Neutron star

Neutron stars are created when giant stars die in supernovas and their cores collapse,
with the protons and electrons essentially melting into each other to form neutrons.

View full size image

For the story by Larry Niven, see Neutron Star (short story).


Neutron stars contain 500,000 times the mass of the Earth in a sphere with a diameter no larger
than that ofBrooklyn, United States

Video animation of two neutron stars colliding
A neutron star is a type of stellar remnant that can result from thegravitational collapse of a
massive star during a Type II, Type Ib or Type Icsupernova event. Neutron stars are the densest and tiniest
stars known to exist in the universe; although having only the diameter of about 10 km (6 mi), they may have a
mass of several times that of the Sun. Neutron stars probably appear white to the naked eye.
Neutron stars are the end points of stars whose mass after nuclear burning is greater than the Chandrasekhar
limit for white dwarfs, but whose mass is not great enough to overcome the neutron degeneracy pressure to
become black holes. Such stars are composed almost entirely of neutrons, which are subatomic particles
without net electrical charge and with slightly larger mass than protons. Neutron stars are very hot and are
supported against further collapse by quantum degeneracy pressure due to the phenomenon described by
the Pauli exclusion principle. This principle states that no two neutrons (or any other fermionic particles) can
occupy the same place and quantum statesimultaneously.
The discovery of pulsars in 1967 suggested that neutron stars exist. Born in supernova explosions, these
bodies are "only" ~12-13 kilometers by radius and spin around as rapidly as 642 times a second,
[1]
or
approximately 38,500revolutions per minute. A typical neutron star has a mass between ~1.4 and 3.2 solar
masses with a surface temperature of ~6 x 10
5
Kelvin
[2][3][4]
(seeChandrasekhar limit).
[5][a]
In contrast, the Sun's
radius is about 60,000 times that. Neutron stars have overall densities
of 3.710
17
to 5.910
17
kg/m
3
(2.610
14
to 4.110
14
times the density of the Sun),
[b]
which is comparable to the
approximate density of an atomic nucleus of 310
17
kg/m
3
.
[6]
The neutron star's density varies from
below 110
9
kg/m
3
in the crust - increasing with depth - to above 610
17
or 810
17
kg/m
3
deeper inside (denser
than an atomic nucleus).
[7]
This density is approximately equivalent to the mass of a Boeing 747 compressed to
the size of a small grain of sand. A normal-sized matchbox containing neutron star material would have a mass
of approximately 5 billion tonnes.
In general, compact stars of less than 1.44 solar masses the Chandrasekhar limit are white dwarfs, and
above 2 to 3 solar masses (the TolmanOppenheimerVolkoff limit), a quark star might be created; however,
this is uncertain. Gravitational collapse will usually occur on any compact star between 10 and 25 solar masses
and produce a black hole.
[8]
Some neutron stars rotate very rapidly and emit beams of electromagnetic
radiation as pulsars. Gamma-ray bursts may be produced from rapidly rotating, high-mass stars that collapse to
form a neutron star, or from the merger of binary neutron stars. There are thought to be on the order of
10
8
neutron stars in the galaxy, but they can only be easily detected in certain instances, such as if they are a
pulsar or part of a binary system. Non-rotating and non-accreting neutron stars are virtually undetectable;
however, the Hubble Space Telescope has observed one thermally radiating neutron star, called RX J185635-
3754.

