MMJ 1463: Computational Heat Transfer

E-mail : syahrizal.yusoff@gmail.com 1


THERMAL ANALYSIS OF EXPOSED HYDROCARBON PIPELINE DUE TO NATURAL
CONVECTION



Md. Syahrizal Izwan

Md. Yusoff
MM101336
Department of Thermofluid,
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering,
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia,
Kuala Lumpur


ABSTRACT
An important aspect in the design of oil and gas pipelines is the
prediction of the temperature profile along the pipeline at all
operating conditions. This information is required for numerous
pipeline design and analyses including pipeline thermal analysis,
external coating selection, flow assurance, fluid phase analysis,
hydrate formation and wax deposition analyses.

This paper demonstrates the heat transfer behaviour within a multi
layer body in the situations of natural convection with low
ambient convective heat coefficient of seawater and atmospheric
air. In those situations, the coating material selection as well as its
thickness determination is essential and yet crucial. The paper also
predicts the temperature profile with minimal thermal insulation
requirement to ensure the pipeline operability to the most extreme
cases.

The result of the study is a set of equations for calculating the heat
distribution and predicting the desired operating temperature
profiles. The heat transfer is given as a function of material
conductivity, fluid and ambient convection properties and
temperature difference between the adjacent elements.

Keywords: Multilayer, Coating, Conduction, Convection,
Insulation, Cylindrical, Exposed, Pipelines.
NOMENCLATURE
A Area
D Diameter
H Specific Enthalpy of the Fluid
L Pipe Length
Q Heat Content
q Heat Transfer Rate
W Fluid Mass in the Pipe Section
I NTRODUCTI ON
Amongst several modes of transportation, pipeline seems to be the
most efficient method. All modern nations rely almost exclusively
on pipelines to transport the commodities such as water supply
from treatment plants to homes and buildings, sewage to treatment
plants, natural gas from wells to the consumers, crude oil from

fields to refineries and petroleum products from refineries to other
cities and even countries.

In pipelines that are used to transport a relatively high pour point
crude oil, or a gas that is subject to hydrate formation, it is usually
necessary to maintain a minimum flowing temperature to avoid
hydrate formation and excessive pressure losses or even line
blockage. In order to maintain its operability insulation may be
added to the pipeline. A layer of insulation may replace the
concrete coating or be added between the concrete and corrosion
coatings. Parameters for insulated pipelines are not given in the
above tables due to the number of possible coating permutations.

Most of the parameters to be used in thermal analysis are
dependent upon temperature e.g. fluid physical properties and
material thermal conductivities. Therefore, in order to solve the
heat transfer equations in real situation an incremental steps along
the pipeline in to be introduced.

As the temperature drop along most pipelines is relatively small,
average values for physical properties and material thermal
conductivities may be used. In cases where the pipeline fluid does
not reach the ambient temperature a trial and error approach
should be undertaken to evaluate average properties consistent
with the final pipeline fluid temperature.

When a pipeline carrying hydrocarbon fluid is shutdown for an
extended period of time, the temperature in the system will
eventually come to equilibrium with the surroundings. Depending
on the nature of the hydrocarbon being transported, remedial
actions may be necessary during the period of shutdown before
the temperature reaches the minimum allowable value. It is thus of
interest to be able to predict, with reasonable accuracy, the length
of time the fluid will take to cool down to any particular
temperature.

The seasonal variation in the Arctic which ranges from -50C to
30C might cause large expansion and shrinkage of the exposed
aboveground pipelines, as is the case for a large portion of the
Trans-Alaska Pipeline. It must be carefully considered in the
design and construction of the pipeline. The solution to the
problem, in many cases, is to use a zigzag route path. Of course, if
the pipe is allowed to be buried underground, the temperature
MMJ 1463: Computational Heat Transfer
E-mail : syahrizal.yusoff@gmail.com 2
change will be much less, and the zigzag may be unnecessary.
However, the builders of the Trans-Alaska Pipeline chose to have
about half of its pipe aboveground in order to protect the
environment specifically is to avoid melting the tundra.

