Machining

New Guinea in 1943.
Mobile
Machine Shop truck of the US
Army with machinists working on
automotive parts.
Machining
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Machining is any of various processes in which a piece
of raw material is cut into a desired final shape and size
by a controlled material-removal process. The many
processes that have this common theme, controlled
material removal, are today collectively known as
subtractive manufacturing, in distinction from
processes of controlled material addition, which are
known as additive manufacturing. Exactly what the
"controlled" part of the definition implies can vary, but it
almost always implies the use of machine tools (in
addition to just power tools and hand tools).
The precise meaning of the term machining has
evolved over the past one and a half centuries as
technology has advanced. In the 18th century, the word
machinist simply meant a person who built or repaired
machines. This person's work was done mostly by
hand, using processes such as the carving of wood
and the hand-forging and hand-filing of metal. At the
time, millwrights and builders of new kinds of engines
(meaning, more or less, machines of any kind), such as
James Watt or John Wilkinson, would fit the definition. The noun machine tool and the
verb to machine (machined, machining) did not yet exist. Around the middle of the 19th
century, the latter words were coined as the concepts that they described evolved into
widespread existence. Therefore, during the Machine Age, machining referred to (what we
today might call) the "traditional" machining processes, such as turning, boring, drilling,
milling, broaching, sawing, shaping, planing, reaming, and tapping.
[1]
In these "traditional"
or "conventional" machining processes, machine tools, such as lathes, milling machines,
drill presses, or others, are used with a sharp cutting tool to remove material to achieve a
desired geometry.
[2]
Since the advent of new technologies such as electrical discharge
machining, electrochemical machining, electron beam machining, photochemical
machining, and ultrasonic machining, the retronym "conventional machining" can be used
to differentiate those classic technologies from the newer ones. In current usage, the term
"machining" without qualification usually implies the traditional machining processes.
Machining is a part of the manufacture of many metal products, but it can also be used on
materials such as wood, plastic, ceramic, and composites.
[3]
A person who specializes in
machining is called a machinist. A room, building, or company where machining is done is
called a machine shop. Machining can be a business, a hobby, or both.
[4]
Much of modern
day machining is carried out by computer numerical control (CNC), in which computers are
used to control the movement and operation of the mills, lathes, and other cutting
machines.
Contents
Machining - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machining
1 8 08: 00 02/ 0 7 / 2014 ! "
PDF created with pdfFactory Pro trial version www.pdffactory.com
Making a shipboard manhole cover
in the machine shop of the aircraft
carrier USS John C. Stennis.
1 Machining operations
2 Overview of machining technology
2.1 Types of machining operation
2.2 The cutting tool
3 Cutting conditions
3.1 Stages in metal cutting
4 Relationship of subtractive and additive techniques
5 See also
6 References
7 Bibliography
8 Further reading
9 External links
Machining operations
The three principal machining processes are classified
as turning, drilling and milling. Other operations falling
into miscellaneous categories include shaping, planing,
boring, broaching and sawing.
[5][6][7]
Turning operations are operations that rotate the
workpiece as the primary method of moving metal
against the cutting tool. Lathes are the principal
machine tool used in turning.
Milling operations are operations in which the
cutting tool rotates to bring cutting edges to bear
against the workpiece. Milling machines are the
principal machine tool used in milling.
Drilling operations are operations in which holes
are produced or refined by bringing a rotating
cutter with cutting edges at the lower extremity
into contact with the workpiece. Drilling operations are done primarily in drill presses
but sometimes on lathes or mills.
Miscellaneous operations are operations that strictly speaking may not be machining
operations in that they may not be swarf producing operations but these operations
are performed at a typical machine tool. Burnishing is an example of a miscellaneous
operation. Burnishing produces no swarf but can be performed at a lathe, mill, or drill
2 8 08: 00 02/ 0 7 / 2014 ! "
Basic machining process.
press.
An unfinished workpiece requiring machining will need to have some material cut away to
create a finished product. A finished product would be a workpiece that meets the
specifications set out for that workpiece by engineering drawings or blueprints. For
example, a workpiece may be required to have a specific outside diameter. A lathe is a
machine tool that can be used to create that diameter by rotating a metal workpiece, so
that a cutting tool can cut metal away, creating a smooth, round surface matching the
required diameter and surface finish. A drill can be used to remove metal in the shape of a
cylindrical hole. Other tools that may be used for various types of metal removal are milling
machines, saws, and grinding machines. Many of these same techniques are used in
woodworking.
More recent, advanced machining techniques include electrical discharge machining
(EDM), electro-chemical erosion, laser cutting, or water jet cutting to shape metal
workpieces.
As a commercial venture, machining is generally performed in a machine shop, which
consists of one or more workrooms containing major machine tools. Although a machine
shop can be a stand-alone operation, many businesses maintain internal machine shops
which support specialized needs of the business.
