsaysayCs deat, *as
fortunate to inerit a relatively tran-uil so(iety, *i( (ould afford an interlude
of old fasioned !oliti(s.
Ma(a!agal ad indeed gro*n u! a !oor )oy, )ut e ad )een (o0o!ted )y te
landed Pam!anga elite. 6is sudden (onversion to te virtues of agrarian reform
in #$<& is tus all te more sur!rising. "ertainly e *as res!e(tful of Ameri(an
advi(e, and like every oter Eili!ino !oliti(ian adored te !ros!e(t of ne*
agen(ies to fill *it is a!!ointees, and te Agri(ultural Land :eform "ode
(reated several of tem. But is rea(ing out for mass su!!ort on te land
reform issue *as a ar)inger of (ange in te Pili!!ine system, a ar)inger of
trends tat many tougt ad died *it Magsaysay. But Ma(a!agal started too
late in te )uilding of a ne* mass )ase to su((eed.
Wit Mar(os during is first term, as *it Gar(ia, tere *as little interest
so*n in land reform. 'ere *ere no ne* agen(ies to staff and "entral Lu2on
*as (om!aratively -uiet. 'e -uiet *as de(e!tive, o*ever, and )y te end of
te #$<.? a ne* re)ellion ad )een laun(ed )y te >e* Peo!leCs Army. 'e
landed elite *as not as influential in "ongress as it on(e *as and !easant
organi2ations *ere larger and more !oliti(ally skilled tan ever.
3&
Eor te first
time tey ad te (ommitment, te leadersi! and te allies to !ut dire(t
!ressure on "ongress for reform..
'e rea(tion of Mar(os to te land reform de)ate of #$4# is (urious. 6e *as
(ertainly not dis!leased *it te !ros!e(t of a ne* administrative stru(ture,
te De!artment of Agrarian :eform, *i( *ould allo* im to make ne*
a!!ointments. But is negative a!!roa( to oter !easant demands refle(ted
eiter a serious mis(al(ulation of te (anging !oliti(al realities or a idden
agenda. @ne (ould almost imagine tat tere *as a desire to see land reform
efforts in te 8@ld Bo(iety9 frustrated, *ile !lans for te unveiling of te
8>e*9 *ere )eing -uietly laid do*n. 6is dis(omfort *it te 8oligar(y9 *as
already a!!arent, tus is !osing as te (am!ion of land reform migt ave
seemed a!!ro!riate. But tat role *as saved until after te de(laration of
martial la*. And *en te !ur!oses of land reform after #$4= seemed to en1oy
sort0term su((ess, te !rogram *as allo*ed to languis.
'ai as -uite rigtly !ointed out tat !oliti(al elites initiate land reform 8to gain
!oliti(al legitima(y, i.e., to strengten !o!ular su!!ort for a ne* !oliti(al order
or to safeguard an e,isting regime against treatened !oliti(al (anges.9
33
'e
first (ase may fit land reform after martial la*, and te latter is ty!i(al of te
earlier e,am!les. 'ai (ontinues, 8+lites are sensitive to te danger tat in
initiating reform tey may immediately en(ounter te o!!osition of te landed
(lass )ut only slo*ly gain te su!!ort of te !easants.9 "on(eiva)ly, tey may
lose te loyalty of te former )efore gaining tat of te latter. In fa(t, tis
sensitivity is sometimes develo!ed only after te reform !ro(ess as )egun,
tus in(lining te same leadersi! *i( initiated it to leave it alf finised.
5'is seemed !arti(ularly a!!arent in te Pili!!ines in te late #$4.s.7
'e in(om!lete reform is also a fun(tion of te nature of te Pili!!ine !oliti(al
elite. It is in 'aiCs (lassifi(ation a 8(on(iliatory elite, 8
3?
one in *i( landlord
interests are strong enoug tat tey must )e (on(iliated. "on(iliatory elites,
e says, 6are generally more (ommitted to !assing some kind of la* tan to
figting for its effe(tive im!lementation.9
3<
6e also re(ogni2es tat it is in
(ountries *ere land reform as made te least !rogress, as in te Pili!!ines
tat te greatest treats to sta)ility !ersist.
34
Land reform e,a(er)ates (lass (onfli(t in rural (ommunities, es!e(ially *en
landlord evasion (auses suffering for !easants, e.g., evi(tion to make *ay for
me(ani2ation and *age la)or, ina!!ro!riately termed 8!ersonal (ultivation9 in
Pili!!ine !arlan(e. If su( a !eriod of (onfli(t is only a )rief transition to full
!easant o*nersi! it is not desta)ili2ing to te *ole !oliti(al system. But
*en it (ontinues indefinitely and is e,!loited )y so!isti(ated radi(al
leadersi!, te (onse-uen(es (an )e devastating. 'e s!read of guerrilla
*arfare in land reform areas in te #$%.s is su( a (onse-uen(e.