Neutron star collision
Contents


Formation[edit]
Any star with an initial main-sequence mass of around 10 solar masses or above has the potential to become a
neutron star. As the star evolves away from the main sequence, subsequent nuclear burning produces an iron-
rich core. When all nuclear fuel in the core has been exhausted, the core must be supported by degeneracy
pressure alone. Further deposits of material from shell burning cause the core to exceed the Chandrasekhar
limit. Electron degeneracy pressure is overcome and the core collapses further, sending temperatures soaring
to over 5 billion Kelvin. At these temperatures, photodisintegration (the breaking up of iron nuclei into alpha
particles by high- energy gamma rays) occurs. As the temperature climbs even higher, electrons and protons
combine to form neutrons, releasing a flood of neutrinos. When densities reach nuclear density of 4 x
10
17
kilograms per cubic meter, neutron degeneracy pressure halts the contraction. The infalling outer
atmosphere of the star is flung outwards, becoming a Type II or Type Ib supernova. The remnant left is a
neutron star. If it has a mass greater than about 2-3 solar masses, it collapses further to become a black hole.
Other neutron stars are formed within close binaries.
As the core of a massive star is compressed during a supernova, and collapses into a neutron star, it retains
most of its angular momentum. Since it has only a tiny fraction of its parent's radius (and therefore its moment
of inertia is sharply reduced), a neutron star is formed with very high rotation speed, and then gradually slows
down. Neutron stars are known to have rotation periods from about 1.4 ms to 30 seconds. The neutron star's
density also gives it very high surface gravity, up to 710
12
m/s
2
with typical values of a few10
12
m/s
2
(that is
more than 10
11
times of that of Earth). One measure of such immense gravity is the fact that neutron stars have
anescape velocity of around 100,000 km/s, about a third of the speed of light. Matter falling onto the surface of
a neutron star would be accelerated to tremendous speed by the star's gravity. The force of impact would likely
destroy the object's component atoms, rendering all its matter identical, in most respects, to the rest of the star.
Properties[edit]


Gravitational light deflection at a neutron star. Due to relativistic light deflection more than half of the
surface is visible (each chequered patch here represents 30 degrees by 30 degrees).
[9]
In natural
units, the mass of the depicted star is 1 and its radius 4, or twice its Schwarzschild radius.
[9]

The surface of the neutron star is made of iron. In the presence of a strong magnetic field the atoms of iron
polymerize. The polymers pack to form a lattice with density about ten thousand times that of terrestrial iron
and strength a million times that of steel. It has excellent electrical conductivity along the direction of the
magnetic field, but is a good insulator perpendicular to this direction. Immediately beneath this surface the
neutron star is still solid, but its composition is changing. Larger nuclei, particularly rich in neutrons, are formed,
and materials that on Earth would be radioactive are stable in this environment, such as nickel-62. With
increasing depth, the density rises. When its density reaches 400 billion times that of water, the nuclei can get
no larger and neutrons start dripping out. As the density goes up further, the nuclei dissolve in a sea of
neutrons. The neutron fluid is a superfluid it has no viscosity and no resistance to flow or movement. Within a
few kilometres of the surface the density has reached the density of the atomic nucleus. Up to this point the
properties of matter are reasonably well understood, but beyond it understanding becomes increasingly
sketchy. The composition of the core of the star is particularly uncertain: it may be liquid or solid; it may consist
of other nuclear particles (pions, for example, or hyperons); and there may be another phase change, where
quarks start dripping out of the neutrons, forming another liquid.
A neutron star has a mass comparable to that of the Sun, but as it is only about 10 km (6 mi) in radius, it has an
average density 1 quadrillion times that of water. Such a large mass in such a small volume produces an
intense gravitational force: objects weigh 100 billion times more on the surface of a neutron star than on the
surface of the Earth. The intense gravitational field affects light and other electromagnetic radiation emitted by
the star, producing significant redshift (z approximately equal to 0.2). The strong gravitational attraction allows
neutron stars to spin rapidly (hundreds of revolutions per second) without disintegrating. Such spin rates are
expected if the core of the original star collapses without loss of angular momentum - if the original star has a
magnetic field, then this too may be conserved and concentrated in the collapse to a neutron star. Pulsars,
gamma-ray burst sources, and the neutron stars in some X-ray binaries are believed to have magnetic fields
with a strength of about 100 million teslas (roughly a trillion times the strength of theEarth's magnetic field).
The gravitational field at the star's surface is about 210
11
times stronger than on Earth. Such a strong
gravitational field acts as agravitational lens and bends the radiation emitted by the star such that parts of the
normally invisible rear surface become visible.
[9]
If the radius of the neutron star is or less, then
the photons may be trapped in an orbit, thus making the whole surface of that neutron star visible, along with
destabilizing orbits at that and less than that of the radius. A fraction of the mass of a star that collapses to form
a neutron star is released in the supernova explosion from which it forms (from the law of mass-energy
equivalence, E = mc
2
). The energy comes from the gravitational binding energy of a neutron star.
Neutron star relativistic equations of state provided by Jim Lattimer include a graph of radius vs. mass for
various models.
[10]
The most likely radii for a given neutron star mass are bracketed by models AP4 (smallest
radius) and MS2 (largest radius). BE is the ratio of gravitational binding energy mass equivalent to observed
neutron star gravitational mass of "M" kilograms with radius "R" meters,
[11]