TEMPERATURE VARI ATI ON
When pipelines are shutdown for an extended period, the
temperature in the pipeline will eventually reaches ambient, which
may cause undesirable effects such as hydrate formation, gelling
an even hardening of the internal fluid. The prevention of such
problems can be achieved by ensuring the fluid temperature is
kept above the hydrate and waxing temperature. Computation of
the pipeline overall heat transfer coefficient and consequently, the
time taken for a shut-in pipeline to reach the aforementioned
temperatures is essential.

Individual temperatures across the pipeline wall are calculated
using the resistance at each pipe layer. The calculations can be
applied for the scenario in which the pipeline is fully exposed to
ambient seawater or air.
MULTI LAYER ELEMENT
The pipeline system been considered in this paper based on
common hydrocarbon pipelines which consists of pipe body itself,
corrosion protection layer, thermal insulation layer and
mechanical protection layer. The thermal conductivities of each
element material can be referred to appendix. Due to this non-
typical element, the overall heat transfer coefficient, , which
accounts for both convective and conductive heat transfer
coefficient has been computed as per equation (7).

The heat transfer by convection from internal and external
pipeline surfaces has been studied by many researchers who have
proposed numerous correlations for prediction of convective heat
transfer film coefficients.


Figure 1: Cross Sectional View of the Pipeline System.

The theoretical approach presented later in this section is
applicable to multilayered pipelines. Several additional thermal
resistance must be added to the expression for the overall heat
transfer coefficient.

The theoretical approach might be used to evaluate insulation
thickness requirement for an allowable temperature drop value.
NATURAL AND FORCED CONVECTI ON
Natural convection occurs when there is no external agencies
providing forced convection currents, i.e. there are no tidal or
wind effects. Natural convection occurs due to a change in density
of the fluid being heated close to a hot surface, setting up natural
convection currents.

Forced convection occurs when the external fluid is caused to
flow due to an external force other than temperature change.
Typical examples of forced convection are seawater flowing
across exposed pipelines due to tidal effects or air flowing across
riser pipelines due to wind.

HEAT TRANSFER MECHANI SM
Heat transfer through a pipeline wall takes place in several distinct
mechanisms:

1. Convection from the bulk of the fluid contained in the pipeline
to the pipe wall.
2. Conduction from the inside pipe wall through the pipe wall and
any protective coating, insulation or concrete that may be applied
to the pipeline, to the pipeline exterior.
3. Convection from the pipeline exterior to the fluid surrounding
the pipeline.

Now, in a solid, energy transfer is via conduction heat transfer,
which is given by Fouriers Law. Fouriers law says that the
energy transfer rate is proportional to the heat transfer area and the
negative gradient of the temperature profile. Mathematically, this
can be written as:

dr
dT
kA q =


Note that in cylindrical geometry, the heat transfer area, A, is a
function of location r, or:

rL A t 2 =

Where L represents the length of the pipe (this is often treated as
unity so that the analysis is per unit length of pipe. It is also
important to note that, in general, the thermal conductivity, k, is a
function of temperature; that is, k k (T). However, in many
applications, especially when the temperature variation is small, it
is appropriate to simplify the analysis and assume constant
material properties. Here we will make this assumption -- k(T) = k
= constant.

With these relationships, it becomes:

=
dr
dT
) ln(
1
2
0 1
D D
L k t


In the steady state the rate of heat flow across each of the pipeline
resistances, q, is identical and given by the following formulas:

1. Convection to Inner Surface
MMJ 1463: Computational Heat Transfer
E-mail : syahrizal.yusoff@gmail.com 3

)
1
(
1 1
T
i
T
i
Lh D q = t (1)

Where h
i
= internal film heat transfer coefficient

2. Conduction across Pipe Wall
)
2 1
(
)
1 2
ln(
1
2
2
T T
D D
L k
q =
t

(2)
3. Conduction across Corrosion Coating
) (
) ln(
2
3
3 2
2 3
2
T T
D D
L k
q =
t
(3)

4. Conduction across Concrete Coating
) (
) ln(
2
4
4 3
3
3
T T
D D
L k
q
o
=
t
(4)

5. Convection to External Fluid

) (
5
4 o o o
T T Lh D q = t (5)

Where h
o
= external film heat transfer coefficient.