'e la(k of follo* troug in land reform may ave e,!lanations oter tan te
(ara(ter of a 8(on(iliatory elite.9 It may )e te result of te ram!ant
8ritualism9 tat (ara(teri2es so mu( of Pili!!ine !oliti(s, te )elief tat
a!!earan(e is reality, tat to make a de(laration is to (reate a (ondition. 'is
style is so !ervasive tat many leaders may not even )e (ons(ious of te la(k
of su)stan(e to teir de(larations.
'e a((e!tan(e of ritual may also result from te (logging of (ommuni(ation
(annels in an autoritarian regime, *ere te o!!ortunity for )ad ne*s to
rea( te to! is very limited. In a (entrali2ed system of de(ision making, *en
te reality is not fully kno*n at te (enter tere (an )e no re(tifi(ation of
errors. Autoritarianism does not !rovide effi(ient feed)a(k. Het many autors
ave e,tolled te advantages of igly (entrali2ed regimes for im!lementing
land reform. Bamuel 6untington as )een one of tese. 6e adds, o*ever,
tat in addition to (on(entration of !o*er in an elite (ommitted to reform tere
must )e 8te mo)ili2ation of te !easantry and teir organi2ed !arti(i!ation in
te im!lementation9 of reform. 'at is an intriguing (om)ination, *it a severe
internal (ontradi(tion.
A (on(entration of !o*er is not (om!ati)le *it freedom of organi2ation, *i(
is )ased on te assum!tion tat various interests in so(iety ave a rigt to
sare in te de(ision0making !ro(ess. 'at saring took !la(e for te first time
in #$4#. Wen !o*er *as (on(entrated in #$4=, inde!endent !easant
organi2ations *ere (rused. By te late #$4.s even tose grou!s tat ad
)een domesti(ated )y martial la* tried to )ring to te President and Be(retary
+strella te (om!laints of small farmers, )ut teir message fell on deaf ears.
'ey ad no legitima(y *itin te de(ision0making !ro(ess; tey *ere
!o*erless.
'e (riti-ue of a (lose o)server of te Pili!!ine !rogram, one *o follo*s te
6untington s(ool of tougt, reveals a similar in(onsisten(y. 6e !oints out
tat land reform as )een andi(a!!ed sin(e #$4= )e(ause te relationsi!
)et*een (entral autority and te !easantry as )een one of (entral
dominan(e.
3$
6e em!asi2es te value of greater lo(al initiative, ten in te
ne,t !aragra! re(ommends tat *ider use migt )e made of te military in
im!lementing land reformL @ne *onders *at su( analysts mean )y 8lo(al
initiative.9 'e military (onstitute te greatest single (onstraint on autonomous
!easant !oliti(al a(tivity es!e(ially in relation to agrarian -uestions.
'e final !oint tat must )e made in te attem!t to understand te
in(on(lusive (ara(ter of Pili!!ine land reform relates to te differen(es
)et*een (entral and lo(al elites. Wile it is true tat in te last de(ade landed
elements in te national !oliti(al elite ave de(lined in influen(e, !ermitting
ever stronger legislation in #$<&, #$4# and #$4=, (anges in lo(al elites ave
)een mu( slo*er. Des!ite te igly (entrali2ed (ara(ter of Pili!!ine !u)li(
administration sin(e te B!anis times lo(al !oliti(al leaders e,!e(ted to )e
a)le to intervene in administrative matters to !rote(t teir o*n interests, and
did so *it im!unity. Eurtermore, at te !rovin(ial and muni(i!al level (ivil
servants *ere often relatives or re(ommendees of lo(al !oliti(ians. And even
toug lo(al !oliti(ians from te #$?.s or #$<.s ad )e(ome a distin(t
(ategory from te landlords, tey *ere usually (losely linked. 'e a)its of
nearly tree generations of ele(toral !oliti(s died ard after #$4=, so tat lo(al
!oliti(al leaders did not easily a((e!t te su!rema(y of te )ureau(ra(y,
(ontinuing to mani!ulate into teir o*n ends. 'us te failure to im!lement
land reform *as often te ga! )et*een (entral !oli(y and lo(al !ra(ti(e, *i(
(ould not )e effe(tively (orre(ted from te (enter. A mi, of )ot autoritarian
and demo(rati( elements (om)ined to frustrate te im!lementation of reform.
If land reform is to )e fully im!lemented, tere must )e a (leansing of te
)ureau(ra(y of tose *o do not su!!ort it, along *it mu( greater autonomy
for !easant organi2ation and an ade-uately funded, (learly (ommitted (entral
autority. It is diffi(ult to foresee *en tese (onditions may !revail.
Not%
DAVID WD:E+L olds a P.D. in government and Asian studies from te
"ornell Dniversity. 6e as (ondu(ted e,tensive resear( on land reform in
Bout Vietnam. 'ailand and te Pili!!ines, and re!orts is findings on te
su)1e(t in various !eriodi(als and a (om!ilation entitled, !overnment and
Politics in Southeast "sia# Wurfel as, at on( time or anoter, served on te
fa(ulties of te Dniversity of Missouri, Dniversity of Mi(igan, International
"ristian Dniversity in 'okyo and te Dniversity of Binga!ore.