Given current values
[12]



and star masses "M" commonly reported as multiples of one solar mass,

then the relativistic fractional binding energy of a neutron star is

A two-solar-mass neutron star would not be more compact than 10,970 meters
radius (AP4 model). Its mass fraction gravitational binding energy would then be
0.187, 18.7% (exothermic). This is not near 0.6/2 = 0.3, 30%.
A neutron star is so dense that one teaspoon (5 milliliters) of its material would have
a mass over 5.510
12
kg (that is 1100 tonnes per 1 nanolitre), about 900 times the
mass of the Great Pyramid of Giza.
[c]
Hence, the gravitational force of a typical
neutron star is such that if an object were to fall from a height of one meter, it would
only take one microsecond to hit the surface of the neutron star, and would do so at
around 2000 kilometers per second, or 7.2 million kilometers per hour.
[13]

The temperature inside a newly formed neutron star is from
around 10
11
to 10
12
kelvin.
[7]
However, the huge number of neutrinos it emits carry
away so much energy that the temperature falls within a few years to
around 10
6
kelvin.
[7]
Even at 1 million kelvin, most of the light generated by a
neutron star is in X-rays. In visible light, neutron stars probably radiate
approximately the same energy in all parts of visible spectrum, and therefore
appear white.
The pressure increases from 310
33
to 1.610
35
Pa from the inner crust to the
center.
[14]

The equation of state for a neutron star is still not known. It is assumed that it differs
significantly from that of a white dwarf, whose EOS is that of a degenerate
gas which can be described in close agreement with special relativity. However,
with a neutron star the increased effects of general relativity can no longer be
ignored. Several EOS have been proposed (FPS, UU, APR, L, SLy, and others)
and current research is still attempting to constrain the theories to make predictions
of neutron star matter.
[5][15]
This means that the relation between density and mass
is not fully known, and this causes uncertainties in radius estimates. For example, a
1.5 solar mass neutron star could have a radius of 10.7, 11.1, 12.1 or 15.1
kilometres (for EOS FPS, UU, APR or L respectively).
[15]

Structure[edit]


Cross-section of neutron star. Densities are in terms of
0
the saturation
nuclear matter density, where nucleons begin to touch.
Current understanding of the structure of neutron stars is defined by existing
mathematical models, but it might be possible to infer through studies of neutron-
star oscillations. Similar toasteroseismology for ordinary stars, the inner structure
might be derived by analyzing observed frequency spectra of stellar oscillations.
[5]

On the basis of current models, the matter at the surface of a neutron star is
composed of ordinary atomic nuclei crushed into a solid lattice with a sea
of electrons flowing through the gaps between them. It is possible that the nuclei at
the surface areiron, due to iron's high binding energy per nucleon.
[16]
It is also
possible that heavy element cores, such as iron, simply sink beneath the surface,
leaving only light nuclei like helium and hydrogen cores.
[16]
If the surface
temperature exceeds 10
6
kelvin (as in the case of a young pulsar), the surface
should be fluid instead of the solid phase observed in cooler neutron stars
(temperature <10
6
kelvin).
[16]

The "atmosphere" of the star is hypothesized to be at most several micrometers
thick, and its dynamic is fully controlled by the star's magnetic field. Below the
atmosphere one encounters a solid "crust". This crust is extremely hard and very
smooth (with maximum surface irregularities of ~5 mm), because of the extreme
gravitational field.
[17]