Equating the values for heat transfer rates the following
expression, referencing only the internal and external bulk
temperatures, may be derived for exposed pipelines:
o
Lh
o
D
D D
L k
D
o
D
L k
D D
L k
D D
i
Lh D
o
T
i
T
tot
q
t t t t t
)
1 2
ln(
3
2
)
3
ln(
2
2
)
2 3
ln(
1
2
)
1 2
ln(
1
1
) (
+ + + +

=
(6)

Assuming L = 1,

The overall heat transfer coefficients, , based on the pipeline
external area, for each of the configurations may be obtained from
equations 7 and 8:
o
h k
D
o
D
o
D
k
D D
o
D
k
D D
o
D
i
h D
o
D
1
3
2
)
3
ln(
2
2
)
2 3
ln(
1
2
)
1 2
ln(
1
1
+ + + +
=
(7)

15 16 17 18 19 20 21
0.82
0.84
0.86
0.88
0.9
0.92
0.94
0.96
0.98
1
Temperature Profiles Using Overall Heat Transfer Coeficient
Radial Location
R
a
t
i
o

(
T
l
o
c
a
l
/
T
i
n
)


Nat. Air
Nat. Seawater

15 16 17 18 19 20 21
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
Temperature Profiles Using Overall Heat Transfer Coeficient
Radial Location
R
a
t
i
o

(
T
l
o
c
a
l
/
T
i
n
)


Forced Air
Forced Seawater

Figure 2: Plot of Temperature Profiles due to Natural and Forced
Convection Agents.

COOLDOWN EFFECT

Assuming the pipeline is shut down abruptly when the fluid
temperature is T
i
, the heat transfer rate will be:
) (
o
T
i
T A
o
q = (8)

Over a period of time t, when the heat transfer rate remains at q
0
,
the heat content of the fluid in the pipeline after t will be:

t
o
q
fo
Q
f
Q A =
1
(9)

Where:

Q
f0
is the initial fluid heat content of the pipe section at start of
shut down and Q
f1
is the fluid heat content of the pipe section after
the first period of t. Basically, Q
f
is:

f
H
f
W
f
Q = (10)

MMJ 1463: Computational Heat Transfer
E-mail : syahrizal.yusoff@gmail.com 4
Substituting equation (8) & (10) into (9), the heat content after t
will be:

t
o
T
f
T A
o
T
f
T
fluid
Cp
f
W
f
Q A = )
0
( )
0
(
1
(11)

Also,

)
1
(
1 o
T
f
T
fluid
Cp
f
W
f
Q = (12)

Where:

T
f1
is the average fluid temperature in the pipe section after one
period of t since shut down which can be solved from equations
(11) and (12), giving:

fluid
Cp
f
W
t
s
T
f
T A
f
T
f
T
A
=
)
0
(
0 1

(13)

and the revised heat transfer rate, q1, can then be computed for the
next period of t:

) (
o
T
i
f
T A
o
q = (14)
For the revised heat content of the fluid in the pipe section:

t q
f
Q
f
Q A =
1 2 2
(15)

The figure 3 shown below describe the temperature profiles of a
shut down pipeline section which T initial is 75C and T final is
25C as the critical temperature set at 20C.



Figure 3: Plot of Cooling Temperature Profile vs Time.
RADI AL TEMPERATURE DI STRI BUTI ON
When the solid is exposed to some other type of boundary
conditions; i.e convection boundary condition, the temperature at
the surface must be computed differently from the method the
conduction condition.