Machining requires attention to many details for a workpiece to meet the specifications set
out in the engineering drawings or blueprints. Beside the obvious problems related to
correct dimensions, there is the problem of achieving the correct finish or surface
smoothness on the workpiece. The inferior finish found on the machined surface of a
workpiece may be caused by incorrect clamping, a dull tool, or inappropriate presentation
of a tool. Frequently, this poor surface finish, known as chatter, is evident by an undulating
or irregular finish, and the appearance of waves on the machined surfaces of the
workpiece.
Overview of machining
technology
Machining is any process in which a
cutting tool is used to remove small
chips of material from the workpiece
(the workpiece is often called the
"work"). To perform the operation,
relative motion is required between
the tool and the work. This relative
motion is achieved in most machining operation by means of a primary motion, called
"cutting speed" and a secondary motion called "feed". The shape of the tool and its
penetration into the work surface, combined with these motions, produce the desired
shape of the resulting work surface.
Types of machining operation
There are many kinds of machining operations, each of which is capable of generating a
certain part geometry and surface texture.
3 8 08: 00 02/ 0 7 / 2014 ! "
A "numerical controlled machining cell
machinist" monitors a B-1B aircraft part
being manufactured.
In turning, a cutting tool with a single cutting edge is used to remove material from a
rotating workpiece to generate a cylindrical shape. The primary motion is provided by
rotating the workpiece, and the feed motion is achieved by moving the cutting tool slowly in
a direction parallel to the axis of rotation of the workpiece.
Drilling is used to create a round hole. It is accomplished by a rotating tool that typically
has two or four helical cutting edges. The tool is fed in a direction parallel to its axis of
rotation into the workpiece to form the round hole.
In boring, a tool with a single bent pointed tip is advanced into a roughly made hole in a
spinning workpiece to slightly enlarge the hole and improve its accuracy. It is a fine
finishing operation used in the final stages of product manufacture.
In milling, a rotating tool with multiple cutting edges is moved slowly relative to the material
to generate a plane or straight surface. The direction of the feed motion is perpendicular to
the tool's axis of rotation. The speed motion is provided by the rotating milling cutter. The
two basic forms of milling are:
Peripheral milling
Face milling.
Other conventional machining operations include shaping, planing, broaching and sawing.
Also, grinding and similar abrasive operations are often included within the category of
machining.
The cutting tool
A cutting tool has one or more sharp cutting
edges and is made of a material that is harder
than the work material. The cutting edge serves
to separate chip from the parent work material.
Connected to the cutting edge are the two
surfaces of the tool:
The rake face; and
The flank.
The rake face which directs the flow of newly
formed chip, is oriented at a certain angle is
called the rake angle "". It is measured relative
to the plane perpendicular to the work surface. The rake angle can be positive or negative.
The flank of the tool provides a clearance between the tool and the newly formed work
surface, thus protecting the surface from abrasion, which would degrade the finish. This
angle between the work surface and the flank surface is called the relief angle. There are
two basic types of cutting tools:
Single point tool; and
Multiple-cutting-edge tool
A single point tool has one cutting edge and is used for turning, boreing and planing.
4 8 08: 00 02/ 0 7 / 2014 ! "
During machining, the point of the tool penetrates below the original work surface of the
workpart. The point is sometimes rounded to a certain radius, called the nose radius.
Multiple-cutting-edge tools have more than one cutting edge and usually achieve their
motion relative to the workpart by rotating. Drilling and milling uses rotating multiple-
cutting-edge tools. Although the shapes of these tools are different from a single-point
tool, many elements of tool geometry are similar.
Cutting conditions
Relative motion is required between the tool and work to perform a machining operation.
The primary motion is accomplished at a certain cutting speed. In addition, the tool must
be moved laterally across the work. This is a much slower motion, called the feed. The
remaining dimension of the cut is the penetration of the cutting tool below the original work
surface, called the depth of cut. Collectively, speed, feed, and depth of cut are called the
cutting conditions. They form the three dimensions of the machining process, and for
certain operations, their product can be used to obtain the material removal rate for the
process:
where
! the material removal rate in mm
3
/s, (in
3
/s),
! the cutting speed in m/s, (in/min),
! the feed in mm, (in),
! the depth of cut in mm, (in).
Note: All units must be converted to the corresponding decimal (or USCU) units.
Stages in metal cutting
Machining operations usually divide into two categories, distinguished by purpose and
cutting conditions:
Roughing cuts, and
Finishing cuts
Roughing cuts are used to remove large amount of material from the starting workpart as
rapidly as possible, i.e. with a large Material Removal Rate (MRR), in order to produce a
shape close to the desired form, but leaving some material on the piece for a subsequent
finishing operation. Finishing cuts are used to complete the part and achieve the final
dimension, tolerances, and surface finish. In production machining jobs, one or more
roughing cuts are usually performed on the work, followed by one or two finishing cuts.