Proceeding inward, one encounters nuclei with ever increasing numbers of
neutrons; such nuclei would decay quickly on Earth, but are kept stable by
tremendous pressures. As this process continues at increasing depths, neutron
drip becomes overwhelming, and the concentration of free neutrons increases
rapidly. In this region, there are nuclei, free electrons, and free neutrons. The nuclei
become increasingly small (gravity and pressure overwhelming the strong force)
until the core is reached, by definition the point where they disappear altogether.
The composition of the superdense matter in the core remains uncertain. One
model describes the core as superfluid neutron-degenerate matter (mostly
neutrons, with some protons and electrons). More exotic forms of matter are
possible, including degeneratestrange matter (containing strange quarks in addition
to up and down quarks), matter containing high-energy pions and kaons in addition
to neutrons,
[5]
or ultra-dense quark-degenerate matter.
History of discoveries[edit]


The first direct observation of a neutron star in visible light. The neutron star
is RX J185635-3754.
In 1934, Walter Baade and Fritz Zwicky proposed the existence of the neutron
star,
[18][d]
only a year after the discovery of the neutron by Sir James Chadwick.
[21]
In
seeking an explanation for the origin of a supernova, they tentatively proposed that
in supernova explosions ordinary stars are turned into stars that consist of
extremely closely packed neutrons that they called neutron stars. Baade and
Zwicky correctly proposed at that time that the release of the gravitational binding
energy of the neutron stars powers the supernova: "In the supernova process,
mass in bulk is annihilated". Neutron stars were thought to be too faint to be
detectable and little work was done on them until November 1967, when Franco
Pacini (19392012) pointed out that if the neutron stars were spinning and had
large magnetic fields, then electromagnetic waves would be emitted. Unbeknown to
him, radio astronomer Antony Hewish and his research assistant Jocelyn Bell at
Cambridge were shortly to detect radio pulses from stars that are now believed to
be highly magnetized, rapidly spinning neutron stars, known as pulsars.
In 1965, Antony Hewish and Samuel Okoye discovered "an unusual source of high
radio brightness temperature in the Crab Nebula".
[22]
This source turned out to be
the Crab Nebula neutron star that resulted from the great supernova of 1054.
In 1967, Iosif Shklovsky examined the X-ray and optical observations of Scorpius X-
1 and correctly concluded that the radiation comes from a neutron star at the stage
of accretion.
[23]

In 1967, Jocelyn Bell and Antony Hewish discovered regular radio pulses from CP
1919. This pulsar was later interpreted as an isolated, rotating neutron star. The
energy source of the pulsar is the rotational energy of the neutron star. The majority
of known neutron stars (about 2000, as of 2010) have been discovered as pulsars,
emitting regular radio pulses.
In 1971, Riccardo Giacconi, Herbert Gursky, Ed Kellogg, R. Levinson, E. Schreier,
and H. Tananbaum discovered 4.8 second pulsations in an X-ray source in
the constellation Centaurus, Cen X-3. They interpreted this as resulting from a
rotating hot neutron star. The energy source is gravitational and results from a rain
of gas falling onto the surface of the neutron star from a companion star or
the interstellar medium.
In 1974, Antony Hewish was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics "for his decisive
role in the discovery of pulsars" without Jocelyn Bellwho shared in the discovery.
In 1974, Joseph Taylor and Russell Hulse discovered the first binary pulsar, PSR
B1913+16, which consists of two neutron stars (one seen as a pulsar) orbiting
around their center of mass. Einstein's general theory of relativity predicts that
massive objects in short binary orbits should emit gravitational waves, and thus that
their orbit should decay with time. This was indeed observed, precisely as general
relativity predicts, and in 1993, Taylor and Hulse were awarded the Nobel Prize in
Physics for this discovery.
In 1982, Don Backer and colleagues discovered the first millisecond pulsar, PSR
B1937+21. This objects spins 642 times per second, a value that placed
fundamental constraints on the mass and radius of neutron stars. Many millisecond
pulsars were later discovered, but PSR B1937+12 remained the fastest-spinning
known pulsar for 24 years, until PSR J1748-2446ad was discovered.
In 2003, Marta Burgay and colleagues discovered the first double neutron star
system where both components are detectable as pulsars, PSR J0737-3039. The
discovery of this system allows a total of 5 different tests of general relativity, some
of these with unprecedented precision.
In 2010, Paul Demorest and colleagues measured the mass of the millisecond
pulsar PSR J16142230 to be 1.970.04 solar masses, using Shapiro delay.
[24]
This
was substantially higher than any previously measured neutron star mass (1.67
solar masses, see PSR J1903+0327), and places strong constraints on the interior
composition of neutron stars.
In 2013, John Antoniadis and colleagues measured the mass of PSR
J0348+0432 to be 2.010.04 solar masses, using white dwarfspectroscopy.
[25]
This
confirmed the existence of such massive stars using a different method.
Furthermore, this allowed, for the first time, a test of general relativity using such a
massive neutron star.
Rotation[edit]
Neutron stars rotate extremely rapidly after their creation due to the conservation of
angular momentum; like spinning ice skaters pulling in their arms, the slow rotation
of the original star's core speeds up as it shrinks. A newborn neutron star can rotate
several times a second; sometimes, the neutron star absorbs orbiting matter from a
companion star, increasing the rotation to several hundred times per second,
reshaping the neutron star into an oblate spheroid.
Over time, neutron stars slow down (spin down) because their rotating magnetic
fields radiate energy; older neutron stars may take several seconds for each
revolution.
The rate at which a neutron star slows its rotation is usually constant and very
small: the observed rates of decline are between 10
10
and 10
21
seconds for each
rotation. Therefore, for a typical slow down rate of 10
15
seconds per rotation, a
neutron star now rotating in 1 second will rotate in 1.000003 seconds after a
century, or 1.03 seconds after 1 million years.