The discretized equation is given as

0
2
2
1 1
2
1 1
=
A

+
A
+
+ +
r r
T T
r
T T T
i
i i i i i
(16)
And the equation for the internal nodes is given by

( )
i
i i i i
i
r
T T
r
T T
T
4 2
1 1 1 1 + +

A
+
=
(17)
Let r = 0.21m and mesh size is (M = 21), therefore

01 . 0
21
21 . 0
= = Ar (18)
The total number of grid points is M+1=21

At the first node, we need to apply the LHospital rule as
discussed above and leads to

0 2
1 0 2
= + T T T
(19)
Note that we consider an imaginary node at i = 0. This imaginary
term can be replaced by considering the boundary condition at r =
0

0
2
0 2
=
A

r
T T
(20)

which give

2 0
T T =
(21)

Substitute into Eq. (22) gives

( ) 0 4
1 2
= T T
(22)

This gives
2 1
T T =
at inner boundary condition.

Now, we discuss the treatment at the outer boundary. The heat
conduction equation at the outer wall is:

0
2
2
1
2
2
1 2
=
A

+
A
+
+
+ + +
r r
T T
r
T T T
M
M M M M M
(23)

Due to the convective heat transfer condition at the end points
given as
( )
f M
T T h
r
T
k =
c
c

+1
(24)

Discretise the above equation with central difference leads to

MMJ 1463: Computational Heat Transfer
E-mail : syahrizal.yusoff@gmail.com 5
( )
f M
M M
T T
k
h
r
T T
=
A

+
+
1
2
2
(25)
or
( )
M f M M
T T T
k
rh
T +
A
=
+ + 1 2
2
(26)

Substitute this equation into the heat conduction equation and
rearrange gives
( )
|
|
.
|

\
| A
+ +
A
+ A +
A
=
+
+
+ +
+
k
h r
r
k
rh r
T r T r r
k
rh
T
M
M
M M f M
M
2
1
1
1 1
1
2
4
4
4 2
2
(27)

2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

Figure 4: Temperature Distribution Across Pipeline Radius for
Natural Convection Air (Top) and Forced Convection
Seawater(Bottom).

DI SCUSSI ONS
There are some inherent assumptions involved in the procedure
that may limit its accuracy.

All heat transfer is assumed to occur in the radial direction; axial
heat transfer effects are ignored. This assumption is valid only if
there is no flow in the pipeline, where axial heat transfer is
negligible. Axial temperature gradients are also generally smaller
than the radial gradient between the fluid and the pipeline
surroundings when the fluid is not moving. The effective heat
transfer area for axial transfer (flow cross sectional area of the
pipe) is also less than that for radial heat transfer (outside surface
of the pipe).

The method assumes that there is no radial temperature gradient in
the inner fluid. In a liquid system, the fluid adjacent to the wall
will cool faster than the fluid nearer the centre of the pipe. The
effect on convection is not expected to be significant. Special
consideration may be necessary if the fluid gels or begins to
deposit wax on the pipe wall. If this happens, the inside film
coefficient could change significantly with time. This could
increase the heat transfer rate because of the greater solid thermal
conductivity compared to liquid. The result will be a decrease in
cooling time. The effect of such phenomenon on heat transfer rate
is difficult to estimate. In any case, natural convection tends to
minimise radial temperature gradients over time.

Immediately following the shutdown, the pressure will begin to
equalise in the system and bulk flow will continue in the direction
of low pressure until equilibrium is reached. Therefore the fluid
does not actually stand still until a while after shut down.
Although by comparison, the time for the pressure to equalise is
expected to be short relative to the length of shutdown duration,
the actual initial temperature and the initial heat transfer rate will
be lower than what is calculated on the basis of the steady state
values at shut down. Determination of these initial values is only
possible with complex dynamic simulation.

In the case of a pipeline transporting gas, initial equalisation of
pressure would lead to gas expansion and significant cooling. This
is not accounted for in the heat balance.

Fluid densities and specific enthalpies are functions of
temperature and pressure. They are assumed constant throughout
the cooling down period. Such assumptions also contribute to
uncertainty in the determination of heat content, hence the
predicted temperature changes, at each time step.