Roughing operations are done at high feeds and depths ! feeds of 0.4!1.25 mm/rev
(0.015!0.050 in/rev) and depths of 2.5!20 mm (0.100!0.750 in) are typical, but actual
values depend on the workpiece materials. Finishing operations are carried out at low
feeds and depths ! feeds of 0.0125!0.04 mm/rev (0.0005!0.0015 in/rev) and depths of
5 8 08: 00 02/ 0 7 / 2014 ! "
0.75!2.0 mm (0.030!0.075 in) are typical. Cutting speeds are lower in roughing than in
finishing.
A cutting fluid is often applied to the machining operation to cool and lubricate the cutting
tool. Determining whether a cutting fluid should be used, and, if so, choosing the proper
cutting fluid, is usually included within the scope of cutting condition.
Today other forms of metal cutting are becoming increasingly popular. An example of this
is water jet cutting. Water jet cutting involves pressurized water in excess of 620 MPa
(90 000 psi) and is able to cut metal and have a finished product. This process is called
cold cutting, and it increases efficiency as opposed to laser and plasma cutting.
Relationship of subtractive and additive techniques
With the recent proliferation of additive manufacturing technologies, conventional
machining has been retronymously classified, in thought and language, as a subtractive
manufacturing method. In narrow contexts, additive and subtractive methods may compete
with each other. In the broad context of entire industries, their relationship is
complementary. Each method has its own advantages over the other. While additive
manufacturing methods can produce very intricate prototype designs impossible to
replicate by machining, strength and material selection may be limited.
[8][9][10]
See also
Abrasive flow machining
Abrasive jet machining
Biomachining
Cutting
Design for manufacturability for CNC
machining
Machinability
Machine tools
Machining vibrations
Tool management
References
^ Machining: An Introduction (http://www.efunda.com/processes/machining/machin_intro.cfm) 1.
^ Additive Manufacturing Advances Another Step (http://www.americanmachinist.com/304/Issue
/Article/False/66356/Issue)
2.
^ Machining Page (http://www.mfg.mtu.edu/cyberman/machining.html) 3.
^ Machining and Metalworking at Home (http://www.janellestudio.com/metal/) 4.
^ Define Machining (http://machining.askdefine.com/) 5.
^ Machining (http://www.sincomachine.com/sincomachine/Product.aspx?id=43) 6.
^ Universal Tools and Manufacturing Company, Definitions (http://www.utmfg.com
/definitions.html)
7.
^ ADDITIVE/SUBTRACTIVE MANUFACTURING RESEARCH (http://www.wtec.org/additive 8.
6 8 08: 00 02/ 0 7 / 2014 ! "
/report/additive-report.pdf)
^ How and When to Choose Between Additive and Subtractive Prototyping
(http://www.vistatek.com/pdfs/Choosing-Between-Additive-and-Subtractive-Prototyping-
manufacturing.pdf)
9.
^ Additive or subtractive? (http://www.sme.org/cgi-bin/find-
articles.pl?&ME05ART22&ME&20050410&&SME&)
10.
Bibliography
Albert, Mark [Editor in Chief] (2011-01-17), "Subtractive plus additive equals more
than ( - + + = > ): subtractive and additive processes can be combined to develop
innovative manufacturing methods that are superior to conventional methods ['Mark:
My Word' column ! Editor's Commentary]" (http://www.mmsonline.com/columns
/subtractive-plus-additive-equals-more-than), Modern Machine Shop (Cincinnati,
Ohio, USA: Gardner Publications Inc) 83 (9): 14.
Further reading
Groover, Mikell P. (2007), "Theory of Metal Machining", Fundamentals of Modern
Manufacturing (3rd ed.), John Wiley & Sons, Inc., pp. 491!504, ISBN 0-471-74485-9
Oberg, Erik; Jones, Franklin D.; McCauley, Christopher J.; Heald, Ricardo M. (2004),
Machinery's Handbook (27th ed.), Industrial Press, ISBN 978-0-8311-2700-8.
"Machine Tool Practices", 6th edition, by R.R.; Kibbe, J.E.; Neely, R.O.; Meyer &
W.T.; White, ISBN 0-13-270232-0, 2nd printing, copyright 1999, 1995, 1991, 1987,
1982 and 1979 by Prentice Hall.
External links
www.efunda.com, Machining: An Introduction (http://www.efunda.com/processes
/machining/machin_intro.cfm)
www.nmri.go.jp/eng, Elementary knowledge of metalworking (http://www.nmri.go.jp
/eng/khirata/metalwork/index_e.html)
www.machiningpartners.com, Machining:Climb Milling VS Conventional Milling
(http://www.machiningpartners.com/pages/Machining-Conventional-Milling-
VS-ClimbMilling)
www.mmsonline.com, Drill And Bore With A Face Mill (http://www.mmsonline.com
/articles/drill-and-bore-with-a-face-mill)
Buhl Fijnmetaalbewerking (http://www.buhl.nl)
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