NASA artist's conception of a "starquake", or "stellar quake".
Sometimes a neutron star will spin up or undergo a glitch, a sudden small increase
of its rotation speed. Glitches are thought to be the effect of a starquake as the
rotation of the star slows down, the shape becomes more spherical. Due to the
stiffness of the "neutron" crust, this happens as discrete events when the crust
ruptures, similar to tectonic earthquakes. After the starquake, the star will have a
smaller equatorial radius, and since angular momentum is conserved, rotational
speed increases. Recent work, however, suggests that a starquake would not
release sufficient energy for a neutron star glitch; it has been suggested that
glitches may instead be caused by transitions of vortices in the superfluid core of
the star from one metastable energy state to a lower one.
[26]

Neutron stars have been observed to "pulse" radio and x-ray emissions believed to
be caused by particle acceleration near themagnetic poles, which need not be
aligned with the rotation axis of the star. Through mechanisms not yet entirely
understood, these particles produce coherent beams of radio emission. External
viewers see these beams as pulses of radiation whenever the magnetic pole
sweeps past the line of sight. The pulses come at the same rate as the rotation of
the neutron star, and thus, appear periodic. Neutron stars which emit such pulses
are called pulsars.
The most rapidly rotating neutron star currently known, PSR J1748-2446ad, rotates
at 716 rotations per second.
[27]
A recent paper reported the detection of an X-ray
burst oscillation (an indirect measure of spin) at 1122 Hz from the neutron star XTE
J1739-285.
[28]
However, at present, this signal has only been seen once, and should
be regarded as tentative until confirmed in another burst from this star.
Population and distances[edit]
At present, there are about 2000 known neutron stars in the Milky Way and
the Magellanic Clouds, the majority of which have been detected as radio pulsars.
Neutron stars are most concentrated along the disk of the Milky Way although the
spread perpendicular to the disk is large because the supernova explosion process
can impart high speeds (400 km/s) to the newly created neutron star.
Some of the closest neutron stars are RX J1856.5-3754 about 400 light years away
and PSR J0108-1431 at about 424 light years.
[29]
Another nearby neutron star that
was detected transiting the backdrop of the constellation Ursa Minor has been
catalogued as 1RXS J141256.0+792204. This rapidly moving object, nicknamed
"Calvera" by its Canadian and American discoverers, was discovered using
the ROSAT/Bright Source Catalog. Initial measurements placed its distance from
Earth at 200 to 1,000 light years away, with later claims at about 450 light-years.
Binary neutron stars[edit]
About 5% of all known neutron stars are members of a binary system. The
formation and evolution scenario of binary neutron stars is a rather exotic and
complicated process.
[30]
The companion stars may be either ordinary stars, white
dwarfs or other neutron stars. According to modern theories of binary evolution it is
expected that neutron stars also exist in binary systems with black holecompanions.
Such binaries are expected to be prime sources for emitting gravitational waves.
Neutron stars in binary systems often emit X-rays which is caused by the heating of
material (gas) accreted from the companion star. Material from the outer layers of a
(bloated) companion star is sucked towards the neutron star as a result of its very
strong gravitational field. As a result of this process binary neutron stars may also
coalesce into black holes if the accretion of mass takes place under extreme
conditions.
[31]
It has been proposed that coalescence of binaries consisting of two
neutron stars may be responsible for producing short gamma-ray bursts. Such
events may also be responsible for creating all chemical
elements beyond iron,
[32]
as opposed to the supernova nucleosynthesistheory.
Subtypes[edit]
Neutron star
Protoneutron star (PNS), theorized.
[33]