In flow lines carrying gas and liquid mixture, the inside film heat
transfer coefficient becomes a function of the flow regime and
heat transfer rate is complex to model.

The procedure is based on standard and accepted heat transfer
technology. However, the assumption that fluid property are
constant throughout the cooling period, and the assumption
involving the determination of the inside film resistance remain to
be verified. Further, in the absence of rigorous numerical
simulations, an accurate initial temperature is difficult to estimate.
The assumption that the procedure is applicable immediately after
shut down will result in longer cooling time to be calculated.
MMJ 1463: Computational Heat Transfer
E-mail : syahrizal.yusoff@gmail.com 6
CONCLUSI ONS
The theoretical approach presented in this paper is applicable to
exposed multilayer pipelines. Several additional thermal
resistance must be added to the expression for the overall heat
transfer coefficient to account for the insulation and any protective
coating that may be applied.

The theoretical approach may be used to evaluate insulation
thickness required for an allowable temperature drop. In a case of
inadequate pipeline thickness, insulation coating thickness most
likely to be increased as it does not disturb pipeline stress
considerations, easy to install and cost effective. Care must be
taken when specifying insulation requirements to prevent
saturation of the insulating material with water hence destroying
the insulating effects.

APPENDI X

Table 1: Thermal Conductivity of Pipeline Materials

Metal
Thermal Conductivity
(Btu/hrft F) (W/mC)
Carbon Steel 26 45
Stainless Steel 9.2 15.9

Table 2: Thermal Conductivity of Corrosion Coatings

Corrosion Coating
Thermal Conductivity
(Btu/hrft F) (W/mC)
Polychloroprene
Elastomer
0.153 0.265
Fusion Bonded
Epoxy
0.068 - 0.169 0.118 - 0.292
Polyethylene 0.0915 0.159
Bitumen - 0.744

Table 3: Thermal Conductivity of Insulation Materials

Corrosion Coating
Thermal Conductivity
(Btu/hrft F) (W/mC)
PVC Foam
(Density 130kg/m
3
)
0.020 0.035 7
PVC Foam
(Density 200kg/m
3
)
0.023 0.04 7
PVC Foam
(Density 360kg/m
3
)
0.035 0.06 7
Polyurethane
(Density 64kg /m
3
)
0.0096 0.0166 8
Polyurethane
(Density 96kg/m
3
)
0.0112 0.0193 8
Polyurethane
(Density 144kg/m
3
)
0.0139 0.0241 8
Polyurethane
(Density 192kg/m
3
)
0.0173 0.0300 8

Table 4: Thermal Conductivity of Corrosion Coatings

Concrete
Density
(kg/m3)
Condition
Temperature
()
Thermal
Conductivity
(W/m C)
2250 Dry 50 1.33
2250 Dry 26 1.63
2250 Saturated 54 2.54
2250 Saturated 28 2.87
3050 Saturated 51 1.90
3050 Saturated 29 2.04


REFERENCES

Oil and Gas Pipeline Cooldown Calculation Procedure, Document
Number 05-1604-09-P-4-004 J P Kenny London.

R. H. Perry & D. Green (1984), Perry's Chemical Engineers'
Handbook, Sixth Edition, McGraw Hill

D. Q. Kern (1950), Process Heat Transfer, McGraw Hill.

R. Dorf (1996), Engineering Handbook. New York: CRC Press

Thermal Analysis Design Guideline, Document Number 00-9800-
94-G-4-312, J P Kenny London

Coulson & Richardson (1990), Chemical Engineering Volume 1,
Pergamom Press.

Thermal Analysis (00-9800-94-G-4-312), J P Kenny Design
Guidelines, Vol. 5: Process.

Liu, H.(2003), Pipeline Engineering, CRC Press, Florida, U.S.

Braestrup, M.W., Andersen, J.A., Andersen, L.W., Bryndum, M.,
Nielsen, N.R., Christensen C.J. (2005), Design and Installation
of Marine Pipelines, Blackwell Science Publishing Company.