Radio-quiet neutron stars
Radio loud neutron star
Single pulsarsgeneral term for neutron stars that emit directed
pulses of radiation towards us at regular intervals (due to their strong
magnetic fields).
Rotation-powered pulsar ("radio pulsar")
Magnetara neutron star with an extremely strong magnetic
field (1000 times more than a regular neutron star), and long
rotation periods (5 to 12 seconds).
Soft gamma repeater (SGR)
Anomalous X-ray pulsar (AXP)
Binary pulsars
Low-mass X-ray binaries (LMXB)
Intermediate-mass X-ray binaries (IMXB)
High-mass X-ray binaries (HMXB)
Accretion-powered pulsar ("X-ray pulsar")
X-ray burstera neutron star with a low mass binary
companion from which matter is accreted resulting in
irregular bursts of energy from the surface of the neutron
star.
Millisecond pulsar (MSP) ("recycled pulsar")
Sub-millisecond pulsar
[34]

Exotic star
Quark starcurrently a hypothetical type of neutron star composed
of quark matter, or strange matter. As of 2008, there are three
candidates.
Electroweak starcurrently a hypothetical type of extremely heavy
neutron star, in which the quarks are converted to leptons through the
eelectroweak force, but the gravitational collapse of the star is
prevented by radiation pressure. As of 2010, there is no evidence for
their existence.

Preon starcurrently a hypothetical type of neutron star composed
of preon matter. As of 2008, there is no evidence for the existence
of preons.
Giant nucleus[edit]
A neutron star has some of the properties of an atomic nucleus, including density
and being composed of nucleons. In popular scientific writing, neutron stars are
therefore sometimes described as giant nuclei. However, in other respects, neutron
stars and atomic nuclei are quite different. In particular, a nucleus is held together
by the strong interaction, whereas a neutron star is held together by gravity. It is
generally more useful to consider such objects as stars.
Examples of neutron stars
PSR J0108-1431 closest neutron star
LGM-1 the first recognized radio-pulsar
PSR B1257+12 the first neutron star discovered with planets (a millisecond pulsar)
SWIFT J1756.9-2508 a millisecond pulsar with a stellar-type companion with
planetary range mass (below brown dwarf)
PSR B1509-58 source of the "Hand of God" photo shot by the Chandra X-ray
Observatory.
Notes[edit]
1. ^ A neutron star's density increases as its mass increases, and its radius decreases
non-linearly. (NASA mass radius graph)
2. ^ 3.710
17
kg/m
3
derives from mass 2.68 10
30
kg / volume of star of radius
12 km; 5.910
17
kg m
3
derives from mass 4.210
30
kgper volume of star radius 11.9 km
3. ^ The average density of material in a neutron star of radius 10 km is 1.110
12
kg cm
3
.
Therefore, 5 ml of such material is5.510
12
kg, or 5500000000 metric tons. This is
about 15 times the total mass of the human world population. Alternatively, 5 ml from a
neutron star of radius 20 km radius (average density 8.3510
10
kg cm
3
) has a mass of
about 400 million metric tons, or about the mass of all humans.
4. ^ Even before the discovery of neutron, in 1931, neutron stars were anticipated by Lev
Landau, who wrote about stars where "atomic nuclei come in close contact, forming one
gigantic nucleus"
[19]
). However, the widespread opinion that Landau predicted neutron
stars proves to be wrong.
[20]